AcoustoOptics, Adrian Korpel

IICOUSTO-OPTICS
OPTICAL ENGINEEFUNG
Series Editor
Brian J. Thompson
Distinguished UniversityProfessor Professor o Optics f Provost Emeritus University o Rochester f Rochester, New York
1. Electron and Ion Microscopy and Microanalysis: Principles and Applications, Lawrence E. Murr 2. Acousto-Optic Signal Processing: Theory Implementation, and edited by Norman J. Berg and John N. Lee 3. Electro-optic and Acousto-Optic Scanning Deflection, and Milton Gottlieb, Clive L. M. Ireland, and John Martin Ley 4 Single-ModeFiberOptics:PrinciplesandApplications, . Luc B. Jeunhomrne 5. Pulse Code Formats for Fiber Optical Data Communication: Basic Principles and Applications, David J, Morris 6. Optical Materials: An Introduction t o Selection Application, and Solomon Musikant 7. Infrared Methods for GaseousMeasurements:TheoryandPractice, edited by Joda Wormhoudt 8. LaserBeamScanning:Opto-MechanicalDevices,Systems,and Data Storage Optics, edited by Gerald F, Marshall 9. Opto-Mechanical Systems Design, Paul R. Yoder, Jr. 10. Optical Fiber Splices and Connectors: Theory and Methods, Calvin M. Miller with Stephen C. Mettler and Ian A. White 1 1. Laser Spectroscopy and Its Applications, edited by Leon J. Radziem-, ski, Richard W. Solarz and Jeffrey A. Paisner 12. Infrared Optoelectronics: Devices Applications, and William Nunley and J. Scott Bechtel 13. Integrated Optical Circuits and Components: Design and Applications, edited by Lynn D. Hutcheson 14. Handbook of Molecular Lasers, edited by Peter K. Cheo
15. Handbook of Optical Fibers and Cables, Hiroshi Murata 16.Acousto-Optics, AdrianKorpel 17. Procedures in Applied Optics, John Strong 18. Handbook of Solid-state Lasers, edited by Peter K. Cheo 19.OpticalComputing: Digital andSymbolic, edited by RaymondArrathoon 20. Laser Applications in Physical Chemistry, edited by D. K. Evans 21. .Laser-Induced Plasmas and Applications, edited by Leon J. Radziernski and DavidA. Crerners 22. Infrared Technology Fundamentals, Irving J. Spiro Monroe and Schlessinger 23. Single-Mode Fiber Optics: Principles and Applications, Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Luc B. Jeunhornrne 24. Image Analysis Applications, edited by Rangachar Kasturi and Mohan M. Trivedi 25. Photoconductivity: Art, Science,andTechnology, N. V. Joshi 26. Principles of Optical Circuit Engineering, Mark A. Mentzer 27. Lens Design, Milton Laikin 28. Optical Components,Systems,andMeasurementTechniques, Rajpal S. Sirohi and M. P. Kothiyal 29. Electron and IonMicroscopy and Microanalysis: Principles and Applications, Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Lawrence E. Murr 30. Handbook of Infrared Optical Materials, edited by Paul Klocek 31 Optical Scanning, edited by Gerald F Marshall . 32. Polymers for Lightwave and Integrated Optics: Technology and Applications, edited by Lawrence A. Hornak 33. Electro-Optical Displays, edited by Moharnrnad A. Karirn 34. Mathematical Morphology in Image Processing, edited by Edward R. Dougherty 35.Opto-Mechanical Systems Design: Second Edition, Revised Exand panded, Paul R. Yoder, Jr. 36. Polarized Light: Fundamentals and Applications, Edward Collett 37. Rare Earth Doped Fiber Lasers and Amplifiers, edited by Michel J. F. Digonnet 38. Speckle Metrology, edited by Rajpal S Sirohi . 39. OrganicPhotoreceptors for Imaging Systems, Paul M. Borsenberger and David S Weiss . 40. Photonic Switchingand Interconnects, edited by Abdellatif Marrakchi 41. Designand Fabrication of Acousto-Optic Devices, edited by Akis P. Goutzoulis and Dennis Pape R. 42. Digital Image Processing Methods, edited by Edward R. Dougherty 43. VisualScienceandEngineering: Models andApplications, edited by D. H. Kelly 44. Handbook of Lens Design, Daniel Malacara and Zacarias Malacara 45. Photonic Devices and Systems, edited by Robert G. Hunsperger
46.InfraredTechnology Fundamentals:SecondEdition,RevisedandExpanded, edited by Monroe Schlessinger 47. Spatial Light Modulator Technology:Materials,Devices,andApplications, edited by Uzi Efron 48. Lens Design: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Milton Laikin 49. Thin Films for Optical Systems, edited by Francois R. Flory 50. Tunable Laser Applications, edited by F. J. Duarte 5 1. Acousto-Optic Signal Processing: Theory and Implementation, Second Edition, edited by NormanJ. Berg and John M. Pellegrino 52. Handbook of Nonlinear Optics, Richard L. Sutherland 53. Handbook of Optical Fibers and Cables: Second Edition, Hiroshi Murata 54. Optical Storage and Retrieval: Memory, Neural Networks, and Fractals, edited by Francis T. S. Yu and Suganda Jutamulia 55. Devices for Optoelectronics, Wallace B. Leigh 56. Practical Design and Production of Optical Thin Films, Ronald R. Willey 57. Acousto-Optics: Second Edition, Adrian Korpel
Additional Volumes in Preparation
SECOND EDITION
Korpel Arts and Sciences Iowa City, Iowa
ADRIAN KORPEL
.Marcel Dekker, Inc.
New York. Basel Hong Kong
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Korpel, Adrian Acousto-optics l Adrian Korpel. -2nd ed. p. cm. -(Optical engineering ;57) Includes index. ISBN 0-8247-9771-X (alk. paper) 1.Acoustooptics. I. Title. II. Series:Opticalengineering (Marcel Dekker, Inc.) ;v. 57 QC220.5.K67 1996 621.382'84~20
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Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, andrecording,orbyanyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,without permission in writing from the publisher. MARCEL DEKKER,INC. 270 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 Current printing (last digit):
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To
Loni and Pat in loving memory
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From the Series Editor
Acousto-optics is an important subfield of optical science and engineering, and as such is quite properly well represented in our series on Optical Engineering. This representation includes the fundamentals and important applications including signal processing, scanning, spectrum analyzers, tuned filters, and imaging systems. The fundamentals and the underpinning for these and other applications were thoroughly covered in thefirst.edition of Acousto-Optics, which was published in our series in 1988 (volume 16). Now we are pleasedto bring out a new edition of this important treatise that covers both the basic concepts and how these basic concepts are used in practical devices, subsystems,, and systems. Many new sections have been added to both the theoryand practice parts of the book. As the editor of this series I wrote in the foreword of another book that acousto-optics is a confusing termto the uninitiated, but it, in fact, refers to a well-documented subfield of both optics and acoustics. It refers, of course, to the interactions of light and sound, between lightwaves and sound waves, and between photons and phonons. More specifically, it refers the control to and modification of a light beam by an acoustic beam. Thus, wehave devices that use sound to modulate, deflect, refractand diffract light. Acousto-Optics takes the mystery and confusion out of the subject and provides a firm foundation for further study and applications.
Brian J. Thompson
V
Preface to the Second Edition
Since 1988, when the first edition of this book appeared, acousto-optics at one point declared moribund by many- has gone through a minor renaissance, both in theoryand in practice. Part of this renaissance is due to much increased contact with scientists from the former Soviet Union, whose original and sophisticated research gave a new impetus to the field. Another important factor is the increased interest in signal processing and acoustooptic tunable filters. Finally, the development of more powerful formalisms and algorithms has also contributed substantially. In this second edition I have tried take these developments to into account. At the same time I have put more emphasis on applications and numerical methods. The aim of the book is, however, unchanged: to generate more insight rather than supply convenient recipes. The heuristic approach (Chapter 3) has remained largely unchanged, except for a new, separate sub-section on the near-Bragg regime. In the formal .approach (Chapter 4), I have added a section on interaction with curved sound wave fronts, because far more is known now than in 1988. In Chapter 5, four new sections on the numerical approach have been added to the original six. These include the carrier-less split step method, which is the most powerful and convenient simulation tool available. The .number of selected applications discussed (Chapter 6) has also been increased by four, vii
viii
Preface to the Second Edition
and a substantial treatment of fundamental signalprocessing isnow included. Similarly, a fairly complete discussion of beam steering has been added to the section on light deflectors. The Quasi-Theorem, a particular favorite ofmine, has beengiven its own section. The remaining new application sections deal with spectrum analysis, optical phase and amplitude measurements, and schlieren imaging. Another important application, acousto-optic tunable filters, is treated in a new section following anisotropic Bragg diffraction in Chapter 8. Anoverviewof spectral formalisms commonly used in the analysis of interaction has also been added to this chapter. The appendix now contains, in addition to the summary ofresearch and designformulas, a brief description of the stationary phase method. I would like to thank all my colleagues, especially in Russia, for interesting and sometimes heated discussions. Together with my students' persistent questioning, these have greatly helped me in writing this second edition.
Adrian Korpel
Preface to the First ,Edition
It is only fair that a writer show his prejudices to the reader so as to give timely warning. My prejudices are those of an engineerlapplied physicist- I prefer Babylonian Euclidean over mathematics, to borrow Richard Feynman's classification. Simple pictures and analogies fascinate while I me, abhor existence theorems, uniqueness proofs, and opaque equations. On the other hand, I do realize that one person's mathematics is another person's physics, and some of my best friends are Euclideans. Many a time they have shown my intuition to be wrong and humbled me, but each timeI managed to turn their symbolism into my reality by way of revenge. In that same context, I owe a debt of gratitude to my students who, not yet having acquired glib and dangerous intuition, ask me many painful but pertinent questions. During my apprenticeship, Iwas fortunate inhaving teachers and associates who insisted on heuristic explanations, so we could get on with the exciting business inventing. It was only later, after the first excitement of had worn o f that we began the serious business figuring out with formal f, of mathematics why we were right or wrong, and what could be done further to improve or save the situation. It is in this spirit that I decided to write this book: firstto show the reader heuristically how simple it really is, next to present the essentials of the
ix
to
Preface
the First Edition
formal theory, and finally, in a kind of dialectical synthesis, to develop new ideas, concepts, theories, inventions, and devices. Following this scheme, I have left out many details that, although important in their own right, obscure the essence of the matter I it. However, I have tried to give the as see appropriate references, so that the reader can readily pursue certain lines of inquiry that are of particular relevance. In my professional career, I have found that having two or more points of view at ones disposal is a necessary condition for both the release and domestication ofwild ideas. With a bit of luck added, a sufficient condition will then exist for making inventions and discoveries. I never feel this so keenly as when, reading about someone elses invention, the thought occurs: How beautifully simple: why didnt I think of it? If that turns out to be also the readers reaction, will have succeeded in what I out to do. I set The question naturally comes up to what audience this book is aimed at. as It is perhaps easierto answer this first in a negative sense: the book may not be suitable - in the sense of providing quick answers - for readers, such as project managers, system engineers, etc., whose interest in acousto-optics is somewhat peripheral to their main activities and responsibilities. The book should, however, be of value to the seriously involved engineerat the device or research level and to the graduate student. More generally it should interest anyone who wishes really understand acousto-optics (as opposed to to knowing about it), because of either scientificcuriosity or creative necessity. I never intended to write a book on the subject at all, being on the whole inclined to avoid honorary, time-consuming commitments. Looking back, however, writing this book was actually a great deal of fun,so I would like to thank my wife, Loni, who made me do it. I also want thank my Belgian to Euclidean friends, Bob Mertens and Willy Hereman, for their critical support, and my students DavidMehrl and Hong Huey Lin for their hesitantly incisive comments. In addition, I would like to express my appreciation to the Von Humboldt Foundation and Adolph Lohmann for providing me with some quiet time and space for reflection, and the National Science Foundation for funding to a substantialpart of my own research described in this book. As regards the preparation of the manuscript, I thank the computer industry forinventingwordprocessors,Kay Chambers and Margaret Korpel for doing the drawings, Joost Korpel for helping me with computer programming, and Rosemarie Krist, the production editor, for making me stick to my Calvinist work ethic. Most of all, perhaps, Iought to thank my dog, Bear, whose fierce loyalty and boundless admiration kept me going during timesof doubt and frustration.
Adrian Korpel
Contents
From the SeriesEditor
Brian J. Thompson
Preface to the Second Edition Preface to the First Edition

1.
vii ix
1
5
Introduction
2.
Historical Background 2.1. The Pre-Laser Era 2.2 The Post-Laser Era References The Heuristic Approach 3.1 The Sound Field as a Thin Phase Grating 3.2 The Sound Field as a Thick Phase Grating 3.3 The Sound Field as a Plane-Wave Composition References
5 16 29
3 5
3.
35 52 66 83
xi
xii
4.
Contents
The Formal Approach 4.1 Introduction 4.2 CoupledModeAnalysis 4.3 Normal Mode Analysis 4.4 TheGeneralizedRaman-NathEquations 4.5 Weak ScatteringAnalysis 4.6WeakPlane-Wave Interaction Analysis 4.7 StrongPlane-WaveInteractionAnalysis 4.8 Feynman Diagram Path Integral Method 4.9 Eikonal Theory of Bragg Diffraction 4.10 Strong Interaction with Curved Sound Wavefronts 4.1 1 Vector Analysis References The Numerical Approach 5.1 Truncation of the Raman-Nath Equations 5.2 Numerical Integration 5.3 Exact Solutions 5.4 MultipleBraggIncidence 5.5 The NOA Method 5.6 Successive Diffraction 5.7CascadedBraggDiffraction 5.8 TheCarrierlessSplit-stepMethod 5.9 The Fourier Transform Approach 5.10 Monte Carlo Simulation References Selected Applications 6.1Weak Interaction of Gaussian Beams 6.2 Strong Bragg Diffraction of a Gaussian Light Beam by a Sound Column 6.3 Bandwidth and Resolution of Light Deflector 6.4 Resolution of Spectrum Analyzer 6.5 BandwidthofModulator 6.6 TheQuasiTheorem 6.7 Optical Phase and Amplitude Measurement 6.8Bragg DiffractionIntermodulationProducts 6.9BraggDiffractionImaging 6.10 Bragg Diffraction Sampling 6. l 1 Schlieren Imaging 6.12 Probing of Surface Acoustic Waves 6.13SignalProcessing References
85
85 86 88 91 93 96 98 106 109 118 125 132

135
5.
136 137 139 140 143 144 146 147 154 156 167
169
6.
169 172 175 182 184 189 193 200 206 219 223 233 236 253
Contents
x1 11
...
7.
Related Fields and Materials 7.1 Acoustics 7.2 Optical Anisotropy 7.3 Elasto-Optics References Special Topics 8.1 Anisotropic BraggDiffraction 8.2Acousto-OpticTunableFilters 8.3 Large Bragg Angle Interaction 8.4 Acousto-Optic Sound Amplification and Generation 8.5 Three-Dimensional Interaction 8.6 Spectral Formalisms References
257
257 267 270 276

