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DISCOVERING THE AUTHORS POINT OF VIEW

s it has been explained in the previous chapters, many writers often try to persuade you to accept their beliefs. They might do this by making statements that are not based on facts (see: Chapter 2) or using highly emotional words (see: Chapter 3). In addition to these, they can purposively use a special point of view. Point of view is the position from which details of a passage are perceived, considered, and described. In other words, point of view is the point through which the author considers, presents or communicates his messages or ideas. Due to the fact that someones perception and consideration are highly influenced by his political inclinations, religion, sex, or geographic background, some writers are apt to be biased. Consider these examples. Most Indonesian educators might see the inclusion of religion into the public school curriculum through a different point of view used by most American educators. A Northerner might write the history of the Civil War by using a different point of view than a Southerner. Sometimes you will read about something or someone from more than one point of view. During a political campaign you read about different candidates, with each one claiming to be the best. In different newspapers, you read editorials about controversial subjects in which one newspaper supports the same issue that the other newspaper attacks. The sport editor in one town reports a ball game quite differently from the way the editor from the town of opposing team does. Occasionally, history books may present different accounts of the same event, depending on the authors point of view. Considering the explanations above, we can see how important it is to recognize the authors point of view in order to detect their purposes or biases. Sometimes it is quite easy to do but sometimes quite hard. These purposes or biases may sometimes be obvious, and sometimes they may be subtle or hidden. The following exercises are designed to help you practice to discover the authors point of view.
EXERCISE 41 Read the following article for discovering the authors point of view. Then, read the list of statements that follows and determine whether they are true (T) or false (F).

Students Need to Grapple with Significant Ethical Problems

Delusions spawned by the success of science.
Universities have gone much too far in trying to produce value-free teaching and research. This happened primarily because scholars within universities were deluded by the thought that only complete objective, scientific inquiry was respectable and that values were not amenable to rigorous scholarship. There is, however, no totally objective science of political affairs or economics. Values always creep in. For a long time, the success of science, along with the rewards and accolades society
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provided to scientists, cause people in other fields to delude themselves into thinking that they could achieve a completely scientific form of inquiry. Many scholars even distorted the reality they studied in order to make it susceptible to their rigorous methods of analysis. Now we are beginning to understand that while scientific methods have utility in softer fields such as the social sciences, they are not adequate to understanding all questions. Another reason for the move away from dealing with values is that some people are more comfortable doing research in fields where they think that they may get reasonably certain answers. By contrast, in most important ethical issues, one can clarify the issue and satisfy ones feeling on the matter, but one cannot lay claim to achieving any sort of universally demonstrable, logical truth. Issues of value have no logical answer.

A Movement to introduce values

Fortunately, there is now a movement to introduce values into the curriculum through courses in applied ethics that ask students to come to grips with significant ethical problems. Those courses do not try to indoctrinate students or tell them what they should think. They do try to help students become more sensitive to ethical issues and reason more carefully about those questions. They also acquaint students with the best writing that has accumulated on these matters over the centuries. In this connection, I have been surprised and gratified to find that courses in moral reasoning are the most oversubscribed of any of the group of courses we ask students to take as part of Harvards new core curriculum. That suggests there is a genuine interest in these issues. No one can be sure how much effect such courses will have on the quality of human behavior. But we do know that a number of people have gotten into ethical difficulty because they really didnt see a problem arising until it was too late. We also know that many people rationalize unethical behavior on the basis of reasoning that wont stand up under careful examination. If students are put in the habit of inquiring more rigorously into ethics, they will presumably find it easier to avoid these pitfalls.

