Roofing Systems in Sudan

Doctor E.A. Adam in collaboration with Professor A.R.A. Agib

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

Roofing Systems in Sudan

Doctor E.A. Adam in collaboration with Professor A.R.A. Agib

The authors are responsible for the choice and the presentation of the facts contained in this book and for the opinions expressed therein, which are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not commit the Organization. The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. M. Asghar Husain : Director of the Division for Educational Policies and Strategies Alfeo Tonellotto : Chief of the Architecture for Education Section Authors : Dr. E. A. Adam in collaboration with Prof. A. R. A. Agib Text editing and graphic design : Barbara Brink Printed by : Graphoprint for the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 7 Place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP, France Paris June 2002 UNESCO

PREFACE

Pr ef ace
This publication has been prepared within the framework of the UNESCO project Improvement of Educational Facilities in the Least Developed Countries of the Arab States, 522/RAB/11. Co-financed by AGFUND and AFESD, the main component of the project was to construct the El Haj Yousif School in the Khartoum area using compressed stabilised earth block building technology, a practical way of demonstrating the potential of earth as a viable and desirable construction material. In order to make the knowledge acquired during the construction process of El Haj Yousif school widely available, this publication Roofing Systems in Sudan and a twin publication Compressed Stabilised Earth Block Manufacture in Sudan have been prepared. The roof is an essential part of any building. It is both an esthetic and structural element, the shape and materials used determine the style of the entire construction. Its main function, however, is to enclose a given space and provide protection of this space from the weather. A weather tight roof is essential for preserving the structure of the entire building. If the roof is badly constructed with inappropriate poor quality materials, heat loss or gain will result as well as water penetration and consequently the rest of the building will suffer damage. In general a roof should provide adequate strength and stability, weather resistance, thermal insulation, fire resistance and sound insulation. This can be achieved in a number of ways depending on availability of materials and expertise. In recent years the potential for earth as a valuable and desirable construction material is being rediscovered. Methods derived from the traditional techniques are being developed to improve the quality of earth construction and broaden the potential for its application. Earth is primarily used for the construction of walls but it can also be used for the construction of roofs where its good insulation properties are particularly advantageous, especially in hot dry climates.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 - Introduction
1.1 Why the Roof is so Important 1.2 Different Roof Systems used in Sudan 1.3 Choosing a Roof System

1 3 3 3 5 7 8 10 11 12 15 17 18 20 23 25 26 29 31 32 33 35 37 39 41

CHAPTER 2 -

Flat Roofs 2.1 Traditional Earth Roof 2.2 Improved Traditional Earth Roof 2.3 Shagig Roof 2.4 Timber Board Roof 2.5 Precast Concrete Element Roof Truss and Lean-to Roofs 3.1 Truss and Lean-to Roofs 3.2 Thatched Roof 3.3 Fibre Reinforced Roof Vaults

CHAPTER 3 -

CHAPTER 4 4.1 Vault Roofs 4.2 Jack Arch Roofs

CHAPTER 5 5.1 Thatched Domes 5.2 Brick Domes

Domes

CHAPTER 6 CHAPTER 7 GLOSSARY

Comparative Costs 6.1 Cost Comparison of Various Types of Roofs Used in Sudan Some Conclusions 7.1 The Roof - weighing up the options

CHAPTER

Introduction

CHAPTER
Introduction

1.1 Wh y the Roof is so Impor tant

The roof is one of the most essential components of a building. Its most important function is to protect the rest of the building from the weather. Without a roof a building not only loses its esthetic identity but the structure of the building will rapidly deteriorate with the inevitable exposure to the elements - wind, rain, snow and sun.

1.2 Diff er ent Roof Systems used in Sudan

Roofs commonly used in Sudan may be classified in four main categories: Flat roofs, Truss and lean-to roofs, Vaults, Domes. Selected types of roof systems of the four main categories commonly used in Sudan are described in this publication. Examples are given of some of the recent developments made in roof construction, designed to improve the performance of traditional systems, concentrating in particular on structural rather than thermal improvements.

