Lecture Objectives Chapter 1 1. Define key terms identified on page 1.

y Adverse effects o A side effect; an unintended and usually undesired effect that may occur with the use of the drug (Ex.) Mioxidil is an anti-hypertensive. The adverse effect is that it grows hair. y Contraindications and precautions o Conditions under which the drug should not be used or must be used carefully with monitoring. 99% is relative not absolute. y Core drug knowledge o Things about drugs that dont change. The pharmacologic facts relevant to each drug: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. y Pharmacotherapeutics Pharmacokinetics Pharmacodynamics Contraindications and precautions Adverse effects Drug interactions

Core patient variables o Things about drugs that do change. Factors about a patient that may or will interact with drug therapy: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Health status Life span and gender Lifestyle, diet, and habits Environment Culture and inherited traits

Culture and inherited traits o Religious, social, and ethnic backgrounds that may affect the individuals receptiveness to drug therapy; also, genetic traits that affect a drugs pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics properties.

Drug interactions o The effects that may occur when the drug is given along with another drug, food, or substance.

Drug response o The anticipated therapeutic and adverse effects

Environment o Location in which the drug therapy will be administered 1. 2. 3. Hospital, home, or long-term care facility Properties of the physical environment that may alter a drugs action or effect Induce adverse effects from a drug, or set limitations on whether the drug may be administered in that settings 1|Page

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Exposure to potentially harmful substances, or a pathology induced from a harmful environmental substance, that requires drug therapy for treatment

Health status o The presence of disease, illness, and allergy o Chronic conditions causing system or organ dysfunction o Diminished memory or mental capacity

Life span and gender o Age, physiologic development, reproductive stage, and gender

Lifestyle, diet, and habits o Amount of activity and exercise o Sleep-wake patterns o Occupation o Financial resources or access to health insurance coverage to offset the cost of the drug, or both o Eating preferences and patterns o Use or abuse of substances (e.g., nicotine, alcohol, and illegal drugs) o Use of over-the-counter (OTC) drugs o Use of alternative health practices (e.g., herbal medicine, folk remedies) o Ability to read and write

Nursing management of drug therapy o The process of planning and implementing actions that will maximize the therapeutic effects and minimize the adverse effects of a drug.

Pharmacodynamics o The effects of the drug on the body

Pharmacokinetics o The changes that occur to the drug while it is inside the body

Pharmacotherapeutics o The desired therapeutic effect of the drug

Prototype drug o Typical of a group of drugs within a drug class. (Ex.) hydrochlorothiazide is a prototype drug that represents all of the thiazide diuretics (a class of drugs in this class that increases urine output).

2.

Identify components of core drug knowledge. y Drugs that doesnt change o Pharmacotherapeutics o Pharmacokinetics o Pharmacodynamics o Contraindications and precautions o Adverse effects o Drug interactions

3.

Identify components of core patient variables.

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Drugs that does change o Health status o Life span and gender o Lifestyle, diet, and habits o Environment o Culture and inherited traits

4.

Write an example of a question you would ask during a patient interview within each of the components of the core patient variables. y Health status: o Presence of acute or chronic disease (physical or mental) o Drug history o Sensory deficits (vision, hearing, speech) o Ability to understand spoken instruction o Cognitive or memory deficits 1. 2. 3. y What medications are you currently taking? What dose and how are you taking the medication? When was the last time you took it?

Life span and gender: o Age o Developmental level o Ability to read and write o Female patients: reproductive status (e.g., pregnant or planning pregnancy, lactating), premenopausal, postmenopausal 1. 2. Are you pregnant? Are you planning on becoming pregnant in the near future?

Lifestyle, diets, and habits: o Occupation o Insurance and other economic resources to pay for drug therapy o Activity and exercise patterns o Sleep and rest patterns o Dietary patterns: frequency of meals and snacks, foods usually eaten, foods avoided o Dietary supplements, including vitamins, minerals, and herbal or folk remedies o Use of complementary medicine o Street (illegal) drugs used: frequency and route of street drugs, last time street drugs were used o Alcohol used: amount of alcohol consumed daily, last time alcohol consumed o Cigarettes or other nicotine-containing products used: amount used daily, pack years of use o Caffeine used: amount of daily caffeine consumption 1. 2. Do you exercise on a regular basis? How many times a week and for how long?

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3. y Environment:

What type of exercise do you do?

o Description of home setting or living accommodations o Location of home (city, industrial, suburban, rural) 1. 2. y What type of job do you have? Do you spend a lot of time outside in the sun?

Cultural and inherited traits: o Religious beliefs o Ethnic practices 1. Does your religion or cultural practices have restrictions against you using drug therapy?

5.

List the components of a complete drug history. y y y y y y y y y y y Currently prescribed medications Prescribed dosages and routes of the medications When each medication was last taken Patients description of why the medication was prescribed Other prescribed medications taken in the recent past but not currently Reason the medications were stopped Known drug allergies When allergic effect occurred Description of specific allergic effects that occurred Known food or environmental allergies Over-the-counter (OTC) medications used, such as cough and cold remedies, vitamins and minerals, and headache remedies y y Frequency of OTC drug use Last time the OTC medications were used

6.

Identify common lab tests to evaluate liver function, renal function, and hematopoietic function. y Hepatic o Bilirubin (total) o Direct conjugated bilirubin o AST (also known as SGOT) Aspartate Aminotransferase o ALT (also known as SGPT) Alanine Aminotransferase o PTT Partial Thromboplastic Time o PT Prothrombin Time o INR International Normalized Ratio y Renal o BUN Blood Urea Nitrogen o Serum Creatinine o Creatinine Clearance y Hematologic o Hct - Hematocrit 4|Page