Universities have a greater reach

This is a widely held belief among the public that institutions in the society, such as families and churches, are not as influential as they once were in transmitting values to individuals. If that is so, then universities should take even more seriously their responsibilities in these matters. We educate a much higher proportion of the citizenry than we used to and hence have a greater reachand therefore a greater responsibilityto help fill gaps that exist as a result of the declining influence of other institutions. But efforts by universities to teach students about ethical issues are likely to be limited in value and to produce cynicism if the institutions themselves are perceived to be ethically careless or insensitive. That doesnt mean we have to agree with the students or take institutional positions on public questions of the day, which I think would be wrong. But we have to take seriously the ethical issues that confront the universality and take the time to explain to students our attitudes on these questions. And when we disagree with the students, we should explain the grounds of disagreement with sufficient care so that any sensible person would recognize that moral questions have not been cavalierly tossed aside, ignored or subordinated to the selfish interests of the university. 1. (T/F) The writer believes that students who habitually think more deeply about ethics are less likely to rationalize unethical behavior than other students are.
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2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

(T/F) The writer feels that universities should take institutional positions on current social issues. (T/F) According to the writer, universities should strive to keep scholarly pursuits objective and scientific, completely unaffected by values or ethics. (T/F) The writer believes that a completely scientific form of inquiry is possible. (T/F) The writer feels that the university has an obligation to explain to students its stand on moral and social issues. (T/F) The writer supports the idea of introducing values into the college curriculum. (T/F) According to the writer, universities should accept a greater share of the responsibility for transmitting social values than they used to. (T/F) The writer believes that logical answers can be found for issues of value through scientific methods of research.

EXERCISE 42 Read the following article for discovering the authors point of view. Then, read the list of statements that follows and determine whether they are true (T) or false (F).

COAL: We Have it, They Want it, Lets Move it (Rosemary TomichPresident of Siesta Cattle Co., Chino, Calif., and a member of the Presidents Export Council) The United States wants to expand trade. We have a vast, important resource and the capability to harvest that resource. Foreign customers want to purchase the product. There are willing buyers, and willing sellers. That sounds too good to be true, but it isnt. In September, the Energy and Natural Resources Committee of the United States Senate held hearings on United States Coal Exports. The Committee staff presented a succinct and revealing report: 1. With the exception of 1978, the United States has always been the largest coal exporter in the world. World coal trade has, however, been primarily in metallurgical coal and thus the business has been very cyclical. 2. We are now entering a period of growth in the overseas demand for steam coal, as well as for metallurgical coal. 3. The World Coal Study estimates that overseas exports of steam coal from the United States could increase from 2.5 million tons (1979) to 15 to 20 million tons in 1985; 25 to 50 million tons in 1990 and as high as 70 to 150 million tons by the year 2,000. The United States has sufficient reserve base to support both greater domestic needs
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and exports without substantial effect on real mine-mouth cost. Our industry is large enough to guarantee contractual arrangements. Potential benefits from increased coal exports are tremendous. Improved balance of trade is basic. There is the obvious substitution of coal for oil. The projected increase in coal exports from Virginia alone in 1980 could generate 10,000 new jobs with an additional payroll of $200 million. Can we take advantage of the opportunity? The answer seem to depend on (a) the capability of the railroads and river transportation to move coal to port facilities; (b) on our capability to load the coal into vessels without delay; and (c) on the ability of our ports to handle larger vessels. These are the kinds of structural problems which people interested in trade may have a tendency to leave to someone else. We must get interested. And we must help!

(California, December 15, 1980)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

(T/F) The writer feels that United States coal should be exported in greater quantities to foreign customer. (T/F) The author is afraid that the United States does not have sufficient coal reserves to increase foreign sales very much. (T/F) The writer thinks that, in order to support both greater domestic needs and exports, there will be a substantial effect on real mine-mouth cost. (T/F) The writer believes that increasing coal exports will be extremely beneficial. (T/F) The writer feels that increased coal exports could hurt the balance of trade. (T/F) The author implies that it would be good to substitute coal for oil in some cases. (T/F) The author sees an increase in available jobs as being positive outcome of larger coal exports. (T/F) The author is sure that the United States can handle the structural problems that may stand in the way of this opportunity for expanded coal exports.

EXERCISE 43 In this exercise you will read two versions of an event that took place at Lexington Green on April 19, 1775. As you read, notice which country each reporter represents in order to understand the basic difference in the points of view.

