Han Xu Mr. King Advanced Placement Biology 4 March 2010 Chapter 22 Questions 1.

Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck was a predecessor of Charles Darwin who proposed that life changes over time through acquired traits. He realized that patterns in fossils and the match of organisms to their environments, but proposed the incorrect mechanism for how evolution occurs. Through a comparison of current living species at the time with fossil forms, Lamarck found several lines of descent, each with a chronological order. Thus, his ideas of use and disuse, in which parts in the body that are constantly used grow larger and stronger and those that are not used grow weaker, and inheritance of acquired traits in which organisms could pass traits adjusted in its lifetime. Lamarck thought that evolution makes organism grow complex. However, based on modern genetics, there is no evidence that acquired characteristics could be inherited in the way proposed by Lamarck. Instead, he was vilified by his contemporaries while Charles Darwins ideas were accepted. 2. Thomas Malthus was an economist who wrote an essay, Essay on the Principle of Evolution, which said that human suffering was unavoidable since the human population could increase in the future faster than the food supplies and resources would allow it. Darwin had read Malthuss essay and as a result came up with his idea that resources in the environment was limited which led to competition between members of the population. Charles Lyells ideas also greatly influenced Darwin. Continuing James Huttons work, Lyell proposed uniformitarianism, which stated that changes of evolution were constant over time. Thus, the same things that are working today were going on in the past at the same rate. This was one explanation of evolution, contrary to the other leading idea of staggered evolution. 3. On his voyage on the HMS Beagle to South America and the Galapagos Islands, Darwin discovered a new environment that influenced many of his ideas and was responsible for the adaptations of the organisms on the island. The Galapagos Islands had a very unique environment. Located, near South America, it resembled the temperate regions of South America in which earthquakes were common. Like much of South America, mountains were prevalent in the Galapagos Islands, with volcanoes being major geological landmarks in the area. According to Darwin, the isolation of the Galapagos Islands from one another and from the mainland allowed for the development of unique species. 4. Based on his observations made on the Galapagos of the animals, Darwin described the animals as being aboriginal. This meant that the animals found there were native to the specific islands. In other words, the organisms found on the islands were unique organisms that might not be found anywhere else on earth. The unique environment of the Galapagos allowed for some certain characteristics to arise among individuals living in that environment that is hard to mimic by other organisms because of the lack of the exact environment. As a result, Darwin could study an exclusive set of organisms with the ability to compare the findings to those on the mainland to see how the organisms have evolved over time.

5. The theory of natural selection involves several observations and inferences made by Darwin. He observed that members of a population often vary greatly, traits are inherited from parent to offspring, all species are capable of producing more offspring than their environment can support, and owing to lack of food or other resources many of these offspring do not survive. Then, he inferred that individuals whose inherited traits give them a higher probability of surviving and reproducing in a given environment tend to leave more offspring than other individuals. He also inferred that the unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce will lead to the accumulation of favorable traits in the population over generations. 6. Prior to Darwins writing of the Origin of Species, several important events already occurred. The Greeks in 300 BC knew that life-forms could be arranged in a ladder called the scala naturae. Then Linnaeus in the 1700s established his taxonomy classification system. In 1795, Hutton proposed his theory of gradualism and how evolutionary change is constant. In 1798, Malthus publishes his Essay on the Principle of Population noting limited resources. Then in 1809, Lamarck published his acquired traits evolution method. In 1830, Lyell published his Principle of Geology which expanded Huttons work. Later, Darwin travels around the world on the HMS Beagle and began writing his notebooks. After having the data, Darwin wrote an essay on the descent with modification idea as ideas by Wallace are explored. Then finally, Darwin wrote his famous book The Origin of Species. 7. The Biston betularia is the common peppered moth prevalent in Europe and Britain. Its evolutionary history shows the dramatic effects of natural selection. Originally, the peppered moth was primarily white to blend in with the lichens growing on the trees that they typically live on. However, due to the large soot and pollution of the Industrial Revolution, trees started to darken and the white moths were no longer selected for. Instead, the darker moths that blended in with the soot now had an evolutionary advantage over the white moths. Thus, the black moths surged in numbers. Recently, white moths are surging in numbers again as the trees are returning to their natural state after conversationalist treatments of trees in the Britain and Europe. In another case, bacteria develop an antibiotic resistance after prolonged exposure. When bacteria are first exposed to antibiotics, a large majority will die. However, the individuals that do survive are likely to pass down its resistant genes to its offspring. Thus, the offspring will now become more resistant to the antibiotics. After successive generations, the antibiotic resistance grows in strength as antibiotic ceases to pose a threat to the new resilient bacteria. 8. a) Biogeography: It is the geographic distribution or species that is influenced by many factors including continental drift, the slow movement of Earths continents over time. At one time, Pangaea was formed, but now it split apart. Based on evolution and continental drift, scientists can predict where fossils of different groups of organisms would be found. Also, any unique populations/individuals would be considered endemic. b) Fossil Record: It shows that past organisms differed from present-day organisms and that many species have become extinct. Fossils show the evolutionary changes that have occurred over time in various groups of organisms. Over long time scales, fossils document the origins of major groups of organisms. For example, fossil records have documented the evolutionary change of the mammalian order of dolphins, whales, porpoises, and other cetaceans.

