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1
The Open University of Israel
Faculty of Social Sciences
BA Psychology Program Ψ
2007–12–24
igreenblat@yahoo.com
Contents
ABSTRACT 3
INTRODUCTION 4
METHOD 13
PARTICIPANTS 13
MATERIALS 13
PROCEDURE 14
RESULTS 15
PREMISE 15
PEARSON LINEAR CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS 15
INTERACTION HYPOTHESIS AND INTEGRATIVE MODEL VALIDATION 16
DISCUSSION 18
RESULTS SUMMARY 18
EVALUATING THE RESULTS 18
ALTRUISM AS A COSTLY SIGNAL 19
THE RELIGIOSITY PARADOX 22
THE NATURE OF ALTRUISM: INTENTIONAL "GREEDINESS" OR EVOLUTIONARY SURVIVAL MECHANISM? 23
"EVOLUTION OF COOPERATION" – THE GAME THEORY 24
PSYCHOLOGICAL EGOISM 24
HERBERT SIMON AND THE BOUNDED RATIONALITY 25
IS IT GOOD TO BE GOOD? 25
DRAWBACKS AND "WEAK POINTS" OF THE CURRENT STUDY 25
THE EPILOGUE – SOME INSIGHTS ON ALTRUISM IN THE NEW MILLENNIA AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 26
REFERENCES 28
APPENDIXES 37
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 42
2
The Open University of Israel
Faculty of Social Sciences
BA Psychology Program Ψ
2007–12–24
igreenblat@yahoo.com
Abstract
The study examines the ability of three independent variables (personal self-esteem,
social conformity and religiosity level) to predict tendency towards prosocial behavior. Each
of one hundred and twenty participants drawn from heterogenic population completed a
questionnaire containing four sub-tests measuring the attributes. The Introduction chapter
presents a review of classic and modern theories on prosociality, hypotheses of the present
study derive from theories in a field of social psychology. Additionally an integrative
theoretical model underlying the relations between the variables is suggested; an interaction
hypothesis predicting the strongest effect is proposed as well. The population of the research,
data collecting method and materials are presented in the Method chapter. The summary of
empiric results of the research followed by statistical analyses is presented in the Results
chapter. In the final chapter the results and their implication are discussed; the Discussion
chapter includes the dispute on nature of human altruism as well, whether it is "impure"
(motivated by the expectation of material rewards of self-interest) or "pure", meaning people
help as a consequence of personal traits, which form the "altruistic personality" or out of a
sense of duty to uphold certain moral principles. It is important to clarify, that the ability of
the current research to counterpoise such a complicated philosophic subject is restricted; the
goal is not to solve the altruism/egoism controversy, but to speculate the validity of the
popular conceptions regarding the issue. Both the theoretic question concerning the nature of
human altruism that will be raised in this study and the presented empiric research designed
to evaluate the predictors of prosociality are two corresponding paths of an effort to
understand the mechanism of prosociality.
3
The Open University of Israel
Faculty of Social Sciences
BA Psychology Program Ψ
2007–12–24
igreenblat@yahoo.com
Introduction
The Rationale of Current Study
It is suggested that religiosity, self-esteem and social conformity are reliable predictors of
prosocial tendencies. Following the premises of Costly-Signaling Theory (firstly proposed
by Amotz Zahavi, 1975) prosocial tendencies are examples of social signaling behavior
patterns; religious, conformal and insecure people need to perform social signaling in order to
satisfy their psychological and evolutionary needs. Bulbulia (2004) reviewed the role of
religion as a reciprocal altruistic signaling pattern from the cognitive point of view. The
complexity of the links between prosociality and self-esteem was presented and discussed
recently (Carlo, G., Laible, D.J., & Roesch, S.C., 2004; Feather N.T., 1991; Ben-Shlomo, S.,
Findler, L., & Taubman-Ben-Ari, O., 2005). Although majority of research concerning the
conformity-prosociality linkage has been performed in twentieth century (Boyd &
Richerson's Conformist Transmission Model, 1985; Asch, 1951), the presumption that human
co-operative behavior is based on conformal socialization and "culturization" processes is
supported by the researchers nowadays and recently was validates by corresponding
computer model (Coultas, J.C., 2004). Applied scientists, such as organizational behavior
researchers are interested in implications of conformity-cooperation route on leadership and
followership (Van Vugt, M., 2005).
The current study presents an explanation of the correlations between the variables basing on
Costly-Signaling Theory and suggests comprehending humans as "benefit seekers", however
not claiming for the weighed utilitarianism of the human psyche, but rather targeting to
evolutional roots of prosociality. Costly-Signaling theory can be applied broadly to human
and non-human alike, and as such fascinating researchers in a wide range of fields, including
biology, economics, sociology, anthropology, political science, communication studies,
linguistics, philosophy, and psychology. Since the posteriori results of this study were not
4
The Open University of Israel
Faculty of Social Sciences
BA Psychology Program Ψ
2007–12–24
igreenblat@yahoo.com
coherent with assumptions made a-priori, a broad presentation of the theoretic base was
crucial in order to re-evaluate the relations between the social values involved in the research.