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What Happened? Or, Whose Version Do You Believe? (John Shy) Military history is no better than the evidence it rests on. Trying to determine exactly what happened at Lexington Green on 19 April 1775 illustrates the point perfectly. Captain John Parker, who commanded the militiamen engaged in the small but vitally important first battle of the American Revolution, remembered it this way: on the nineteenth instant, in the morning, about one of the clock, being informed, that there were a number of the regular officers riding up and down in the road, stopping and insulting people as they passed the road, and also informed that a number of the regular troops were on their march from Boston, in order to take the province stores at Concord, I ordered our militia to meet on the common in said Lexington, to consult what to do, and concluded not to be discovered, nor meddle, or make with said regular troops, if they should approach, unless they should insult or molest us; and upon their sudden approach, I immediately ordered our militia to disperse and not to fire. Immediately, said troops made their appearance, and rushing furiously on, fired upon and killed eight of our party, without receiving any provocation therefore from us. But Ensign Jeremy Lister of His majestys 10th regiment of Foot was also there, and he saw itor at least told itdifferently. the country people began to fire their alarm guns, light their beacons, to raise the country. However, to the best of my recollection about 4 oclock in the morning, being the 19th April, the five front companies were ordered to load, which we did. About a half an hour after, we would found that precaution had been necessary, for we had to unload again, and then was the first blood drawn in this American Rebellion. It was at Lexington when we saw one of their companies drawn up in regular order. Major Pitcairn of the Marines, second in command, called to them to disperse, but their not seeming willing he desired us to mind our space, which we did, when they gave us a fire, then run off to get behind a wall. We had one man wounded of our accompany in the leg. Also Major Pitcairns horse was shot in the flank. We returned their salute, and before we proceeded on our march from Lexington I believed we killed or wounded either seven or eight men. 1. a. Captain Parker represents ______________________________ b. Ensign Lister represents _______________________________

Put P for Parker or L for Lister beside each of the statements below to show the information reported by each of the men.
2. a. ___ b. ___ 3. a. ___ b. ___ 4. a. ___ b. ___ The incident began at one oclock in the morning. The incident began at four oclock in the morning. The country people began firing alarm guns and lighting beacons to raise the country. The regular officers were stopping people and insulting them along the road. The American company was drawn up in regular formation. The American militia met on the common to decide what to do.

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5. a. ___ b. ___ 6. a. ___ b. ___ 7. a. ___ b. ___

The American militia dispersed and did not fire. The American company did not disperse and soldiers fired their guns. The regular troops received no provocation. One man of his Majestys 10th regiment of Foot was wounded and a horse was shot. Seven or eight men were killed or wounded. Eight men were killed.

EXERCISE 44 Read the following article for discovering the authors viewpoint. Then, read the list of statements that follows and determine whether they are true (T) or false (F).

Science and Technology: A Positive Outlook (Dr. Wernber Von Braun) There is a chronic misunderstanding about science and technology on the publics part that I am afraid is growing, but which isnt altogether the publics fault. This concerns the role that science and technology play in the development of society and the economy. There is, unfortunately, no visible link between scientific discovery about natural phenomena on the Moon, for example, and our everyday lives here on earth. Yet, there are concepts and knowledge coming out of the Apollo explorations, and experiments with the rocks and dust brought back from the Moon, that offer the potential of improving agriculture and the treatment of disease, and as we learn more about interior of heavenly bodies may even help us in locating mineral resources here on Earth or predict earthquakes. Most concepts and scientific knowledge take years from the time a scientist formulates them and they enter the technology until some no-nonsense pragmatist comes along and turns the idea or knowledge into a product and a flock of new jobs. By that time, everyone has forgotten, if he knew at all, that it was the scientist who started it in the first place. The interesting thing about this process is that the scientist is labeled impractical because he deals in theories and squiggle1 mathematical symbols. We face a militant, highly emotional, even fanatical segment of population which has seized upon a valid and good cause, but which will accept no facts, no reasoning that run counter to its own fixed ideology. The anti-science/technology people are demanding that we pull the plug on modern civilization in the belief that somehow we shall be better off in a more primitive state. However, in primitive times, the major question for mankind was physical survival. It is not hard to guess the predictable fate of hundreds of millions of people who depend upon modern technology for the necessities of life. We have only to consider for a moment what we would do without electricity, permanently. Even the famous naturalist, Konrad Lorenz, has been warning student audiences that if they destroy our store of knowledge to make a
1