277
8.
277 285 288 292 295 303 308
Appendix A: Summary of Research and Design Formulas
3 7 7
311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320
General Parameters Raman-Nath Diffraction Bragg Diffraction Bragg Modulator Bragg Deflector Weak Interaction of Arbitrary Fields in Terms Plane Waves of Strong Interactionof Arbitrary Fields Eikonal Theory Vector Equations References
Appendix
B The Stationary Phase Method
327
322
References
Appendix C: Symbols and Definitions Index
323 327
l
Introduction
Hyperbolically speaking, the developmentof acousto-optics has been characterized by misunderstanding, confusion, and re-invention. Even the very name acousto-optics is misleading: It evokes images of audible sounds focused by lenses, or light emitted by loudspeakers. As to reinvention, perhaps in no other fieldhave so few principlesbeenrediscovered, re-applied, or re-named by so many people. The principal reason for all of this is that acousto-optics, born from the desire to measure thermal sound fluctuations, developed very quickly a into purely mathematical, academic subject and then, 40 years later, chan.ged rather suddenly into a technological area of major importance. As an academic subject, acousto-optics has been, and continues to be, studied by countless mathematicians using a dazzling variety of beautiful analytic tools. It has been forced into a framework of rigid boundary conditions and stately canonical equations. Existence and uniqueness proofs abound, and solutions are obtainedby baroque transformations, sometimes for parameter regionsthat have little connections with physical reality. It is true that during the academic phase a physical experiments were few performed, but onecannot escape the feelingthat these served only to check the mathematics-that they were carried out with physical quantities (i.e., real sound, real light) only because computers were yet available. not
1
Chapter I
Then, in the1960s when laser light was ready be used, it became evident to that photons, having no charge, were difficult to control and that acoustooptics provided a wayout of the difficulty. After40 years, the academic bride was ready for her worldly groom, but, alas, her canonical garb was to intimidating forhim. He reneged on the weddingand started looking around for girls ofhisown kind. In less metaphoric language:Scientists and engineers began to reformulate the theory of acousto-optics in terms that were more meaningful to them and more relevant to their purpose. The ultimate irony is that acousto-optics started out as a very earthy discipline. The original prediction of light scattering by sound was made in 1922 by Brillouin, a well-known physicist who followed up some work that had been begun earlier by Einstein. Brillouins analysis of the predicted effect was stated entirely in terms of physics, unobscured by any esoteric mathematical notions. However, as very few contemporary scientists have the leisure to read papers that are more than 40 years old, and even fewer are able to read them in French, Brillouins theories also were re-invented. It is no exaggeration to say that most concepts used in modern acousto-optics (synchronous plane wave interaction, weak scattering, re-scattering, frequency shifting, etc.) were originated with Brillouin. Santayana, the American philosopher, once said, Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it. The context in which he made that remark is definitely broader than acousto-optics, but I take the liberty of nominating the latter subject as a particularly illustrative example of Santayanas dictum. To follow up on our earlier metaphor, the present situation in the 1990s is that both bride and groom have gone their separateways. Occasionally they meet, but their very idioms have divergedthe pointwhere communication to is almost impossible. This is a real pity, because both have much to learn from each other, if they would only spend the effort and the time. Thelatter quantity, however, is in short supply generally nowadays, and the former is, as usual, highly directed by temperament: To a mathematician, the real world is not necessarily fascinating;to anengineer, the conceptual world not necessarily relevant. This book at aims reconciliation or, at least, improved mutual understanding. It provides neither cookbook-type recipes for doing acoustooptics nor esoteric theories irrelevant to engineering. Rather, it attempts to show to the practicing engineer the physics behind the mathematics and so enlarge his mental store of heuristic concepts. In my own experience, it is exactly this process that makesinvention, the essenceofengineering, possible by free associationof the heuristic concepts so acquired. Of necessity, the above philosophy implies that this book will be most useful to those people who have a deep interest or a compelling need to
Introduction
really understand acousto-optics at some intuitive level, either to satisfy their curiosity or stimulate their creativity in research design. or As remarked before, a lot of what gavebirth to present-day acousto-optics lies thoroughly forgotten in the dusty volumes of the not too distant past, together with the names of the people who created it. This book therefore opens witha kind of Roots chapter, a historical background that attempts to rectify this situation. This is not just to re-establish priority (although I do mention the names of individual contributors rather than hide them between the brackets of locally anonymous references), but also because what happened in the past worth knowing, can save much timeand effort, is and may lead to genuinely new extrapolation ratherthan stale duplication. It is, of course, impossible to docomplete justiceto everybody involved in the evolution of acousto-optics. I have therefore concentrated on what, in my opinion, are seminalideas,genuine firsts but this procedure, of necessity, reflects my own preferences and biases. Yet any other method is out of the question fora book of finite size. Thus, I apologize to those who feel that they or others they know of have unjustly been left out. Please, do .. write to me about it; perhaps such omissions can be corrected in a future edition. In regard to the more technical contents of the book, I decided from the beginning that I did not wish to duplicate either the many already existing practical guides to acousto-optics or the thorough theoretical treatises on the subject. Rather,I have selected and presented the material insuch.a way as to maximize the acquisition of practical insight, that is not too pedantic if a phrase. In keeping with what was said in the preface, I have therefore relied heavily on analogies, case histories, and multiple points of view whenever possible. By the same token, I have tried to present a heuristic explanation prior to giving a rigorous analysis. Chapter 3 provides a heuristic discussion of acousto-optics based on the mixture of ray and wave optics familiar to most investigators in hurry to so a tentatively explain experimental results. Surprisingly, this method turns out to be versatile enough to explain, even quantitatively, most of acoustooptics, including the weak interaction of light and sound fields of arbitrary shape. It also gives insight into the physics many of acousto-optics cookbook rules and models, such as the diffraction criteria, the validity of the grating model,the applicability of x-ray diffraction analogs, etc. Chapter 4 presents the formal treatment of acousto-optics. Many of the heuristic results of the previous chapter will be confirmed here, and the normal mode and coupled mode approach will be contrasted to each other and to more general methods applicable to arbitrary sound and light fields. Among the latter are the eikonal, or ray description of interaction, and the Feynman diagradpath integral formulation.
Chapter l
Chapter 5 is devoted to numerical methods. Although this is somewhat removed from the main emphasis of the book, I feel that computers do present unique and convenient opportunities for simulation-and therefore acquisition ofinsight-so that a discussion of numerical methods is warranted and even desirable. Chapter 6 presents selected applications. These are not necessarily chosen for their technological relevance, but rather must be seen as case histories that illustrate the concepts treated in the preceding chapters.An effort has been made to give at least two explanations for each device phenomenon or described in order to bring out the complementary nature of the physical concepts. Chapter 7 is entitled Materials and gives a brief overview of the essential elements of acoustics, optical anisotropy, and elasto-optics. The treatment is not intended to be exhaustive, but should give the reader enough of a background to critically read literature of a more specialized nature and address pertinent questions the experts in these areas. to Chapter 8 discusses some miscellaneous items that fall somewhat outside the scope of the book, but are relevant to device applications or are otherwise of intrinsic interest. In Appendix A, I have given a summary of useful research and design formulas with references relevant sections and equations in the main text. to In order to avoid symbol proliferation, I have, where necessary, sacrificed mathematical rigor to notational simplicity in a manner familiar to most physicists and engineers. In addition, a list of symbols with definitions has been provided. Finally, some technical notes about conventions used in this book are needed. As most acousto-optic applications are connected with electrical engineering, I have followed the electrical engineering convention throughout, i.e., the harmonic real quantity e(t, r) is represented by the phasor E(r) such that
e(t,r)= Re[E(r)exp(jwt)] wherej = & l
(1.1)
This is somewhat awkward for physicists who have to get used to the fact that a diverging spherical wave is represented by exp(-jkr) rather than exp(jkr). I feel, however, that this is still more practical than electrical engineers havingto refer to the admittanceof a capacitance as -joC.
2
Historical Background
2.1 THEPRE-LASERRA
In 1922 Ikon Brillouin, the French physicist, was dealing with the question of whether the spectrum of thermal sound fluctuations in liquids or solids could perhaps be determined by analyzing the light or x-rays they scattered [l]. The modelheusedwas one inwhich the sound induces density variations, and these, in turn, cause fluctuations in the dielectric constant. Using a small perturbation approximation to the wave equation (physically, weak interaction), he formulated the problem in terms of a distribution of scattering sources, polarized by the incident light and modulated in space and time by the thermal soundwaves. (This simple model is feasible because the sound frequencyisassumed to be much smaller than the light frequency.) Each scatterer emits a spherical and the total scattered field wave is obtained by summing the contributions of all the sources, emitted at the right instants to reach the points of observation at the time of observation. In short, he used what we would now call a retarded potential Greens function method, in the first Born approximation. Before applying this method to the entire spectrum of thermal sound fluctuations, Brillouin tried it out on the simplified case of a single sound wave interacting with a single lightwave. Indeed, even before doing that, he used a still simpler geometric picture of this interaction because, in his own
5
Chapter 2
words, "One may already anticipate results which will be confirmed later by a more precise calculation." Figure 2.1showsa modern version [2]of Brillouin's geometric picture. It shows the sound waves propagating upward and the light incident from the left. The angles of incidence must be so chosen as to ensure constructive interferenceof the light beams reflected off the crests of the sound wave. This is, of course, also the condition for x-ray diffraction, the derivationof which may be found in any elementary physics textbook. It leads to critical anglesof incidence
h sin(&")= p 2a
where p is an integer, A the sound wavelength,and A. the light wavelength in the medium. The angle h",p = 1 is called the Bragg angle. The angle of
,,,,,~,,
I
Figure 2.1 AcousticBraggdiffractionshowingcritical angles fordown-shifted Ref. interaction (top)and upshifted interaction (bottom). (From 2.) 0 1981 IEEE.
reflectionistwice the Braggangle. (For simplicity, Fig. 2.1shows no refraction at the boundary of the medium.) Brillouin himself refers to the analogy of optimal diffraction by a grating in discussing eq. (2.1). He makes the crucial observation, however, that a sound wave is a sinusoidal grating and that therefore we should only expect two critical angles, i.e., for + 1 and p = - 1. As for the sound, its velocity is p= so small comparedto that of the light that, for purposes of analysis, may we suppose itto stand still. Its only effect, according to Brillouin, isto impart a Doppler shift that he calculates to be equal to the sound frequency, positive for p = 1 (lower part of Fig. 2.1, sound moving toward the observer the of scattered beam) and negative for p = - 1 (upper part of Fig. 2.1, sound moving away from the observer). In modern terminology, we speak of the upshifted, or plus one order; the downshifted, or minus one order; and the undiffracted, or zero order. The phenomenon as such as called Bragg
dvfraction.
Following the analysis of the geometrical picture, Brillouin carries his out perturbation calculation and finds essentially the same results, provided the volume of interaction is taken to be sufficiently large. The condition he derivesis one of whatwouldnowbecalled synchronous interaction, meaning that successive contributions to the scattered beam be all in phase. The geometrical interpretation of that condition is given by eq. (2.1) for Ipl=l. Another result foundby Brillouin is that, with the assumptionof a simple isotropic change in refractive index through density variations, the scattered light is of the same polarization as the incident light. In a later monograph [3], he shows that this is true to a very good approximation, even in the case of strong interaction where the perturbation theory fails. The underlying physical reason for this behavior that only the induced change in density of is dipoles is considered, not the change in collective orientation or in direction of the individual dipole moment. If we take the latter phenomena into account, we find that, in the most general case, there will also occur an to induced birefringencethat, as we will see later,may sometimes be put good use. Nevertheless, most of the fundamental principles of acousto-optics may be demonstrated by ignoring polarizationand using scalar formulations. Finally, Brillouin suggested that the results he had obtained be verified by using manmade sound, according to the piezo-electric method invented by Langevin. The range of sound wavelengths usable for this purpose, he remarked, stretched from infinity half the wavelength of light (for smaller to sound wavelengths, synchronous interaction is no longer possible); for a typical liquid, one would require electrical signals with an electromagnetic free-space wavelength longer than 9 cm. These conditions are perfectly realizable, he concluded.
Chapter 2
In spiteofBrillouinsoptimism,it took 10 more yearsbefore the experiments he had suggested actually were performed. In 1932 the Americans Debye and Sears [4] and the French team of Lucas and Biquard [5] found that Brillouins predictionswere wrong. [2]. Figure 2.2 shows a modern drawing of the essential experiment It was found that (1) the predicted critical angles did not appear exist and (2) by to increasing the sound strength, numerous orders appeared rather than the two expected on the basis of Brillouins calculations.In regard to (2), Debye and Sears correctly surmised and calculated the nonexistence of critical that angles was due to the fact that the interaction lengthwas too small. In their own words Taking into account, however, that the dimensions of the illuminated volume of the liquid are finite it can easily be shown in our that case Braggs reflection angle in sharply definedand that reflection should not occur over an appreciable angular range. In this context, it is interesting that, because of this fact, modern Bragg diffraction devices have any useful bandwidth at all.
nu
TRANSDUCER
f
Figure 2.2 MultipleordersgeneratedintypicalDebye-Sears,Lucas-Biquard experiment. (From Ref. 2.) 01981 IEEE.
Debye and Sears also worked out a criteria for what is now called the Bragg regime: The ratio LUA2 should be large compared to unity. In their case,whenworkingwith toluene at afrequencyof 10 MHz, alight wavelength of0.5 p and an interaction lengthof 1 cm, the ratio was about , 0.5; this they said with considerable understatement cannot be considered as large. In 1967 Klein and Cook did some numerical computer simulations and found a somewhat more quantitative criterion [6].Defining a quality factorQ Q=K2LIk=2wLAJA2=2wxDebye-Sears ratio
(2.2)
they concluded that more than 90% of the incident light could be Braggdiffracted, i.e., diffracted into one order, if Q were larger than about 2w. We shall see later that the actual fractional tolerance around the Bragg angle equals about 4 d Q . A value of Qa2w or 4w is therefore often used as a criterion for Bragg-angle operation. Returning now to 1932, Debye and Sears could not satisfactorily explain the presence of multiple orders. They did use a model of the sound column as a periodic phase grating, but did obtain results that agreed with their not measurements. Wenow know that, although their sound column was too thin to be treated as an analog of an x-ray diffraction crystal, it was too thick to be considered a simple phase grating. Noting that the angular spacing between orders was a multiple of the primary deflection angle 2@E(shown in Fig. 2.2 as AJA for small angles), Debye and Sears next surmised that even and odd harmonics of the sound frequencywerepresentin the medium.Lucas and Biquard, however, pointed out that the vibration modes of the quartz transducer favored odd harmonics only. They themselves favored a model based on calculated ray trajectories. A drawing of such ray trajectories is shown in Fig. 2.3 [ 5 , 7 . In this model, the crests of the waves act as lenses for the incident light, thereby creating a nonsinusoidal amplitude distribution in the exit plane. This, in turn, should leadto multiple orders. As Lucas and Biquard did calculate not the intensity of the orders, their theory could be confirmed. To a certain not extent, they were on the right track, though, as was later confirmed by Nomoto [ 8 ] , who,following up the original idea, managed to obtain intensity distributions of orders that were rough in agreement with experiment. The missing element in both theories, however, was the phase of the rays. A complete ray theory that included the phase was ultimately developed by Berry [9]. Although Berrys theory gives implicit expressions for the amplitude of the orders (even taking into account the number of caustics, a particular ray has crossed), his method is by his own admission too involved for numerical calculations, It does, however, offer a beautiful
10
Chapter 2
+K
Figure 2.3 Raytrajectoriesinsoundfield.Thesoundispropagatingupward.