o Hgb Hemoglobin o WBC Count White Blood Cells o Platelets 7. List patient educational guidelines. y When preparing educational materials for patients receiving drug therapy, the nurse includes guidelines on the following: o Drug name: generic and trade names o Purpose of the drug o Contraindication to taking the drug o When to take the drug (time, frequency) o Duration of treatment o How to take the drug o What to do if a dose is forgotten o Special instructions related to lifestyle changes while on the drug o Hazardous activities to avoid while on the drug o Any dietary restrictions or additions o Drug-food interactions o Drug-drug interactions, including those that may result from over-the-counter drugs o Adverse effects and instructions on what to do about them o Special storage needs if applicable o Special directions for drug disposal o Therapeutic monitoring needed while taking the drug o Periodic laboratory tests needed while taking the drug o Precautions related to pregnancy or lactation o Health care providers who should be notified about the drug therapy (e.g., dentist, by patient taking an anticoagulant) o Period of time drug remains active after discontinuing therapy 8. List tools promoting adherence and safety of drug therapy. y On the basis of the assessment, the nurse might provide or suggest one or more of the following to assist the patient or family in adherence to the prescribed drug therapy in a safe and effective manner: o Clear, written instructions for medication administration o Memory aids, such as a calendar, dosage chart with space to document that the dose was taken, setting a kitchen timer or a watch alarm to sound at the time medication is due, or a clock-faced picture with the appropriate medication doses identified at the correct times o An organized, convenient system for accessing medication such as 1. 2. 3. Keeping all medication containers in a bowl, in a small box, or on a special shelf Dispensing one days medication in a pill box, a commercially available organizer, or the individual compartments of an empty egg carton Numbering or color-coding drug containers if the patient has a reading or language problem

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o An organized, convenient system for storing drug delivery equipment (syringes, alcohol wipes, transdermal patches, drug pumps, IV tubing, and so forth), such as a box, a plastic storage container with a snap-on lid, or clean, dry glass jars with screw tops o An impervious, puncture-proof container with properly fitting lid for safe disposal of needles, syringes, and other equipment, such as coffee cans or plastic milk jugs Chapter 2 1. Define the key terms on page 15. y Chemical composition o Drugs that share similar characteristics can be classified in several ways by chemical composition. (Ex.) Chemical composition of a drug such as morphine sulfate describes its chemical base of opium. Morphine sulfate, therefore, is classified as an opiate or opioid. y Chemical name o Describes the drugs atomic and molecular structure, using exact chemical nomenclature (language) and terminology. y Clinical trials o If approved, the investigational new drug then undergoes clinical trials in humans. It occurs in four phases (I IV) and may require from 5 to 9 years for completion. y Controlled substance o Designed to remedy the escalating problem of drug abuse, categorized and controlled drugs according to their abuse potential and medical usefulness on a scale of I to V, hence the term controlled substance. 1. The Harrison Narcotic Law of 1914 legally defined the term narcotic and provided the first effective regulation regarding the manufacture and distribution of certain drugs known for their abuse potential, including cocaine, marijuana, and opium. y Drug classification o Drugs that share similar characteristics are classified as a pharmacologic group or family. Because thousands of drugs are available today, studying them as individual agents would be an overwhelming task. Fortunately, drugs can be systematically classified into a reasonable number of drug groups known as drug classifications (or drug classes) y Generic name o Drug is also known as its nonproprietary name. Each drug has only one generic name, which identifies the drugs active ingredient. As a general rule, generic names are less complicated than the chemical names from which they are derived, but they are more complicated than trade names. y Legend drugs o Prescription drugs, also known as legend drugs, must be identified by the legend (inscription) on the container: Caution: Federal law prohibits dispensing without a prescription. y National Formulary

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o Expanded this effort to set national standards for drug quality. The reference is now called the United States Pharmacopeia National Formulary y Orphan drug o The 1982 Orphan Drug Act provides certain tax benefits to companies that invest in drugs useful in the diagnosis, treatment, or prevention of rare diseases. y Pharmacogenetics o The study of how genetic variables affect the pharmacodynamics of a drug in a specific patient. y Pharmacogenomics o The application of the omics technology for the prediction of the sensitivity or resistance of an individual patients disease to a specific drug or a group of drugs. y Physiologic classification o A drug describes its effects on body systems; therefore, morphine sulfate is classified as a central nervous system depressant. y Placebo response o Most patients tend to respond in a positive way to any therapeutic intervention by interested and caring health care personnel. This positive result is called the placebo response and may involve objective physiologic and biochemical changes as well as changes in subjective complaints (e.g., stomach upset, insomnia, and sedation) associated with the disorder being treated. The placebo response occurs relatively consistently in 20% to 40% of patients in almost all studies. y Preclinical trials o Designed to provide basic safety, bioavailability, pharmacokinetic, and initial efficacy data about the drug and are carried out in animal subjects in the laboratory setting. y Therapeutic classification o Drug describes the drug by its use in therapy; therefore, morphine sulfate is also known as an opioid narcotic analgesic. y Trade name o Also known as a brand or proprietary name is given to a drug by its manufacturer. Trade names, which are usually easy to say and remember, are protected by trademark. y United States Pharmacopeia (USP) o Been the source for standards of strength, quality, purity, and preparation of medicinal compounds. Reference is now called the United States Pharmacopeia National Formulary. 2. Compare and contrast the chemical, generic, and trade names of a drug. y Chemical name: o A drug precisely describes the drugs atomic and molecular structure, using exact chemical nomenclature (language) and terminology. The chemical name, which is usually long complex, is not practical for everyday use but is useful to chemists and biochemists. y Generic name:

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o A drug is also known as its nonproprietary name. Each drug has only one generic name, which identifies the drugs active ingredient. As a general rule, generic names are less complicated than the chemical names from which they are derived, but they are more complicated than trade names. Generic names are easily recognizable because the first letter of the name is typically not capitalized. In some cases, the prefix or suffix of the generic name may indicate the class of the drug. (Ex.) Generic names of most betablocking agents end in -olol. y Trade name: o Also known as a brand or proprietary name is given to a drug by its manufacturer. Trade names, which are usually easy to say and remember, are protected by trademark. The manufacturer receives a 17-year patent on the drug, which provides an opportunity to recover part of the costs used in research, development, and testing of the drug. The trade name is easily recognizable because the first letter is capitalized and theTM or symbol may be present. 3. What is the benefit of using a generic name? y Name recognition is important in drug therapy. The nurse has the responsibility of accurately transcribing drug orders, administering the drugs correctly, and documenting the patients response. Usually, a drug is ordered by the generic name because numerous brand names may exist for the same drug. Health care practitioners and prescribers typically order drugs by generic names to avoid confusion between brand names that look and sound alike. (Ex.) Serzone (nefazodone) for depression and Seroquel (quetiapine) for schizophrenia. 4. What source of drug information offers the most current information? The most comprehensive? y The USP (United States Pharmacopeia) is the current authoritative source for drug standards and is revised every 5 years by a group of experts in chemistry, microbiology, nursing, pharmaceutics, and pharmacology. Drugs are deleted when their clinical use shows unacceptably high toxicity or when newer, more effective agents are developed. (United States Pharmacopeia National Formulary). y 5. The most comprehensive is American Hospital Formulary Service (AHFS) Drug Information that includes extensive drug information, particularly on drug classes. What is pharmacogenomics? What is the goal of this type of drug therapy? y Pharmacogenomics is the application of the omics technology for the prediction of the sensitivity or resistance of an individual patients disease to a specific drug or a group of drugs. y The goal of this pharmacogenomics of drug therapy is genetically engineered drugs are drugs developed with DNA technologies. The Human Genome Projects complete sequencing of the genetic code has ushered in a new era of omics technology, providing new strategies to diagnose, treat, and prevent disease. Genomics is the study and identification of genes and gene function. This new knowledge has enabled researchers to manipulate the chemical formulas of drugs to produce more specifically targeted drugs with fewer adverse effects. 6. What is the difference between a prescribed drug and a controlled substance? y Prescription drugs, also known as legend drugs, must be identified by the legend (inscription) on the container: Caution: Federal law prohibits dispensing without a prescription.

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Controlled substance which was designed to remedy the escalating problem of drug abuse, categorized and controlled drugs according to their abuse potential and medical usefulness on a scale of I to V. The five categories, known as schedules, were established, and controls were placed on prescribing, dispensing, and storing drugs in health care facilities according to the scheduled category. Also, containers of controlled substances must also display an additional warning label: Caution: Federal law prohibits the transfer of this drug to any person other than the patient for whom it was prescribed.

All controlled substances are prescription drugs, not all prescription drugs are controlled substances. o Category 1. C-I a. b. c. d. 2. C-II a. b. c. d. 3. C-III a. b. c. d. Moderate abuse potential Moderate dependence liability (Ex.) some CNS stimulants, anabolic steroids A written or telephone order is acceptable; may be refilled 5 times within 6 months from the date of issue; prescription must be rewritten after 6 months or 5 refills. 4. C-IV a. b. c. d. 5. C-V a. b. c. d. Limited abuse potential Lowest dependence liability (Ex.) Antidiarrheal preparations with diphenoxylate and loperamide Many of these drugs may be obtained without a prescription Low abuse potential Limited dependence liability (Ex.) Benzodiazepine anxiolytics, anticonvulsants, muscle relaxants Same as C-III drugs High abuse potential Severe dependence liability (Ex.) Amphetamines, dronabinol Requires tamper-proof prescription; telephone orders not accepted; refills not allowed. Additional medication requires new prescription High abuse potential Severe dependence liability (Ex.) Heroin, hashish, LSD, GHB No accepted medical use in the US; there is a lack of accepted safety for use of the drug or other substance under medical supervision

7.

What are the risks and benefits of obtaining drugs through the Internet?

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Consumers are increasingly going online to meet their prescription drug needs. While online pharmacies are convenient, they are not always safe. A recent analysis of 118 online pharmacies found that only 51 (43.2%) of them stated their precise location and that ninety-six (81.4%) did not require a medical prescription from the customers physician. The Ryan Haight Internet Pharmacy Consumer Protection Act of 2008 amends the Controlled Substances Act with respect to the sale of controlled substance drugs through the Internet. The overall effect of this law is to restrict the delivery, distribution, or dispensing of controlled substances by means of the Internet without a valid prescription obtained through a provider in a one-to-one in-person medical evaluation.

Chapter 3 1. Define the key terms on page 29. y Buccal o (Not used as often as oral tablets) hard, compressed tablets placed in the buccal pouch (between the cheek and gum) and are designed to dissolve rapidly in the vascular mucous membranes of the mouth. Not absorbed in the GI tract, so considered a form of parental preparations or a variation of the topical route. y Capsules o Solid dosage forms in which the drug is usually encased in a shell of hard or soft gelatin. Enteral route (absorption of drug in GI tract). Easier to swallow than tablets. May contain higher doses that can be safely taken due to the release is in a controlled fashion. (e.g., time-release capsule). If patient having difficulty swallowing pills, can mix in a few milliliters of water or liquid or in a tablespoon of jelly, apple sauce, or pudding. y Elixir o A clear hydroalcoholic mixture that is usually sweetened or otherwise pleasantly flavored. Most elixirs contain ethanol and water, but glycerin, sorbitol, propylene glycol, flavoring agents, aspartase and even syrups may also be found in elixirs. The alcohol content of elixirs varies greatly and can exceed 25%. Stored at room temperature and the alcohol content usually prevent the growth of any mold or other microorganisms. Always be clear, not cloudiness because it indicates contamination. y Emulsion o Created when two liquids that do not mix well are combined, and one liquid distributes uniformly through the other. Because these mixtures tend to separate rapidly, remember to shake the preparation well immediately before measuring a dose and to administer the dose soon after pouring and measuring. In general, nothing should be added to emulsions because additives may adversely affect the stability of the mixture. y Enteral route o Uses the gastrointestinal (GI) tract for the ingestion and absorption of drugs. The most common method of administering drugs through the enteral route is orally. The enteral route also includes drugs that are administered through a nasogastric (NG) or a gastrostomy (G) tube. y Enteric coating