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fresh start, they will fall back not a few centuries, but several hundred thousand years. If you make a clean sweep of things, he observes, you wont go back to the Stone Age, because you are already there, but to well before the Stone Age. But it isnt the young people, the students, who are really to blame for this attitude of hostility to science and technology. They are simply misguided by certain social philosophers, cultural historians, and the like, whose teachings and published works provide only a very lopsided view of science and technology pictured as causing the downfall of man. When you teach impressionable and idealistic youth that the rational, logical, puritanical work approach to life is bankrupt, and that technology serves not only to erode the quality of life, you are bound to ring responsive bells in many minds of generation that has never known the deprivation, the want, and the poverty of some older generations. When a historian and philosopher of Lewis Mumfords stature inveighs 2 angrily and brilliantly against the megamachine of science and technology, and declares there can be no reform until the present megatechnical wasteland is destroyed, a revolutionary spirit is fanned among the young. The natural fires of rebellion we have all felt against the system or the establishment are now stoked by an eminent and respected authority. It seems strange that America is about the only nation in the world where technology and science are held in such low repute. All the so-called have-not countries in Africa and Asia are straining their limited resources to gain what some of our students seem bent on destroying. The older European countries would give their eyeteeth to have our technological capabilities. The Soviets are especially envious, and frequently announce they will surpass the United States in production or some other field of technology. So far they have failed to do so. The anti-science and anti-technology voices making blanket attacks on science and technology in the name of conservation, a clean environment, or improving the quality of human life, are doing the nation and all of us a great disservice. The problems they are rightly anxious and concerned about cannot be solved by a return-tonature cult. That course leads only to disaster for multitudes of people. Closely related to the general attacks on science and technology is the denigration3 of the space program among some persons. Mumford describes the space rocket as the most futile 4 in tangible and beneficial human results, and sees only that while man is indeed conquering space, the megamachine is carrying further its conquest of man. Surprisinglyor perhaps, not so surprisinglyMumford ignores the apparently limit-less resources of knowledge that await man in space. Some of this knowledge, as we have just begun to learn, has great significance to man, to earth environment, and to the ecology. We are learning of the relationships between Earth and Sun and their effects on our lives which could be learned in no other way save by means of the rocket and spacecraft. Nor does Mum-ford make an allowance for mans need to extend his intellectual horizons by physically

inveighs: speak bitterly; attack violently in words denigration: disparagment; belittling; mocking 4 futile: useless Critical Reading by Parlin Pardede (For EESP of UKI Use only)
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exploring new worlds, no matter how barren and unfit for organic life, such as the Moon may be today. The kind of knowledge and intellectual broadening apparently is of little or no value in the eyes of social philosophers and historians preoccupied with man in the microcosm. They have not yet learned to visualize mankind extending into the macrocosm, or for the spiritual need to do so. The desire to know is more powerful than they may suppose. Pragmatism is a valuable, stabilizing human characteristic; but without imagination we would not be human, and as long as man exercises this precious faculty, he will not long be imprisoned in the successive shells the pragmatists try to enclose him. Those who look upon science and technology as a mega machine that dominates their lives and holds them in thrall to a strictly programmed existence have their own special hang-ups. There is another view, and it was expressed by Glenn Seaborg: The difference is a positive outlook, some imagination, and the desire to put science and technology to work more creatively. QUESTIONS 1. (T/F) The writer feels that the only way of learning about the relationships between Earth and Sun and their effects on our lives is by means of rockets and spacecraft. 2. (T/F) The writer believes young people are responsible for the negative attitude toward science and technology. 3. (T/F) The author agrees with the views expressed by Lewis Mumford. 4. (T/F) The writer believes that imagination has no place in science and technology. 5. (T/F) The author feels that the public understands science and technology better than it used to understand them. 6. (T/F) The author feels that people do not realize that scientific concepts are often responsible for new products and new jobs. 7. (T/F) The author agrees that people would be better off if they returned to a more primitive state. 8. (T/F) The author implies that certain philosophers and historians present misleading views of science.

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