5
The Open University of Israel
Faculty of Social Sciences
BA Psychology Program Ψ
2007–12–24
igreenblat@yahoo.com
6
The Open University of Israel
Faculty of Social Sciences
BA Psychology Program Ψ
2007–12–24
igreenblat@yahoo.com
Independent Variables
Self-esteem appears to be a major part of both personal and social self-definition, most often
it refers to the positivity of the one's global evaluation of the self. There are several
definitions of the term, including "the average tone of self-feeling that each of us carries
about with him, and which is independent of the objective reasons we may have for
satisfaction or discontent" (James, 1890), "a self-reflexive attitude that results from
conceiving the self as an object of evaluation" (Rosenberg, 1965) and "a basic universal
human need to feel good about ourselves" (Dutton &.Brown, 1997). Self-esteem is valuable
only when the self has social meaning and based on comparison to others, according to
Festinger's Social Comparison Theory (Festinger, 1954). Recent studies support the
importance of early adaptation of positive self-esteem for general positive social functioning
in adulthood (Feinstein, 2000), successful marriage (Shackelford, 2001), social attractiveness
(Lerner & Taylor, 2003) and stress immunity (Bonanno et al, 2002). Low self-esteem was
associated with negative cognitive schemes causing psychopathological problems (Van Zyl et
al., 2006), eating disorders such as obesity (Young-Hyman et al., 2003), anorexia and bulimia
(Erkolahti et al., 2002). Urdan and Midgley (2002) suggested that fear of failure and ridicule,
typical to "low self-estimators" is a motivator of self-handicapping behaviors.
Apparently, high self-esteem is a valuable and important virtue; those who lack it might
consider its achievement "effort-worthy" and invest energy (social signaling) in order to
boost their self-esteem.
7
The Open University of Israel
Faculty of Social Sciences
BA Psychology Program Ψ
2007–12–24
igreenblat@yahoo.com
Religiosity level – According to the consensus document from the National Institute for
Healthcare Research (Hill et al., 1998), religiosity is defined as “the feelings, thoughts,
experiences, and behaviors that arise from a search for the sacred”. The research of religiosity
fascinates scientists; some of the investigated issues are the relationship between religiosity
and socio-economic values (Garza & Neuman, 2004), addictive behaviors of religious people
(Nollen et al., 2004) and correlation of religiosity level and IQ (Clark, 2004). Religious
commitment is comprised of two aspects - religious consciousness and religious participation.
Religious consciousness is the degree by which individuals pursue the importance of religion
in everyday affairs while religious participation is the involvement in all activities pertaining
to religion (Abdon, N., 1997). The questionnaire included in this study is testing both.
Dependent variable
Prosocial behavior tendency – a tendency to be concerned with and helpful to others; will be
measured using 23-item PTR-M (Prosocial Tendencies Measure – Revised) questionnaire (5
– point Likert response scale), developed by Carlo, Christiansen, Haussmann and Randall.
Gustavo Carlo (Carlo et al., 2003) defined six types of prosocial behaviors: Public prosocial
behavior intended to benefit others enacted in the presence of others; Anonymous prosocial
behavior is a tendency to help others without other people's knowledge; Dire prosocial
behavior refer to helping other under crisis conditions; Emotional prosocial behavior benefits
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The Open University of Israel
Faculty of Social Sciences
BA Psychology Program Ψ
2007–12–24
igreenblat@yahoo.com
others enacted under emotionally loaded conditions; Compliant prosocial behavior means to
help upon being asked to; Altruism refers to helping others when there is a little or no
perceived potential for a direct, explicit reward to the self.
Hypotheses
Negative correlation between the self-esteem and altruistic behavior tendency. A pursuit of
self-esteem provides a powerful source of motivation (Crocker & Park, 2004). The "desired
self" (a self-image that an individual would like to be) is usually very positive; people attempt
to approximate their "actual self" (self-image that an individual believes that he or she has
about himself) to the "desired self" (Higgins, 1987). However, when people recognize that
these types of self have discrepancies, they might experience negative affects. The gap
between the actual and desired perceptions of the self, in some cases, pushes the person to
seek for equilibrium between defined sorts of self-perceptions according to Self-Efficacy
Theory (Bandura 1978a). Additionally, the Mattering (a feeling that one counts or really
makes a difference, Rosenberg, 1985) is a strong predictor of mental well-being and Elliott,
Colangelo and Gilles (2005) found an association between mattering and levels of self-
esteem, in other words positive self-image is corresponding with high level of self-efficiency.