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o A wax-like layer that is used on some tablets. This layer resists the acid environment of the stomach but dissolves in areas in which the local pH is neutral or slightly alkaline (e.g., the small intestine). Enteric coatings may be used to protect acid-labile drugs, to provide a sustained-release dose, or to guard against local adverse effects from a drug. Other types of commonly used coatings include film or sugar. Both of these coatings are used to protect the patient from bitter or unpleasant-tasting drugs. These coatings do not impart any time-release characteristics. y Intra-arterial o (Parenteral route) drug administration requires a surgeon to insert a catheter into an artery leading directly to the targeted treatment area. The drug is delivered under positive pressure through the catheter. The positive pressure overcomes the pressure within the arterial system. (Ex.) powerful undiluted chemotherapeutic agents can be delivered directly to a tumor by way of the artery that feeds it. Intra-arterial ports can also be implanted by a surgeon. y Intra-articular o (Parenteral route) injection is performed only by a skilled practitioner and involves injecting a drug into a joint. (Ex.) corticosteroids are typically administered by intra-articular injection to relieve pain in an acutely inflamed joint. The effect is local. Nurses do not commonly administer medications by this route. y Intradermal o (Parenteral route) injections are made into the dermis just below the epidermis. This technique is used primarily for local anesthesia and for sensitivity tests, such as allergy and tuberculin tests. A small needle (25- or 27-gauge) and small-volume syringes (less than 1 mL) are used for intradermal injections. The most common sites for intradermal injections are the medial forearm and the back over the scapula because the skin is thinner there. y Intramuscular (IM) o (Parenteral route) technique involves injecting drugs into certain muscles. This method requires specific knowledge of anatomy and aseptic technique. Because muscles have a good blood supply, drugs that are injected into a muscle move directly into the bloodstream without having to be broken down and absorbed, as oral drugs processed by the GI tract must be. Thus, the onset of action with intramuscular injections is faster than with oral administrations. Similarly, because muscles have more blood vessels than subcutaneous tissue, the onset of action after IM injection occurs more rapidly than after subcutaneous injection. o The sites for IM injection are the ventrogluteal, deltoid, rectus femoris, and vastus lateralis muscles. y Intrathecal o (Parenteral route) a drug is delivered into the cerebrospinal fluid. It may be administered directly into the spinal subarachnoid space (a spinal) or outside the subarachnoid space

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(an epidural). The drugs most commonly administered by this route are local anesthetics, antibiotics, and radiographic contrast media. y Intravenous (IV) o Technique administers a drug directly into the bloodstream, bypassing the need for absorption from the GI tract or transportation from other parts of the body, such as muscle or subcutaneous tissue. o IV route is advantageous in that it: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Has immediate effect Allows administration of a large volume of drug Avoids tissue irritation or injury resulting from IM or SC administration Is acceptable when no other route is possible Circumvents impaired circulation Has the potential for prolonged, continuous administration of solutions

o Most dangerous routes, once the drug has been given, it cannot be retrieved, nor can its distribution through the body be slowed or stopped. y Intravenous piggyback o When secondary IV tubing is used to administer an IV drug, the tubing is added to the main line tubing, usually at a Y port. Adding secondary tubing is called piggybacking because the tubing with the drug rides on top of the primary fluid tubing. Antibiotics are frequently given intermittently this way, which is infused over hours. y Intravenous push (IVP or IV push) o Direct administration into a vein or an established drug infusion lock of a concentrated drug in a very small amount of solution (usually 1 to 2 mL). The drug is pushed into the vein very slowly over at least 1 minute. The exact amount of time depends on the drug and the dose. Drugs given by IVP may be used for intermittent dosing or for treating emergencies, such as cardiac arrest. y Local effect o Most drugs applied topically to the skin or mucous membranes exert their effect at that site. (Ex.) Corticosteroid cream applied to relieve the itch from a rash. y Parenteral route o Avoids or circumvents the GI tract and is associated with all forms of injections: 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. y Intramuscular (IM) Subcutaneous (SC or SQ) Intravenous (IV) Intradermal (into the dermis) Intrathecal (into the cerebrospinal fluid Intra-articular (into a joint) Intra-arterial (into an artery)

o Less commonly used parenteral routes than IM, SC, and IV are:

Subcutaneous (SC)

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o Drugs are administered under the skin into fat and connective tissue. These drugs must be highly soluble, low volume (less than 2 mL in a good-sized adult), and nonirritating (to prevent tissue damage, tissue necrosis, and sterile abscess formation. Distribution of the drug is through the capillaries and is less rapid than by the IM route. The SC route may be used for vaccines, insulin, heparin, and narcotics. The sites used for this route are the upper, lateral arm; anterior thigh; abdomen; and midback above the scapula. y Sublingual o Tablets are placed under the tongue. It must be relatively nonirritating, flavorless, and highly water soluble. It is highly vascular, drugs are quickly absorbed into the bloodstream, and a rapid onset of drug effect occurs. Not absorbed in the GI tract and others consider them a variation of the topical route. y Suspension o A drug preparation consisting of two agents: 1. 2. A finely divided solid dispersed within a liquid The stability of the preparation depends on the ability of the dispersing medium to wet the solid particles. y Sustained release (Controlled-, timed-, extended-, or prolonged-release) o Tablets are formulated to release a drug slowly over an extended period, rather than rapidly like conventional tablets. Sustained release occurs by several methods: 1. 2. 3. Layers of enteric coatings may be applied, and the drug is released in response to changes in the surrounding pH or the GI fluid The tablet may be formulated to release the drug in a steady, controlled manner The tablet may be formulated to release the drug in a series of pulsations

o The total dose of drug in a sustained-release preparation is higher than that found in regular tablet. o The patient may safely take the higher dose because it is released in a controlled fashion, thereby preventing any adverse effects from overdosage. y Syrup o Concentrated solution of sugar, such as sucrose, in water. Most syrup that contains 65% or more sucrose is also resistant to mold, yeasts, and other microorganisms, and they have a reasonable shelf life with no need for refrigeration. y Systemic effect o Drugs given for a systemic effect by any route must be capable of being transported into the blood and distributed through the body to a location distant from the administration site. (Ex.) Fentanyl, the narcotic used for pain relief, which is imbedded in a transdermal patch and applied to the skin. y Tablet o A solid dosage form that is prepared by compressing or molding a drug into various size and shapes. Tablets are scored; that is, designed to be easily broken at a point so that one half or one quarter of the dose may be given. y Topical route