1.3 Choosing a Roof System

As a general rule the choice of which type of roof to use is governed by: Availability of materials, Economic feasibility, Climatic performance, Ease of construction. These criteria are closely related to the main functional properties that a roof should meet i.e.: Structural resistance to loads and stresses, Provision of thermal comfort, Effective protection against weather, i.e. rain and wind, Fire resistance, Sound insulation. The types of roofs most commonly used in Sudan are flat roofs or jack arch roofs, mostly used in areas where the rainfall is low or medium. Pitched roofs are frequently used in areas where rainfall is heavy as they are effective at shedding rainwater without any damage to the roof structure.

CHAPTER

Flat Roofs

CHAPTER
Flat Roofs

2.1 Tr aditional Ear th Roof

Traditional earth roofs are still used in various parts of Sudan, especially in areas of low to medium rainfall. They are popular because of their low cost, ease of construction, and high resistance to heat penetration. Construction materials required to build such roofs are also readily available. The traditional earth roof can be laid directly on top of earth walls. The roof for a room of about 4 x 4 metres is constructed as follows: A central timber joist (mirig), about 180 mm in diameter, is laid on the walls across the centre of the space to support the whole roof structure, Round wooden rafters, 100 - 120 mm in diameter, or rectangular timber rafters (100 x 40 mm) are laid on the walls over the mirig at 500 mm centres. They are laid at a slight incline to facilitate water runoff, Reeds (hassir) are laid over the rafters and fixed firmly with thatch rope, Dry thatch or hay (humra) is laid over the reeds to give more insulation, Stabilised earth is laid over the hay cushion to an average thickness of 100 mm. The dry thatch or hay provides protection against earth penetration through the sofit of the roof, Rainwater spouts are embedded in the stabilised earth cover, Upstanding parapet walls are built on all sides, After the earth layer is completely dry the surface is plastered with zibla, a mixture of earth, straw, animal dung and water, cured for about 3 - 4 days. The zibla is then mixed thoroughly into a workable slurry and used to plaster the roof surface in a layer
rafter mirig 100 mm stabilised earth thatch or hay (humra) reed (hassir) stabilised earth zibla reeds (hassir) thatch or hay (humra)

50

0m

m
rafter mirig

CHAPTER
Flat Roofs
about 20 mm thick. This plaster serves as a good sealant against water penetration and with proper treatment of the parapet wall, under and around the rain water outlet, this plaster can last for about two rainy seasons without a need for maintenance. After two years, however, a new plaster coat needs to be applied. Calculation of heat flow through traditional earth roofs shows that the internal surface temperature reaches a peak of about 34C - 35C. This corresponds with the lower temperature limit recommended for thermal comfort. These peak temperatures occur very late in the afternoon, at about 17.00 hours, when the dry bulb temperature has dropped considerably and people are normally outdoors. This type of roof construction has an initial low capital cost, affordable for low-income groups. However, the cost of frequent maintenance i.e. zibla plastering about once every two years and repair to internal wall plaster affected by possible rain water leakage, can raise the long term costs.

2.2 Impr o ved Tr aditional Ear th Roof

8
Attempts by local builders and engineers have been made to improve the structural, thermal and water resistance properties of the traditional earth roof. These improvements are described below: The main roof structure is constructed of local round wooden sections with a diameter of approximately 120 mm, or alternatively using wooden sections, 100 x 50 mm, laid at 500 mm centres. These are supported on a central round wooden section of 180 mm diameter, or a rolled steel joist, 140 x 60 mm, and laid to a fall a little