Positive correlation between the level of conformity and altruistic behavior tendency. Social
norms support altruism by promoting conformity (Lindbeck & Nyberg, 2006). The
hypothesis is supported by Milgram's (1970) cognitive overload theory. From "Lost Letter
Technique" studies we conclude, that the level of social response differs between the urban
and the rural population – while city dwellers are expected to become generally indifferent to,
and make fewer differentiations between "unimportant others" due to the cognitive overload,
village and small towns inhabitants tend to be more "socially responsible". Altruism is
especially likely to be observed toward in-group members (Triandis, 1994). Since social
norms in "smaller" places are strict and social responsibility level is higher, greater
intolerance for social deviance as gay relationships and children born out of the marital frame
is observed in small towns. Higher levels of social conformity encourage (or encouraged by)
collectivist values as caring, cooperation, sense of "togetherness", group entitativity,
"normative" political beliefs, etc. The meaning of helping group members increases, this type
of altruistic behavior have much in similar with sociobiological mechanisms, which suggest
contribution to other's wealth in order to be rewarded in need. The conclusion from all the
stated above: conformity demands helping others, therefore positive correlation between the
9
The Open University of Israel
Faculty of Social Sciences
BA Psychology Program Ψ
2007–12–24
igreenblat@yahoo.com
conformity level and the tendency to altruistic tendency is expected. Another factor that
might contribute to the linkage suggested above is the prediction of Janis' group think model
(Janis, 1982). According to the model, group conformity and groupthink positively correlate
with low personal self-esteem, which supposedly contributes to pro-social behavior.
10
The Open University of Israel
Faculty of Social Sciences
BA Psychology Program Ψ
2007–12–24
igreenblat@yahoo.com
love” (Qur’an 3:92), "None of you truly believes until he loves for his brother what he loves
for himself" (Saheeh Al-Bukhari, a Muslim scholar and poet). However, history tells us that
words and deeds are not always corresponding - hundreds of thousands were burned alive “in
the name of Jesus” by the holy inquisition; the hatred between Shiite Muslims and Sunnites
harvests thousands of dead bodies; in the 14th century Buddhist fighters led the uprising that
evicted the Mongols from China, killing thousands; in Japan, Buddhist monks trained
Samurai warriors in meditation that made them better killers; in the twentieth century
Japanese Zen masters wrote in support of Japan’s wars of aggression… Majority of the
research linking religion and altruism is based on Christian morale; the present study is
testing the religiosity – prosociality linkage among the Jewish population of Israel. It is
proposed that allegedly higher altruistic tendency underlined by an urge "to present a divine
kindness" is typical for Jewish religious people as well.
11
The Open University of Israel
Faculty of Social Sciences
BA Psychology Program Ψ
2007–12–24
igreenblat@yahoo.com
The model above is coherent with proposed research hypotheses; in addition, it suggests the
social conformity level as a mediator between both religiosity and self-esteem variables and
altruism. According to the presented model, religiosity contributes to altruism both directly,
via religious norms of cooperation and charity and indirectly, mediated by social conformity.
Religion often demands boundless and blind obedience rather then understanding from its
followers (Wagener, 1998); the conformity constructed by obedience requires sticking to the
norms of majority, above the religion. People whose Self-Esteem level is low usually lack
individualistic qualities such as leadership and independent thinking, according to Janis'
group think model (Janis, 1982) group conformity and groupthink correlate with low personal
self-esteem.
Interaction Hypothesis: It was predicted that interaction of low Self-Esteem level with high
Religiosity and Conformity levels would have the strongest effect on Altruistic Behavior
Tendency.
12
The Open University of Israel
Faculty of Social Sciences
BA Psychology Program Ψ
2007–12–24
igreenblat@yahoo.com
Method
Participants
The sample was comprised of one hundred and twenty adult male and female participants -
seventy-four males and forty six females; ages ranged from 24.5 to 59 with mean of 33.7
years. All the participants are Israeli citizens, while Hebrew is a mother tongue for seventy-
eight of them and the remaining forty-two speak Hebrew fluently. The sample was drawn
from a broad heterogenic population – friends, college students, colleagues, parents and their
friends; all of them Jewish, moderately religious, secular or agnostic; most of them holding
high education diplomas (BA or higher). Three participants did not complete the combined
questionnaire; their questionnaires were not included in the pool. The participation in an
anonymous research was voluntary.
Materials
All one hundred and twenty participants completed a questionnaire containing:
1. The Religious Commitment Inventory (RCI-10) Religiosity 10-item self-
identification scale (see Appendix I). The scale is a refinement of the RCI-17
(McCullough et. al, 1997) questionnaire, which demonstrated high internal
consistency (α=0.94). The RCI-17 is based on Worthington's theory of religious
values (Worthington et al., 1988).
2. Mehrabian's 11-item conformity scale (see Appendix II) designed to reduce
"acquiescence bias" – the tendency of some people to agree or to disagree with
any statement. The items are valuated via 9-point agreement-disagreement scale.
In terms of internal consistency, the mean absolute value of all 11-item total
correlations is 0.54.