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o Technically another parenteral route because it also bypass the GI tract. Drugs administered topically are applied to the skin or mucous membranes, including those of the eyes, ears, nose, vagina, rectum, and lungs. y Troches o Also called pastilles or lozenges, are commonly used to achieve a local effect in the mouth or pharynx (throat). The drug is embedded in hard candy or another suitably flavored vehicle that the patient holds within the mouth, where it slowly dissolves. Antitussives, anti-infectives, local anesthetics, antihistamines, and analgesics are administered this way. 2. What are the 6 rights of drug administration? y Nurses cannot change: o Patient o Drug o Dose o Time hour before/after o Route o Documentation, need to document everything and if it isnt documented, it isnt done. 3. Compare and contracts the benefits and risks of enteral, parenteral, and topical drug therapy. y Enteral route: o Risks 1. 2. o Benefits 1. y Parenteral route: o Risks 1. Infection if not uses aseptic techniques. Incorrect placement of needle may damage blood vessels or nerves. The oils and irritating chemicals found in the solutions or suspensions of some parenteral drugs may be dangerous if given intravenously. o Benefits 1. Injection so absorption is instantaneous and complete since directly into bloodstream. Recommended for patients that are unable to swallow, confused, uncooperative with oral medications, unconscious, or has a physiologic need to keep the GI tract empty (e.g., in preparation for a diagnostic test or surgery, or to rest the tract). y Topical route: o Risks 1. o Benefits Possible infection if skin is not intact Convenient, economical and easy to use. Use of enteric coating for time release. Enteric coated drugs are toxic if chewed, crushed or broken. Repeated doses of sucrose-containing syrups may increase risk for gingivitis or dental caries. Elixirs are high in alcohol content and should not be given to children or adults that should avoid ethanol.

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1.

Absorption occurs readily, drugs quickly enter vascular system, and GI secretions do not destroy them. Used for localized or systemic effects through transdermal or transmucosal effects. Apply to specific area like eyes, ears, nose, rectum, vagina, and lungs.

4.

What critical step must be done prior to administering medication via a nasogastric tube? y The tube is assessed for proper placement and the head of the patients bed is elevated to help prevent aspiration from reflux. Also, nurse reviews information on specific drugs because some drugs are not absorbed well with tube-feeding formulas. In this case, the feeding must be shut off for a time before and after the drug administration.

5.

Identify the anatomic landmarks for intramuscular drug administration. y Muscles with good blood supply used as common sites: o Ventrogluteal (3 mL) o Deltoid (1 mL) o Vastus lateralis (used in children less than 18 months of age) and Rectus femoris (3 mL) o Dorsogluteal (3 mL)

6.

Identify the appropriate areas of the body for subcutaneous drug administration. y Used for vaccines, insulin, heparin, and narcotics injected into appropriate: o Abdominal o Scapula o Mid-anterior thigh o Lateral-posterior arms

7.

Which parenteral technique poses the greatest risk or benefit to a patient? y Intravenous route (IV) once the drug has been given, it cannot be retrieved, nor can its distribution through the body be slowed or stopped.

8.

What is the purpose of an enteric coated drug? y The purpose of an enteric coated drug is it dissolves in intestines, not stomach so prevents irritation and inactivation of the drug by stomach acid. It can be layered to be sustained-released.

Chapter 4 1. Define the key terms on page 41. y Absorption o The movement of the drug from the site of administration into the bloodstream y Affinity o The strength of the attraction between the drug and its receptor y Agonist o A drug that has the ability to initiate the desired therapeutic effect by binding to a receptor y Antagonist o A drug that has affinity for the same receptor sites as an agonist and when bound to the receptor site, it prevents receptor stimulation y Biotransformation

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o When drugs are metabolized, they are changed from their original form to a new form. Another term for metabolism y Blocker o Another term for antagonist y Blood-brain barrier o Selective mechanism that opposes the passage of most ions and large molecular compounds from the blood to the brain tissue y Clearance o Rate of disappearance of the drug molecules from the circulation y Distribution o The movement of a drug through the bloodstream, into the tissues, and eventually into the cells y Efficacy o How well a drug produces its desired effect y Excretion o Removal of the drug, or what the drug became after metabolism y First-pass effect o Drugs entering the body by the enteral route first go through the portal circulation to the liver before reaching the general circulation y Half-life o The amount of time that is required to remove half (50%) of the blood concentration of a drug y Intrinsic activity o A drugs ability to initiate biological activity as a result of binding to a receptor site y Loading dose o Larger than usual does to obtain a therapeutic effect quickly y Maintenance dose o Dose required to sustain a therapeutic effect y Metabolism o Conversion of the drug into another substance or substances y Metabolites o A product of metabolism y Off label use o After a drug is approved, however, it may be legally prescribed for a use that is not indicated on the label y P-450 system o Metabolism is predominantly achieved by specific microsomal enzymes called the cytochrome P-450 system y Pharmacodynamics o The biological, chemical, and physiologic actions of a particular drug within the body and the study of how those actions occur 16 | P a g e

o How the drug affects the body y Pharmacokinetics o The movement of the drug particles inside the body and the processes that occur during this movement (What the body does to the drug) y Pharmacotherapeutics o The desired outcome of administering a particular drug like FDA approved or Off-label use y Potency o The amount of a drug that must be given in order to produce a particular response y Prodrug o Drugs that are inactive until metabolized into an active form y Receptor o A specific macromolecule on the cell wall or within the cellular cytoplasm y Steady state o The amount of drug excreted equals the amount of drug ingested (Approximately 4-5 halflife) y Therapeutic index o Difference between ED50 and LD50 y Therapeutic range o The goal of drug dosing is to give a dose that places the drug concentration above the MEC (minimum effective concentration) but below the level at which adverse effects occur 2. Discuss the core patient variables related to the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion. y Drug Absorption and Core Patient Variables o Health Status 1. Any change in health status related to circulation, condition of the GI tract, or pH of body fluids (e.g., disease, trauma, strenuous physical exercise, or drug therapy) can reduce drug absorption. The condition of the gastric and intestinal surfaces affects oral drug absorption. 2. Contact time, surface area of contact, and the condition of the absorptive surface may increase or decrease the amount of drug absorbed. For example: a. b. Large surfaces (e.g., pulmonary alveolar epithelium, intestinal mucosa) absorb drugs rapidly. Decreased absorptive surface from damage (e.g., radiation), disease (e.g., inflammatory bowel disease), or surgery (e.g., surgically shortened intestine) lessens drug absorption. 3. Absorption from the GI tract depends on factors such as gastric volume, GI pH, gastric emptying time, intestinal transit rate, gastric motility, and GI enzyme levels. a. Delayed transport from the stomach to the intestine (e.g., food in the stomach) will dilute the drug and increase the contact time by slowing gastric emptying.