CHAPTER
Flat Roofs
steeper than the fall of the traditional earth roof, to facilitate water runoff. In a few cases, imported timber rafters 100 x 100 mm are used in place of local timber. The roof cover is laid as follows: Bamboo poles approximately 25 - 30 mm diameter are laid adjacent to each other, covering the whole of the roof area in a solid mat, Reed (hassir) mats are laid over the bamboo mat, A plastic lateritic soil mixed with hay and cured for approximately 4 days is applied over the reed mat in a layer approximately 70 mm thick and left to dry completely. The reed matting provides protection against mud penetration through the sofit of the roof. Any cracks appearing in the surface of the lateritic soil coat are filled with very fine sand, The surface is sprayed with water until slightly wet and plastered with a mix of soil lime cement (8:1:1) in a smooth finish right up to the parapet up-stand and under and around the rainwater outlet. For more effective and durable protection against rainwater penetration the surface may be further sealed by the application of two coats of flinkote. Flinkote is not available in Sudan and consequently needs to be imported thus raising costs. Some alternative improved roofing materials and methods have also been developed locally through a research project sponsored by local research communities. Compressed stabilised earth bricks have been proposed as alternative to the stabilised soil mix.
reed mat bamboo RSJ
1:80

sand lime cement plaster plastic lateritic soil reed (hassir) mat

bamboo RSJ

sand lime cement plaster plastic lateritic soil gutter

CHAPTER
Flat Roofs
The improved traditional earth roof has been found to be far more effective than the traditional earth roof. It has a higher resistance to rain water penetration due to the steeper slope of the roof and the soil cement lime plaster. In addition heat insulation properties are slightly better than the traditional earth roof. Due, primarily to additional materials and the slightly more complex structure the cost is about 50% more than the cost of the traditional mud roof. This increase can be well justified, however, by the relative improvement in performance.

zibla earth or soil:lime mortar screed

2.3 Shagig Roof

Palm purlins (shagig) are used in the construction of the shagig roof. This type of roof has been used successfully in eastern Sudan where palm trees and consequently palm purlins are available in abundance. A shagig roof is constructed in the following way: Palm purlins, 75 x 100 mm and 4 to 5 metres long are laid across the tops of the walls at 400 mm centres, After the shagig are arranged, special earth blocks (400 x 200 x 120 mm) are laid flat on top of the supporting shagig purlins,

RSJ

earth blocks palm purlins (shagig)

10
zibla earth or soil:lime mortar screed

Earth or a mixture of soil/lime mortar is used to fill the gaps between the blocks, A layer of soil or soil/lime screed, approximately 80 mm thick, is applied on the top of the blocks. It is laid to a fall to allow water to drain from the roof, The roof is finished externally with zibla and white wash. Zibla is mixture of earth and animal dung used to protect the exterior of
earth blocks palm purlins (shagig)

earth buildings. Internally, the blocks are rendered with a soil/lime mortar and finished with a lime wash giving an excellent internal finish.

CHAPTER
Flat Roofs

2.4 Timber Boar d Roof

This roof type was very popular in most parts of Sudan between the 1940s and 1960s. At this time the cost of imported timber was much lower and affordable to most income groups. Nowadays it is very rarely used because of the high cost of timber. The timber board roof is normally used on earth or brick constructions: The top 300 mm of the supporting walls is usually built of fired clay bricks laid with an earth or cement mortar, A rolled steel joist (RSJ) spans across the centre of the space (when the roof span is over 4 metres) to support the whole roof structure, 100 x 100 mm timber rafters are laid over the RSJ and the walls at approximately 400 mm centres, Timber boards 230 x 12 mm, planed and chamfered on both edges to ensure a firm overlap between adjacent boards, are laid over and nailed firmly to the rafters covering the full area of the roof. They should overhang the inside edge of all four walls by about 50 mm. The rafters and boards are laid to a fall of about 1:80 to ensure rainwater runoff, The boards are covered with thatch mats (bursh or hassir), Common fired clay bricks are laid flat on a layer of earth mortar over the whole area of the roof, The bricks are plastered with sand cement mortar (8:1) and finished smooth to ensure satisfactory rainwater runoff, Rainwater is shed through tin or fibre cement spouts fixed over the brick paving and projected about 300 mm over the edges of the walls,
timber boards RSJ rafters sand cement plaster clay bricks thatch mats RSJ timber boards rafter sand cement plaster clay bricks thatch mats rafters RSJ timber boards zibla or sand cement plaster sand cement plaster clay bricks thatch mats

11

CHAPTER
Flat Roofs
A parapet wall is built on all sides of the roof with a minimum height of 300 mm above the roof surface. Water is successfully shed off timber board roofs of this type and consequently these roof structures have good resistance to rainwater penetration. Heat insulation properties of the timber board roof are very good because of the thickness of the roof structure and the materials used i.e. earth, thatch, and timber, which are all materials with a high heat absorption capacity. The capital costs, however, are rather high compared with other traditional roof structures, such as the traditional or the improved traditional earth roofs which both have similar heat insulation properties.