3. Rosenberg's 10-item scale (RSE, see Appendix III) is used to assess global self-
esteem. Significant construct validity (p<0.05) between RSE and self-reports,
nurses' opinions, ratings of depression, psycho-physiological indicators of anxiety
and other relevant constructs was measured. Cronbach's alpha coefficient is 0.78.
4. The Prosocial Tendencies Measured – Revised (PTM-R) 25-item scale (see
Appendix IV) measures six prosocial sub-behaviors: Public, Anonymous, Dire,
Emotional, Compliant and Altruistic tendencies. Cronbach's alpha coefficient for
the PTM-R composite is 0.87.
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The Open University of Israel
Faculty of Social Sciences
BA Psychology Program Ψ
2007–12–24
igreenblat@yahoo.com
All the questionnaires were translated from English to Hebrew and combined into a single
sheet, including a short foreword section and four sub-tests.
SPSS 14.0 processing software (evaluation version) was utilized while performing all
statistical calculations.
Procedure
Each participant was asked to complete the combined questionnaire and return it filled,
manually or by e-mail. The participants were informed that the research investigates social
tendencies and behavioral patterns among Israelis. The foreword section contained
commitment of anonymousness and a request to read the instructions for each sub-test
carefully. The time gap between the reception of the questionnaire and its returning varied
between one and seventeen days, there was no time pressure or intentional researcher's bias
of any sort. None of the participants filled the questionnaire in the presence of the researcher
or returned the questionnaire in the day of reception.
14
The Open University of Israel
Faculty of Social Sciences
BA Psychology Program Ψ
2007–12–24
igreenblat@yahoo.com
Results
Premise
Prior to the major data collection, twenty-six participants were tested using the same
combined questionnaire in order to examine the apparent tendencies. The results of the pre-
test indicated no expected statistical correlation between independent variables and the
altruistic tendency, in contrary to a-priory hypothesis. All three hypothesized correlations,
although insignificant due to insufficient number of participants (twenty-six only) in the pre-
test, correlated with other type of prosocial tendency: while low self-esteem, high religiosity
and high conformity levels were predicted to correlate positively with Altruistic prosocial
tendency, the posteriori results show expected correlations but with Public prosocial tendency
and very weak correlations with Altruism. The pre-test results shifted the focus of the
research to broader investigation of prosocial norms. Since PTM-R allows the measurement
of Public, Anonymous, Dire, Compliant and Emotional forms of prosocial norms additionally
to Altruism, all six sub-forms were included in the research. A particular attention was
focused on Public prosocial tendency linkage with all three independent variables, since it
significantly correlated (r= -0.32, the "broad test" result and r=-0.37 in "pre-test", α=0.05)
with Altruistic tendency. Public Prosocial tendency is defined by Gustavo Carlo (Carlo, G., et
al., 2002) as a "tendency to benefit others enacted in the presence of others", namely helping
people when others are watching. Since no predicted correlation between independent
variables and Altruism were observed, altruistic values were not included in the regression
analysis.
Among three possible correlations, only the correlation between Self-Esteem and Conformity
found significant (α=0.05).
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The Open University of Israel
Faculty of Social Sciences
BA Psychology Program Ψ
2007–12–24
igreenblat@yahoo.com
The following table presents Pearson's linear correlation coefficients (indicating main effects)
between all independent and dependent variables:
Independent \
Dependent Public Anonymous Dire Emotional Compliant Altruism
Religious
Beliefs 0.31 0.07 0.15 0.08 0.05 -0.16
Conformity 0.43 -0.20 0.001 0.11 0.09 -0.21
Self-Esteem -0.36 0.13 0.04 -0.04 -0.008 0.19
Among eighteen possible correlations, only the correlations between Public prosocial
tendencies with all three independent variables found significant (α=0.05).
16
The Open University of Israel
Faculty of Social Sciences
BA Psychology Program Ψ
2007–12–24
igreenblat@yahoo.com
17
The Open University of Israel
Faculty of Social Sciences
BA Psychology Program Ψ
2007–12–24
igreenblat@yahoo.com
Discussion
Results Summary
1. All three independent variables (Religiosity, Social Conformity and Self-Esteem)
significantly predict Public Prosocial behavior tendency.
2. As expected, a significant linear correlation between self-esteem and conformity level
(P=-0.32) measured. This outcome is coherent with previous studies (Milgram, 1977;
De Charms & Rosenbaum, 1957)
3. The proposed integrative model is faulty, although the main and the interactive effects
exist, only the main effects found statistically significant.
4. None of the predictors contributes to Altruistic prosocial behavior tendency.
5. The predicted interaction between independent variables fails to contribute to Public
Behavior tendency or Altruism.
6. Higher religiosity predicts higher Public prosocial tendency and does not predict
higher altruism.