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b.

Decreased GI motility (e.g., constipation) permits increased drug contact time with the GI mucosa, enhances drug dissolution, and allows extra time for absorption, which may lead to increased drug effects and toxicity.

c.

Increased intestinal motility (e.g., diarrhea), will move a drug very quickly through the GI tract, reducing the amount of time the drug remains in contact with the GI mucosa and impairing drug absorption.

4.

The quality of blood flow to the site of absorption affects how much of the drug is absorbed. a. Increased blood flow (e.g., application of heat or massage) enhances intramuscular and subcutaneous drug absorption because of the resulting increase in circulation b. c. Absorption slows when blood flow decreases (e.g., shock or vasoconstriction). Some muscles normally have greater blood supply; for example, a drug injected into the deltoid muscle will be absorbed faster than one injected into the gluteus muscle because of the greater blood flow to the deltoid muscle.

o Life Span and Gender 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. Ingested solids versus liquids empty more slowly from womens stomachs. Gastric acidity is lower in women. Women have lower gastric levels of alcohol dehydrogenase. Diet may stimulate digestive enzymes and alter the gastric and intestinal mucosa. Generally, drugs ingested with food are absorbed slower than drugs taken on an empty stomach. Some drugs and food form complexes that cannot pass through the mucosal lining of the GI tract (e.g., tetracycline antimicrobials that bind with calcium, magnesium, iron, aluminum), and thus effective blood levels may not be reached. 4. Some drugs are destroyed by the high acidity and peptic activity of gastric digestive enzymes. y Drug Distribution and Core Patient Variables o Health Status 1. 2. Hepatic dysfunction decreases the manufacturing of albumin. Conditions such as hypoalbuminemia, hepatic disease, and renal disease can decrease the extent of drug binding, particularly of acidic and neutral drugs. A diseased liver cannot synthesize the protein building blocks needed for albumin production. Thus, there is a greater concentration of free drug and a greater risk of increased drug response and toxicity. o Life Span and Gender

o Lifestyle, Diet, and Habits

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1.

At birth, the blood-brain barrier is not fully developed; this causes an increased vulnerability of the infant to CNS poisons and greater sensitivity to drugs that act on the brain in comparison with older children and adults.

2.

In pregnant women and fetuses, some drugs may be distributed to and bind with receptor sites in such a way that tissues may be adversely affected. For instance, bones and teeth, which contain calcium, can accumulate substances that bind with calcium (e.g., tetracycline antibiotics).

3.

Blood albumins are not thought to possess a gender-dependent predilection, although levels of some globulin proteins (e.g., corticosteroid-binding and sexhormone binding) are lower in women. Although the small differences in protein levels between the genders are unlikely to be clinically significant, lower blood albumin levels may increase the effect of drugs that are normally highly protein bound.

o Lifestyle Diet, and Habits 1. Poor dietary intake of necessary nutrients and protein (e.g., malnutrition) will contribute to low circulating albumin levels. This will increase the displacement of drugs that are normally highly protein bound into the circulation, where they can produce effects. 2. 3. Alcohol abuse directly affects the liver in its ability to function normally. Obesity significantly influences distribution of drugs that are highly lipophilic (e.g., anesthetics, barbiturates). The drug will move to the fat cells, and circulating levels of the drug will be decreased. y Drug Metabolism and Core Patient Variables o Life Span and Gender 1. Drug metabolism in patients whose enzymatic metabolic systems are either immature or functioning less efficiently (e.g., neonates, children, and older adults) is highly variable but is usually diminished. Decreased drug metabolism places the patient at increased risk of adverse effects from the drug. o Lifestyle, Diet, and Habits 1. 2. 3. Malnutrition may prolong drug effects as a result of poor hepatic microsomal metabolism. In obese people, phase II transformations tend to occur more rapidly, thereby necessitating higher drug dosages. Drug effects may be intensified if the specific drug places the person at nutritional risk by producing anorexia, increased appetite, nausea and vomiting, nutritional deficiencies, stomatitis, or toxic reactions, for example. 4. Diet may contribute to individual variations in drug metabolism. Charcoal-broiled foods and cruciferous vegetables induce one CYP isoenzyme, whereas grapefruit juice inhibits one. 5. Exposure to cigarette smoke and pesticides may cause a more rapid metabolism of some drugs because of enzyme induction. o Environment 19 | P a g e

1. 2. 3.

Reduced partial pressure of oxygen at higher altitudes may affect enzymatic reduction systems. Environmental pollutants may affect induction or inhibition of hepatic enzymes. Light is a key modulator in the regulation of metabolic pathways and in specific settings may affect drug response (e.g., intensive care units that commonly remain constantly lit).

Drug Excretion and Core Patient Variables o Health Status 1. Renal impairment or renal failure decreases a drugs elimination from the body. If renal excretion is an important route of its elimination and the drug is given on a regular dosing schedule, its slowed removal from the body will produce a greater accumulation of drug in the body with an increased likelihood of additional therapeutic and adverse effects. 2. 3. 4. If cardiac output is decreased, the kidney may not be perfused adequately, decreasing the glomerular filtration rate as well as excretion of drugs. Hepatic compromise or dysfunction will also decrease the elimination of drugs. Drug therapy may produce nephrotoxicity as an adverse effect. Therefore, the renal elimination of all other drugs may be decreased. o Life Span and Gender 1. 2. In elderly patients, the rate of drug clearance is reduced. Some drugs have different rates of clearance depending on the sex of the patient.

3.

Compare and contrast the bodys actions or reactions via the terms pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. y Pharmacokinetics is the effects of the body on the drug. There are four phases of pharmacokinetics absorption, distribution, metabolism (biotransformation), and elimination. Pharmacokinetics is influenced by health status, life span, gender, and culture. Pharmacodynamics is the biologic, chemical, and physiologic actions of a particular drug within the body and the study of how those actions occur. Essentially, it is how the drug affects the body.

4.