2.5 Pr ecast Concr ete Element Roof

This type of roof was introduced by the Council of Scientific and Technological Research in the early 1980s and has been used for the construction of some of their office buildings. Consultants, ALAGIB Group, used this type roofing technique for the construction of 50 houses in a housing scheme sponsored by the National Social Security Fund. The cost of this
zibla or sand cement plaster khafgi or stabilised soil cement precast concrete cover slab

12

roof is about 70%. of the cost of traditional reinforced roofs. The roof is constructed as follow: The slope of the tops of two parallel and opposite walls which will carry the concrete joists are finished with a longitudinal fall of about 1:80,

precast or reinforced joists

CHAPTER
Flat Roofs
Pre-cast reinforced concrete joists, 300 mm x 200 mm, and 4.5 metres long for a maximum span of 4 metres are laid at 1.3 metre centres following the slope of the roof. The joists are reinforced with three 16 mm bottom, two 12 mm top and 6 mm stirrups at 200 mm centres, Precast concrete cover slabs, 300 mm wide x 7 mm thick x 1400 mm long, reinforced with 3 x 8 mm bars lengthwise, and 8 x 8 mm bars width wise are placed on top of the joists butting against each other with a rebated joint. The joints between the rebated ends are sealed with a 6:1 sand cement mortar, The reinforced slab is covered by khafgi to an average thickness of 7 mm (see khafgi preparation on page 27), or with a special stabilised soil cement laid to an average thickness of 7 mm, This type of roof has good thermal and insulation properties as a result of the stabilised soil or khafgi but its thermal properties are still slightly lower than that of improved traditional roof. In terms of cost this roof is almost twice as expensive as the improved traditional earth roof, and about 65-70% of the cost of a solid reinforced concrete roof.
precast concrete cover slab precast or reinforced joists khafgi or stabilised soil cement zibla or sand cement plaster

13

CHAPTER

Truss and Lean-to Roofs

CHAPTER
Truss and Lean-to Roofs

3.1 Truss and Lean-to Roofs

Truss and lean-to roofs are capable of shedding rainwater very efficiently off the roof and away from the walls. Roofs like these have been used in many regions of Sudan especially in the south where rainfall can be heavy. Generally the truss is made of timber or steel. In some parts of the country large size bamboo with a diameter of between 75 mm and 100 mm is used. The trusses are constructed on the ground and then lifted and fixed on top of the supporting walls, spaced at about 2.5 - 3.0 metre centres depending on the span and length of the space to be roofed. The truss is fixed firmly to the walls starting at the gable ends. These are temporarily supported using long ties that rest on the floor or walls. Purlins are then fixed to span between the trusses at about 1.0 - 1.5 metre centres depending on the material and weight of the roof covering. For example, if zinc sheets are used as the covering material the spacing can be as large as 1.5 metres while thatch requires closer spacing of approximately 0.3 metres. The most common truss roof covering used in Sudan is zinc or fibre-cement sheeting. Lean-to roofs have similar properties to those of trusses i.e. they are good at shedding water off the roof and away from the walls. Lean-to roofs can be built with pitches varying between 30 and 45. They are triangular in elevation with a rise of the inclined surface of up to 1/4 of the span. The roof cover can be of zinc or fibre-cement sheets or timber boarding covered with rubberoid sheets which serve as an insulating material and seal the timber surface against rain water penetration.