18
The Open University of Israel
Faculty of Social Sciences
BA Psychology Program Ψ
2007–12–24
igreenblat@yahoo.com
The negative correlation between the Self-Esteem and Conformity levels is significant (r=-
0.32), although the mediation of the conformity variable was not proved, while conformity is
held constant no significant cumulative effect of the remaining independent variables found
significant. It was suggested here, that conformity mediates part of a correlation between the
religiosity and prosocial tendency. However, ANOVA results revealed no correlation of a
kind; only the main effect of religiosity and Public Prosociality was significant.
The hypothesis linking high conformity and religiosity levels was based on personal
observation of the suggestive power of religious leaders and their effect on believers. One
who radically believes in religious leader's opinion not because he has reasons for thinking he
is more likely to be right, but simply because faith requires him to do so, is able to perform
extremely radical acts which cannot be explained by other reason than religious conformity.
Mass suicides occur in religious or occult settings, such as the legendary collectively
committed suicide of 960 members of the Sicarii Jewish community at Masada (rather than
be conquered and enslaved by the Romans, each man killed his wife and children, then the
men drew lots and killed each other until the last man killed himself) or the Jonestown
suicides in Guyana, where 913 people died in 1978 under the direction of Jim Jones, an
evangelist preacher and head of the Peoples Temple (of the 914 dead, 276 were children and
over 100 of the adults were murdered). The absence of hypothesized correlation between the
religiosity and the conformity can be explained by relatively narrow "religiosity margin" of
the participants, none of them belonged to Jewish orthodox community. It appears that
religious conformity is likely to occur among extremely religious populations, which were
not included in the current research.
The interaction hypothesis is invalid as well. Religious, conformal people with low self-
esteem are neither particularly "high" in Public Prosociality nor in Altruism.
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The Open University of Israel
Faculty of Social Sciences
BA Psychology Program Ψ
2007–12–24
igreenblat@yahoo.com
oriented prosocial reasoning. Both Altruistic and Public prosocial tendencies are sub-chapters
of the broad set of personal qualities called "Prosocial behaviors" and both describe helping
patterns and assume a certain personality structure performing those behaviors or even
declaring to behave in coherency with presented behavioral patterns. However, there is a
major difference between those two values (supported statistically by the negative correlation
mentioned above, r=-0.32 in current research and -0.22 in Gustavo Carlo's), it re-evaluates
the rationale of this work and therefore will now be discussed broadly.
The essence of human nature has been a philosophical dispute during the past centuries.
Philosophers throughout the ages have debated whether humans actually intend to perform
actions beneficial to others and costly to themselves without any clear resolution. In recent
years, psychologists have addressed the enduring debate with data on the mental experiences
leading to helping behaviors, however these studies produce conflicting results according the
nature of helping mechanism, whether it is egoistic (Bloom & Clark, 1976), empathetic
(Christopher, 2006) or a combination of self-oriented and altruistic motivations that serve as
equal and essential partners in human evolution and development, both necessary for
evolutionary advancement and for psychological health (Shapiro & Gabard, 1994). Alice
Schlegel (1980) highlights two types of altruism: pure altruism allows no expectation of any
benefits whatsoever to the giver and generalized (impure, egoistic, beneficial) altruism
describes situations, when the giver expects (even if not consciously) to receive some
benefit. She suggests that generalized altruism is more likely to be found in individualistic
societies. Lee (2005) suggests that altruistic behavior is related to the Daoistic model of
"wateristic" personality and highly regarded by Asian cultures while aggressive and
competitive behavior is valued by people of European descent. Fehr, Fishbacher and Gacher
(2001) suggest that humans have a tendency to cooperate voluntarily if treated fairly and the
reciprocity (generalized altruism) is a powerful device of social control. The Social
Psychology literature shows that increased visibility of behavior increases co-operation in a
range of social dilemmas (Benzioni et al., 1996). Several of these hypotheses concerning
altruism are supported empirically, but the general impression after reviewing reasonable
amount of altruism research is, that if the "generalized" (kin, impure) altruism is considered
as a biological reality, "pure" or "nonbeneficial" altruism exists only "in the eye of the
beholder”. In a sarcastic way of speech, altruism frequently is purely "impure", even if
considered nonbeneficial by humans. Every altruistic act could be interpreted as a "greedy"
behavior, just if the interpreter dares to be cynical enough. Human relief donations might be a
20
The Open University of Israel
Faculty of Social Sciences
BA Psychology Program Ψ
2007–12–24
igreenblat@yahoo.com
way to escape feelings of guilt caused by sins of the past or a wish to "eternize" the memory
of a diseased; donating money and helping poor might disguise an electoral campaign
intentions, as many Israelis claim about the former Soviet oligarch Arcady Gaidamak;
reputation can also play an important role in reciprocal altruism, when individuals benefit
from learning if their future social partners previously defected or cooperated with others,
therefore "spreading the knowledge" about one's charity deeds or another variation of
altruistic behavior might increase his chances to gain social status (Fehr, 2004). If going to
extreme, even Mother Theresa's deeds closely tied to the Catholic perception of heaven and
its "enrolling methods". Religious beliefs, including promised rewards in the afterlife
facilitate the cooperation by altering the perceived payoffs of costly actions, including
suicidal terrorism. The Costly-Signaling Theory (Smith and Bird, 2000; Miller, 2000; Grafen,
1990; Spence, 1973; Zahavi 1975) supports those "insights" by empirical research and solid
theoretical acknowledgements; it suggests the following: "Extreme forms of philanthropy and
altruism are conspicuous displays of resources that serve to reinforce one's status." CST
supporters see hidden beneficial motives beyond altruistic behaviors – "Apparently, having
everyone owe you for past unselfishness can be a good hedge against future calamities".