What is the importance of protein binding? y Protein binding plays an important role in distribution of active drug molecules. Changes in the expected protein-binding capabilities of a drug, either from pharmaceutical properties of other drugs or from patient-related variables, alter the effectiveness of drug therapy.

5.

What is the P-450 system? How does pharmacotherapy affect this system? How would you know if this system is not functioning properly? y The P-450 system is a combination of several types of cytochromes, called families. Of these, only three families CYP1, CYP2, and CYP3 are involved in drug metabolism. Problems may arise if patient is taking too many drugs metabolized by this system. Drugs metabolized by this system may be responsible for many drug-drug interactions. Hypothermia alters the action of P-450 metabolism as well and decreases the potency and efficacy of certain drugs.

6.

Compare and contrast single occupancy and modified occupancy theories. y Single Occupancy:

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o The intensity of a drug response is proportional to the number of receptors occupied by the drug o A maximal drug response will occur when all of the available receptors have been occupied y Modified Occupancy: o Explains certain observations that cannot be accounted for with the simple occupancy theory 1. Simple occupancy theory assumes that all drugs acting at a particular receptor are identical with respect to the ability to bind to the receptor and the ability to influence receptor function once binding has taken place o Modified theory ascribes two qualities to drugs 1. Affinity is the strength of the attraction between the drug and its receptor a. b. c. 2. The affinity of a drug for its receptors is reflected in its potency Drugs with high affinity are effective in low doses (thus have high potency) Drugs with low affinity are effective only with high doses (thus have low potency) Intrinsic activity is a drugs ability to initiate biological activity as a result of binding to a receptor site a. b. c. 7. Intrinsic activity of a drug is reflected in it maximal efficacy Drugs with high intrinsic activity have high maximal efficacy Drug with low intrinsic activity has a low maximal efficacy

Differentiate between the terms potency and efficacy. y The potency of a drug refers to how many particles of a drug (measured in milligrams or grams) are needed to produce a desired effect. Efficacy is the innate ability of the drug to produce a desired effect. Two drugs may have the same efficacy but different potencies. Usually the potency of a drug is less important than the efficacy (i.e., it does not matter if it requires a 10-mg pill or a 20-mg pill, as long as it is effective in achieving the therapeutic effect).

8.

What are the components of the therapeutic index? What is its importance? y The therapeutic index relates to the drugs margin of safety (ratio of effective dose to lethal dose). The closer the therapeutic index is to 1 (i.e., the more narrow the therapeutic index), the more dangerous the drug is and the more closely the patient must be monitored. Drug literature does not report the therapeutic index as a number; instead, the index is said to be narrow. No mention of the therapeutic index indicates that the margin of safety is wide.

Chapter 5 1. Define the key terms on page 58. y Additive effect o Occurs when two or more like drugs are combined, and the result is the sum of the drugs effects 1. 1 (Drug A) + 1 (Drug B) = 2

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2.

Codeine and acetaminophen work differently to reduce pain. When these two analgesic drugs are combined, the additive effect is better control of pain (compared with that resulting from the use of either drug alone)

Adverse effect o An effect other than the desired effect

Allergic response o An immune system response

Anaphylaxis o Most serious type of allergic reaction 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Acute respiratory distress Marked hypotension Edema Rash Tachycardia Cyanosis Pale Cool skin

Antagonistic drug interaction o The opposite of a synergistic effect. It results in a therapeutic effect that is less than the effect of either drug alone because the second drug either diminishes or cancels the effects of the first drug 1. 1(Drug A) + 1 (Drug B) = 0

Cardiotoxicity o Irregularities in cardiac rhythms and conduction, heart failure, and even damage to the myocardium

Drug interaction o Occurs when two drugs or a drug and another element have an effect on each other

Hepatotoxicity o Damage to the liver 1. 2. 3. 4. Hepatitis Jaundice Elevated liver enzyme levels Fatty infiltration of the liver

Idiosyncratic response (paradoxical effects) o An unusual, abnormal, or peculiar response to a drug 1. The genetically inherited trait of responding to general anesthetics by developing malignant hyperthermia

Immunotoxicity o Immune system is significantly affected by drug therapy 1. Immunosuppression

Nephrotoxicity

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o Damage to the kidneys 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. y Decreased urinary output Elevated blood urea nitrogen Increased serum creatinine Altered acid-base balance Electrolyte imbalances

Neurotoxicity (central nervous system (CNS) toxicity) o A drugs ability to harm or poison a nerve cell or nerve tissue 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Drowsiness Auditory and visual disturbances Restlessness Nystagmus Tonic-clonic seizures

Ototoxicity o Damage to the eighth cranial nerve 1. 2. Tinnitus Sensorineural hearing loss

Potentiation o Best describes an interaction in which the effect of only one of the two drugs is increased o A drug that has a mild effect enhances the effect of a second drug 1. (Drug A) + 1 (Drug B) = 2

Synergistic effect o Occurs when two or more unlike drugs are used together to produce a combined effect, and the outcome is a drug effect greater than either drugs activity alone 1. 2. 1 (Drug A) + 1 (Drug B) = 3 A beneficial synergistic effect occurs when two different types of antibiotics that work in very different ways are combined, such as penicillin G and an aminoglycoside antibiotic. This approach is commonly used in the treatment of subacute bacterial endocarditis

2.

What is the difference between a side effect and an adverse effect? y A side effect is usually referred to as a minor effect, such as nausea, and toxic effect refers to a more serious, potentially life-threatening effect, such as impaired renal function. These terms are being replaced by a newer term adverse effect, which is used to describe all undesired effects. Some adverse effects are not unwanted; that is why some drugs have off-label uses.

3.

Compare and contrast additive, synergistic, and antagonistic drug effects. y The additive effect occurs when two or more like drugs (in terms of therapeutic effect) are combined, and the result is the sum of the drugs effects. 1 + 1 = 2 o Codeine & acetaminophen work differently & both reduce pain. When used together the additive effect is better to control pain than either one of them used alone. o Alcohol & salicylates (aspirin) can both cause GI bleeding. When used together the GI bleeding is greatly increased, more so than either one alone.