(From Ref. 7.)
example of the elegant solution of a problem by an, at first glance, impossible method. Let us now return to the situation in 1932. Neither Debye-Sears nor Lucas-Biquard had succeeded in explaining the appearance of multiple orders. This was left Brillouin, who, ina 1933 monograph [3], put forward to the hypothesisthat multiple orders werethe result of rescattering. It was not until much later that this suggestion was followed up quantitatively. In 1980 Korpel and Poon formulated an explicit, physics-oriented theory based on the multiple scattering of the plane waves of light composing an arbitrary light field, by the plane waves of sound composing an arbitrary sound field [lo]. Previously, in 1960 Berry had used the same concept in a formal mathematical operator formalism [g], applied to the rectangular sound column shown in Figs. 2.1 and 2.2. Both theories made use of so-called Feynman diagrams-Berry to illustrate his formalism, and Korpel-Poon to visualize their physical picture. In the preceding paragraph, Ihave purposely juxtaposed the physicsoriented and mathematics-oriented approach. The latter became dominant at around 1932 and is characterized by, among other things, using the model of a rectangular sound column with perfectly straight wavefronts, as shown
11
in Figs. 2.1 and 2.2. Although the model appears to give results that agree fairly well with experiment in certain situations, this is somewhat of a surprise, because it certainly does represent the true nature of the sound not field. The latter is characterized by diffraction spreading, with the wavefronts gradually acquiring phase curvature. Even close to the transducer, where the wavefronts are reasonably flat, there exist appreciable variations of amplitude due to Fresnel diffraction. The effect of this can be clearly seen in a 1941 schlieren picture by Osterhammel [l l] shown in Fig. 2.4. The first weak scattering calculation for a real sound field was carried out by Gordon [l21 in 1966. Even Brillouin, who had started out from very general physical configurations, adopted the rectangular sound column in his 1933 monograph [3] referred to above. In such a guise, the problem reduces to one of wave propagation in perfectly periodic media with straight parallel boundaries. Consequently, Brillouin assumed a solution for the entire light field that consisted of an infinite sum ofwaves with corrugated wavefronts (i.e., periodic in the sound propagation direction) traveling in the direction of incident light (normal to the sound column in his case), each wave traveling with its own phase velocity. He foundthat each corrugated wavefront could be expressed by a Mathieu function. Hence, in principle, the problem was solved exactly in terms of the eigenmodes of the perturbed medium. In an engineering context, however, that statement does not mean very much, because, due to the recalcitrant nature of Mathieu functions, no numerical results are readily available; they certainly were in Brillouins time. With not some exaggeration, it could be said that the only positive statement to be
Figure 2.4 Schlieren picture of sound field closeto transducer. (From Ref 11.)
12
Chapter 2
made about Mathieu functions is that they are defined by the differential equation of which they are a solution. In reality, of course, something more is known about their properties [13]. For instance, they are characterized two parametersand are only periodic by when these two parameters bear a certain relation to each other. In the physics of Brillouins model, this meant there existed a relation between that the phase velocity of a wavefront whose corrugation was characterized a by certain Mathieu function and the strength of the sound field. This relation was different for each wavefront in the eigenmode expansion, and no ready analytic expressions were available. The only remedy left was to decompose each Mathieu function (i.e., corrugated wavefront)into a Fourier series, take the phase shift due to its propagation into account, and of all wavefronts add up the Fourier coefficients pertaining to the same periodicity. As is not difficult to guess, these coefficients represent exactly the amplitudes of the orders of scattered light. The trouble with this procedure is again that no analytic expressions are available for the coefficients (i.e., amplitudes of the orders) in terms of one the parameters representing the Mathieu function of (i.e., strength of the sound). So Brillouin had to fallback on certain asymptomatic expansions that were only valid for weak sound fields and gave results that can be calculated much easier by the weak scattering method he himself had used in his first paper [l]. The only additional information obtained was that the higher-order terms in the asymptotic expansion could be interpreted as representing the higher orders that were indeed seen in the experiments. I have treated the history of this development in some detail because it explains why other investigators kept looking for easier to calculate the ways amplitude of the orders, in spite of the fact that Brillouin had found an exact solution. Brillouin himself perfectly well aware of this, because was in a foreword to a paper by Rytov [l41 that described such an attempt, he remarks that . . . these Mathieu functions are terribly inconvenient. Rytov himself observes that, because of the very nature of the problem (spatial periodic modulation of the medium), every rigorous methodto calculate the field must somehowor other leadto Mathieus equation. The next generation researchersby and large abandoned the attempt of to find an exact expression for the total field and concentrated instead on finding relations between the amplitudes of the various orders. In other words, they investigated the coupling between plane waves traversing the medium (i.e., the normal modes of the unperturbed medium) rather the than orthogonal eigenmodes of Brillouin (i.e., the normal modes of the perturbed medium). It was not until 1968 that Kuliasko, Mertens, and Leroy [15], using these very same coupled plane wave relations, returned to the total field concept that in their mathematical formalism was represented by a
13
generating function. A more complete theory along the same lines was given by Plancke-Schuytens and Mertens [161, and the final stepWas taken by Hereman [17], who,starting directly from Maxwells equations and Using a more general approach than Brillouin, derived the same generating function and the same exact solution as Mertens and co-workers. ASRytov had predicted, the solution was expressed in terms of Mathieu functions. However, by this time, more tables were available for these functions and their Fourier coefficients, so that they were no longer so intractable as in Brillouins time. It should be noticed in passing that the development sketched above still adhered strictly to-the rectangular soundcolumn model and hence represents a continuation of the mat he ma ti^^" school of acousto-optics.In fact, until the invention the laser abruptly pushed acousto-opticsinto the of real world, no physics school could be said exist. to As remarked before, after 1932 the main emphasis shifted finding more to direct ways of calculating amplitudes of separate orders, and a variety of ingenious methods was proposed. I shall limit myself here to seminal developments, of which the first one is undoubtedly the epochal work of Ramanand Nath; In a series of papers [18-221 written during 1935-1936, their theory evolved from a simple thin grating approximation to an exact derivation of the recurrence relations between orders: the celebrated Raman-Nath equations. It is of interest to consider their contribution at some length, because it shows aspects of both mathematical and physical ingenuity as well as rather surprising naivetk. In their first paper [18], they treat sound column as athin a phase grating that the rays traverse in straight lines. Because of the phase shift suffered by each ray, the total wavefront is corrugated as it leaves the sound field. A simple Fourier decomposition then leadsto the amplitude of the various orders. In modem terms, they calculate the angular spectrumof a field subjected to a phase filter [23]. Before beginning their analysis, Raman and Nath acknowledge that their theory bears avery close analogyto the theory of the diffraction of a plane wave (optical or acoustical) incident normally on a periodic surface, developed by Lord Rayleigh[24]. (In retrospect this is aremarkable statement, especiallywhen weseehowcavalierly Rayleighis treated nowadays by his re-discoverers.) They also invoke Rayleigh in order to of object to Brillouins picture of the process as one reflection and argue that reflection is negligible if the variation of the refractive index is gradual compared with the wavelength light. of Therefore, they themselves prefer simple consideration of the regular transmission of light in the medium and the phase changes accompanying it.
14
Chapter 2
In their second paper [19], Raman and Nath develop the case of oblique incidence and present some clever physical reasoning that explains why the whole effect disappears for certain angles of incidence: The accumulated phase shift vanishes, because the ray traverses equal regions of enhanced and diminished refractive index. The third paper [20] deals with the Doppler shift imparted to the various orders and also treats the case of a standing sound wave. The latter case is dealt with in a rather complicated way in order to show that even and odd orders show even and odd harmonics of the sound frequency in their Doppler shift and to calculate their contribution. It seems to have totally escaped Raman and Nath that a standing sound wave can be considered a fixed grating whose phase-modulation index varies slowly (i.e., compared to the light frequency) in time. Consequently, the results could have been derived directly from the previous case by substituting a time-varying accumulated phase shift in the place of a fixed one. In their fourth paper [21], Raman and Nath took as a starting point Helmholtzs scalar equation with spatio/temporal variation of the propagation constant; their fifth paper [22] was similar but dealt with oblique incidence. Making use of the periodic nature of the sound field, they decomposed the total field into orders propagating into specific directions and derived the now famous Raman-Nath equations that describe the mutual coupling of these plane waves by sound. Note that their model was still the mathematical one of a rectangular column of sound. This model is very similar to that of a hologram, with the exception that holographic fringes do not move and may be slanted relative to the sides of the column. In this context, it is of interest that many years later Raman-Nath type diffraction calculations were repeated for thick holograms [25]. In regard to more general configurations, in 1972 Korpel derived recursion relations (generalized Raman-Nath relations) for the various frequency components present in arbitrary sound- and light-field interaction [26]. This was later formulated in terms of coupling between individual components of the angular plane wave spectra of both fields [27]. In the last two papers of the series, Raman and Nath also pointed out that their latest results indicated that, in general, the emerging wavefront was not only corrugated in phase, but, if the grating was thick enough, also in amplitude. As we have already seen before, the latter effect was considered previously by Lucas and Biquard on the basis of ray bending [5], the former effect was used by Raman-Nath themselves in their first paper on straight, phase-delayed rays [18], and the two effects were ultimately combined by Berry in a rigorous ray theory [9]. In a follow-up paper [28], Nath, starting from Maxwells equations, showed that a scalar formulation such as had been used before was allowed
15
in view of the great difference between light and sound velocity. He also considered the asymmetry of the diffraction phenomena at oblique incidence and developed some approximate expressions based on the Raman-Nath relations. In the same paper, there is a succinct statement about the difference between the Raman-Nath approach and that of Brillouin. Nash admits that the latters analysis is perfect but
. . . leads to complicated difficulties for, to find the diffraction effects in any particular direction, one will have to find the effects due to all the analysed waves. On the other hand, we have analysed the emerging corrugated wave into a set of plane waves inclined to one another at the characteristic diffracted angles. To find the diffraction effects in any particular direction, one has only to consider the plane wave travelling in that direction.
It is difficult to find a more lucid summary of the two basic approaches to the problem; it is also unfortunate that this kind of verbal explanation has largely fallen into disuse with the terse scientific specialese of the present time. To derive the recursion relations between orders of diffracted light, Raman and Nath, using a fairly extensive mathematical analysis, needed about 14 pages. Van Cittert, using a heuristic physical approach, did it in two pages [29]. His method was simplicity itself: divide the sound field into infinitesimally thin slices perpendicular to the direction of light propagation. Each slice will act as a thin phase grating and, because of its infinitesimal thickness, will generate from each incident plane wave only two additional ones. The amplitudes of the two new waves will be proportional to the amplitude of the incident wave, the strength of the sound field, and the (infinitesimal) thickness of the grating along the angle of incidence. Carry out this prescription for each plane wave in the distribution and the result is an infinite set of differential recursion relations, the Raman-Nath equations. Van Cittert is seldom quoted these days; I suspect that his lack of mathematical sophistication would be considered in very poor taste by many ambitious young scientists. His method, however, has been adopted by Hargrove [30] and later by Nomoto and Tarikai [31] in the form of numerical algorithm based on successive diffraction. From 1936 until the invention of the laser, a great many researchers concentrated on various aspects of what was basically the same mathematical problem: the diffraction of light into discrete orders by a rectangular column of sound. Most of the work concerned itself with obtaining approximations to either the Brillouin or the Raman-Nath formulation of the problem. An exception is the work of Bhatia and Noble [32], who used the novel
16
Chapter 2
approach of expressingthe total field by the sum ofthe incident field and the scattered field. The latter,of course, can be expressed as the contribution of the scatterers (i.e., the sound field) acting on the total field itself. Thus, this approach leads to an integral (actually integro-differential) equation that, under the assumption that the scatterersact on the incident field only (Born approximation), had already been solved a first orderby Brillouin. to As for other investigators, lack of space limits our discussion to the few whose contributions contained some really novel elements. Extermann and Wannier [33], for instance, derived algebraic recursion relations between the Fourier coefficients of the corrugated wavefronts of Brillouins eigenmodes. The condition for solution of these equations leads to the so-called Hills (infinite) determinant whose eigenvalues are related to the phase velocities the eigenmodes. Mertens used a method separation of of of variables [34] leading once more to Mathieu functions, and Phariseau extended this theory to include oblique incidence[35].Finally, Wagner gave a rigorous treatmentstarting from Maxwellsequations [36]. What about solutions? At the beginning of the 1960s, the following were known: (1) the strong interaction multiple-order solution for a thin phase grating, derived by Raman and Nath [19]; (2) the strong interaction twoorder solution near the Bragg angle for a thick phase grating, derived by Bhatia and Noble [32] and Phariseau [37l; and (3) the weak interaction -1-1 and - 1 order solution for an arbitrary thickness sound column, first given by David [38].In addition, various approximations for other regions existed that are, however, not relevant to our present purpose. Concerning applications and techniques developed during the pre-laser era, Mayer has given a concise review [39].The standard work remains Bergmanns Der Ultraschall[40]for those who read German and are lucky
enough to obtain one of the rare copies. An abbreviated English version has
also been published [41].
2.2
THE POST-LASER ERA
During the 1960s, the character of acousto-optics changed completely. The invention of the laser created a need for electronically manipulating coherent light beams, for instance deflecting them. As photons have no charge, it is obvious that this canonlybeachieved by electronicallyvarying the refractive index of the medium in which the light travels. This can be accomplished directly through the electro-optic effect, indirectly through or the acousto-optic effect. The latter method, however, has certain advantages, which are almost immediately obvious. Deflection, for instance, is as if it were built in through the dependence of the diffraction angle on acoustic wavelength and, hence, acoustic frequency. Frequency shifting, extremely
17
important for heterodyning applications, issimilarly inherent in the diffraction process through the Doppler shift. Modulation should be possible by varying the amplitude of the electrical signal that excites the acoustic wave. And, what is perhaps the most important aspect, the sound cell, used witha modulated carrier, carriesan optical replica of an electronic signal that is accessible simultaneouslyfor parallel optical processing. All of these aspects were ultimately incorporated in devices during the period 1960-1980, a period that is characterized by a truly explosive growth of research and development in acousto-optics. It is usually forgotten, however, that most of these aspects were in some less sophisticated form already used in measurements or applications prior to the invention of the laser. Debye-Sears [4] and Lucas-Biquard [5], for instance, had measured sound velocitiesby measuring angles of diffraction. A particularly ingenious and beautiful method of displaying twodimensional lociof sound velocities in any direction for any of the three and modes of sound propagation in arbitrary crystals was developed by Schaefer and Bergmann in 1934 [40]. It was based on exciting sound waves in as many modes and asmany directions as possible by the useof a crystal of somewhat irregular shape. The resulting diffracted beams (one for each mode and direction) were focused in the back focal plane of a lens. In this plane then, each point light correspondsto a particular mode in specific of a direction. A series of picturesso obtained is shown inFig. 2.5. As for the Doppler shift, Ali had measured this in 1936 by spectroscopic methods [42], a measurement that was later repeated by Cummins and Knable using laser heterodyning techniques [43]. Concerning modulation, according to Rytov [14], an acousto-optic light modulatorwas conceived in 1934 by Mandelstam and co-workers, and around the same time a similar device was apparently patentedby Carolus in Germany. The first published description of a light modulator this author is aware of was given by Lieben in 1962 [44]. Parallel processing for display purposes was pioneered by Ocolicsanyi [46] and used in the Scophony large-screen system of 1939 [46,47]. A modern TV version of the latter was demonstrated in 1966 by Korpel and co-workers [48], first in red and black using a He-Ne laser and later in color [49] with the help ofa Krypton laser. In orderto increase the bandwidthof the sound cell in these experiments (limited by virtue of the fact that long efficient interaction lengths decrease the tolerance about the Bragg angle, as already pointed out by Debye and Sears [4]), a device now called a beam-steering deflector [48,50] had to be invented. In such a deflector, the acoustic beam is made to track the requiredBragg angle by means of an acoustic transducer phased array. The first device for signal processing as such was developed by Rosenthal
18
Chapter 2
Figure 2.5 Schaefer-Bergmann patterns of sound waves propagating in X, Y, and Z plane of a quartz crystal. (From Ref 40.)
19
[51] who proposed, among manyother things, a (laserless) correlator using a sound cell and a fixed mask. Later, signal processing using optical heterodyning was demonstrated independentlyby King and co-workers[52] and by Whitman, Korpel, and Lotsoff [53,54]. Since then, interest in this particular application has increased exponentially; extensive tutorialheview articles and references may be found in [55-571. The mechanism of beam deflection was analyzed by Korpel and coworkersin1965[58].Theyderived the now well-known result that the number of achievable resolvable angles was equal to the productof frequency swing and transit time of the sound through the light beam. For linear (i.e., nonrandom) scanning, Foster later demonstrated that this number could be increased by about afactor of 10through theuse ofa traveling wave lens [59]. We have already mentioned beam-steering for larger bandwidth in scanners [48,50]. Lean, Quate, and Shaw proposed a different approach that increased frequency tolerance through the use a birefringent medium A scanner of [60]. of this kind was realized by Collins, Lean, and Shaw [61]. A good review of scanning applicationsmay be found in Ref. 62. The idea of deflecting a beam of light by changing the frequency of the sound leads naturally the concept of an acousto-optic frequency analyzer. to The only difference between a beam deflector and a spectrum analyzer is that in the former the various frequencies are applied sequentially, whereas in the latter they are introduced simultaneously. In the area optical signal of processing, the spectrum analyzer concept was adopted rapidly with the result that this field is now characterized by two methods of approach: image field processing and Fourier plane processing.As was pointed out by Korpel [S], and later demonstrated with Whitman [63], these two methods (at least when heterodyning is used) are completely equivalent. They only differ in the experimental configuration, because a single lens suffices to transform an image plane into a Fourier transform plane vice versa [23]. and In the field of image display, the spectrum analyzer concept has found application. Successive samples of a TV signal, for instance, can first be transformed electronically into simultaneous radio frequency (RF) bursts, whose frequency encodes positionand whose amplitude encodes brightness. If these samples are now fed a soundcell, an entire TV line (or part of a into line) will be displayed simultaneously in the focal plane of a lens focusing the diffracted beams at positions according to their frequency [64]. It is clear that this method is the complement of the Scophony system visualized that an image of the sound cell contents [47]. In yet another context, the entire subject of frequency-position representation is the complete analog of that of frequency-time representation pioneered Gabor [65]. by So far I have said little about the further development of theory during the post-laser era. This is not so much an oversight as a consequence of the
20
Chapter 2
fact that during this period theory and experiment cannot be put into strictly separated categories. Each new device stimulated further theoretical development and vice versa. This is perhaps best illustrated by the development of the coupled plane-wave conceptand its applications. It has already been remarked before that Brillouin, in his original work [l], stated the conditions for phase synchronous interaction that make acousto-optic diffraction possible. Ina graphical form, this condition is best illustrated by the so-called wave vector diagram, already indicated by Debye-Sears [4], but more formally developed by Kroll [66]. Figure 2.6 shows such a diagram for upshifted interaction in two dimensions. It is obvious that it represents the wave vector condition
where ko (sometimes written ki) represents the incident plane wave of light in the medium, k+ the upshifted plane wave of light, and K the plane wave responsible for the process. physical terms, (2.3) means that there exists a In one-to-one correspondence between plane waves of sound and plane waves of light. Now, itiswellknown that eachfieldsatisfyingHelmholtzs equation can be uniquely decomposed into plane waves (if we neglect evanescent waves for the moment): the angular plane-wave spectrum [23]. This is, of course, also true for the sound field and offers a possibility to study (weak) interaction geometries means of this concept. by A semi-quantitative consideration of deflection and modulation devices was carried out along these lines by Gordm [12]. According to these considerations, the angular sensitivity diffraction devices is intimately tied of up with the angular spectrum of the acoustic transducer. If, for instance, the primary light beam is incident at an angle for which no sound waves of appropriate strength are present in the angular spectrum, then no
Figure 2.6 Wave vector diagram for upshifted interaction.
Historical appreciable diffraction effects will be observed. Because the required angle between plane waves of sound and plane waves of light is dependent on the sound frequency, these same considerations can be used to give a rough prediction of the frequency bandwidthof acousto-optic devices. Also, many predictions and observations, made many years ago, all a sudden acquire of an obvious physical interpretation. The reader may remember the Debye and Sears calculationthat indicated that the tolerance about the Bragg angle decreased with the interaction length. This makes excellent sense from a wave interaction point of view, because the width of the angular spectrum is inversely proportional to the length of the acoustic transducer (interaction length). Hence, the larger this length, the smaller the possibility of finding a suitable sound wave to interact with, when the direction of incident light is varied. Debye and Sears had also noticed that, on turning their sound cell, the intensity of the diffracted light would go through many maxima minima and and grow gradually weaker. We now realize that what they were seeing was actually theplane-wave angular spectrumof the soundthat they sampled by turning the sound cell. In 1965 this was confirmed by Cohen and Gordon [67] who repeated quantitatively the experiment with modem equipment. There is another implication hidden in eq. (2.3). As already discussed, there exists a one-to-one correspondence of plane waves of sound and light. Also, it turns out that the amplitude of the diffracted plane wave is proportional to the product of the amplitude of the incident light wave and the interacting soundwave. It therefore follows that the angular plane-wave spectrum of diffracted light should be similar to that of the sound if the incident light has a uniform, wide angular plane-wave spectrum from which interacting waves can be selected. However, as remarked before, the angular plane-wave spectrum of the sound is what makes up the soundfield. Hence, if we illuminate a sound field with a converging or diverging wedge of light (i.e., a wide uniform angular spectrum), then the diffracted light should carry in some way an image o the soundfield. By proper optical processing, it f should then bepossible to make this imagevisible. This method of visualization of acoustic fields, now called Bragg diffraction imaging, was proposed and demonstrated by Korpel in 1966 [68]. Some of the first images obtained in this way are shownin Fig. 2.7.Almost to illustrate the convergence of ideas, the same method was independently developed by Tsai and co-workers [69,70] and by Wade [71]. The reader should note that Bragg diffraction imaging is not the same as schlieren imaging. With the latter, one visualizes axial cross sectionof the an sound, with the formera transverse cross section. (In fact, Bragg diffraction imaging is really spatial imaging, because phase is preserved in the process.) Schlieren imaging is, of course, veryimportant in its own right and plays
Figure 2.7 Acoustic images obtained by Bragg diffraction. (From Ref. 68.)
23
an important role in modern optical signal processing, for instance when the contents of a sound cell have to be imaged on a maskor another sound cell. It was used first in an acousto-optic context by Hiedemann and Osterhammel in1937[72]. In their first experiment, they still useda conventional schlieren stop; later, Hiedemann [73] made use of the fact that ray bending already created an amplitude image, as predicted by Bachem and co-workers [74]. But even without ray bending, a diffraction image (Fresnel image) exists in front the sound cell, as was first demonstratedby of Nomoto [75]. The latters technique has been used in a modern setting by Maloney [76]and by Korpel, Laub, and Sievering [77l. Returning now to Bragg diffraction imaging, in order to explain the method more satisfactorily, it was necessary to develop a plane-wave weak interaction theory for arbitrary sound and light fields. This was carried out by Korpel [26,78,79] and later by Carter [80]. The former also developed a formal eikonal theory [26,81]that predicted the amplitude of diffracted rays and confirmed the initially heuristic, ray-tracing method [68]. A further experimental evolution of Bragg diffraction imaging is Bragg diffraction sound probing, developed by Korpel,Kessler and Ahmed [82]. This technique uses a focused light beam as an essentially three-dimensional, phase-sensitive probe of the sound field. A multitransducer sound field recorded in this way is shown in Fig. 2.8. The perhaps final step in this field was taken by Kessler who invented a pulsed version of Bragg diffraction imaging that provided better depth discrimination [83]. I have chosen to describe at some length the evolution of Bragg diffraction imaging as a prime example of the interplay between theory and
la2
fs 4OMHZ A = O.lmm f@ 6.0 A x 0.6mm 1 cm out