Seems, as if the difference between some altruistic “charities” and Marxian capitalists’
compulsion of humans to “increase their relative surplus value” is not as significant... The
vampire bat after extracting blood from its prey may return to its cave to regurgitate some
food for a friend who has had less luck that night. By sharing the leftovers of his feast, the
altruistic bat increases the chances that the friend it helped will help him out later on in its
own time of need. The same goes for humans.
How does a person know that his efforts and good deeds will be retaliated? The most
confident way is to behave prosocialy when somebody else is watching. Performing Prosocial
behavior in the presence of spectators, according to Costly-Signaling Theory (Zahavi, 1975),
benefits both the "signaler" by increasing his social value and the observer, because the
signals provide him with useful social information. According to Grafen (Grafen, 1990),
altruism as a costly signal might be an evolutionary stable strategy. Costly-signaling (also
called "The Competitive Altruism") Theory supporters (Parks & Vu, 1994; McAndrew, 2002;
Zahavi & Zahavi, 1997) claim that there are several conditions that must be met in order for
competitive altruism to emerge: the behavior must be costly for the author to display in the
short run, it must be easily observable to others, the signal must be a reliable indicator of
some underlying trait or characteristic of the signaler and finally, the behavior must be in the
21
The Open University of Israel
Faculty of Social Sciences
BA Psychology Program Ψ
2007–12–24
igreenblat@yahoo.com
long run benefit the actor who displays it. Religious people are signaling the world about
their altruism because they want God to like them, conformal people are signaling because
"that's the way descent people behave" and public approval is significantly important for non-
confident people, who are signaling in order to improve their rigid self-esteem. The signaling
is indeed costly in the short run, but the benefit in the end is not bad as well, whether it is the
eternal life for Catholic, public approval for conformist or self-esteem boosting applause
from the society for a person who seeks for it.
People compete each with other in "being generous", because the "halo" of an altruist might
produce long-term benefits. Moreover, Gintis et al. (2001) suggest, that "well-known
altruists" have an advantage over "common" people when violating social norms as well,
since the society feels that certain level of equilibrium has to be gained in order to sustain
collective well-being, it might be more forgiving when penalizing an altruist. It is a well-
known fact, that generous deeds in the past might macerate the level of punishment in the law
court and soften a verdict. Signaling prosocial quality and reciprocity is a socially worthy
phenomenon of evolutionary development.
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BA Psychology Program Ψ
2007–12–24
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personal interest. If Jewish tradition and heritage specifically underlines the importance of
anonymous charity, why religious Jewish participants tend to be more "public" than the
secular participants? Why already well-known (religious) Jewish millionaire stipulates his
20-million dollar contribution to the national library by naming it after him? Secular values of
self-advertisement and the "celebrity halo" have not skipped the religious community. The
"material world" that Madonna sings about demands not to "waste" our resources, but to
invest them; not to give but to barter; not to donate but to sell. Sadly, the famous singer that
enthusiastically draws the traditional ancient knowledge of Cabbala forgets the simple but
very important nuance of Judaism, while adopting African orphans "online" and declaring
about her multi-million contribution to Africa via TV talk shows in prime time. However,
wouldn't it be hypocritical if we ask her to stick to Jewish morale when more and more
people among us consider a donation to be a part of advertisement budget?
Apparently, simply being “religious” in itself does not correlate well with helping behaviour
or compassion for those in need. The real paradox is not the extraordinary high levels of
religious "public altruists", but the common belief in purity of religious people's intentions.
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BA Psychology Program Ψ
2007–12–24
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human nature – egoistic and selfish, serving only its own interest, however not intentionally
beneficial but rather "natural".
When trying to apply Locke's rational and Hobbes' emotional-egoistic model of human nature
to the perception of altruism, the subjectivity of the answer to the initial question of this
chapter clarifies. If man is rational, he understands the reciprocal aspect of altruism, performs
logical calculations of "investments", benefits of his prosociality and acts altruistically when
it's "worth" it. If man is egoistic and selfish but less rational, prosocial behavior is just a
genetic evolutionary mechanism of survival, coping with life and gaining well-being. The
answer apparently is "in the eye of the beholder".