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A synergistic effect occurs when two or more unlike drugs (in terms of therapeutic effect & mechanism of action) are used together to produce a combined effect, and the outcome is a drug effect is greater than either drugs activity alone. 1 + 1 = 3 o A beneficial effect is when three different types of antihypertensive drugs an alphaadrenergic blocker ( a vasodilator), a beta-adrenergic blocker (a sympatholytic), and a diuretic - are combined, the antihypertensive effect is greater than any drug alone o A harmful effect is in the interaction between drugs that depress the CNS, such as morphine and alcohol; this interaction causes additional CNS depression that could be fatal.

An antagonistic effect is the opposite of a synergistic effect. The resulting therapeutic effect is less than either drug alone; the second drug either diminished or cancels the effect of the first drug. 1 + 1=0 o Taking some types of antibiotics while on birth control pills, can diminish the effects of the birth control pills. o Antagonistic reactions can also occur at receptor sites, when two drugs are antagonistic for the same receptor site, such as morphine (a narcotic agent), and naloxone, a narcotic antagonist used to correct narcotic overdoses.

4.

Identify toxicities based on the body system affected. y Neurotoxicity o Neurotoxicity, aka CNS toxicity, is the drugs ability to harm or poison a nerve cell or nerve tissue. Neurotoxicity can occur after exposure to drugs, other chemicals and gases (alcohols, solvents, insecticides, industrial vapors, and pollutants.) Injury to the CNS is largely irreversible because the neurons in the brain cannot divide or regenerate. y Hepatotoxicity o Hepatotoxicity is damage to the liver. Signs of hepatotoxicity include jaundice, elevated liver enzyme levels, and fatty infiltration of the liver. The liver is exposed to relatively large concentrations of ingested drugs or other potentially toxic substances. The liver is also responsible for metabolizing 99% of most drugs, if liver damage occurs the drug will not be metabolized as efficiently, leaving more circulating drug to cause further liver damage. y Nephrotoxicity o Nephrotoxicity is damage to the kidneys. Decreased urine output, elevated blood urine nitrogen, increased serum creatinine, altered acid-based balance, and electrolyte imbalances occur with kidney damage. The renal system is susceptible to poisoning because of its anatomy and function. The cells within the proximal tubing are responsible for filtering, concentrating, and eliminating toxic and non-toxic materials; water is reabsorbed instead of eliminated, the concentration of drug molecules in the tubules rise, increasing the potential for damage. The kidneys excrete 99% of most drugs. y Ototoxicity o Ototoxicity is damage of the eighth cranial nerve. Structures of the inner ear are affected, and may or may not be reversible. Signs and symptoms include tinnitus (ringing and buzzing in the ear) and sensorineural hearing loss (aka nerve deafness). Sensorineural

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hearing loss usually starts with high-frequency sounds and may worsen until lowfrequency sounds are also difficult to hear. y Cardiotoxicity o Irregularities in cardiac rhythms and conduction, heart failure, and even damage to the myocardium may result from Cardiotoxicity. The exact reason why some drugs produce Cardiotoxicity is unknown; elderly adults have less effective hearts than younger adults and very young children have hearts that are still growing. y Immunotoxicity o Immunotoxicity is when the immune system is affected by drug therapy. A wide variety of drugs can affect the immune system; some may cause immunosuppression, while others may directly destroy immune system components. The effect of both may increase the incidence of bacterial, viral and parasitic infections. 5. Describe an allergic response. How does it differ from a hyperreactive response? y An allergic response is an immune system response. The body interprets the drug as a foreign substance (antigen) and forms antibodies against the drug; the immune system initiates the antigen-antibody response when the drug is taken again. The response is the release of histamines; the symptoms may include redness, itching, swelling, rash, and hives. A hyper-reactive response is abnormal sensitivity; nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea (all of which are not an allergic response) 6. What is anaphylaxis? How do you treat it? y The most serious allergic response is called anaphylaxis. During anaphylaxis changes throughout the body occur, including constriction of the bronchial smooth muscles (bronchospasms), vasodilation, and increased vascular permeability. Symptoms include acute respiratory distress, marked hypotension, edema (most importantly laryngeal edema), rash, tachycardia, cyanosis, and pale, cool skin. Convulsions may occur; if untreated death is likely. y Treatment includes the administration of vasopressor agents to increase blood pressure, bronchodilators to open the airways (most often epinephrine, which is both a vasopressor and a bronchodilator), antihistamines to block the effects of the released histamines, corticosteroids (have an anti-inflammatory effect and reduce swelling), oxygen therapy, and IV fluids. Endotracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation are often needed to support an open airway and respiration. 7. What is the importance of a black box warning? How does it affect your nursing actions? y A black box warning is a method of flagging a serious warning so prescribers do not miss seeing it. The black box is placed at the top of the drug information label; printed materials and online databases that provide information about the drugs must show the black box warning. y If a drug has a black box warning, it means that special and careful monitoring for onset of a problem is required for its appropriate use. All drugs carry a risk of adverse effects, and many of these may be small but some serious or life threatening, like blood dyscrasias (the pathologic conditions or disorders such as leukemia or hemophilia in which the constituents of the blood are abnormal or are present in abnormal quantity) or liver failure. y Examples of drugs that have black box warnings: o SSRIs and other antidepressants o Most chemotherapeutic drugs

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o Some antibiotics o Some antiarrhythmic drugs o The antidiabetic drug metformin 8. What is a drug interaction? Are they all harmful? How would you proactively care for a patient receiving polypharmacy? y A drug interaction occurs when two drugs, or a drug and another element (such as food) have an effect on each other. This interaction may increase or decrease the therapeutic effect of one or both of the drugs; it may create a new effect or increase the incidence of an adverse effect. y Some drug interactions are beneficial, while others are harmful. Drug interactions may affect any aspect of pharmacokinetics: absorption, distribution, metabolism, or excretion. Drug interactions may also alter the pharmacodynamics of drug therapy when two or more drugs are competing for the same receptor site, or they may work in different ways in the body with conflicting or cumulative results. y Nurses must understand the core drug knowledge of adverse effects and drug interactions with the core patient variables during drug therapy. Recognizing the potential for these interactions allows the nurse to plan care in a way that will maximize the therapeutic effects, minimize the adverse effects, and provide effective patient and family education.

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