f
Figure 2.8 Recording of multipletransducersoundfieldobtainedby diffraction sampling. (From Ref. 82.)
Bragg
24
Chapter 2
practice. The reason is that I am fairly familiar with it through my own involvement, and also that it typifies the stimulating and hectic research environment of that period. Other, more theoretical subjects evolved at a rapid rate also. As for the evolution of the plane-wave interaction theory, for instance, 1976 Chu and in Tamir analyzed the strong interaction of a Gaussian light beam and a rectangular sound beam using plane-wave concepts [84].This analysis was later extended to optical beams of arbitrary profile by Chu and Kong in 1980 [85].These two theories still used nonphysical model for the sound the field. A general theory of plane-wave strong interaction for arbitrary sound and light fields had at about the same time been formulated by Korpel in Ref. 27 and was later ,cast in explicit form by Korpel and Poon [lo].This theory, in turn, was used by Pieper and Korpel to calculate interaction with curved sound wavefronts[86]. The wave vector diagramof Fig. 2.6 illustrates phase synchronism leading to upshifted interaction. If all vectors are multiplied by h/2n (where h is Plancks constant), then that same diagram illustrates momentum conservation in photon-photon collision processes as first pointed out by Kastler in 1964 [87]. In the samequantum mechanical context, the Doppler shift is a consequence of the quantum energy conservation inherent in process the
where ji and f+ denote light frequencies and F the sound frequency. It is clear that, in the upshifted process, one phonon of sound is lost for every diffracted photon generated. When the photons are of thermal origin, this phenomenon is called Brillouin scattering [88]. The downshifted diffraction processis characterized by the phase synchronism conditions
illustrated in the diagram of Fig. 2.9. In quantum-mechanical terms, the conservation of momentum is described [26] by
which equation isreadilyseen to be equivalent to (2.5) The physical interpretation of (2.6) is that every incident photon interacting with a phonon stimulates the release second phonon. Consequently, the sound is of
25
Figure 2.9 Wave vector diagram for downshifted interaction.
amplified and the diffracted photon has a lower energy consistent with its lower frequency. If the sound is thermal origin, the phenomenonis called of stimulated Brillouin scattering. It requires powerful beams of coherent light and was first observed by Chiao, Townes, and Stoicheff [89]. The identical effect with manmade sound was observed the same time Korpel, Adler, at by and Alpiner [90].The latter, in the same experiment, also generated sound by crossing different frequency laser beams within a sound cell. That this should be possible had been predicted by Kastler [86],who also gave a classical explanation of the effect based on radiation pressure. For the sake of historical interest, Fig. 2.10 shows the attenuation and amplification of the sound inherent in acousto-optic interaction and observedin the experiment described in[90].
(a
(b)
Figure 2.10 (a) Light-induced amplification of sound (increase is downward). (b) Induced attenuation. The bottom trace represents the light pulse. The time difference between peaks is dueto sound travel time. (From Ref. 90.)
26
Chapter 2
From the above, it will be clear to the reader that the concept of planewave interaction has been very fruitful in generating new physical insights leading to novel devices, theories, and experiments. It is, however, not the only way to approach acousto-optics and, concurrently with its development, the older classical methods were modified in an effort to account better for the physical reality nonbounded sound fields and finite of incident beams of light. Thus, in 1969 McMahon calculated weak interaction of both Gaussian and rectangular sound and light beams by using a scattering integral [91], Korpel formulated a generalized coupledorder theory for arbitrary sound and light fields [26], and Leroy and Claes extended the Raman-Nath theory to Gaussian sound fields [92]. Numerous other theories were developed, but most of these used modern formulations of either the normal mode approach (Brillouin) or the couple mode approach (Raman-Nath) in the context of a rectangular periodic column. Theyare,inasense, continuations of the pre-laser era mathematical approach and presently more relevant to diffraction by thick holograms than to modem acousto-optics. We will therefore not discuss them further, other than pointing out that some of these theories contain very useful algorithms for numerical calculations in those situations where the rectangular column model applies. Thus, Blomme and Leroy [93] have developed a numerical method based on the eigenvalues for a system of a finite numbers of orders. The essence of this method was originally propos by Mertens, Hereman, and Ottoy [94]. With the interest in practical applications of acousto-optics, a demand arose for more sensitive acousto-optic materials. Whereas before acoustooptic parameters had mainly been studied in context of crystallography the [95], the emphasis now shifted to device optimization. Smith and Korpel proposed a figureof merit for diffraction efficiency (now called M2) [97] and demonstrated a simple dynamic measurement technique, later modified by Dixon and Cohen to include shear-wave effects [98]. Other figures of merit addressing different aspects such as bandwidth optimization, etc., were also to proposed [12,99]. At the same time, a beginning was made by Pinnow predict elasto-optic constant from first principles100,lOl] in a more general [ way than the classical derivation'from the Lorentz-Lorenz equation [102]. The latter relates the dielectricconstant to the density of dipoles,and it is a simple matter to calculate the change due to isotropic pressure. It is much more difficult to calculate the variation in intrinsic polarizability, especially where shear forces are involved. In the latter case, the existing phenomenological description [103,104] is actually insufficient to account for anisotropic materials, as pointed out by Nelson and Lax [105,106]. Tabulated values of constants and figures of merit may be found in many places [57,62,97,99,101,107-1121.
27
Many of the materials investigated were anisotropic, and it was soon discovered that anisotropic operation led to special advantages in certain cases such as, for instance, the birefringent scanner mentioned before [61]. A systematic investigation of this entire subject was undertaken by Dixon area [l 131. Harris used birefringent collinear Bragg diffraction in a tunable optical filter [114], and Havlice and co-workers used the same mode of operation for Bragg diffraction imaging [l 151. Birefringence was also used by Carlton for the purpose of acousto-optic signal processing [l161 and by Korpel and co-workers for sound field probing [81]. In the latter technique, one of the variants madeuse of the curious phenomena of dynadic birefringence in liquids, previously studied by Ripley Klein [1171. and Fortuitously coinciding with the upsurge of interest in acousto-optics during the 1960s was an accelerated development of ultrasonics technology [l 181. In particular, the area of surface acousticwaves (SAW) was found to have very important applications in the processing electrical signals[l 191. of This, in turn, stimulated new applications of acousto-optics to measurement and detection of such waves. It also made possible entirely new acoustooptic configurations involving the interaction between acoustic surfacer waves and optical surface waves [l201 in overlay-type wave guides. These configurations were found to have large diffraction efficiencies because of the high-power density of both interacting waves, the energy in both being confined to thin layers about one wavelength deep. Another important consideration is that such configurations are inherently two-dimensional and should ultimately themselves lend to incorporation into integrated electronics and integrated optics [121,1221. As the reader may have guessed, the theoryof these kinds of interactions is fundamentally the same as that of bulk interaction of sound and light. The actual calculations, though, are usually more complicated not only because detailed depth dependencies have to be taken into account, but also because the substrates are frequently piezo-electric (which necessitates considering indirect acousto-electric-optic effects) and birefringent. The heuristic approach we emphasize in this book applies, however, equally well and hence we will not treat separately the subject of integrated acousto-optics. As for the use of acousto-optics to measure surface acoustic waves, it should be notedthat such waves act as a periodic surface grating, diffracting obliquely incident light in the same way as a thin phase grating [24]. Measuring the diffracted light (either in transmission or reflection) then readily leads to an evaluation of strain in or surface perturbations of the substrate. Such a direct measurement of diffracted orders was first performed by Ippen [123]. However, from a signal-to-noise point of view, it is preferable to measure weak light signal by heterodyning rather than directly [124]. This may be accomplished in various ways. Korpel, Laub, and
28
Chapter 2
Sievering used a simple Fresnel imaging technique detected the running and fringes with a grating of the same period[77]. Whitman and co-workers used frequency-shifted reference beams for direct interferometric visualization [l251 or electro-optic heterodyning[126], as did Massey[127]. Adler, Korpel, and Desmares developed a technique in which a focused light beam was deflected by the acoustic surface perturbations and the deflection subsequently detected by a knifeedge-photodiode combination [128]. Figure 2.1 l shows an image, obtained with this method, of an acoustic surface wave entering a double-groove wave guide. It is natural to ask if a technique in which the light beam is narrower than the wavelength of sound should still be classified as acousto-optic diffraction. After all, the light refracted by the gradientof refractive index is rather than diffracted by the periodicity inherent in the sound wave. There is, however, a venerable precedent for classifying this phenomenon as acoustooptic diffraction: Lucas and Biquard studied it in their first paper on the subject [5]. Theynoticed that for such a narrow beam, the separate
Figure 2.11 Image of acoustic surface wave guide obtained by coherent light deflection. (FromRef. 128) 0 1968 IEEE.
29
diffraction orders would disappearto be replaced by a smeared-out version of the incident beam. Based on their ray-tracing theory, they correctly ascribed this to a periodic refraction of the light as the sound wave moved through the beam. Much later, Whitman and Korpel proposed a unified theory of acoustic surfacewave detection by optical meansand showed that the narrow-beam case could be treated equally well on the basisof diffraction as refraction [1291. Refraction effects were also used by De Maria andDanielson to construct a laser Q spoiler [130]. The periodic reflection effects on which Fig. 2.1 1 is based were later applied by Korpel and Desmares to build an acoustic holographic camera [l311 and by Korpel, Kessler, and Palermo to build a [ laser-scanning acoustic microscope1321. As indicated before, we have, in this historical survey, concentrated on seminal contributions only. The interested reader may find more detailed information about past and current developments in numerous review articles and books [2,12,26,57,62,107-111,133-1471.
REFERENCES
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
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(1965). 14. Rytov, S., Actual. Sci. Znd., 613 (1938). . 15. Kuliasko, F ,Mertens, R., and Leroy, O., Proc. Ind Acad. Sci. A, 67, 295 (1968). 16. Plancke-Schuyten, G., and Mertens, R., Physica, 62, 600 (1972). 17. Hereman, W., Academiae Analecta, 48, 26 (1986). 18. Raman, C. V., and Nath, N. S. N., Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., 2, 406 (1935). 19. Raman, C. V., and Nath, N. S. N., Proc Zndiun Acad Sci., 2, 413 (1935). 20. Raman, C. V., and Nath, N. S. N., Proc. Indian Acad Sci., 3, 75 (1936). . 21. Raman, C. V ,and Nath, N. S. N., Proc Indian Acad. Sci., 3, 119 (1936).
30
Chapter 2
22. Raman, C. V., and Nath, N. S. N., Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., 3. 459 (1936). 23. Goodman, J. W., Introduction to Fourier Optics, McGraw-Hill, New York (1 968). 24. Rayleigh, J. W S., Theory ofsound, Vol. 1 , Dover, New York(1945). . 1 25. Kogelnik, Bell Syst. Tech. L,48, 2909 (1969). 26. Korpel, A., Acousto-Optics, Applied SolidState Science, Vol. 3 (R.Wolfe, ed.), Academic Press, New York, 71 (1972). p. 27. Korpel, A., J: Opt. Soc. Am., 69, 678 (1979). 28. Nath, N. S. N., Proc Indian Acad Sci, 4,222 (1937). 29. Van Cittert, F H., Physica, 4, 590 (1937). ! 30. Hargrove, L. E., 1 Ac Soc Am., 34, 1547 (1962). 31. Nomoto, O., and Torikai, Y., Acoustica, 24, 284 (1971). . 32. Bhatia, A., and Noble, W J., Proc Roy. Soc. SeK A, 220, 356 (1953). 33. Extermann, R., and Wannier, C., Helv. Phys. Act., 9, 520 (1936). 34. Mertens, R., Simon Stevin,27, 212 (1949/50). 35. Phariseau, I?, Simon Stevin, 33, 72 (1959). 36. Wagner, E. H., Z. Phys., 141, 604 (1955); also, 142, 249 (1955). 37. Phariseau, P., Proc Indian Acad Sci. A, 44, 165 (1956). 38. David, E , . Phys. Zeit., 38, 587 (1937). 39. Mayer, W. G., Ultrasonic News, 9 (1961). 40. Bergmann, L.,Der Ultraschall, Hinel Verlag, Stuttgart (1954). 41. Bergmann, L., Ultrasonics, Wiley, New York (1938). 42. Ali, L., Helv. Phys. Acta, 8, 503 (1935); also, 9, 63 (1936). . and Knable, N., Proc. ZEEE, 51, 1246 (1963). 43. Cummins, H. Z , 4 . Lieben, W., J: Ac. Soc Am., 34, 860 (1962). 4 45. Jeffree, J. H., Television and Short Wave World, May 1936, p. 260. 527 (1937). 46. Okolicsanyi, F., Wireless Engineer, 14, Proc I.RE, 27, 483 (1939). 47. Robinson, D. M., 48. Korpel, A., Adler, R., Desmares, F , and Watson, W., Proc ZEEE, 54, 1429 ! (1966). 49. Watson, W. H., and Korpel, A., Appl. Opt., 9, 1176 (1970). 50. Korpel, A., U.S. Patent, 3,424,906 (1969). 51. Rosenthal, A. H., I R E . Trans., UE-8, 1(1961). 52. King, M., Bennett, W. R., Lambert,L. B., and Arm, M., J: Appl. Opt., 6, 1367 (1967). 53. Whitman, R., Korpel,A., and Lotsoff, S., Application of Acoustic Bragg
Diffraction to Optical Processing Techniques,Proc Symp. Mod Opt., Polytechnic Press, Brooklyn, New York, 243 (1967). p. 54. Korpel, A., U S Patent 3,544,795 (1970). .. 55. Korpel, A., Acousto-Optic Signal Processing,Optical Information Processing (Yu, E. Nesterikhin and G. W. Stroke, eds.), Plenum Press, New York, 171 p.
(1976). 56. Special issueof IEEE on Acousto-Optic Signal Processing, Jan. 1981, Vol. 69, No. 1. 57. Acousto-Optic Signal Processing J. Berg and J. N. Lee, eds), Marcel (N. Dekker, New York (1983).
31
58. Korpel, A., Adler, R., Desmares, , and Smith, T. M., ZEEE. J: Quant. El., . l QE-I, 60 (1965). 59. Foster, L. C., Crumly, C. B., and Cohoon, R.L., . l Appl. Opt., 9, 2154 (1970). 60. Lean, E. G. H., Quate, C. F., and Shaw, H. J, Appl. Phys. Lett., IO, 48 (1967). . 61. Collins, J H., Lean, E. G. H., and Shaw, H. Appl. Phys. Lett., 11, 240 . J. (1967). 62. Gottlieb, M., Ireland, C, L. M., and Ley, J M. Electro-Optic and Acousto. Optic Scanning and Deflection,Marcel Dekker, New York (1983). 63. Korpel, A., and Whitman, R.L., Appl. Opt., 3 1577 (1969). , 6 4 . Korpel, A., Lotsoff, S. N., and Whitman, R.L., Proc ZEEE, 57, 160 (1969). 65. Korpel, A., Appl. Opt., 21. 3624 (1 982). 66. Kroll, N. M., Phys. Rev., 127, 1207 (1962). 67. Cohen, M. G., and Gordon, E I., Bell System Tech. .l, 44, 693 (1965). . 68. Korpel, A., App. Phys. Lett., 9, 425 (1966). 69. Tsai, C. S., and Hance, H.V., 1 Ac Soc. Am., 42, 1345 (1967). 70. Hance, H. V., Parks, J K., and Tsai, C. S., J: Appl. Phys., 38, 1981 (1967). . 71. Wade, G., Landry, C. J,and de Souza,A. A., Acoustical Transparenciesfor . Optical Imaging and Ultrasonic Diffraction, Acoustical Holography,Vol. 1 (A. F. Metherell, H. M. A. El-Sum, and L. Larmore, eds.), Plenum, New York, 159 (1969). 72. Hiedemann, E., and Osterhammel, K., Zeit. Phys., 87, 273 (1937). 73. Hiedemann, E., Asbach, H.R., and Hoesch, K. H., Zeit. Phys., 90,322 (1934). 74. Bachem, C., Hiedemann, E., and Asbach, H. R., Zeit. Phys., 87, 734 (1934); also, Nature (London) 1 3 176 (1934). 3, 75. Nomoto, O., Proc. Phys. Math. Soc. Jap., 18, 402 (1936). 76. Maloney, W T., Meltz, G. and Gravel, R. L., ZEEE Trans., SW-15, 167 (1968). . 77. Korpel, A., h u b , L., and Sievering, H. C., Appl. Phys. Lett., IO, 295 (1967). 78. Korpel, A., ZEEE, Trans., SW-15, 153 (1968). 79. Korpel, A., J: Ac. Soc. Am., 49, 1059 (1971). 80. Carter, W H., J: Opt. Soc. Am., 60, 1366 (1970). . 81. Korpel, A., Eikonal Theory of Bragg Diffraction Imaging, Acoustical Holography, Vol. 2 (A. F. Metherell and L. Larmore, eds.), Plenum Press, New York (1970). 82. Korpel, A., Kessler, L. W., and Ahmed, M., J: Ac Soc. Am., 51, 1582 (1972). 83. Kessler, L. W., ZEEE Trans., SW-19, 425 (1972). 84. Chu, R. S., and Tamir, T., J: Opt. Soc. Am., 66, 220 (1976). . 85. Chu, R. S. and Kong, J A., J: Opt. Soc. Am., 70, 1 (1980). 86. Pieper, R., and Korpel, A., .Opt. Soc. Am., 2, 1435 (1985). l 87. Kastler, M. A., Comptes Rendus Acad Sc. Paris, 260, 77 (1965). 88. Fleyry, P A., Light Scattering as a Probe of Phonons and Other . Excitations, Physical Acoustics,Vol. 6 (W. P. Mason and R. N. Thurston, eds), Academic Press, New York (1970). ? 89. Chiao, R.Y., Townes, C. H., and Stoicheff, B. l, Phys. Rev. Lett., 12, 592 (1 964). 90. Korpel, A., Adler, R., and Alpiner, B., Appl. Phys. Lett., 5, 86 (1964).
32 91. 92. 93. 94.
Chapter 2
McMahon, D. H., ZEEE Trans., SW-16, 41 (1969). Leroy, O., and Claeys, J. M., Acustica, 55, 21 (1984). Blomme, E., and Leroy, O., Acustica, 57, 168 (1985). Mertens, R., Hereman, W., and Ottoy, J. P., Proc. Ultrasonics International 85, p. 185 (1985). 95. Bhagavantam, S., and Surayanarayana, D., Proc Indian Acad Sci. A, 26.97 (1 947). 96. Bergmann, L.,and Fuess, E., Nature (London), 24,492 (1936). 97. Smith, T. M., and Korpel, A., ZEEEJ @ant. El., QE-l, 283 (1965). 98. Dixon, R. W., and Cohen, M. G., Appl. Phys. Lett., 8, 205 (1966). 99. Dixon, R. W., J Appl. Phys., 38, 5149 (1967). 100. Pinnow, D. A., ZEEE J Quant. El., QE-6, 223 (1970). 101. Pinnow, D. A., Electro-OpticalMaterials, CRC Handbook of Lasers (R.J. Pressley, ed.), Chemical RubberCo., Cleveland, Ohio (1971). 102. Von Hippel, A. R., Dielectrics and Waves, Wiley, New York (1954). 103. Pockels, F., Lehrbuch der Kristall Optik, B. G. Teubner, Leipzig (1906). 104. Nye, J F., Physical Propertiesof Crystals, Oxford Univ. Press(Clarendon), . New York (1960). 105 Nelson, D. F., and Lax, M., Phys. Rev. Lett., 24, 379 (1970). 106. Nelson, D. F., and Lax, M., Phys. Rev. B, 3, 2778 (1971). 107. Uchida, N., and Niczeki, N., Proc ZEEE, 61, 1073 (1973). 108. Damon, R. W., Maloney, W.T., and McMahon, D. H., Interaction of Light with Ultrasound; Phenomena and Applications, Physical Acoustics,Vol. VI1 (W. P. Mason and R.N. Thurston, eds.), Academic Press, New York, 273 p. (1 970). 109. Sapriel, J., LAcousto-Optique, Masson, Paris (1976). 110. Chang, I. C., ZEEE Duns., SW-23, 2 (1976). 111. Musikant, S., Optical Materials,Marcel Dekker, New York (1985). 112. Narasimhamurty, T. S., Photoelastic and Elasto-Optic Properties Crystals, in Plenum, New York (198 1). 113. Dixon, R.W., ZEEE J Quant. El.. QE-3, 85 (1967). 114. Hams, S. E., Nieh, S. T. K., and Feigelson, R. S., Appl. Phys. Lett., 17, 223 (1970). 115. Havlice, J, Quate, C. F., and Richardson, B., Visualization of Sound Beams . in Quartz andSapphire Near 1 GHz, IEEE Symp. Sonics Ultrason., Vancouver, paper 1-4 (1967). 116. Carleton, H. R., Maloney, W.T., and Meltz, G.,Proc ZEEE, 57, 769 (1969). . . 117. Riley, W A., and Klein, W R., J Ac Soc. Am, 45, 578 (1969). 118. Special Issue on Ultrasonics, Proc ZEEE, 53 (1965). 119. Acoustic Surface Waves (A. A. Oliner, ed.), Springer, New York (1978). . 120. Kuhn, L. M. L., Dakss, L., and Heidrich, F. P , App. Phys. Lett., 17,265 (1970). 121. Tsai, C. S., ZEEE Trans., CAS-26, 1072 (1979). 122. Lean, E. G., Progress in Optics, Vol. XI (E. Wolf, ed.), North-Holland, Amsterdam, p. 123 (1973). 123. Ippen, E. P., Proc ZEEE, 55, 248 (1967).
33
124. Yariv, A., Optical Electronics, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York (1985). 125. Whitman, R. L., J Appl. Opt., 9, 1375 (1970). . 126. Whitman, R. L., Laub, L. J,and Bates, W. J., ZEEE Trans., SU-15, 186 (I 968). 127. Massey, G. Proc ZEEE, 56, 2157 (1969). A., . 128. Adler, R., Korpel, A., and Desmares, P , ZEEE Trans., SU-15, 157 (1968). 129. Whitman, R. L., and Korpel, A., J Appl. Opt., 8, 1567 (1969). E., 130. DeMaria, A. J., and Danielson, G. ZEEE J Quant. El., QE-2, 157 (1966). l Ac 131. Korpel, A., and Desmares, P., . Soc. Am., 45, 881 (1969). 132. Korpel, A., Kessler, L.W., and Palerrno, P. R., Nature, 232, 110 (1971). 133. Adler, R., ZEEE Spectrum, 4, 42 (1967). 134. Quate, C. F., Witkinson, C. D. W., and Wilson, D. K., Proc ZEEE, 53, 1604 (1965). 135. Gulyaev, Y V., Proklov, V. V., and Shkerdin, G.N., Sox Phys. Usp., 21, 29 (1978). 136. Sittig, E. K., Elasto-Optic LightModulation andDeflection, Progress in Optics (E.Wolf, ed.), North-Holland, Amsterdam (1972). 137. Mahajan, V. N., Wave Electron.,2, 309 (1976). 138. Defebvre, A., Rev. Opt., 46, 557 (1967); also, Rev. Opt., 47, 149,205 (1968). lth 139. Mertens, R., Fifty Years of Acousto-Optics, Proc. 1 Int. Congr. Acoust., Paris, pp. 101-113 (1983). 140. Hereman, W., Mertens, R., Verheest, F., Leroy, O., Claeys, J. M., and Blomme, E., Physicalia Mag., 6,213 (1984). 141. Korpel, A., Acousto-Optics, Applied Optics and Optical Engineering, 6 Vol. (R. Kingslake and B. J. Thompson, eds.), Academic Press, New York, 89 p. (1980). 142. Solymar, L.,and Cooke, D. J, Volume Holography and Volume Gratings, . Academic Press, New York (1981). in 143. Nelson, D. F., Electric, Optic and Acoustic Interactions Dielectrics, Wiley, New York (1979). for 144. McSkimmin, H. J., Ultrasonic Methods Measuringthe Mechanical Properties of Liquids and Solids, Physical Acoustics,Vol. l-A (W. P. Mason, ed.), Academic Press, New York (1964). Lenzo, P. V., and Ballman, A. A., Proc ZEEE, 55,2074 (1967). 145. Spencer, E. G., 146. Tsai, C. S., Guided Wave Acousto-Optic Interactions, Devices and Applications, Springer Verlag, Berlin (1980). 147. Alphonse, G. A., RCA Review, 33, 543 (1972).
3
The Heuristic Approach
In this chapterwe shall approach the problemof light-sound interaction in a heuristic way based largely on physical intuition, analogies,and a curious but fruitful mixture of ray and wave optics. Some of our assumptions may appear somewhat ad hoc and sometimes not very compelling, but all of them can, in fact, be justified a posteriori by performing the appropriate experiments. In short, as in real experimental practice, we will use many hand-waving arguments, secure in knowledge that the outcomeis already the known. When later on develop the subjectin greater depth, our methods we will be formalized and our assumptions refined, but right now we need to develop a feeling for what is likely to happen and for the physical reasons why it happens.
3.1
THE SOUND FIELD AS A THIN PHASE GRATING
Before starting the actual analysis, we shall first discuss the notation, assumptions, and conventions used throughout most the text. of The interaction configurations we will deal with mostly are twodimensional, with the sound propagating nominally in the X direction and the light in the Z direction. Wewill therefore use the angular conventions showninFig. 3.1, where directions connectedwith the lightfield are Z indicated by the angle 4, counted positive counterclockwise from the axis.
35
36
Chapter 3
For the sound field, we use an angle positive clockwise from the X axis. A typical configuration is seen in Fig. 3.2. This shows an idealized sound beam, extending from x=-Wtox=+w, having straight wavefronts separated by the acousticwavelength A and being contained between planes z=O, z=L inside a medium of nominal refractive index no. A plane wave of light, of angular frequency W , characterized inside the medium by a wave vector ko, is incident from the left normal the sound column. to A configuration as described above does reflect physical reality,not so not much because it is a two-dimensional abstraction, but rather because sound will spread by diffraction, and a true single plane wave of light cannot be generated. Nevertheless, many physical configurations approach this ideal one, for instance one in which a not too wide beam of coherent light traverses the sound field close to a uniform amplitude acoustic transducer. In more general terms, we mean a configuration where in the interaction region the sound and the light spread so little that they may effectively be considered plane waves. Such considerations already make us suspect that for a true physical description a decomposition of both fields into plane waves may be useful. We will discuss this point later in Sec. 3.3. Returning now the idealized configuration of Fig. 3.2, we shall further simplify our picture by assuming that the sound field propagates in a medium that is both acousticallyand optically isotropic.The sound field will be represented by the symbol S that is taken to denote longitudinalstrain in a solid or fractional density change (condensation) a liquid: in s(x, z, t)=Re[S(x, z) exp(int)]
(3.1)
where S(x, z) is a phasor with associated frequency It should be noted at Q. this point that we sometimes (especially in the case of optical quantities) use
X
Figure 3.1 Angle conventionsfor the sound field (@and the light field (4).
37
n
Figure 3.2 Planewavenormallytraversing a thin soundcolumn,becoming corrugated in the process, and giving rise to multiple orders of diffracted light.
the concept of a time-varying phasor,e.g., S(x,z t). In such cases, the time , variation of this phasor is assumed to be slow compared to the associated frequency. Thus, in a later chapter, we refer to a sound field whose basic as S(x,z t)=S(x, z) exp (i6Qt) , soundfrequenty Q hasbeenshifted by where it is understood that the associated phasor frequency equals Q. In general, we shall use lowercase letters for the (obviously real) values of real physical quantities and capital letters for complex quantities. [Note that the latter are not always phasors as defined by (3.1.)] If time and/or space dependence is not explicitly expressed the notation, indicatedby the text by or obvious from the context, will be assumed that the quantity is constant. it Typical examples of notation are for a plane wave traveling in the + X direction
S(x,z) =Sexp( -Jxx)
(3.2)
where the propagation constant K and the radian frequency Q are related through the sound velocity V
38 For a standing wave, we may write