Psychological Egoism
The philosophical view that humans are always motivated by rational self-interest, even in
what seems to be purely altruistic behavior is called "Psychological Egoism" (example of
somebody holding such a view would be Aristotle or Thomas Hobbes). It claims that when
sane people choose to help others, it is because of the personal benefits they obtain, or expect
to obtain, directly or indirectly, from doing so. When being asked what the benefit of a
soldier is when he is jumping on a grenade in order to save his comrades' lives, the supporter
of the Psychological Egoism theory would respond, that it is soldier's way to avoid the pain
caused by seeing other soldiers dying. Avoiding pain might be a reason to perform an
altruistic act. In a broader way, avoiding negative reinforcements (such as public
denunciation) is a possible cause for giving a seat to the elder woman in a bus.
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igreenblat@yahoo.com
Is it Good to be good?
"Many illnesses can be cured by one medicine of love and compassion", says Dalai Lama.
The question whether it is good to be an altruist is occupying researchers from various fields
lately. The following studies present unambiguous results:
- In the recent research that examined the effects of giving and receiving (Brooks, A.J.,
Reece, K., Schwartz, G.E., Nangle, G.), receivers experienced a significantly greater decrease
in emotional state than givers as a result of life difficulties.
- Volunteering correlates positively to good well-being and self-reported health
(Piliavin J.A, 2005).
- About 95% of altruistic volunteers who helped 9/11 tragedy victims reported better
health status compared to others of the same age (Luks, A., 2002). Helping proved effective
decreasing diseases such as obesity, sleeplessness, acid stomach, headaches and backaches,
depression, colds and flu, arthritis, asthma and even cancer and coronary artery decease.
Seems, that acts of generosity, whether they performed with pure or impure intentions,
improve our well-being. The circular logic of altruism (if a person willingly performs an act,
he probably derives personal enjoyment from it, therefore people only perform acts that give
them personal enjoyment) will probably continue occupying philosophers. However,
regardless of its underlying motives, seems that an altruistic act improves the well-being of
both the giver and the receiver.
25
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2. The "Religiosity" variable has a relatively low variance among the participants. Only
two participants were highly religious (gained scores of 41 and 38 in Religiosity test );
according to RCI-10 religiosity questionnaire authors, scores of 38 and above allow
such a classification. Since my "social circle" includes mostly secular and moderately
religious people only, it decreases the internal heterogeneity of the sample. Higher
religiosity level variance in future researches would improve the validity of the
research by decreasing the possibility of random variance between the participants.
Including ultra-orthodox Jews in future research might strengthen the mediation of
conformity variable between religiosity and prosociality as a result of religious
conformity.
3. Various "intervening" variables could have been mediating the correlations.
Conformity levels depend on one's geographic origin – while some Eastern societies
consider individualism as a serious flaw, in contrary, conformity is associated with
weak character, inability to lead and perform in the Western society.
The Epilogue – Insights on Altruism in the new millennia and Suggestions for Future
Research
The research data was collected via self-report questionnaires and therefore the
presupposition of congruence between declared opinions and actual tendencies was necessary
in order to conclude from the results. However, the logical suggestion would be that at least
some of the participants claimed to be more altruistic than they actually are, since it is a
valuable social trait, respected and cherished by humankind…Is it indeed? Since the
participants (mostly young people) demonstrated a very low tendency towards "pure"
altruism while answering a questionnaire, their probable predisposition towards altruistic
behavior might be even lower than they stated. What we observe might be a devaluation of
"old" social norms that the modern Israeli society is experiencing nowadays: the weakening
of family values followed by high divorce rate, the decrease of youngsters' motivation to
volunteer to army service, the increasing gap between numbers of people in need and welfare
expenditures of the national budget… Future research concerning the "modernity" and the
"sex-appeal" of altruistic values is necessary in order to understand the results of the current
study properly. If altruism is considered as archaic, obsolete and unnecessary trait, the results
might present an authentic picture of young people's views and Costly-Signaling Theory's
view of prosociality might be revaluated.
26
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Another unresolved question is the validity of the evolutionary view of humans. Whether the
data provided by the participants was an actual capture of their personal traits and opinions or
just a bunch of "wannabe" qualities, the evolutionary approach supported by CST sees the
humans as "impure" altruists. The question is, whether the evolutionary-biological point of
view is still applicable for inhabitants of the western society. The strength of interpersonal
connections is weakening in some of the western countries, more and more people no longer
define themselves as group participants, the symbiotic existence, so necessary in the past, is
not a necessity anymore. Online learning, shopping, gaming and even dating allows humans
to sustain more or less "normal" existence without leaving their homes. The modern man
sees, hears and runs much worse than his ancient predecessor because he does not need to
survive in a jungle anymore; his peer's importance in his life is practically meaningless.
