Chapter 1

Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics

DMCG 1323 THERMODYNAMICS

OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter students should be able to: Define the thermodynamics terms and relate them to the usage thermodynamics area in daily life. Review the basic units in engineering. Know and clarify the terms used in thermodynamics.

CONTENTS
Thermodynamics Principles 2. Basic Units 3. Properties of a System 4. State and Equilibrium 5. Process and Cycles
1.

1.1 What is Thermodynamics?

The name from the Greek words therme (heat) and dynamis (power) Most descriptive of the early efforts to convert heat into power.

What is Thermodynamics?
Basic science that deals with energy. We all know that energy is neither created nor destroyed but it is transformed. Among other things well look at

Power Production Refrigeration Relationships between the properties of matter

Some applications of thermodynamics knowledge.

The Science of Energy

Two ways to look at systems

Macroscopic
Classical

Thermodynamics

Based on experimental observations. Also known as macroscopic view.

Atomic

or Molecular
Thermodynamics

Statistical

Based on the average behavior of large groups of particles. Also known as microscopic view.

1.2 Dimensions and Units

Dimensions

are names that characterize physical quantities. are magnitudes assigned to the dimensions, which are adopted as standards for measurement

Units

Primary / Fundamental Dimensions

Dimension Length Mass Time Temperature Electric Current Unit Meter (m) Kilogram (kg) Second (s) Kelvin (K) Ampere (A)

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Secondary / Derived Dimensions Example 1-1

Express the following quantities in term of base SI units (kg, m, and s): (a) Power (b) Heat Flux (c) Specific Weight

Solutions:
(a) (b) (c)

Power = force x velocity = (N)(m/s) = (kg.m/s2)(m/s) = kg.m2/s3 Heat Flux = Heat transfer/time = J/s = N. m/s = kg.m/s 2.m/s = kg.m2/s3 Specific Weight = weight/volume = N/m3 = kg.m/s2/m3 = kg/(s2.m2)

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Standard prefixes in SI Units

Multiple 109 106 103 10-2 10-3 10-6 10-9 Prefix giga, G mega, (M) kilo, kg centi, c milli, m micro () nano (n)

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Dimensional Homogeneity

In engineering, all equations must be dimensionally homogeneous. Every term in the equation must have the same unit.

Example 1-2 While solving a problem, a person ended up with the following equation at some stage:

E = 25 kJ + 7 kJ/kg Where E is the total energy and has the unit of kilojoules.
Determine the error that may have caused it.

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Solution for Example 1-2 During an analysis a relation with inconsistent units is obtained. The probable cause of it is to be determined.

Analysis The two terms on the right-hand side do not have the same units, an therefore they cannot be added to obtain the total energy.

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Weight vs. Mass

Mass

is an amount of matter Weight is a measure of how much force is applied to the matter Your mass is the same on the earth and on the moon Your weight is different! We often are not careful to make a distinction between mass and weight
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F=ma
m

is mass a is acceleration On the surface of the earth we usually call the acceleration g
m/sec2 g= 32.174 ft/sec2
g=9.8

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Weight on the surface of the earth

W=mg In metric the units become

Kg

m/sec2 which is the same as

N (Nx0.2248)

lbf

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Example 1-3
An object at sea level has a mass of 400 kg. (a) Find the weight of this object on earth. (b) Find the weight of this object on the moon where the local gravitational acceleration is 1/6 that of earth. Answer: (a) 3924 N (b) 654 N
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1.3 Systems
Thermodynamic system or system is defined as a quantity of matter or region in space chosen for study. The mass or region outside the system is called the surroundings. The real or imaginary surface that separate the system from its surroundings is called the boundary.

SURROUNDINGS Gas 2-kg, 1-m3

Movable Boundary

SYSTEM BOUNDARY

Gas 2-kg, 2m3

Fixed Boundary 19

Closed System

A Closed System (control mass) consists of a fixed amount of mass, and no mass can cross the boundary. Energy in the form of work and heat can cross the boundary. The volume of a closed system does not have to be fixed.
mass NO

CLOSED SYSTEM

m=constant

energy

YES

Mass cannot cross the boundaries of a closed system, but energy can.
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Open System

An open system (control volume) is a properly selected region in space in which both the mass and energy can cross the boundary.
Control Surface
CONTROL VOLUME

mass

YES

energy YES

Both mass and energy can cross the boundaries of a control volume.
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Isolated System

In Isolated System, mass and energy are not allowed to cross the boundary.