S(x, z)=S c o s ( f i )
Chapter 3
(3.4)
In both eqs. (3.2) and 3.4), S is a complex time- and space-independent amplitude:
S=lsl exP(i4s)
Although the notation outlined above not completely unambiguous in the is strictest mathematical sense (for instance, quantities z, t), S(x,z), and S S@, are denoted by the same symbol), it is compact and convenient for our purposes. At any rate, the correct interpretation always be clear from will the context. At this point, we shall not consider in detail the potentially very complicated way in which the sound affects the optical properties of the medium. Rather, we shall assume the simplest case in which a small isotropic change & in refractive index occurs, proportional the sound amplitude: to
&(X, Z, r)=C's(x,
Z,
t)
(3.6)
where C' is a real materialsconstant. We may then write with (3.1)

&(x, z, t)=Re[An(x, z) exp(iQt)]=Re[C'S(x, z) exp(iS2t)l (3.7)
For the planewave (3.2), An(.x, z)=An exp(-ilux> and for the standing wave eq. (3.4)
An(x, z)=An cos(fi)
(3.8)
(3.9)
where from (3.5)

An=C'S=IAnl
= M exp[i($s+
if C ' > O
(3.10a) (3.10b)
701
if Cc0
by In what follows, we chooseC ' > O . The other case is then readily obtained with our capital letter replacing by &i-.rr.Note that in agreement
convention, An may be complex.
The Heuristic
39
As for the light, we adopt the convention that optical parameters such as k wavelength A., velocity c, and light propagation constants describe the field inside the medium. If vacuum values are meant, we will use a subscript v as in
(3.1 1) where W denotes the radian frequency of the light and no the refractive index. We further assume that the medium is nonmagnetic, i.e.,po=pv. In order to treat in what follows immediately, the cases of a traveling wave and a standingwave simultaneously, we will for the configuration of Fig. 3.2 write (3.6) as
&(X, Z,
t)=b(r) cos [Kx-p(r)]
(3.12)
where for a traveling wave
p(t)=Qt+&
(3.13b)
and for a standing wave b(t)=lAnl cos(Qt+&) (3.14a) (3.14b)
p(r)= -a
The importance of writing & in the form (3.12) lies in the fact that the temporal variation of b and p is assumed to be extremely slow comparedto the transit time of the light through the sound field. Consequently, the interaction analysis, for both traveling and standing waves, may proceed on the basis of a snapshot of the sound field, during which b and p are constant. Their time-dependence may then be inserted a posteriori in the results of the analysis. The light is represented its electric field: by
e(x, z, t)=Re[E(x, z, t ) exp (iot)]
(3.15)
Note that for light we use the concept of generalized time-varying phasors from the beginning. This is particularly useful for the optical fieldswe deal with, because many of these are up- or downshifted by multiples nQ of the
40
Chapter 3
sound frequency. Thus, E,,(x, z, t)=E,,(x, z) exp(jnQt) is an often used expression for such phasor field, where it is understood that the associated a frequency equals o . For simplicity, we shall at present not take polarization into account; hence, e is a scalar quantity. We shall also usea normalization such that for the plane wave E(x, z)=E exp(-jk,x-jk,z) the intensity is given by
I= EEr
(3.16)
where the asterisk denotes the complex conjugate. A s for the frequencies of sound and light, it will be assumed throughout that nlW 1 With the exception of one application in Chapterwe will also . 8, adhere to the so-called small Bragg angle assumption, i.e., Klkel. Together with the assumption the paraxial propagationof incident soundand light, of this means that also the scattered light can be so treated. Hence, in all so relevant calculations, ye1 and @el that sin Q-@, sin y-3: cos @-l-q2/2, cos y- 1-f l 2 . Following the above preliminaries, we are now ready to analyze the phenomenon itself. For that purpose, we first consider the case where the sound column is thin enoughto be considered a thin phase grating (Exactly what is meant by thin enough in this context will be discussed later.) The effect of such a thin phase gratingmay be analyzed by the identical methods used in optical processing, i.e., by calculating the phase shift of each optical rayand neglecting ray bending and diffraction [l]. We shall call this technique the straight undiffracted ray approach (SURA). The results so obtained are characteristic of so-called Raman-Nath or Debye-Sears diffraction.
3.1.1
Normal Incidence
Let E denote the complex electric field strength of the normally incident i plane wave in Fig. 3.2, i.e., E(x, 0 t)=E(x, O)=Ei. By our previous , assumptions, the total phase shift of the light ray (i.e., the partial wavefront of widthAx) at x is given by @(x, t ) = -k,l6n(x, z, t)dz- kL L,
0
L
(3.17)
With (3.12) we find readily

e(x, L, t)=-k,Lb(t) COS[KX-/?(~)]-~L
(3.18)
The Heuristic Thus, the electric field at z = L is given by

E(x, L,t)=Ei exp( -jkL)exp
{ -jkYLb(t)~os[fi-p(t)]}
41
(3.19)
Equation (3.19) represents a spatially corrugated wavefront at the exit of the sound field. This is schematically indicatedby the wavy line in Fig. 3.2. Equation (3.19) is strongly reminiscent of electronic phase modulation that, as most electrical engineers are well aware of, results in many sidebands, the amplitudes of which are given Bessel functions [2]. Following this lead, it by is readily shown that [3]
E(x, L,t)=exp(-jkL)C(-J3EiJn[kvLb(t)]Xexp[-jnfi+jnp(t)] (3.20)
n where the summation is from = - W to n = + q and J n denotes the nth order Bessel function. The physical interpretation (3.20) isthat each term in the sum gives rise of to one of the set of plane waves or orders into which the exit field can be decomposed.Morespecifically, the nth term causesaplane wave to k, propagate in the direction such that knx=nK,i.e., the angleof propagation Qi, is given by sin4, =-=k
nK
nil h
(3.21)
Unless indicated otherwise, paraxial propagation will be assumed for all fields involved so that (3.21) may be written
(pn=-=-
nK
k
nil h
(3.22)
As schematically indicated in Fig. 3.2, the exiting light field thus gives rise to adiscrete spectrum of plane waves or orders ofdiffractedlight, propagating in the directions specified by (3.21). In an actual experiment, each planewave is of necessity a beam of finite width. In retrospect, (3.21) is quite plausible as it is also the basic equation for light diffraction bya grating of period h [4]. The sound fieldin our experiments acts essentially like that, with the proviso that its nature isthat of a (sinusoidal) phase, rather than amplitude grating. This point is actually nontrivial and merits some discussion. The typical gratings mentioned in elementary physics textbooks are amplitude gratings and only generate a multitude of orders because they consist of sharplydefinedlines(e.g.,aRonchiruling). A sinusoidal
42
Chapter 3
amplitude gratingwould only generate two orders in addition the incident to light [l].Our sound wave generates many orders, in spite of its sinusoidal character, because it is a phase grating. There is a complete analogy here to the case of amplitude modulation and phase modulation in electrical engineering. Returning now to (3.20), let us first consider the case a traveling sound of wave. With (3.13) we find that the nth order contribution to the exit field is given by
where we have written &(x, L, t ) in the form of an oblique plane wave with ,, the origin as a phase reference point and traveling in a direction @ defined by knx=k sin &=nK k,,=k
COS
(3.24a) (3.24b)
@n=[k2-(nK)2]2
so that within a small phase error of order KZLlk(4, as we shall show later)
The socalled Raman-Nath parameter v [5] denotes the sound-induced peak phase shift
The relative intensityof the various orders thus given by is
as shown in Fig. 3.3. With eqs. (3.15) and (3.23), we may write the complete expression for the plane wave in the region z>I to which E&, L, t) gives rise to
e,@, z f)=Re{E,expli(o+nQ)t-jkx sin @,-jkz cos&]} , (3.28)
It is seen from (3.28) that the nth order is shifted in frequency by i.e., nQ, by n times the sound frequency. The classical explanation of this is the Doppler shift, which may be seen as follows. An observer lookingat the nth
43
2
V
Figure 3.3 Intensity of orders, diffracted by a thin sound column, as a function of the peak phase delay v (Raman-Nath parameter).
order sees the sound-induced radiating dipoles moving upward with sound velocity V. The velocity component in his direction is given by Vsin $; , hence, with eq.(3.21) we find for the Doppler shift
(3.29)
Note also from (3.25) that the nth order is shifted in phase -n~-/2+n$~ by due to the scattering process. Now consider the sound field to be a standing wave. With (3.14) and (3.20), we find that the nth order contributionto the exit field is given by
En(x,L, t )=En( exp(-jkx sin &-jkL cos $) f) ,
(3.30)
where, to within the same small phase error as (3.25), in E,,(f)=(-ly cos(Qf+$,)]Ei exp[-jna]J,[v
(3.31)
Note that because J,,(O)=O, n&, each order vanishes twice per cycle. This is, of course, no surprise because the entire sound grating, beinga standing wave, vanishes twice per sound cycle. Finally, it is of interest to investigate the limit of weak interaction, i.e., when v+O. Using the small argument approximation for the Bessel functions and neglecting second-order terms in v, we find readily that only three orders(- 1,0, + 1) remain and that fora traveling wave
44
Chapter 3
(3.32)
x exp(- jkx sin4 jkLcos@, jQt) +
(3.33)
x exp(- jkx sing-, - jkLcosqLI - jQt)
(3.34)
and for a standing wave
El(x, L, t ) = -jEi - exp(-ja)

x [exp(-jkx sin
(I) 4 -jkL cos 4 +
jQt
+ j & )]
(3.36)
+ [exp(-jkx
sin4 - jkL cos 4 - jQt - j g s ) ]
&(x, L, t ) = -jE, - exp(-ja)

x [exp(-jkx sin
(11
- jkL cos
+ [exp(-jkx
sin
&,- jkL cos
+ jQt + j& )]
- jQt - j & ) ]
(3.37)
Note that, in the standing wave case, both orders contain up- and downshifted components. This isagreement in with the amplitude There exists, however,an equivalent and useful modulation evident in(3.31). physical interpretation as .follows. The standing wave of refractive index variation may be thought of as two counter propagating waves, each giving rise to a peak phase shift of v/2, when acting alone. In the limit of weak interaction, the effects of each ofthesetwo wavesmaybeanalyzed + separately and the results added. Thus, for the 1 order the upward traveling wave will upshift the frequency, the downward traveling wave will cause downshifting. The two components so generated can be calculated from (3.33) and (3.34)by replacing v with v/2). The result will be given by (3.36) and (3.37), the two traveling if waves have been giventhe right phase shiftto account for a.
45
3.1.2 Oblique Incidence

This configuration is shown in Fig. where the light is incident at an angle 3.4 $Q. ray bundle entering the sound beam at x suffers a total phase shift The upon traversal to x
(3.38)
where &(C, t ) denotes the sound-induced refractive index change along the oblique path C. From Fig. 3.4, we see readily that &(c,t)=6n(x+C sin $Q, Qo, t ) Ccos or, using the paraxial approximation,
(3.39)
&(C,
With (3.12)
t)=&((x+$Q<,
C,
(3.40)
&(C,
t)=b(t) cos[K(x+$Q~-P(~)l
(3.41)
Figure 3.4 Obliquely incident light and diffracted orders for a thin sound column.
46
Chapter 3
Substituting (3.41) into (3.38) and using cos @O -1 -&2, order in $0
we find to a second
where sinc X = sin(7GX)InX. The obliquely incident electric field may be written E(x, O)=Er exp( -jk@ox) (3.43)
The exit field E(x, L, t) may now be calculated in a way analogous to eq. (3.19). Taking into account the ray displacement, i.e., replacing x by x-L@o, and leaving out the prime on x in the final result, we find after some tedious algebra
E ( x , L, t ) = E, exp -jkL - jk&,x+ 2
x exp{- jk,,Lb(t) sinc
(3.44)
Kx-p(t)-=] 2
Like eq. (3.19), eq. (3.44) also represents a corrugated wavefront that may be written as
E ( x , L, t ) = exp(- jkx sin
e0- jkL cos eo)X(- E r j)
x J , k,Lb(t) sinc -
(3.45)
We note that (3.45) is identical to (3.20) but for a term, exp(-jkx sin eO-jkL cos @) expressing oblique incidence; a phase shift, nKQoL/2, I, referring to the center of the sound beam; and a multiplying factor, sinc(KQoL/2z), in the argument of the Bessel functions. The factor sinc(K@oL/2z) sinc[&/(ML)] describes the effect of phase =
47
cancellations along the oblique path of the incident ray. Note that this factor vanishes whenever &=nNL, ie., whenever the incident ray tranverses an integral number of sound wavefronts. In that case, the accumulated phase shift averages out to zero and the diffraction effects disappear. Because of the similarity of (3.20) and (3.43, all qualitative conclusions drawn from the normal incident case apply to oblique incidence. In particular, the incident light is split up into many orders, located symmetrically around it. This is shown in Fig. 3.4, where (3.46) Defining v = v sinc
(YtL)
(3.47)
we find with (3.12) and (3.13) that for a traveling sound wave, the nth order contribution to the exit field, written as a plane wave, is given by En(x, L, t)=En exp(-jkL cos &-jkx sin ipn+jnQt) where, to within a negligibly small phase error, (3.49) For a standing wave, we find with (3.12) and (3.14)
En(X,
(3.48)
L, t)=En(t) exp(-jkL cos @,-jkx sin @n)
(3.50)
where, to within the same negligible phase error, E,(t) = (- j) exp(
-jnKq0L 2
Jn[v cos(C2t + &)]E,
(3.51)
It should be noted that in the region s>L, the field is found, as in (3.28), by substituting z for L in (3.48). For later use it is of interest to explicitly write the amplitudes E,, of the orders -1, 0, + I in the case of weak interaction with a traveling sound wave
48
Chapter 3
EF Ei
(3.52) (3.53)
E,, = -jEi
(i)
sin(
y) +
exp( j@$ -
2
1 )
(3.54)
Using (3.26) and (3.10), we may write for (3.53) and (3.54)
E-, = -jEi
( ]
C S * sinc[ K@OL exp( jQ0L
(3.55)
E,, = -jEi
( -~ 3 (- [CSsinc K-;L) exp -j;@oL)
(3.56)
where the sign of is accounted for. C in As we will see later, the factor CS sinc(K$ol/2lc)exp(-jK$oL/2) (3.56) represents theangular plane-wave spectrum (radiation pattern) S j , () evaluated at y= -h, of the sound field emanating froma uniform transducer of width L , displaced by L/2 from the origin [l]. Aphysical interpretation of (3.56) is that, of the entire spectrum, only that particular plane wave of sound propagating upward at an angle y= - h [dashed and labeled S(-&)in Fig. 3.41, and being perpendicular to the incident light, causes diffraction effects that result in + l order generation as indicated by (3.56). In addition, the same plane wave causes a contribution to the -1 order, with an amplitude related to the complex conjugate of the sound plane-wave amplitude, as indicated by (3.55). We will return to these aspects later when we develop our plane-wave interaction theory. There, it will become clear plane waves of sound and that light can only interactif their wave vectors intersect almost perpendicularly. In our present treatment, the almost is lost because of the simplifying picture of straight undiffracted rays traversing a thin phase grating.
3.1.3
Criteria for Raman-NathDiffraction
We have seen that the use of the SURA approach describes Raman-Nath diffraction as defined by (3,25), (3,31), (3.49), and (3.50). We willnow investigate under which conditions this approach is valid and Raman-Nath behavior is to be expected.
n e Heuristic Approach
49
In our analysis so far, we have made the following assumptions:
1. The sound field is thin enough to ignore optical diffraction effects. 2. The sound is weak enough to ignore optical ray-bendingeffects.
Let us now try to quantify these assumptions in orderto find their limitsof validity. In regard to 1, consider the ray bundle of width Ax (Fig. 3.2) with which we have probed the soundfield for local phase delays. In analysis, this our ray bundle is assumedto be parallel; in reality it spreads by diffraction. The angle of spread is on the order1 . ; A hence, the width of the bundle at z=L x is approximately Ax+LA/Ax. A minimum value is obtained when Ax=(LA1I2 and results in a width of 2(LA)ll2 at the exit. It will be clear that this width must, in fact, be much smaller than, say, 1 rad (N2n) of the sound wave length in order for our phase-sampling to be sufficiently localized. It is readily seen that this leads to the condition
A2 L((2na
(3.57)
or, in termsof the so-called Klein-Cook parameterQ = L @ / k [6],