17

CHAPTER
Truss and Lean-to Roofs
Trusses are fixed on the walls by anchoring to a continuous wall tie beam of timber or concrete. Where a timber beam is used it must be fixed firmly to the wall. The truss tie beam is then fixed firmly to the timber beam using steel bolts or steel tie straps. When a concrete wall tie beam is used the truss is firmly fixed to steel straps which are in turn firmly embedded in the concrete beam. The efficiency of this roof type depends on the pitch angle and the roof cover, the materials used and the construction method. Roof covering materials typically used for truss and lean-to roofs in Sudan are: Corrugated zinc sheets, Corrugated fibre-cement sheets, Timber boarding, Thatch, Fired clay tiles.

3.2 Thatc hed Roof

Thatch is a very effective roof cover often used in various parts of Sudan, especially in southern, western and eastern areas of the country where there is an abundance of ideal materials available, and where local labour is skilled in this type of roofing technique.

18
thatch covering - slope at least 45

The roof slope of thatched roofs varies according to the needs as well as the weight of the material being used. The slope should always be steep enough so that the rainwater can run off from the roof surface with minimum penetration into the thatch. To ensure this, the thatch is normally laid on timber trusses or timber pyramids with a pitch of at least 45. The weight and properties of the finished thatch varies according to the type

wall tie beam bamboo poles

and thickness of the material used. Newly cut thatch may be rather heavy as it is still wet and partially green. It is therefore always better to use

CHAPTER
Truss and Lean-to Roofs
materials that have been fully dried out. improves the sealing and insulation properties. A thicker layer of thatch also adds to the weight but
ridge cover - sand cement mortar reinforced with thin wire mesh thatch

Thatch Construction
Grass is collected from the fields and cleaned, removing all leaves, roots and other foreign materials. It is then laid on the roof structure, usually a timber truss or timber pyramid constructed from round wooden poles and bamboo. The grass is stitched to the truss members using local ropes also made of grass. The finished thickness of the thatch cover is usually 300 mm. The weight of thatch on the roof of a room 4 x 4 metres is approximately one tonne. This type of roof is estimated to last for approximately 20 years with minimal maintenance. Thatching always begins at the eaves, starting at one of the corners. This first course should have a good overhang over the walls and be firmly fixed onto the truss member so as to avoid damage by strong winds. The courses are built of bundles of grass of approximately 200 - 300 mm thick and 1 - 1.5 metres long, secured to the truss member and to the rafters using thin wire or grass ropes at 300 mm centres. A second course of thatch is laid over the first eaves course to the same thickness with an overlap of approximately 300 mm. It is fixed to it and to the roof member with wire or grass rope. The laying and fixing of subsequent courses of thatch continues upwards to the ridge of the roof until the whole of the roof structure is covered. The apex or ridge cover is usually formed with a round ridge roll of selected thatch about 150 mm in diameter. Two of these rolls are fixed on top of each other over the ridge, and firmly fixed to it using wire every 300 mm.

300

mm

ridge pole

thatch

wall tie beam ridge cover - sand cement mortar reinforced with thin wire mesh

19
bamboo poles bound together using locally made grass ropes

CHAPTER
Truss and Lean-to Roofs
The ridge is sealed using any of the following methods: A coating of sand cement mortar (6:1) laid to a thickness of approximately 75 mm, reinforced with thin wire mesh, applied over the ridge and extended down both sides of the ridge by approximately 300 mm, A metal sheet, shaped to cover the ridge, extended about 300 mm down each side of the slope of the roof. It is secured to the slope on each side with firm wire stitching, Well packed selected thatch is fixed around the apex approximately 250 mm thick. Thatched roofs have two main disadvantages:

(i) The dry thatch is highly combustible and will

always present a potential fire hazard. Applying a coat of zibla onto the thatch roof will increase its fire resistance, providing protection from external fire hazards but not from internal ones. In Kenana district, for the construction of the largest sugar factory in Sudan, a sand cement slurry was used to coat the surface. It penetrated into the thatch and proved to be more effective than zibla.

20
Kenaf sand cement corrugated sheets (1.2 x 0.8 metres)

(ii)Thatched roofs are also susceptible to

damage from insects. Building ceilings will help to reduce effects of insect damage.