Wall perfectly insulated

ISOLATED SYSTEM

mass

NO

m=constant

energy

NO

Mass and energy cannot cross the boundaries of a isolated system

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Analyzing Systems
The

approach is different for closed and open systems Energy is a lot harder to handle than matter, because it exists in many forms

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Energy = E
Macroscopic
Respect

forms

to some outside reference frame

Microscopic
Related

to the molecular structure

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Macroscopic Energy
Kinetic
KE

Energy (KE)

= mV2/2

Potential
PE

Energy (PE)

= mgz

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Other Kinds of Macroscopic Energy

Magnetic

Electrical Surface

Tension These are specialized, and we dont usually need to include them

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Microscopic Energy
Kinetic energy of individual molecules Potential energy of individual molecules Binding forces

Energy Nuclear Energy Etc The sum of all microscopic forms of energy is called the internal energy, U, of the system.

Chemical

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E U KE PE
1 2 KE mV 2

PE mgz
1 2 E U mV mgz 2
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A unit mass basis is often more convenient

e

= E/m u = U/m ke = KE/m = V2/2 pe = PE/m = gz

with m = mass

V e u ke pe u gz 2
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Dynamic Energy
When

energy moves from place to place we treat it differently The only forms of energy that can cross a system boundary without matter transfer are: Heat (Q) Work (W)

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Heat & Work

A system can not contain heat Heat only exists as energy crossing a system boundary What we think of as a systems heat content is Thermal Energy Heat is energy transferred through a temperature difference All other forms of energy transfer are work!!

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Properties of a System

Intensive

Does not depend on the systems size

Temperature Pressure Density

Extensive

Depends on the systems size

Volume Mass Total Energy

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We often define properties in terms of other properties

Density

r = m/V
v = V/m = 1/r

Specific Volume

We can define most extensive properties per unit mass (specific properties)

Called specific properties u = U/m is the specific internal energy

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1.4 State And Equilibrium

At

a given state, all the properties of a system have a fixed value If you change a property, you have changed the state Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states Equilibrium: A state of balance. In an equilibrium state there are no unbalanced potentials (or driving forces) within the system.
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State And Equilibrium

Thermal equilibrium: If the temperature is the same throughout the entire system. Mechanical equilibrium: If there is no change in pressure at any point of the system with time. Phase equilibrium: If a system involves two phases and when the mass of each phase reaches an equilibrium level and stays there. Chemical equilibrium: If the chemical composition of a system does not change with time, that is, no chemical reactions occur.

A system at two different states.

A closed system reaching thermal equilibrium.

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1.5 Processes and Cycles

A

change from one equilibrium state to another A path is the series of states through which a system passes during a process Process diagrams
P P2

State 2
Process Path

P1

State 1

T1 T2BMCT 2123 THERMODYNAMICS T

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Processes and Cycles

We often deal with Quasi-equilibrium processes Quasistatic or quasi-equilibrium process: When a process proceeds in such a manner that the system remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at all times.

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State Postulate
The number of properties required to fix the state of a system is given by the state postulate:

The state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by two independent, intensive properties
Simple compressible system: If a system involves no electrical, magnetic, gravitational, motion, and surface tension effects
Remember that during a phase change, Temperature and Pressure are not independent
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Iso
Many times we will talk about process paths where one property is kept constant Isothermal

Constant Temperature

Isobaric

Constant Pressure
Constant Volume

Isochoric

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Pressure
The

force exerted by a fluid per unit area Only meaningful for a gas or a liquid In solids we talk about stress

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Units of Pressure
F P A

N Pa 2 m

One Pascal isnt very much!!

1 atm = 101,325 Pa 1 atm = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bar = 14.7 psi

Note: psi is lbf / in2

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Absolute vs. Gage Pressure

Absolute
Usually

pressures are measured relative to a vacuum

we will talk about absolute pressure, and will use absolute pressure in our calculations

Gage

pressures are measured relative to the local atmospheric pressure

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Pressure The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure, which is measured at relative to absolute vacuum (absolute zero pressure). The difference between absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure is called the gage pressure. Pgage = Pabs Patm (for pressure above Patm)

Pgage

Pabs Patm

Pabs = 0

Absolute Vacuum 43

Pressure Pressures below atmospheric pressure are called vacuum pressures and are measured by vacuum gages that indicate the difference between the atmospheric and absolute pressure. Pvac = Patm - Pabs Absolute, gage and vacuum pressures are all positive quantities.
Pvac

Pabs

Patm

Absolute Vacuum

Pabs = 0

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Devices to measure pressure

Bourdon

tube Barometer Manometer

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Barometer
A

F P ghr A

F mg ghAr

m Vr hAr
h

V hA
Note: The pressure measured by a barometer is independent of cross sectional area
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Barometer

P=rgh For a given barometer the density and the acceleration due to gravity are constants, so Pressure is directly proportional to height Pressure is often measured in mmHg 1 atm = 760 mmHg
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Example 1-5 Determine the atmospheric pressure at a location where the barometric reading is 740 mmHg and the gravitational acceleration is g = 9.81 m/s2. Assume the temperature of mercury to be 10C, at which its density is 13,570 kg/m3.
Solution: Assumptions The temperature of mercury is assumed to be 10C. Patm = = = rgh (13,570 kg/m3)(9.81 m/s2)(0.74 m) 98.5 kPa

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Example 1-6 Effect of a vertical piston-cylinder device containing a gas has a mass of 60 kg and cross-sectional area of 0.04 m2, as shown. The local atmospheric pressure is 0.97 bar, and the gravitational acceleration is 9.81 m/s2. (a) Determine the pressure inside the cylinder. (b) If some heat is transferred to the gas and its volume is doubled, do you expect the pressure inside the cylinder to change? Patm=0.97 bar, m = 60 kg

A = 0.04 m2, P = ?