Q& 1
(3.58)
A physical interpretation of (3.58) along the lines we have followed here was first given by Adler [l. Condition (3.58) is sometimes called the Raman-Nath or Debye-Sears criterion. It should be realized, however, that it is incomplete because it only states the conditions under which diffraction effects may be ignored; also to ignore ray bending, a second criterion is required, which we shall now discuss. Figure 3.5 shows a parallel ray bundle of width Ax propagating at an angle a; over a distance h Because the gradient of refractive index causes . a difference An (where An is real) across the ray bundle, the lower of the part bundle-where the velocity is greatest-has traversed a greater length than the upper part. The differenceAI is found readily from the differential phase shift
kAl= k,AnAz
(3.59)
As a result of this effect, the original wavefront a has rotated to become the wavefront by after traversing a distance A d . The ray bundle now propagates in the directiona,+Aar, where for small
50
Chapter 3
Figure 3.5 Ray,normal to wavefront a bentnormal to wavefront b by gradient of refractive index.
AI Aar =-
A x
(3.60)
From (3.59) and (3.60) we find, lettingA,A Az, A m , Al+dn, dx, etc., n x,
(3.61)
or, invoking the paraxial approximation assumptions,

(3.62)
As ar=dxldz, where the ray trajectory is denoted by x(& and n only depends on x , we find finally
7=(G-)z
d2a
1 dn
(3.63)
as the equation for ray trajectory. the Equation (3.63) may also be derived, in a somewhat less obvious but more rigorous manner,fromgeometrical optics [S]. A non paraxial exact treatment of ray bending can be developed in terms of elliptic functions [9];
51
for our purposes, it suffices to apply (3.63)to some special regions of the sound field. For simplicity, consider normal incidencewith the refractiveindex variation given by (3.9),with An real and a,=O. The maximum gradient of refractive index is
(2)mm
=
Near the straight part of the sinusoidal variation of n, at a suitably chosen instant of time, the ray trajectory is then given, from (3.63)and (3.64),by
x=
(-3
A?lz2
(3.65)
where x=O refers to the zero pointof the wave form. it will be clear that the total displacement of the ray during traversal of the width L of the sound field must be much smaller than, say, 1 rad ( N 2 a of the sound wavelength, in order for ray bundle to be sufficiently straight. Hence, the criterion for our ignoring ray bending can be derived readily:
(3.66)
In terms of the Klein-Cook parameter Q and the Raman-Nath parameter v, (3.66)may be written Qv42
(3.67)
The ray displacement interpretation of (3.67)was first given by Rytov[lo]. Another type of ray bending occurs near the maxima of the refractive index variation. Here, the sound wave acts as a lens focusing the incident rays. For our straight ray analysis to be valid, it is necessary that the focal point lies well outside the sound field. The effect may be calculated as follows. Near the maximum of n, at a suitably chosen instant of time, the refractive index is given Ancos(Kx), and hence by
dn -=dx
kxn sin(Kx) = -K2Anx
(3.68)
in the immediate neighborhood of the maximum, defined by x=O in the coordinate system used.The ray trajectories follow from(3.63)and (3.68)
52
Chapter 3
(3.69)
Equation (3.69) indicates periodic focusing for rays close to the axis, a phenomenon that also follows from the rigorous ray theory and is clearly [9] visible in Fig. 2.3. The first focus occur& a distance at
~K(A~ZI~)"~ "
LP=[
It
(3.70)
where it has been assumed that An4no. Imposing the conditionthat L,bL lead6 to the criterion
QV(<, It2 (3.71)
Essentially, (3.67) and (3.71) express the same kind of condition, with (3.71) being somewhat less stringent. The criterion for ray bending to be negligible may thus be written conservatively
Qv4
(3.72)
In summary then, the criteria that have to be satisfied in order to be able to analyze the sound field with the straight undiffracted ray approach are given by Q 4 1 and Qv4 1. Ipso facto, these are also criteria for Raman-Nath behavior to occur. It seems natural to ask whether the ray analysis can be extended by exact ray trajectories. This calculating the accumulated phase shift along the is indeed possible, and relevant theories may be found in Refs. 1 1 and 12. Because such theories take ray bending into account but not diffraction, they are still subject the criterionQ 4 1. to
3.2
THE SOUND FIELD AS A THICK PHASE GRATING
If the conditions Q 4 l and Q v a l are no longer satisfied, then the SURA method may no longer be applied. However, the width of the sound column may be subdivided in thin slices parallel to X , each of which satisfies the conditions for applying the SURA approach. This is the basis ofVan Cittert's analysis [13]. The slices are taken to be of infinitesimal thicknessdz and hence act as weak thin phase gratings that generate two additional
53
orders (3.53-3.56) for each incident one. This scheme, which shall call the we cascaded thin grating approach (CTGA), is symbolically illustrated in Fig. 3.6, where two slices shown, separated a finite distance for clarity. are by The beauty of Van Cittert's scheme is that use can be made of the thin phase grating results already known, and these may now be considered that exact because the gratings are infinitesimally thin. For the traveling wave case (the only one treated here), may thus go directly to (3.55) and 3.56), we realizing that inVan Cittert's scheme the nth order at the point z is contributed to by downshifting from the(n+ 1)th orderand upshifting from the (n- 1)th orderat that same point. The contribution d-En(z), downshifted from En+l(z),may be obtained directly from (3.55) by letting E- 1+exp( -jkz cos 4,,)d-En (z) (3.73a) (3.73b) (3.73c)
h E,+exp( -jkz cos q + l)En+l (z)

L+dz Hence, to within a first order in dz, exp( -jkz cos qn)d-En(z)
Figure 3.6 approach.
t
X
= -0.5jEn+l(z)k,C'S*dz-exp(-jkzcos @,+l)
(3.74)
Successivediffractionmodelusedinthecascadedthingrating
54
Chapter 3
The forward-projecting phase terms in (3.73a) and (3.73b) are needed because the slice dz under consideration is located at z, at the origin as in not the formulations (3.55) and 3.56). The contribution d+En, upshifted from En-1, is round in the same way from (3.56). exp(-jkz cos &)d+En(z) =-O.SjEn-l(z)k&S dz.exp(-jkz
COS 6 - 1 )
(3.75)
To conform withthe existing literature [14],we shall adopt the notation kC k,C = 2
so that
(3.76a)
(3.76b) Adding the two contributions specified in (3.74) and (3.75), we find with (3.76a) dEn -= -0.25jkCSE,, dz exp[- jkz(cos@,-, -cos@,,)]
(3.77)
- 0.25jkCS* Entlexp[-jkz(cos@ntl -cos@,,)]

Note that in (3.77) the Ens denote the amplitude of plane waves with a phase reference point at the origin. Thus, for C=O the solution of (3.77) is given by E,=constant. In our formulation, the propagation through the unperturbed medium is already taken into account. It is useful to define a virtualfield at the origin in terms of such back projected waves: E(&, t; z)=XEn(z) exp(-jk sin
&x+jnflt)
(3.78)
Note that in (3.78), z appearsas aparameter that refers to the position (cross section at z) of the actually existing field that is to be back-projected. This actually existing field is, of course, given by forward projecting the waves again:
E(x, z, t)=XEn(z) exp(-jkz cos
&-jkx sin &+jnnt)
(3.79)
We will elaborate on the concept virtual fields later in Sec. of 3.3.3.
The Heuristic Appmach

In most formulations of the problem (including Van Cittert's), a Y somewhat artificial field is used instead of a plane wave En(z) $n)=Y,,(z) cos exp(-jkz exp(-jkz cos In termsof Yn, (3.77) becomes
"
55
$0)
(3.80)
dyn dz
jk(cos$,,
-cos$,,)Y,,
= -0.25jkCSY,,-, - 0.25jkCS * 'P,,-]
(3.81)
Written as in (3.81), the equations are similar to the well-known Raman-Nath equations [l 5,161. Klein and Cook [l71 state them in the following form, accurate a second order in to Qin: (3.82) denoting a sound field of the form IS1 where it is assumed that S=-~lq, sin(S2t-fi). The unwary reader, trying to read the original source material, should be warned against the notational chaos that awaits him. Not onlyis the definition (3.80) often used, but in addition, Raman and Nath wrote n for -n (a practice still used by most European researchers) and used a rotated coordinate system with the 2 axis aligned with the incident light. To make matters worse, A* often stands for A, p for I A n l , o* for Q, etc. In addition, 1 equations are frequently normalized, with {=vz/2Lor c=vz/L, and various parameters are introduced such as p (or n)=Q/v (sometimes called regime parameters), a=-OSqb/$~,~=v/2L.Also, it is quite customary not to state the phasor convention used,nor which subscripts refer to the medium and which (if any)to free space. To write(3.82)in canonical form, many investigators, starting with Raman-Nath, define
{=-vz
(3.83a)
p=Q
V
(3.83b)
so that (3.82) becomes
56
Chapter 3
2d Y, , + Y ,-Yn+l) = j n p n + -' Y ) y n (,, d5
(3.84)
In this book, we shall stick to the formulation (3.77) because ( 1 ) it already takes conventional propagation effects into account; (2) it is physically obvious in the sense that itidentifies the contributions to E, from neighboring orders, with the difference of the cosine terms indicating the degree of phase mismatch; and ( 3 ) it is a special case of a generalized equation valid for any sound field, just a sound column. not The latter point is due to the fact that although the CTGA method is apparently heuristic, it does not really make any simplifying assumptions other than the scalar nature of the field and the paraxial modeof propagation. Neither ray bending nor diffraction are ignored. It should therefore not come as a surprise that the final equations (3.77) may be directly derived from the scalar wave equation (in fact, this was already done by Raman and Nath in their original treatment [15,16]),nor that they may be generalized so as to apply to arbitrary sound fields. We shall return to this point later.
3.2.1 The Raman-Nath Regime

As already pointed out, the difference of cosine terms in (3.77) indicates the lack of phase matchingthat characterizes the interaction. a second order To in Klk and qb, we may write with (3.46)
cos &+l -cos $, = - - $0 -
):(
(-
(3.85)
cos (pn-, -cos
en= - -
(3 +(7)($1
$0
(3.86)
Let us now assume that the phase mismatch between neighboring orders over the maximum length L ismuch smaller than, say, 1 rad for all significant orders n, i.e.,
2
2
k($) Lc(l
and
kn($).L((l
(3.87)
Which is the highest order that we should take into account in (3.87)? We anticipate that, in the absence of phase mismatch, we will obtain much the
57
same resultas before for small L. Because the order amplitudes be given will by Jn(v), we can guess that the numberofsignificant orders willbe proportional to v. (This, by the way,is the exact analog of frequency modulation in radio engineeringwhere the number of significant sidebands is proportional to the phase modulation index [2].) With that assumption and remembering that Q=K2/Llk,we may write for (3.87) Q41 and (3.88)
41
Condition (3.88) is, however, the exact condition for which the SURA method is applicable. Hence, we conclude (1) that assuming perfect phase synchronism in the interaction is equivalent to using straight undiffracted rays and (2) that the results of the present analysis should be identical to those of the previous one. With (3.85-3.87), we may writefor (3.77)
"
dEn - -0.25jkCSE,,-, exp(j&b0z) dz - 0.25jkCS * E,,+,exp(jK&,z)
(3.89)
together with the boundary values Eo(O)=Ei (3.90) Denoting and En(O)=O
we may write (3.89) with (3.5) (3.92) If we use the recurrence relations for the Bessel functions [3], it may be shown [l41 after tedious algebra that the functions sin Tn=exp(jnbz)J,(a
satisfy the recurrence relation

"
dTn - 0 . 5 exp(2jbz)Tn-,- 0 . 5 ~ ~ exp(-2jbz)Tn+, dz
(3.94)
58
Chapter 3
Comparison of (3.94) and (3.92) suggests equating
Tn= EL;
a = 0.5kCISI; 2b
= -K$,,
(3.95)
so that the solution of (3.92) may be given directly in terms of EA or, with (3.91), in terms of E n
(3.96)
where we have used (3.47) and (3.76). As surmised, our present solution (3.96) is identical with the one (3.49) derived by the SURA method, thus confirming the equivalence of the criteria for phase synchronism with those for straight undiffracted ray analysis.
3.2.2 The BraggRegime

If the interaction length is long enough, the phase mismatch expressed by the cosine difference terms (3.77) will prevent any cumulative contribution in from neighboring orders, and the net effect is that no diffraction occurs at all. There exist, however, two conditions in which there is phase matching between the incident light (at angle h) and one neighboring order. This occurs when either cos
$1
(3.97)
in which case, the + l order interacts synchronously with the incident light or when
cos $o=cos
$-l
(3.98)
in which case,the interaction takes place with the 1 order. With (3.46) we find that (3.97) is satisfied when
(3.99)
and (3.98) when

$o
+K == 2k
+$B
(3.100)
59
Equations (3.99) and (3.100) correspond to the configurations for upand downshifted Bragg diffraction. They are illustrated schematically in Figs. 3.7a and 3.7b. From the symmetry of the interaction, it looksas if the diffracted order is reflected off the moving wavefronts of sound in the same way that x-rays are reflected off atomic planes. Indeed, if one uses this analogy and imposes the condition that rays reflected off successive crests add up constructively, conditions (3.99)and (3.100) are derived readily[lS]. Nevertheless, this simple heuristic model should be viewed with suspicion because, unlike a crystal where the x-rays .are scattered off well-defined discrete planes, a sound column is, in essence, a continuous distribution of reflectors Hence, there is a priori physical reason it should behave no why in the same fashion as a crystal. In fact, we have already seen in Ch. 2 that acousto-optic scattering does (at least to a first order) show the multiple not Bragg angles typical of x-ray diffraction. Substituting (3.97) into (3.77) and neglecting all order but 0 and +l, we find the equations for upshifted scattering
EO
4
E Ii
E -1
diffraction.
b Figure 3.7 (a) Upshifted Bragg diffraction. (b) Downshifted
60
Chapter 3 d-4 -= -0.25jkCSEo (3.101)
dz
"
dEo - 4 . 2 5 jkCS* E,
dz
(3.102)
It isnow readily found with (3.76), by imposing the proper boundary conditions, that inside the sound column
El = -j exp(j4,)Ei sin
(3.103)
(3.104)
for Similarly, with (3.98) the equations downshifted scattering are

"
dz
- -0.25 jkCS * Eo
(3.105)
-= -0.25jkCSE-, dE0
dz
(3.106)
with the solutions inside the sound column E-, = -j exp(- jqjs)Eisin ( O . 3 (3.107)
Eo = E, c s" 0.5vz o()
(3.108)
Eo Note that a complete periodic transfer of power takes place from to Ei and vice versa. The intensities of the two orders leaving the sound column i.e., at z=L, are in both cases given by
ZO'Zi
COS*(0.5V)
(3.109)
10)
1+1,-1=Ii sin2(0.5v) This behavior isshown in Fig. 3.8.

1.2
61
1.o
08 .
0.6
0.4
02 .
00 .
0
2 4
6
10
Figure 3.8 Power exchange betweenorders in pure Bragg diffraction.
3.2.3
TheNear-BraggRegime
In many cases, it is of interest to investigate Bragg diffraction behavior near, but not at, perfect Bragg angle incidence. For upshifted interaction, this may be done be setting
&o=-@B+A@
1) 1
It is readily shownthat in this case

COS
$1
-COS
=AHNk)
(3.112)
Using (3.77), the equations coupling the orders and + 1become 0

dEl -= -0.25 jkCSE,, exp(- jK.zA@) dz (3.1 13)
dE0 -= -0.25jkCS * E , exp(jKzA@) dz
(3.1 14)
We now introduce new dependent variablesEO and El:

E , = E; exp(
T)
(3.115)
62
Chapter 3
(3.1 16) Substituting (3.115) and (3.116) into (3.113) and (3.114), we find (3.117)
dE6 -+
dz
AI$ jK-EE,=-jaS*E; 2
(3.118)
where a= KC14= -kpno2I4. Substituting a time dependence exp(jr.z) for both El' and E ' into (3.117) o and (3.1 18),
Eh=A exp(irz)+B exp(-jrz)

E{ = C exp(irz) +D exp( -jrz)
(3.i 19) (3.120)
and setting the determinantof the resulting set of linear equations equalto zero, we find (3.121) The constants A , B, C, and D may be found from the boundary conditions. and for After some algebra application of (3.1 15) (3.1 16), we finally find and El and EO (3.122)
-jkA4
2r
sin(rz)( exp j K F 4 )
(3.123)
Using the notation alSlL=v/2, we find for the intensities at the output of the sound cell (z=L)
63
I, =
h(;)
2
(3.124)
Io = Zj"
- z,
(3.125)
Note that the power transfer from IO to I1 and vice versa is now quasiperiodic and initially incomplete. This is shown in Fig. 3.9 for the intensities z=L. at the exit of the sound column It is readily checked that the interactionbetween l o and 1-1is expressed by exactly the same relations (3.124) and (3.125) if the angular deviation is defined such that
h=q ~ + A q '
3.2.4
(3.126)
Criteria far Bragg Diffraction Behavior
Our ignoring of orders other than those that interact phase-synchronously is based on the assumption that the term (Klk)2k in (3.85) and (3.86),
1.d
0.8
06 .
0.4
0.2
00 .
l 0
Figure 3.9 Partialpowerexchangeinoff-angleBraggdiffraction.Thedeviation 0.25 from the Bragg angle equals NL.
64
Chapter 3
multiplied with an effective interaction lengthLe, must be much larger than 1 rad. If the sound field is weak, then the minimum and the condition Le=L, becomes simply Q 91
(3.127)
In general, however,the effective interaction length should defined as that be length in which complete power transfer has taken place in pure Bragg diffraction. According to (3.108), this occurs when 0.5vLdL=d2, i.e., when L, is of the order of L h . It is readily seen that the condition then becomes Q/vS1
(3.128)
In summary, wemaysay that for Bragg diffraction to occur, both conditions must be satisfied, i.e., Q%l and Q/v%l. A more mathematically oriented discussion of the various criteria may be found in Refs. 19-21. It should be notedthat in practical devices, v e x so that (3.127) suffices as the sole criterion. Klein and Cook 161 have calculated the power in the first diffraction peak as a function of Q. This is shown in Fig. 3.10, in which it follows that more than 90% of the light is diffracted when Q>6.
1 .o
0.8
0.6 0.4
0.2
2 3 4 6 810
20
40
l0 0
0 1967 IEEE.
Figure 3.10 Maximumdiffractionefficiencyas a function of Q. (From Ref 6.)
65
3.2.5
Weak Interaction
If we make the assumption that the interactionis very weakso that only the + l and - 1 orders are generated, and the 0 order is unaffected, then (3.77) becomes with (3.85) and (3.86)
dJ% -= -0.25jkCSE, exp

dz
(3.129)
"
dE-1
dz
- -0.25jkCS * Ei exp
(3.130)
These equations may be integratedto give with (3.76b) E-1( L )= -jEi
(- * [ 'f')
C'S
sinc KL(@&-
@B
'3
(3.131)
x exp
(3.132)
+gB)]
It is interesting to compare (3.131) and (3.132) and (3.55) and (3.56), and with the subsequent interpretation following the latter equations. It is clear that this interpretation should be revised slightly in the following way. In (3.132) the sinc term represents the angular plane-wave spectrum of the sound field evaluated at Y=-(@+@B), not at y=-& as in (3.56). It is that particular plane wave in the spectrum that could be interpreted as being responsible for generating the E1 order. As shown in Fig. 3.1 1 the wave vector of this wave, labeled ,!?[-(+O+@B)], makes an angle of d 2 - @ B with the incident light, not d 2 as would follow from (3.56). The angle @B is the slight (but very important) correction remarked on in the discussion (3.55). This of time the correctionwas not lost in the assumptions, because (3.77) does take diffraction into account, in contrast to the SURA method that led to (3.56). It will be seen in the next section that the angle d2-@B precisely the one is required by conservation of momentum conditions. Using the same reasoning as above in connection with (3.131), we find that an angle of
66
Chapter 3
Figure 3.11 Interpretation of diffraction by a thin sound column, using angular plane-wave spectrum concepts. d2+& is required to generate the - 1 order. This also will be seen to be I required by quantum-mechanical considerations of the photon-phonon collision process.
3.3 THE SOUND FIELD AS A PLANE-WAVE COMPOSITION