c) Taxonomy: It is the scientific discipline concerned with naming and classifying the diverse forms of life. Originally started by Carolus Linnaeus, the original taxonomy system was a binomial naming of organisms according to genus and species in which similar species are grouped into increasingly general categories. Linnaeuss classification system ascribed resemblances among species to the patterns of their creation and not to the evolutionary kinship as described by Darwin. d) Comparative Anatomy: It is the study of similarities and differences in the anatomy of organisms. It is closely related to evolutionary biology and phylogeny. It includes homologous structures, structures which are similar in different species because the species have common descent, and analogous structures, structures which are similar in different organisms because they evolved in a similar environment. e) Comparative embryology: It is the branch of embryology that compares the development of embryos of two or more species. These observed similarities and differences can be used in taxonomic and phylogenic studies. For example, the chicken, turtle, rabbit, and human embryo look identical in the early stages of development but become more and more distinct throughout development. f) Molecular biology: It is the study of biology at a molecular level. It overlaps with areas of biology and chemistry, including genetics and chemistry. It usually deals with the understanding of the interactions between the various systems of the cell, including the interactions between DNA, RNA, and protein biosynthesis and how these interactions are regulated. 9. When Darwin formulated his theory that natural selection explained the existence of evolution, he did so with some undiscovered knowledge. He was only able to conclude his theory of natural selection based on the physical observations that he saw in the Galapagos Islands and other places that he visited. However, he could not investigate the molecular/genetic structure and levels of evolution and organisms. Unfortunately, he was not able to interact with the great Gregor Mendel who by this time had already investigated the inheritance patterns. If Darwin had been able to make the connections between the various components of molecular biology with the observable traits and characteristics, then his theory of natural selection would have included alleles and their dominant/recessive nature which would have further confirmed his observations.