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Solution: Assumption Friction between the piston and the cylinder is negligible. (a) The gas pressure in the piston-cylinder device depends on the atmospheric pressure and the weight of the piston. PA = Patm A + W Patm
P = Patm + mg/A = 0.97 bar + (60 kg)(9.81 m/s2)/0.04 m2 = 1.12 bars

P
W= mg

(b) The volume change will have no effect on the free-body diagram drawn in part (a), and therefore the pressure inside the cylinder will remain the same.
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Manometer
Used

to compare pressures
Atmospheric pressure

P P Patm rgh 1
gas

P1

P Patm rgh 1

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Example 1-7
A manometer is used to measure the pressure in a tank. The fluid (water) used has a specific gravity of 0.85, and the manometer column height is 55 cm, as shown in Figure beside. If the local atmospheric pressure is 96 kPa, determine the absolute pressure within the tank.

Patm = 96 kPa

h = 55 cm

P=?

rs= 0.85

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Solution: The density of the fluid is obtained by multiplying its specific gravity by the density of water, which is taken to be 1000 kg/m3:
r = rs x rwater = 0.85 x 1000 kg/m3

Patm = 96 kPa

h = 55 cm

= 850 kg/m3
P = Patm + rgh

P= ?
rs= 0.85

= 96 kPa + (850)(9.81)(0.55)
= 100.6 kPa

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Example 1-8 The manometer shown in Figure below is used to measure the pressure in the water pipe. Determine the water pressure if the manometer reading is 0.6 m. Mercury is 13.6 times heavier than water.
Open Pipe

H a

Hg b

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Solution: To solve the manometer problem we use the fact that Pa = Pb. The pressure Pa is simply the pressure P in the water pipe plus the pressure due to the 0.6 m of water; the pressure Pb is the pressure due to 0.6 m of mercury. Thus, P + (0.6 m)(9810 N/m3) = (0.6 m)(13.6)(9810 N/m 3)
This gives P = 74 200 Pa or 74.2 kPa gage.
Pipe Open

H
a

Hg

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Temperature and Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

Temperature as a measure of hotness and coldness Two bodies are said to be in thermal equilibrium when there is no heat transfer between them. Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium to each other. (R.H. Fowler 1931)

IRON 150OC COPPER 20OC IRON 60OC COPPER 60OC

Two bodies reaching thermal equilibrium after being brought into contact in an isolate enclosure

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Temperature Scales
The temperature in SI is Celsius (oC), in thermodynamics is Kelvin (K) The temperature in English/U.S. Conventional is Fahrenheit ( oF), in thermodynamics is Rankine (R). Temperature difference in Celsius is the same as the temperature difference in Kelvin. Temperature difference in Fahrenheit is the same as the temperature difference in Rankine.

1K

1oC

1.8 R

1.8oF

Comparison of magnitudes of various temperature units

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T(K) = T(oC) + 273.15 T(R) = T(oF) + 459.67 T(R) = 1.8 T(K) T(oF) = 1.8 T(oC) + 32

oC

K 373.15

oF

100.00

212.00

671.67 Boiling point

of water at 1 atm

0.01

273.16

32.02

491.69 Triple point

of water

-273.15

-459.67

Absolute zero

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Example 1-9 During a heating process, the temperature of a system rises by 10C. Express this rise in temperature in K, F, and R.

Solution This problem deals with temperature changes, which are identical in Kelvin and Celcius scales. Then, T(K) = T(C) = 10 K
The temperature changes in Fahrenheit and Rankine scales are also identical and are related to the changes in Celcius and Kelvin scales: T(R) = 1.8T(K) = (1.8)(10) = 18R

T(F) = T(R) = 18F

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SUMMARY

In this chapter, the basic concepts of thermodynamics are introduced and discussed. Thermodynamics is the science that primarily deals with energy. Definition for closed system (control mass) and open system (control volume). Definition for extensive properties and intensive properties. Total energy and internal energy. State and process.

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Pressure, absolute pressure, gage pressure and vacuum pressure. Temperature scales consist of Celcius scale, Kelvin scale, Fahrenheit scale and Rankine scale. The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the same temperature reading even if they are not in contact.

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END OF CHAPTER ONE.

THANK YOU.

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