In this section, we shall first define formally what is meant by a plane-wave composition, next discuss the interactionof sound and light on the basis of wave vector diagrams, and finally formulate a heuristic plane-wave interaction theory, using some results obtained previously to quantify the formalism.
3.3.1 The AngularPlane-WaveSpectrum

In the region more than a few wavelengths away froma real source (such as a transducer), any field satisfying the wave equation may be decomposed into plane waves [l]. In our treatment, we assume that the sound fields travel nominally in the + X direction and the light fields in the + Z direction, i.e., K,>O and k,>O; in other words, we ignore reflected waves. As for the sound field, that is just an experimental condition; as for the light field, it is equivalent to assuming that the gradient of & is very small I
The Heuristic
67
and that, in any case,. there exists no phase-synchronous interaction between incident light and reflected light. This is, of course, no longer true for large Bragg angles, butwe do not consider such cases as yet. At any rate, with the conditions mentioned above and assuming paraxial propagation, an arbitrary light field cross section along the line perpendicular the Z axis at to the point zmay be written as a spectrum z) of plane waves.If w use the l?($; e origin as a phase reference,
z)exp(-jkx sin$- jkz cos$)d(k$/2lt) E(x, z)= pi($;
(3.133)
where E(x,z) isto be thought of as a cross section at z parallel .Note that to x the amplitude spectrum of the plane waves, E($; z), is assumed to be a function of z. This is because generally such a spectrum refers a'particular to scattered order, sayEn($;z) for the nth order, and continuously evolves on its z) is a transit through the interaction region. Inthat regard, &C$; generalization of the z-dependent plane-wave amplitude E&) used before. In the unperturbed medium, l?($; z) is constant and can be written as E($). For the incident light, for instance, Et($; z)=&$). It should be stressed that this independence of z only applies if the angular spectrum is defined with the origin as a phase reference, as we do here. It is quite common in the literature, however,to use a local phase reference forl?($;z)i.e., the point(0, z) itself. This is, for instance, the convention followed in [l]. In that case, (3.133) is simpler in that the exp(-jkz cos $) factor disappears. However, that same factor now reappears as a propagator for the spectrum in the unperturbed medium. We shall in what follows adhere to the convention of using the origin as a phase reference. The plane-wave spectrum defined is so sometimes called the virtual plane-wave spectrum. More details of spectral formalisms will be found in Sec.8.6. Using the paraxial assumption and rearranging terms,we may write E(x, z)= r k ( $ ; exp(-jkz cos$) exp(-jkx$) d z)
(::)
. (3.134)
It is clear that (3.134) represents a Fourier transform between E(x, z) and l?($; z) exp(-jkz cos $), with transform variables x and k$/2lt. The latter quantity is related to the more formally used spatial frequencyf, by
(3.135)
so that (3.134) may also be written in symbolic form
68
Chapter 3
where 3 denotes the Fourier transform operator. The notation w f we Ax shall often leave out for brevity. With the paraxial assumption,we may also write exp(-jkz cos) I exp -jkz
[l-2@*)1
(3.137)
It should be noted that, strictly speaking, the integral limits in (3.133) should be -l/A and +l/& as this is imposed by sin $<l; it is, however, assumed that E($; z) itself is restricted to much smaller spatial frequencies, a fact which is already implicit in the paraxial propagation assumption. The plane-wave angular spectrum l?($; z) can be calculated from (3.134) by using the inverse transform
l?($;z) = exp(jkz cos$)jm E(x, z) exp(+jkx$) dx

S
(3.138)
or symbolically
E($; z) cos =exp(jkz
$)F~[E(x, z)],
fX+A
(3.139)
where 9 - l denotes the inverse Fourier transform operator. For the sound field we have similar expressions. In this case, however, the plane-wave spectrum Sufi does not change with the distance traveled. With the origin again as the phase reference S(x, z) = r s ( y ) exp(-jKz sin y - jlvx cos y ) d where S(x, z) is to be thought of as a cross section through x parallel to z. Using the paraxial approximation and rearranging terms, may write we
xexp(-jkiy) d
(F):
(3.141)
It is seen that S(x, z) and 11'(fiexp(-jlvx cos fi form a Fourier transform The spatial frequency F, is pair with zand K742a as the transform variables.
69
defined by
-="= 2a A
F,
(3.142)
Equation (3.141) may be written symbolically

(3.143)
The inverse relation is

&y) = exp(jKx cos y
J-
rS(x,
z) exp(+jfiy) dz
= exp(jKx cos y)s"[S(x, z)], F, 4A y/
(3.144)
As we have stressed before, it is useful to define virtual (back-projected) optical fields JP(x; z) at the origin along the X axis. The "z" in E(")(x; z) is to be thought of as a parameter that indicates the location of the backprojected cross section E(x, z). Another way of saying this is that such virtual fieldswhen propagated (forward-projected) in the unperturbed medium define actually existing fields E(x, z) at z. Now, E(x, z) is also defined by (3.133) that contains the forward projection [term with exp(-jkz cos 4)] of the angular spectrumE(@; It is, therefore, easyto show that the z). following relationships exist.
E("(x; z)= r k ( 4 ; z ) exp(-jkxq) d

a
(3.145)
The concept of virtual fields is useful only for those fields, like &(x,n#i, z), whose plane-wave spectrum is continuously modified by passagethrough the perturbed medium. For fields like Edx, z) that are connected with the unperturbed medium and whose angular spectrum is therefore independent of z all back-projected fields are identical definition E?"'(x;z)=Ei(x, 0. , by )
70
Chapter 3
3.3.2 The Wave Vector Diagram

As already mentioned in Chapter 2, the basiclight-sound interaction mechanism can be illustrated by means of wave vector diagrams. These diagrams refer quantum mechanically to the conservation of momentum in photon-phonon collisions and classically to phase-synchronous interaction. Figures 3.12(a) and 3.12(b) show the basic diagrams (in two dimensions) for up- and downshifted interaction. The. relevant k vectors belongto waves that differ in frequency by a very small relative amount Qlo and hence are essentially of equal length. Thus, the wave vector triangle is isosceles, and the Bragg angle condition follows immediately:
@B
=%
for @B((l
(3.147)
Figure 3.12 (a) Wave vector diagram for upshifted Bragginteraction. for downshifted interaction.
(b) Same
me Heuristic Approach
71
Because only one plane wave of sound is shown, the diagrams of Fig. 3.12 refer to the pure Bragg regime where no plane waves of sound in different directions are available to cause rescattering into higher orders. Whether or not this condition in fact pertains experimentally depends on the width of the angular spectrum of sound and the strength of the interaction. Figure 3.13, for instance, shows a very wide spectrum of sound waves (a) that, at high sound levels, causes considerable rescattering (b). Thus, K2 scatters kl into k2, K3 scatters k2 into k3, etc. Note that the scattered orders are separated by 2 @as was found before. ~ For a sound column centered at L/2 and of length L, the angular planewave spectrum can readily be calculated from (3.144) with x=O. (3.148) and is seen to be of angular width =NL. As said before, rescattered orders are separated by ~ @ B = W A . Hence the potential to generate many orders requires that N L S N L . This leads us back again to the Raman-Nath condition Q . 1 , which we have encountered before. In other words, from a
k-3
a
b
Figure 3.13 (a) Multiple-order generation by rescattering through (b) wide angular spectrum of sound (From Ref. 14.)
72
Chapter 3
plane-wave interaction point of view, the potential occurrence of many orders in a thin sound column (Raman-Nath regime) is due to the fact that enough different plane waves of soundare available to cause rescattering. Now, Fig. 3.13 should not be interpreted too literally: rescattering is indeed involved, but the process is not simply one in which, say, first E1 is generated by means ofKI, then E by means of K2, etc. Such a picture would 2 L, be equivalentto a cascaded interaction of successive sound cells of width each one acting on a particular order generatedby the preceding one. That is obviously not the real physical situation: there is only one interaction region of length L. In reality, the situation is more complicated and, as we will see later, can only be fully explained in terms of scattering paths (Feynman diagrams) that illustrate what happens inside that single interaction region. Nevertheless, the diagram of Fig. 3.13 is a useful guide to understanding the physical mechanisms behind the phenomena of multipleorder generation.
3.3.3
Plane-WaveWeakInteractionFormalism
In weak interaction, rescattering doesnot occur and only the three orders 0, + 1, and - 1 are involved. This is evident from the single incident plane-wave case described in (3.32-3.34).Is it possibleto say anything of the strengthof the interaction in the incident plane-wave spectrum case, i.e., to derived a quantitative formalism? Here, wehave to proceed very cautiously, The diagrams of Fig. 3.12 describe a global interaction; hence, they tell us nothing about whatgoes on inside the interaction region. We might, however, at this point in heuristic analysis be able at least describe the our to outgoing plane-wave spectrum of the light (i.e., the light field at +m) in terms of the incident spectrum and the angular plane-wave spectrum of the sound. As for the light, we shall therefore use the spectra EO($; +W), ,!?I($; +m), and E-I($; +W) as defined in Sec. 3.3.1. Such spectra could be deduced,by means of (3.139), from measurements outside the interaction region,z=m. at To lighten the notation, we write these spectra as EO($), El($), and I?-I($). Theydefine, through (3.145 , virtual (i.e.,back-projected)lightfields EV'(x; m), E'['(x; W), and E(!'](x; m), along the X axis at the origin. As explained before, E(')(x;z) means "back-projected from z." For brevity, we write Eb"'(x),&'(X), and E?'l(x), for the fields back-projected from infinity. Note that the propagation Ei only pertainsto the unperturbed mediumso of that Ei($; Z ) = E i ( @ ) and E!")(x, Z)=Ei(X,0) for all z. This was explained in connection with (3.145) and (3.146).
73
The virtual phasor quantities corresponding the virtual fields are given to by E'" (x;f)=EP(x) 0 Ef)(x;f)=Ef)(x) (3.150) exp(jkQt) where k=l, -1. The virtual fields, when propagated forward in the unperturbed medium, will uniquely describe the situation to the right, at z=w, of the interaction region. Thus, these fields describe the final results of the interaction. Our present formalism (i.e., the wave vector diagram) cannot describe what really goes on inside the interaction region. Outgoing plane-wave spectra or, alternatively, virtual fields are all we can calculate and all we really need at present. In what follows, we shall assume weak interaction only, so that the 0) incident light is depleted andhence~o($)=~i($),ES"'(x)=El')(x)=Eo(x, not =Ei(X, 0). Now, in accordance with the wave vector diagramof Fig. 3.12(a), it seems reasonable try a first-order interaction description of the form to (3.151) where CI is an interaction constant. Equation (3.151)visualized is symbolicallyinFig.3.14(a). Inorder to find Cl, letusanalyze the configuration of Fig. 3.11 for which we already know the weak interaction result from (3.132). The obliquely incident field is given by (3.43) as
&')(x)=Ei(x, O)=Ei exp(-jk@ox) (3.152)
(3.149)
Using this in (3.146)and remembering that &$), we obtain (3.153)

so that
(3.154) From (3.148) we find (3.155)
74
Chapter 3
b
Figure 3.14 (a) Wave vectors used in weak upshifted plane wave interaction formalism. (b) Same for downshifted interaction.

75
or using the relations between$ qb, and $B implied by the delta function: ,
kl($1 CISLsin{ ( $ o +m&] = h
-jK(@o 2
+$&l
(3.157)
($-$;2$d] Substituting (3.157) into (3.145), we find that (3.157) defines the following virtual field at the origin:
x exP[-jk(@Oi 2$B)xl -
We recognize (3.158) as a plane wave propagating at an angle (qb+2$~)and amplitude given by the x-independent part of (3.158). This amplitude is to be equated withE@) in (3.132). We then find
c,=--jkC
4
so that (3.151) may be written
(3.159)
3.14(b)], we find similarly For the downshifted case [Fig.
8-,($))=-0.25jkC,!?(-$-$~)&$+2$~)
(3.161)
As will be shown later, the heuristically obtained relations (3.160) and (3.161) are in perfect agreement with those derived formally from the wave equation. They enable us to calculate the weak interaction of arbitrary sound and light fields.
76
Chapter 3
Some interesting properties and applications follow directly from (3.160) and (3.161). We will discuss three of these here, taking (3.160) as our standard equation.
Invariance of Oberved DiffHcted Light Intensity Patternto an X Displacement of the Incident Light Beam
Let Ed$) correspond to a finite light beam of some sort, centered at the origin, with its electric field along the X axis given by Ei(x, 0). This will result in a diffracted spectrum ,??I($) whose corresponding virtual field along the Xaxis can be calculated from (3.145) (beam) E ~ ) ( x ) Now, let us move the center of incident beam up to X = X O . Its angular spectrum is then given by (3.162) If we substitute this into (3.160), it is readily seen that the angular spectrum of the diffracted beam is given by
where we used the relation $B=A/~A.. With (3.145) we find that the virtual diffracted beam itself is given by now E(')(x-XO) exp(-jfio) I
(3.164)
i.e., it is displaced by the same amount as the incident beam without undergoing a change in shape. The only effect is phase shift by -&o a as a result of the incidentbeam intersecting the sound field at a different location. Thus, from an experimental point ofview, the appearance (i.e., the intensity pattern) of the diffracted beam in weak interaction is invarianta to displacement of the incident beam along the axis. z
Measurement of the Sound Field Radiation Pattern
Let E,($) represent a plane wave incident at an angle $ .Its field along the X 0 axis is given by (3.165) -jk&) exp( E,(x, 0)=E/

With (3.139) we find that
77
(3.166)
With (3.160) we find that the diffracted planewave is represented by

(3.167)
Hence, it propagates in the direction & + 2 4 ~ ,as is to be expected. By measuring its intensity while varying &, the sound field angular power spectrum can be plotted, as was first demonstrated by Cohen and Gordon v21 A more detailed analysis would, of course, take into account that the probing field is a beam, not a planewave. From (3.160) it follows readilythat this makes little difference long as the angular width of the probing beam as is much smaller than thatof the sound field.
Bragg Diffraction Imaging

Let &e) have a very large angular width so that, relative to q$), may we consider it to be a constant. It follows from (3.160) that, apart from a fixed angular displacement and an inversion, the diffracted angular spectrum is a replica of the angular spectrum. Hence, by performing an optical Fourier transform, it ought be possibleto obtain a picture the sound field. This to of method, called Bragg diffraction imaging, was first demonstrated Korpel by [23]. Detailed descriptions may be found in Refs. 14 and 24-27. We will return to it in Sec. 6.7.
3.3.4 Strong Bragg Diffraction of a Broad Light Beam

In this two-dimensional case, a light beam of arbitrary cross section is incident at the Bragg angle on a thick sound column of width L (see Fig. 3.15). For weak interaction this case can, of course,be treated according to Sec, 3.3.3. For strong interaction we assume that the angular spectrum of the incident light is sufficiently narrow so that each incident and plane wave in E,(@ is subjectedto near-Bragg angle diffraction gives rise to a single diffracted wave E1(4+24~).Conversely, each plane wave E I ( ~ ) is generated from a single corresponding plane wave Ei(4-24B). The latter angleisequivalent to the incidentangle & usedin the treatment of
78
Chapter 3
I
L L -
Figure 3.15 Interaction of broad light beam with rectangular sound column.
near-Bragg anglediffractioninSec.3.2.3.According to (3.1 ll), the quantity A$ then equals &+$B=$-$B. Pursuing this reasoning, eqs. (3.122) and (3.123) apply to our present problem if E1 is replaced by El($), EO by &($-2$B), and A$ by $-$E. We find for the plus one order atthe exit of the sound cell
The Heuristic
79
where l ? ~ ( @ = l ? ~ ( &w)=l?~(tj, L), because the perturbed medium ends at z=L. A rigorous treatment will be given in Sec. 4.2.4. A practical example for a Gaussian beam is to be found in Sec. 6.2. Note that for vanishingly small v, (3.168) may be written as
- 0.25jkCSL
sindK(qj-@,)L/2
m z GE
(3.169)
in accordance with (3.160).and (3.155). The method outlined here was proposed independently by Magdich and Molchanov [28] and by Chu and Tamir [29]. A similar method for the near field has been used by Chu and Tamir [30], and was later extended by Chu, Kong, and Tamir to the far field [31]. The selective angular depletion of the incident plane-wave spectrum, as evident from (3.168), has interesting consequences,such as beam shapedistortionand less thanoptimal diffraction. We shall discuss these effects briefly in Sec. 6.2.
3.3.5
Diffraction by a Profiled Sound Column
The case ofa two-dimensional profiled sound column subject to plane-wave incidence in the Raman-Nath region has been solved approximately by Leroy and Claeys [32] through a perturbation expansion, using a modified Raman-Nath equation. For a Gaussian sound beam, they find a negligible difference with a rectangular profile as long as the cumulative phase shifts induced by the acoustic fields are identical the width of the Gaussian is and comparable to the width of the rectangular profile. This is intuitively plausible in the context of the SURA method, discussed in Sec.3.1. Mathematically, the case of a profiled sound column can be treated readily with Van Citterts method, discussed in Sec. A glance at Fig. 3.6 3.2. makesit clear that successive gratings do not have to have the same amplitude or phase. Variations of these parameters with z are simply taken into account by replacing S with S(z) in (3.77). Note, however, that this does not mean that an arbitrary sound field can be treated, because the method cannot deal with the case S=S(x, z). Only interaction with profiled (i.e. nonspreading) sound fields can be analyzed this We will treat the case way. of an amplitude-profiled soundfield first, because it has a general solution. Starting from (3.77), invoking phase synchronism for all orders, and for
80
Chapter 3
simplicity settingS(z)=IlS(z)l and 0 0 , we find
-= 0.25kC1S(z)l(En_, En+1) dEn dz
(3.170)
Remembering that k~S(z)~/4=kylArz(z)1/2, introduce an accumulated we phase shift
V(z) = 0.5f kC]S(z)ldz

Substituting (3.171) into (3.170), we find
"
(3.171)
dEn - 0.5(En-,- En+l)
dF
(3.172)
which, beingthe recursion formula for the Bessel functions, gives