3.3 Fibr e Reinf orced Roof

Kenaf sand cement corrugated sheets were first developed by the Intermediate Technology Group, U.K. and have been used with success for roofing in several overseas countries. This roof construction technique was used for the first time in Sudan in 1985. It was used for roofing classrooms in of the El Haj Yousif School, a pilot project, co-financed by AGFUND and

CHAPTER
Truss and Lean-to Roofs
AFESD, to build a primary school using local building materials and innovative construction techniques, (See Compressed Stabilised Earth Block Manufacture in Sudan, Adam and Agib, 2002). Based on results found during research work and implementation of a pilot project to roof a classroom 8 x 6 metres, it was decided to use this method of construction to build the roof of the model El Haj Yousif School, completed in 1991. The roof is still in good condition and no further development was necessary as the technique was found to be both economically and technically viable. This type of roof does have a slight disadvantage. Because of the small sheet size (only 1.2 metre lengths) the roof construction needs almost double the quantity of bearers as those needed for the normal corrugated zinc sheet roofs. However, the thermal properties of the sheets, are almost certainly better than those of the zinc sheeting and can therefore be used without a ceiling, thus reducing costs. Further exploration is needed into the potential of going into large-scale commercial production to enable the use of this product as a viable and low cost roofing material for a wider market.

21

Cost comparison of different types of roof sheet.

Sheet Type Kenaf sand cement corrugated sheets Corrugated sand cement sheet Zinc sheet Dimension of a single sheet (metres) 1.2 x 0.8 (dry weight of 24 kg) 1.0 x 0.8 1.0 x 0.8 Cost in Sudanese Pounds - SDP (1996 rate)* 1350 1100 2300 Cost in United States Dollars - USD (1996 rate)* 1.35 USD 1.00 USD 2.30 USD

* in May 1996 one United States Dollars was equivalent to approximately 1000 Sudanese Pounds (SDP), (OANDA.com the currency site).

CHAPTER

Vaults

CHAPTER
Vaults

4.1 Vault Roofs

Semi circular vaults with a half-span rise have been used in Sudan for low cost residential buildings with spans of up to 3.5 metres. Fired clay bricks are used for construction of such vaults. A course of bricks resting on their edges i.e. 100 mm thick, is used to construct the vault. Slightly thicker stabilised earth blocks (140 mm thick, 1 part cement to 16 parts soil) have also been tried with success. The bricks are laid using a 6:1 sand cement mortar for fired bricks and up to 10:1 sand cement mortar for stabilised earth blocks. The top surface of the vault is covered with a soil cement screed to an average thickness of 60 mm. When stabilised earth blocks are used a sand cement screed (6 sand : 1 cement) is also applied in a layer 60 mm thick. Rainwater is disposed of along the valley between the vaults when several consecutive vaults are constructed. In the case of one vault the rainwater runs along gutters on the two supporting ends of the vault. Roofs of this type used by the Ministry of Housing in Khartoum and the Sudan Armed Forces in the Khartoum area have performed very well for over 15 years with respect to their resistance to rainwater penetration and their heat insulation capacity. In a UNESCO supported project to construct an experimental low cost school building, the El Haj Yousif School, a form of in-situ vault roof was introduced. This type of roofing technique was first used for building an agricultural centre in Senegal. A stable and reliable vault roof is constructed as follows: A steel formwork, circular in section, with a 2.75 metre span and a 0.7 metre rise is fixed on opposite supporting walls,
soil cement (60 mm) fire clay bricks or compressed earth blocks)

up to 3.5 metres

25

CHAPTER
Vaults
A reed mat is laid over the formwork. A sand cement mix of 4 - 6 soil : 1 cement is spread over the reed matting, 20 mm thick at the apex and gradually increasing to 30 mm at the spring of the vault, A fine wire mesh reinforcement is laid over the soil cement layer extending approximately 600 mm either side of the apex, Another layer of the same sand cement mix, about 30 mm thick, is applied over the whole section of the vault, After seven days the formwork is removed. The vault is cured with water for at least 4 days starting 24 hours after casting. Owing to the high horizontal thrust of the vault on the supporting walls once the formwork has been removed, it is necessary to build three vertical support buttresses against each side wall, two at the end walls and one in the centre. It may also be necessary to use horizontal steel tie bars.