Han Xu Mr. King Advanced Placement Biology 4 March 2010 Chapter 23 Questions 1. A gene pool is the term for all the alleles present in a population at any given time. If only one allele exists for a particular locus in a population, then that allele is said to be fixed in the gene pool, and all individuals will be homogeneous for that allele in the population. On the other hand, if there are two or more alleles for a particular locus in a population, then individuals might be either homozygous or heterozygous depending on which set of alleles was passed down from the parent generation. Which set is passed down is primarily due to random luck. 2. The Hardy-Weinberg principle states that the frequencies of alleles and genotypes in a population will remain constant from generation to generation, given that only Mendelian segregation and recombination of alleles are at work. This theory describes how genetic variation is retained in a population, providing the opportunity the opportunity for natural selection to act. According to the Hardy-Weinberg theorem, the allele frequency within a population determines the proportion of gametes that will contain that allele. The random combination of gametes will yield offspring with genotypes that reflect and reconstitute the allele frequencies of the previous generation. If a population does not engage in evolution, then it can be said to be HardyWeinberg equilibrium. This can only occur when there are no mutations, random mating, no natural selection, extremely large populations, and no gene flow. 3. If a population is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, then the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium equation can be used. According to this equation, p2 + 2pq +q2 = 1. The p2 individuals represent the homozygous dominant individuals, the 2pq represent the heterozygous individuals, the q2 represents the homozygous recessive individuals, p represents the probability of the dominant allele, and q represents the probability of the recessive allele. In addition, it can be found that p + q = 1. Thus, when given a word problem giving the percentage of certain genotype individuals in a population, just substitute the probabilities/relative frequencies into the first equation, then use the second equation, and then use the first equations again to the get frequencies and probabilities of each type of individual. If only given the percentage of the population that shows either the dominant/recessive trait, calculate q from q2 of the recessive individuals, find p, and then proceed on with the rest of the problem. 4. Microevolution involves a focus on evolutionary change in populations, specifically changes in allele frequencies in populations over generations. Several factors cause microevolution, including natural selection, genetic drift (chance events alter allele frequencies), and gene flow (the transfer of alleles between populations. These mechanisms each affect the microevolution of a population differently. However, only natural selection consistently improves the match between organisms and their environment and brings the type of change called adaptive evolution. 5. Genetic drift is responsible for the chance deviations or fluctuations from expected results in a small populations allele frequencies from one generation to the next. It generally tends to reduce

genetic variation in a population, especially in small populations. These genetic drift phenomena usually occur more frequently in small samples because of the limited amount of genes in the gene pool. Because of genetic drift, the allele frequencies in populations will generally decrease over generations as they become more and more homogenous. This occurs often in small populations which suffer from having a limited/restricted gene pool that cannot adequately offset any major changes in the gene pool. 6. The bottleneck effect occurs when the population suffered from a severe drop in population size. This could be caused by a sudden change in the environment, such as a flood or a fire. By chance alone, certain alleles may be overrepresented, underrepresented, or absent altogether. This would affect the gene pool over generations until the population becomes large enough that chance events have less effect. However, regardless of the recovering, it still may have low levels of genetic variation over a long period of time. Thus, certain alleles would be magnified while others might be absent or removed. On the other hand, the founder effect occurs when members of a population become isolated, and this smaller group establishes a new population whose gene pool differs from its source population. This would cause genetic shift in which the natural disasters or the cause of the isolations indiscriminately transports some individuals and their alleles, but not others, from the source population. Thus, the bottleneck effect reduces variation in alleles, while the founder effect reduces all alleles or reduces alleles by chance. 7. Gene flow is defined as the transfer of alleles into or out of a population due to the movement of fertile individuals or their gametes which causes allele frequencies to change. Gene flow tends to reduce genetic differences between populations. If it is severe enough, it can even cause neighboring populations to combine into a big population with a common gene pool. Gene flow can introduce new alleles into a population and can alter allele frequencies directly. Mutations are changes in the nucleotide sequences of an organisms DNA. Most mutations are not carried over generations because they influence only somatic cells, but some influence gamete cells. Most mutations harm the organism, while some may benefit the individual. Thus, some individuals are better suited for their environment than others, which cause evolution to occur. Nonrandom mating involves the selection of mates based on how fit they are. Thus, nonrandom mating causes the better alleles and traits of a population to be expressed more frequently, which shifts the gene pool and changes future generations of the population. Natural selection is based on differential success in survival and reproduction in which individuals exhibit variations in traits and those with better traits for their environment can produce more offspring with their better genes. Thus, the alleles being passed to the next generation are different in proportions from the present generation. Natural selection will consistently favor some alleles over others and can cause adaptive evolution. 8. Various sources of genetic variation can cause natural selection to occur. First, there must be a limited amount of resources in which organisms and populations with variable traits compete for the resources. Some will have beneficial traits that will allow them to get the food easier. Second, there must be a genetic difference/variance between individuals of a population and between populations. Natural selection explains how the individuals with the best relative fitness, the specific fitness needed for an organism to survive in its unique environment, are able to claim the better food and resources and are able to survive longer and reproduce more. In addition, genetic variation is caused by nonrandom mating which could increase the appearance of a