Probably, the cooperation between Australian aborigines, whether it is reciprocal or pure-
hearted, differs drastically from the cooperation between North-American software
engineers…We loose our connection with the nature with every step of modernization. Can
we still call ourselves "social animals"? The dimensions of the "unsocialization" define the
necessity or the "unnecesstiy" of interaction in general and prosocial behavior in particular.
Investigating the correlation between the modernization and prosociality might present a
gloomy picture of the future.
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igreenblat@yahoo.com
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Appendixes
אנא בחרו באפשרות אחת בלבד מן המוצעות ,שמתארת את עמדתכם\עמדתכן בצורה המדויקת ביותר כלפי כל
טענה .סמנו Vבמשבצת המתאימה:
נכון לחלוטין נכון במידה נכון במידה נכון במידה כלל לא נכון
רבה בינונית מועטה
אמונותיי הדתיות מהוות בסיס לגישתי
לחיים
אני משתדל\ת להקדיש זמן לשיפור הבנת
אמונתי הדתית
חשוב לי להקדיש זמן למחשבות והרהורים
בנושאי הדת
אמונותיי הדתיות משפיעות על כל מעשי
חיי
הדת חשובה לי כי היא נותנת תשובות
לשאלות על משמעות החיים
אני מרבה לקרוא ספרים וירחונים בנושאי
הדת
אני נהנה\נהנית להשתתף בפעילות
חברתית של ארגון דתי
אני נהנה\נהנית מבילוי עם אלה שחולקים
את אמונתי הדתית
אני מתעניין\מתעניינת בקבוצה הדתית
שלי ומשתתף\משתתפת בהחלטותיה
אני תורם\תורמת כסף לארגון הדתי בו אני
תומך
.
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אנא השתמשו באחת מהאפשרויות הבאות כדי להעריך את מידת הסכמתכם או אי-הסכמתכם עם הטענות המוצעות.
רשמו את אחד המספרים בין +4לבין -4במשבצת הריקה משמאל לטענה .נסו להתייחס לכל טענה בצורה כללית,
כלומר להביא את עמדתכם בנושא הרחב ולא איך שהייתם מתנהגים במצב מסוים או איך שהייתם מקווים
שתתנהגו:
אני אהיה האחרון\האחרונה שישנה את עמדתי בנושא שנוי במחלוקת לאחר ויכוח
ברוב המקרים אעדיף לוותר ,להמשיך הלאה ו"לשמור על השלום" ,ולא להיאבק על דרכי
אדם כריזמטי הנואם ברהיטות יכול בקלות להשפיע עלי ולשנות את עמדותיי
אני יותר עצמאי\עצמאית בדרכיי התנהגותי מאשר מתאים\מתאימה את עצמי להתנהגות הזולת
אם מישהו\מישהי נשמע\נשמעת מאוד משכנע/ת ,אני נוטה לשנות את דעתי בעקבותיו\בעקבותיה
אני מעדיף\מעדיפה למצוא את דרכי האישית בחיים ,ולא להתאים את עצמי לדרכה של קבוצה
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אנא בחרו באפשרות אחת בלבד מן המוצעות ,שמתארת את עמדתכם\עמדתכן בצורה המדויקת ביותר כלפי כל
טענה .סמנו Vבמשבצת המתאימה:
לא לא אין לי עמדה מסכים\מסכימה מסכים\מסכימה
מסכים\מסכימה מסכים\מסכימה בהחלט
בהחלט
לדעתי אני אדם ראוי
ובעל ערך לפחות כמו
האחרים
לדעתי יש לי מספר
תכונות חיוביות
בסך הכול אני
מרגיש\מרגישה שאני
כשלון
אני מסוגל\מסוגלת לבצע
משימות טוב כמו אנשים
אחרים
אני מרגיש\מרגישה שאין
לי כל כך במה להתגאות
אני מרגיש\מרגישה
חסר\חסרת ערך לעיתים
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Appendix IV: The Prosocial Tendencies Measured – Revised (PTM-R) 23-item scale
אנא בחרו באפשרות אחת בלבד מבין המוצעות ,שמתארת אותכם בצורה המדייקת ביותר.
סמנו Vבמשבצת המתאימה:
40
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41
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Acknowledgements
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to:
Dr, Gal Gorodeisky-Harpaz, the tutor of the current research
Gustavo Carlo, Professor of Psychology at University of Nebraska-Lincoln for
allowing me to use the Prosocial Tendencies Measured – Revised (PTM-R) scale and
a great attitude towards my research
Everett L. Worthington Jr., Professor of Psychology at Virginia Commonwealth
University for allowing me to use the Religious Commitment Inventory -10
questionnaire
Albert Mehrabian, Professor Emeritus of Psychology at University of California in
Los Angeles for allowing me to use the Conformity scale
Dr. Florence Rosenberg, Professor Morris Rosenberg's wife, for giving me the
permission to use the Self-Esteem scale. Doctor Morris Rosenberg was professor of
Sociology at the University of Maryland from 1975 until 1992.
42