sand cement mix

wire mesh

sand cement mix

reed matting wooden or steel formwork

4.2 Jac k-Arc h Roof

This type of roof is popular in Sudan despite the comparatively high capital costs that result from needing to import the principal structural roof component, the rolled steel joists (RSJs). This roof type has very good heat insulation properties and good resistance to rainwater penetration. The jack-arch roof is constructed in the following way: The roof is composed of rolled steel joists (RSJs) with a maximum size of 160 x 60 mm for spans of up to 5m, or 140 x 60 mm for spans of up to 4m. The joists are laid over the brick walls at 800 mm centres (maximum), Timber or steel formwork shallow arches shaped with a maximum rise of 200 mm are supported between the adjacent joists. Each form is approximately 400 - 500 mm wide and spans 800 mm. i.e. equal to the space between centre lines of the joists, Fired clay bricks are laid over the formwork. The bricks are laid on their edges to give a shallow arch. The arch is approximately 100 mm

stabilised earth block wall

26
horizontal tie bars

horizontal outward thrust of the vault

CHAPTER
Vaults
thick i.e. the thickness of a brick. The bricks are laid using a 6:1 sand cement mortar, The formwork is removed after 24 hours and carried forward along the length of the supporting walls to continue the arched roof construction, The brickwork is cured by spraying with water for at least 5 days starting 24 hours after construction is completed, On the sixth day a special mix known as khafgi is applied over the jack-arch structure to give a firm cover and good sealant against rainwater penetration and to improve the structural and heat insulation properties of the roof. The khafgi mix is laid to a thickness of approximately 80 mm over the arch and finished with a smooth topcoat with an adequate fall towards the rainwater outlet. A roof of approximately 20 m2 surface area requires at least three rainwater outlets (fibre cement or zinc spouts, 100 mm diameter). This roof has a parapet wall approximately 400 mm high built of fired clay brick in 8 : 1 sand cement mortar. The khafgi mix is prepared as follows: 3 parts of hydrated lime, 4 parts of course sand, 8 parts of fired clay brick crushed into particles of approximately 20 mm diameter. The above elements are mixed with water and kept in a pile to cure for about 7 days. The khafgi is then finally prepared as follows: 8 parts of the khafgi are combined with 1 part of ordinary cement, The resulting mixture is then mixed thoroughly with water to give a workable paste that is applied over the top surface of the roof as described above. This type of roof has good heat insulation and water resistance properties. It is very durable and can last for over 30 years with minimal maintenance work.
fired clay bricks RSJ khafgi fired clay bricks

800 mm max

RSJs

khafgi

27

CHAPTER
Domes

CHAPTER
Domes

5.1 Thatc hed Domes

Dome roofs are still used in parts of Sudan, mainly in the south and west of the country. The most common dome roofs are constructed using bamboo or thin wooden members covered with thatch. In some come cases the thatch is covered with a layer of earth to provide additional protection against water and heat penetration. The dome construction used nowadays is generally a monolithic structure, built by hand using bamboo or thin wooden members. The structure consists of a network of these flexible members built upwards from the ground, starting as vertical walls and then closing in towards the apex of the roof, at a height of about 2.5 metres. The network of wooden or bamboo members is covered with thatch about 200 mm thick. It is fixed firmly to the members using thin wire or thatch rope. In some cases the outer surface of the structure is plastered with clay and animal dung. The internal surface may also be treated in the same way. Another type of dome roof is one where the dome is built onto the wall of a circular room, approximately 3-4 metres in diameter (maximum). The wall is built of mud or wooden members and covered with thatch and animal dung. The eaves should extend over the edges of the wall by approximately 400 - 500 mm so as to shed rainwater away from the walls. Nomads often use this type of roof construction. The cost of construction is negligible as all the materials required for construction such as
thatch ~ 20 cm thick

monolithic dome construction

bamboo or thin wooden members thatch ~ 20 cm thick

31
bamboo or thin wooden members

CHAPTER
Domes
bamboo and wooden members are to be found
brick dome

locally. The construction does not require sophisticated materials and equipment and can be carried out by people not necessarily specialised in building construction.