certain trait in the population that would cause a large group of organisms to have a specific favor or disfavor from the environment based on how well its traits fit the requirements of the environment. 9. In frequency-dependent selection, the fitness of a phenotype declines if it becomes too common in the population. For example, predators usually target one of two possible variations of a species because they know what it looks like and aim for that single species to catch and eat. Stabilizing selections acts against both extreme phenotypes and favors intermediate variants. This reduces variation and tends to maintain a certain range for the phenotypes in a population. Direction selections involves when the environment favor one extreme of a phenotypic range and shifts the frequency curve of organisms towards one way or another. This is common when the environment changes or when members of a population migrate to a new and different population. Diversifying selection or disruptive selection occurs when the environment favors both extremes of a phenotypic range of individuals but not the intermediate phenotypes. This occurs when the environment changes rapidly and organisms need to be able to change with the environment as it undergoes quick changes. 10. There are many reasons why evolution may not fashion perfect organisms. First, selection can act only on existing variations. It cannot create new variations that are more suitable for the environment. Second, evolution is limited by historical constraints. This means the each species can only build on what its ancestors had. They cannot start from scratch and not take heed of the evolutionary changes of its ancestors. Third, adaptations are often compromises. Because organisms must do various things, a skill or benefit in one area would often cause other area to weaken or to become less important. Thus, there is a tradeoff between what is the most important adaptation to have. Fourth, chance, natural selection, and the environment interact. This means that certain chance events can affect the environment that is not predicted by any human or equation or animal that drastically changes the gene pool of a population. Thus, not all alleles are consistent with time as they change according to time. Fifth, a perfect organism would only able to exist in a stable, constant, non-changing environment in which its exact set of traits is the most favorable set. However, because environments do change, what might be favorable in the present may be deemed unimportant and harmful later.

Han Xu Mr. King Advanced Placement Biology 4 March 2010 Chapter 24 Questions 1. Ernst Mayr was a biologist who made a considerable stride to the field of taxonomy. He proposed the biological species concept in 1942 that defines a species as a group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring but do not produce viable, fertile offspring with members of other such groups. Thus, Mayrs work further developed Linnaeuss tradition binomial nomenclature by proposing subgroups in which all organisms could be subjected under. He disproved the Linnaeuss concept that a species is not just a group of morphologically similar individuals. He proposed in his book Systematics and the Origin of Species that isolated populations tend to have sub populations that will differ by genetic drift and natural selection that evolves into new species. He also supported peripatric speciation, like allopatric speciation that supported punctuated equilibrium. 2. According to Mayr and most scientists around the world, a species is a group of populations whose members have he potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring but do not produce viable, fertile offspring with members of other such groups. Thus, the members of a biological species are united by being reproductively compatible, at least potentially. 3. The definition of species is limited in any sense because of the new discoveries scientists have found about organisms. The problem is that the definition faces a mixture of difficult and related questions that many biologists have pondered. For example, the common problem is how best to decide which particular species an organism belongs to. Another challenge is deciding when to recognize a new species and deciding if members of that species are different from an already described species or not. In addition, recent data have indicated that previously described species may include two separately evolving groups which could have been treated as different species. Another common disagreement is whether a species is defined by the characteristics that biologists use to identify the species, or whether a species is an evolving entity in nature. The Mayr species definition does not apply to fossils, to asexually producing organisms, or when there is gene flow. His species concept is argued by many as overemphasizing gene flow and downplaying the role of natural selection. 4. Prezygotic barriers involve various isolation techniques that impede mating or hinder fertilization if mating does occur. Habitat isolation states two species that occupy different habitats within the same area may encounter each other rarely, even though they are no isolated by physical barriers. Temporal isolation states that species that breed during different times of the day, different seasons, or different years, cannot mix their gametes. Behavioral isolation states that courtship rituals that attract mates and other behaviors unique to a species are effective reproductive barriers, even between closely related species. These rituals identify potential mates of the same species. Mechanical isolation involves the attempted mating, but morphological difference prevents its complete completion. Gametic isolation involves the sperm of one species