5.2 Br ic k Domes
In the early 1930s the Sudanese railway authorities introduced dome and pyramid structures built entirely of brick with a sand/lime mortar or cement mortar. These huts were mainly used as residences for the railway stationmasters and staff. This type of construction was largely abandoned in the 1970s and is rarely used for housing now. Today brick domes are generally only used in religious shrines, Mosques and other monumental buildings.

32

CHAPTER

Comparative Costs

CHAPTER
Comparative Costs

6.1 Cost Compar ison of Var ious Types of Roof in Sudan

Cost of construction / m2 Type of roof Sudanese pounds SDP (1996 rate)* United States Dollars USD (1996 rate)*

Flat Roofs Traditional earth roof Improved traditional earth roof Timber board roof Precast reinforced concrete roof Truss and lean-to Roofs Thatched roof Fibre reinforced sand cement roof Corrugated zinc sheets Vault Roofs Jack-arch roof Vault roofs (fired brick) Vault roofs (in-situ stabilised earth) 19375 17875 10500 19.40 17.90 10.50 7300 20000 30000 7.30 20.00 30.00 5500 8700 27000 26500 5.50 8.70 27.00 26.50

The above costs were prepared in consultation with architects, building contractors and suppliers in Sudan. * in May 1996 one United States Dollars was equivalent to approximately 1000 Sudanese Pounds (SDP), (OANDA.com the currency site).

35

CHAPTER

Some Conclusions

CHAPTER
Some Conclusions

7.1 The Roof - weighing up the options

The roof is the most essential part of a building. It encloses the space within the building providing vital protection from the elements. Given that the roof is the part of the building that costs the most to construct, it is very important to carefully design and construct it, not necessarily always choosing the cheapest option available but one that takes into account the prevailing local climatic conditions as well as the availability of local materials and technical know-how. In the context of Sudan keeping out the heat is of primary importance, which is why using earth as a construction material is ideal with its excellent thermal properties. In addition Sudan is not an earthquake zone and it rains very little in most parts of the country making it such a viable construction material. Of the construction techniques described in this publication there is no single method that that stands out as being much better than the others. At 5500 SDP/m2 or 5.5 USD/m2, (May 1996 rate, OANDA.com, the currency site), the traditional earth roof is the cheapest to construct and can easily be built using local materials and labour with comparatively simple equipment. However, it requires more frequent maintenance thus increasing long term costs. The vaulted roof is the most expensive to construct but requires less maintenance and has a longer life span. When deciding what method to use a number of points need to be considered and weighed up against each other in the real context of the project i.e. what is the building for and who will be using it? Who will construct the roof? What materials and equipment are required and which are easily available? What are the local climatic conditions etc.? The main points to consider are: Capital costs, Maintenance costs (this will vary according to maintenance work required and frequency with which it needs to be applied), What is the building to be used for and by whom? (This is particularly relevant when considering potential maintenance requirements. For small domestic buildings it is easier to organise regular maintenance work than for bigger institutional buildings), Ease of construction, Availability of materials and equipment, Availability of labour and skills,

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CHAPTER
Some Conclusions
Thermal properties i.e. ability to keep out the cold or keep in the warmth, Water resistance, Wind resistance (hurricanes, cyclones etc.), Resistance to earthquakes. Once all the above points have been considered a decision can be made as to which is the most suitable roofing system to choose as a function of the real context of the project.

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GLOSSARY

Glossar y
Hassir Humra Kenaf Reeds. Thatch or hay. Kenaf is an annual fibre crop native to central Africa and closely related to cotton, okra, hibiscus and hollyhock. Kenaf grows in tropical and temperate climates and thrives with abundant solar radiation and high rainfall. Khafgi Mirig Shagig Zibla Stabilised soil cement (see pages 27-28 for details of composition). Round timber joist Palm purlins A mixture of earth, straw, animal dung, cured for 3-4 days and used as a plaster finish.

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Architecture for Education Section

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