not being able to fertilize the eggs of another species because of differing reproductive systems or other biochemical mechanisms. 5. Allopatric speciation occurs when geographic isolation interrupts gene flow between two subpopulations. This means that physical barrier blocks species from reach each other. The impact of the barrier that causes genetic separation depends on the ability of organisms to disperse. Some organisms would be able to cross these barriers over time by their own adaptations or because of environmental changes. Changes in the environment or new colonization can isolate populations geographically. Allopatric speciations do no directly cause reproduction barriers. However, innate reproductive barriers may rise with the allopatric speciation that cause species to go down different evolutionary paths. Combining two allopatric species together allows biologists to observe the interactions between similar yet different species. Sympatric speciation involves reproduction barriers being the boundaries that prevent gene flow between two overlapping populations that live in the same general area. Polyploidy, the creation of multiple sets of chromosomes may cause the creation of a new species. This can include autopolyploidy in which the organism has more than two sets of chromosomes from the same species. Or allopolyploidy can occur in which sterile hybrids become fertile polyploids in which allopolyploids can mate with each other but not with their parent species, thus becoming a new species. 6. Adaptive radiations are periods of evolutionary change in which groups of organisms form many new species whose adaptations allow them to fill different ecological niches in their communities. These radiations have occurred after each of the big five mass extinctions in which survivors become adapted to many vacant niches. They also occur within groups of organisms that have major evolutionary innovations. The classic example is Darwins Finches on the Galapagos Islands. Originally the same species, the finches dispersed into separate species with difference beak widths and sizes to feed on different types of seed and other food and to adapt to their environment effectively and efficiently. 7. Divergent evolution is the accumulation of differences between groups which can lead to the formation of new species, usually as a result of diffusion of the same species to different environments, leading to natural selection defining the success of specific mutations. Diffusion is the basis of molecular division can be seen in some higher-level characters of structure and function that are readily observable to organisms. In short, this means that organisms of the same species eventually embarked on different evolutionary paths because of diffusion to different environments among other things. Thus, the function of some certain body parts that were the same in a common ancestor becomes different for each divergent species. For example, the vertebrate limb in many different species has a common origin, but has diverged somewhat in overall structure and function. Convergent evolution on the other hand, involves the independent evolution of similar feature in different lineages. Thus, distantly related organisms can resemble on another. This can be explained primarily by similar niches and environments that these different species live in. If certain body organs are used primarily for certain roles in certain environments, then two species sharing the same niche would need to develop similar organs to carry out the same role effectively.

8. Punctuated equilibrium, coined by Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould, describes periods of apparent states punctuated by sudden change as seen in fossil records in which new species suddenly appear, persist unchanged, and then disappear. Some species show signs of punctuated equilibrium, while others how a more gradual change over time. Though punctuated equilibrium looks promising, in geologic time, the thousands of years during which a species evolves is small compared to the millions of years a successful species may exist, and this short period of divergence may not be captured in the fossil record. In fact, organisms may have been undergoing long periods of change in internal anatomy, physiology, and behavior but no observable external anatomy. Thus, punctuated equilibrium involves periods of stagnancy and evolution for organisms, while gradualism suggests that organisms evolve constantly but gradually.