E n =Edn( f)
(3.173)
V(L)=v. It is clear that for a rectangular profile The method outlined above used by Pieper, Korpel, Hereman [33] was and in the investigation of an acoustically apodized Bragg diffraction configuration. In that study, it was shown numericallythat the method gave correct results if the Bragg diffraction criteria were satisfied. It was also shown that Bragg behavior, defined as the complete periodic or quasiperiodic exchange of energy between two orders, was still maintained for large v, even when one of the Bragg criteria ( Q / v % l ) was violated. It is thought that this is due to suppression of the acoustic side lobes through apodization. At the time of this book's writing, no satisfactory analytic theory was available for this region, either for apodized or rectangular sound fields. Foraphase-profiled sound field there exists no general solution. Sharangovich C 4 has given an explicit solution for interaction of a plane 31 wave of light with a cylindrical wave front of sound in an anisotropic medium. We shall here give the derivation in simplified form [35], ignoring anisotropy. A converging sound fieldis shown in Fig. 3.16. In the interaction region, defined by a relatively narrow beam of light, the radiusR0 of the wave front is assumed to be constant, and the sound field is defined as
81
Figure 3.16 Interaction configuration for curved sound wave front.
exp(- j K x ) , 0 I I z L
(3.174)
where \~r denotes the relative phase at the edges of the sound field. Assuming Bragg interaction, we now use (3.101) and (3.102) with S=S(z), as explained before:
(3.175)
(3.176)
where a= KCl4. The above two equations can be manipulated to give
82
Chapter 3
(3.177)
A new variable is now introduced:

q=-jx(z-T) K L
2
(3.178)
(3.179)
Equation (1.179) is thestandardform of theequation defining the degenerate hypergeometric function [36] (also called Kummer's confluent hypergeometric function[37]) given by
d2y JY x-+(q-x)"py=o C1.Y dx
(3.180)
with x=h, g= 112, p=a2Sn21(2jK/Ro). Equation (3.180) has the solution
In where Q, denotes the degenerate hypergeometric function. the present caseq= 112 so that x1-q+6q. Now, according to (3.178) 6q has two roots, which, as it turns out, both have to be used [35]:
83
a
Raman Nath parameter v
12
16
Figure 3.17 Degenerate hypergeometric solution for interaction withcurved sound wave front, and comparison with eikonal-Feynman diagram method. (From Ref. 35).
A similar treatmentmay be applied to El. A and B may now be found from the boundary conditions Eo(O)= 1 and El(O)=O. The resulting expressions are extremely cumbersome-to the point where it is perhaps easier to numerically solve the differential equation, rather than use tabulated values of degenerate hypergeometric function. the Figure 3.17 shows the power in the first orderthe output of the cell as a at function of the Raman-Nath parameter v [35]. The edge phase is taken be to I,U=~TC. Comparison is made with the approximate solution by the eikonal-Feynman diagram technique, which will be discussed in Sec. 4.9.
REFERENCES
1 Goodman, J. W., Introduction to Fourier Optics, McGraw-Hill, New York . (1 968). 2. See, for instance,S. Haykin. Communication Systems, Wiley, New York (1983). 3. Olver, F. W. J., "Bessel Functions of Integer Order," in Handhook of
Mathematical Functions (M. Abramowitz and I. A.Stegun, eds.),Dover, New York, p. 721 (1965). 4. See, for instance,D. Halliday and R. Resnick, Fundarnentuls qfPhysics, Wiley, New York ( 1981 ). . 5. Raman, C. V, and Nath, N. S. N., Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., 2,406 (1935). 6. Klein, W. R., and Cook, B. D. IEEE Trans., SW-14, 123 (1967). 7. Adler, R.,IEEE Spectrum. 4.42 (1967). 8. Horn. M., and Wolf, E., Principles Of Optics, Pergamon. New York (1965). 9. Lucas, R., and Riquard, J. Phys. Rud., 3,464 (1932).
P..
84
Chapter 3
10. Rytov, S. Actual. Sci. Ind., 613, (1938). 1 . Berry, M. V., The Diffraction o Light by Ultrasound,Academic Press, New York 1 f (1966). 12. Defebvre, A., Pouliquen, J., and SCgard, Comptes Rendues Acad. Sc. Paris. B, 265, 1(1967). 13. Van Cittert, P. H., Physica, 4, 590 (1937). 14. Korpel, A. Acousto-Optics, in Applied Solid State Science, Vol. 3 (R. Wolfe, ed.), Academic Press, New York, p. (1972). 71 15. Raman, C. V., and Nath, N. S. N., Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., 3,459 (1936). 16. Nath, N. S. N., Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., 4,222 (1937). 17. Klein, W R., and Cook, B. D., IEEE Trans., SU-14, 123 (1967). . 18. Yariv, A. Introduction to Optical Electronics, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York (1971). 19. Gaylord, T K. and Moharam, M. G., Appl. Opt., 20,3271 (1981). .
20. Solymar, L., and Cooke, D. J, Volume Holography and Volume Gratings, . Academic Press, New York, (1981). 2 . Hariharan, P., Optical Holography,Cambridge University Press, New York 1
22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. (1984).
Cohen, M. G. and Gordon, E. I., Bell System Tech. J., 44,693 (1965). Korpel, A., App. Phys. Lett., 9,425 (1966). Korpel, A., IEEE Trans., SU-15, 153 (1968). Tsai, C. S. and Hance, H. V., . Ac. Soc. Am., 42,1345 (1967). l Hance, H. V., Parks, J K., and Tsai, C. S., . Appl. Phys., 38,1981 (1967). . l Wade, G., Landry, C. J and de Souza, A. A., Acoustical Transparencies for . Optical Imaging and Ultrasonic Diffraction, inAcoustical Holography,Vol. 1 (A. F. Metherell, H. M. A. El-Sum, and L. Larmore, eds.), Plenum, New York, p. 159 (1969). 28. Magdich, L. N. and Molchanov, V. Y., Opt. Spectrosc, 42,299 (1977). 29. Chu, R. S. and Kong, J. A., . Opt. Soc. Am., 70, 1(1980). l l 30. Chu, R. S., and Tamir, T., . Opt. Soc. Am., 66, 220 (1976). . l 31. Chu, R. S., Kong, J A., andTamir, T., . Opt. Soc. Am., 67, 1555 (1977). . 32. Leroy, O., and Claeys, J M., Acustica, 55,22 (1984). l , 33. Pieper, R., Korpel, A., and Hereman, W., .Opt. Soc. Am., 3 1608 (1986). 34. Sharangovich, S. N., Sox Phys. Tech. Phys., 36,61 (1991). 35. Yuh-Ming Chen, Acousto-Optic Interactionin Arbitrary Sound Fields,Ph.D. Thesis, The University of Iowa, 1994.
4
The Formal Approach
4.1
INTRODUCTION
This chapter is organizedmore in or less chronological order of development. First we discuss the conventional theories applying a sound to column: the coupled mode analysis and the normal mode analysis. The former uses the eigenmodes of the unperturbed medium, i.e. plane waves that become coupled by the action of the sound. This analysis ultimately leads to the Raman-Nathequations. The second approach uses the eigenmodes of the perturbed medium, which turn out to be described by Mathieu functions. Next we developgeneralizedRaman-Nath equations that apply to arbitrary light and sound fields in two or three dimensions. Formal integral solutions forweak scattering aregiven and then recast using the plane-wave spectra of the participating fields. A strong plane-wave interaction theory of arbitrary fields, restricted to two dimensions, is dealt with next, and leads to the concept of Bragg lines along which order transitions are mediated. Feynman diagram techniques then provide an explicit solution in the form of path integrals. The eikonal theory of acousto-optics leads to ray tracing techniques and ray amplitude calculations. By combing it with Feynman diagram methods,
85
86
Chapter 4
it may be applied to strong interaction. As an example, we treat interaction of with curved wavefronts sound. Finally, we discuss a vectorial treatment of acousto-optics based on Maxwell's equations.
4.2
COUPLED MODE ANALYSIS
We shall, in what follows, still assume that the interaction can be described by scalar quantities; later on, wewill investigate the validity of this assumption in more detail. We start from the wave equation for the electricfield, e, in two dimensions, X and Z ,
where uv and cVare the permeability and permittivity of free space, and p is the electric polarization. We assume that the polarization is linearly related the electric field bya to sound-induced time-varying electric susceptibility
where XI is real and may be negative. Hence,
The relative dielectric constant is given by

El0
=(l+xo)=d
(4.4)
so that
&)*=[l +x(t)]=[I +XO+XI cos(Q-Kx+$) (4.5) Assuming that IX,I<l, we may write
where the + sign corresponds to C ' > O and the - sign to C ' < O (see Eq. 3.10).
The FormalApproach
87
Substituting (4.3) into (4.1), we find with (4.4) and (4.7)
- d2e d2e +-ax2 d z 2
pv&,nid2e dt
It is now assumedthat @+Q, so that (4.8) may be written
-+--2 e pv&,no2d2e d2e d ax? dz2 dt

= + p V & , n ~ [ 2 n ~ ~ ~ A n ~ c o s ( i 2 t -d2e+ @ ) ] ~ - - ; (4.9) Kx &Writing the electric fieldas a discrete planewave composition e=C0.5En(z) exp[-jkz @,,-jkx cos sin @n+j(o+nQ)t]+CL (4.10)
assuming that the variation of En(z) is relatively slow (4.1 l ) and substituting (4.10) into (4.9), we find upon equating equal frequency and components, using the relation c , , = @ & ~ ) - ~ . ~ , invoking the small angle assumption @n+1=@n+2@~ (4.12a)
that, with (3.10) and (3.76a).

dEn -=
dz
-0.25 jkCSE,,-, exp[-jkz(cos@,,,_I -cos@,,)]
- 0.25jkCS * E,,+I exp[-jkz(cos@,,+, -cos@,,)]
(4.13)
Equation (4.13) is the plane wave form of the Raman-Math equations, derived earlier (3.77) by the heuristic CTGA method. As already remarked, [l]. it is usually written in the form (3.82) through the transformation (3.80)
88
Chapter 4
4.3
NORMAL MODE ANALYSIS
We shall for clarity limit ourselves to the case of perpendicular incidence and follow the original treatment by Brillouin [2], adapted to a traveling sound wave.We start out by assuming that (4.9) is satisfied by a discrete composition of normal modes. These modes are nonplane waves e, that travel in the 2 direction with propagation constants k,=a,k, where the an are as yet undetermined constants. The wave cross sections or profilesf, must be periodic functions of the total argument, Qt-Kx+& of the sound field, Hence,
The constant a,, should not be confused with the phase a of a standing sound wave, used earlier in (3.14b). Upon denoting Qt-K~+$=27 (4.9) becomes (if we choose positive sign for simplicity) the (4.16) Substituting (4.14) into (4.16), (4.15), using find and assuming that 1, we (4.15)
(4.17) where the mode numbern has been omitted. Equation (4.17) may bewritten in the canonical form [3] (4.18) where (4.19)
The Formal Approach
89
(4.20) The solutions of(4.18) are the so-called Mathieu functions. Those relevant toour problem are periodic for a countably infinite set of characteristic q-dependent valuesa= a&) that yield even periodic function f,=ce,(q,q), n=O, 1, 2, 3, . . ., and u=b,(q) that yield odd periodic solutions f,=se,(q,q), n=1, 2, 3, . . . The period of the functions equals T or 2n depending on whether n is even or odd. For physical reasons, the functions to be used in the present application must have the same symmetry and as periodicity (z) cos 277; hence, only the solutions cezn(q,q) are suitable. For large q, the ce%(q,q) look very much like distorted harmonicsof cos(277) [4], as shown inFig. 4.1 for ce4 with q= 10. For smallq, it may be shown [3]that ce(q,q)-D2,cos(2q), where D2,, a is normalization constant. The characteristic values U, determine the a,, through (4.19), and these in turn determine the propagationconstants k,=Gk of the correspondingwaves. Because the Mathieu functions are orthogonal and normalized it should be possible to find the coefficients C, appropriate to a particular boundary condition [e.g., e(x, 0, 0)= constant for normal incidence] using standard techniques. In practice, however,this is a cumbersome procedure because the Mathieu functions are rather intractable appear to have very few nice and analytic properties. For one thing, analytic relation between a and q does an not exist; one has to use numerical calculations or existing tables to find a (and hence a) from q. A partial plot of a vs. q for some cezr solutions is shown in Fig. 4.2. After the a,,s and cns are found, the normal modes with profiles ce%(q,q)
-1.2 I
77
27 7
rl
Figure 4.1 Typicalnormalmodecrosssection for q=10. Theinterval 0-27r corresponds to one sound wavelength. (Adapted r m Ref. 4.) fo
90
Chapter 4
a 4
Figure 4.2 Relationbetweenthecharacteristicnumber Raman-Nath parameter q. (Adapted from Ref. 4.)
a andnormalized
must be propagated, each with its own.phase velocity a , d k to the point z=L. There, they are to be summed in order to find the total field at the sound column boundary. The radiated orders (angular spectrum) for z>L can then be calculatedby an inverse Fourier transformas in (3.129). The equivalence of the coupled mode theory the normal mode theory and was first shown by Berry [5] and by Mertens and Kuliasko [6] using a method developed in collaboration with Leroy [7]. More extensive investigations, including the case of oblique incidence, were carried later out by the Plancke-Schuyten, Mertens, and Leroy group [8-lo]. Hereman [l l] has given a detailedand up-to-date treatmentof the normal mode approach, its solutions, and its relation to the coupled mode technique. He has also analyzed more rigorously the case of oblique incidence, which is much more complicated and requires the use of Mathieu functions of fractional order. A thorough discussion of Mathieu functions as such may be found in Refs. 12 and 13. From an engineering/physics point ofview, the normal mode approach is difficult to use and offers little opportunity for gaining physical insight. Consequently, we will not further pursue it in this book. Before proceeding with the next topic, it should be pointed out that the normal mode theory (modal theory) has also been investigated from the point of view of microwave concepts and analogies. Thus, Bragg diffraction conditions are typically illustrated by the intersection of modal dispersion
The Formal Approach
91
curves (U-p diagrams), and Bragg interaction devices are often compared with directional couplers. This treatment, although stillrestricted to rectangular sound columns (usually embedded in different mediaon either side)lendsitselfvery well to largeBraggangleconfigurations. It is excellently suited for readers with a microwave background because of the use of already familiar concepts. however, will not pursue itin this book We, and consequently not list all the pertinent investigations and researchers in will this area.A good description plus many references nonetheless be found in the articleby Chu and Tamir [14].
4.4
THEGENERALIZEDRAMAN-NATHEQUATIONS
We start from (4.1), but first extent it to three dimensions for greater generality d2p V 2e - p , . ~d2e = p,,,, dt dt where
(4.21)
d2 =-+-+- d2 d2 d.u2
a 2
dZ2
(4.22)
Generalizing the treatment of Sec. 4.1, we write

(4.23)
where r is a three-dimensional position vector. Also

(4.24)
and
(4.25)
so that, assuming x19 1, we find

(4.26)
where, according to the generalizationof (3.6),
92
Chapter 4
&(r, t)=Cs(r, t )
(4.27)
Substituting (4.23), (4.24), (4.26),
and (4.27) into (4.21), we find

at2
d2e d2e V:e - p y & , n ~ = 2pv~,no~s(r, t)-
(4.28)
where we have assumed, as before, that the temporal variationof the sound field is slow compared that of the light field. to In two dimensions, (4.28) becomes V:e - b&,n,2 -= 2 p v ~ , n o ~ s t ) -, (p
dt2
d2e
d2e
(4.29)
where
and p is a two-dimensional position vector in the plane. X-Z Just as we derived the Raman-Nath equations from (4.9), we now want to derive more general relations from (4.28) and (4.29), referring to more general sound fields. Consequently, wenow write the electric field as a composition of ordersn that, unlike before, are not necessarily plane waves
e(r, t)=COSE,(r)expp(o+nQ)t]+c.c.
(4.30)
For the sound field, write we s(r, t)=0.5S(r)exp(@t)+c.c. If we substitute (4.30) and (4.31) into (4.28), it follows readily that
(4.32) V2E,(r)+k2E,(r)+O.5k2C~(r)E,-~(r)+O.5k2CS*(r)E,~1(r)=O ) (4.3 1
The two-dimensional version (4.32) is of

V~EEn(p)+k2E,(p)+O.5k2CS(p)En-~(p)+O.5k2CS*(p)E~+~(p)=O(4.33)
We shall call (4.32) and (4.33) generalizedRaman-Nath equations because if, in (4.33), E , ( p ) is assumed to be a plane-wave propagating nominally in the 2 direction, i.e.,
The Formal Approach Eh)*E,(z)exp(-jkx and S(p)=Sexp( sin@,-jkz cos&
93 (4.34)
(4.35)
then (4.12) and (4.13) are retrieved as a special case, provided a slow spatial variation of En(z) is again assumed.
4.5
WEAK SCAlTERlNG ANALYSIS
If we ignore rescattering, i.e., we assume that only the incident light causes scattering, while remaining itself unaffected, i.e., Eo(r)=Ei(r), En(r)=O for Inl> 1, then it follows from (4.32) that the + 1 order satisfies the equation
V2E1(r)+k2EI(r)=-0.5k2CS(r)E,{r)
which, if we assume k r k , has the formal solution 5,161 [l
(4.36)
E,(r)= where
S(r)Ei(r)dxdydz
(4.37)
The configuration relevant (4.37) is shown in Fig.4.3. to For the - 1 order, we find a similar solution:
In most cases, we are interested in calculating the field far from the interaction region. Then,Irls-rl and [l61
(4.39)
where ur is a unit vector in the direction r.
94
Chapter 4
X
OBSERVATION POINT
r
SCATTER ING POINT
Y
Figure 4.3 integral. Configurationandnotations used inthree-dimensionalscattering
Hence, in both (4.37) and (4.38). (4.40) Using (4.40)in (4.37). we find
E,(r)= 8K
-S
kC exp(-jkr) r
I-
jjexp(~kr.u,)s(r)E,(r)dxd~d~ (4.41)
for ~ r ~ ~For the ~ 1 order. we obtain a similar expression, with S being ~ r -. replaced by S*. In two dimensions, X and Z , (4.36) becomes
vfE,(P)+kE,(P)=-0.5kCS(P)Ei(p)
5 the standard solution of which is given by [ 1 1
(4.42)
The Formal Appmach
95
where
and HOis the Hankel function of the zeroth order and thefirst kind [17,18]. The configuration relevant to (4.43) shown in Fig.4.4. is For klp-pl%l, i.e.. many wavelengths away from the induced cources in the interaction region, we may write
to Far from the interaction region p%,p, applying (4.39) two dimensions, we find with (4.43) (4.44) and
For E- ](p), find a similar expression withS* instead of S . we The weak scattering solutions derived above are not as easy t o apply as may appear at first glance. This is because both S and E: are propapting fields and can only be written down explicitly in very few cases. One such case is a Gaussian beam [19]. but even here the resulting expression is too complicated for convenient use. Gordon [20] has calculated threedimensional scattering between a Gaussian light beam and a rectangular sound beam, and McMahon [21] determined the interactions hetween
X
OBSERVATION POINT
Figure 4.4 Configuration and notations in two-dimensional scattering intcgraI.
96
Chapter 4
rectangular beamsand Gaussian beams. The difficulties of evaluating (4.41) and (4.45) are to a certain extent artificial. Both S and E satisfy the same kind of wave equation in two or three dimensions. Hence, given unidirectional propagation, if S and E are known across one plane (line), they are in principle known throughout the entire volume (plane) [22]. Why then should one have to use a volume (surface) integral in the scattering calculation as if S and E were arbitrary distributions? The answer is that one need not do so. As we have already shown heuristically and will now prove formally, for weak interaction in two dimensions the angular plane-wave spectrum of the scattered fieldcan be simply expressed by the product of the angular spectra of incident light and sound. Because each of these spectra may be found from the field distribution across a line, no surface integrals need to be used in this approach and, in two dimensions at least, the problem is simplified considerably. In three dimensions the situation is more complicatedbecause one incident wave vector of light can interact with entire coneof sound-wave an vectors, resulting in a cone of diffracted light wave vectors (this may be easily seen byrotating a typical wave vector diagram about the incident light wave vector). Although an explicit formulation is available [22], it is mainly conceptual andnot easy to apply. We will return to the full three8.5. dimensional problem in Sec.
4.6 WEAK PLANE-WAVE INTERACTION ANALYSIS

We limit ourselvesto two dimensions, Xand 2, and start from (4.45) that is strictly valid forp m . The left-hand side write as an angular plane-wave we spectrum of waves propagating nominally in the direction, to the right of Z the interaction region
(4.46)
If we use stationary phase methods[[23] and Appendix B], it may be readily shown from(4.46) that, for p=m,
(4.47)
where is the angle of the
wave normal to the point p.
The Formal Approach Writing

S@)=J$(y)exp(-jKzsiny-
97
jlYxcosy)d
(4.48)
($)exp(-jkxsin$- jkzcos4)d pr-uP=x 4,,+z cos $ sin , the integral in(4.45) becomes
(4.49) (4.50)
x exp[jx(k sin - K cosy - k sin $)]dx x exp[jz( k cos q5,, - k cos 4 - K sin y)]dz
(4.5 With the paraxial approximation, 1) may be written:
(4.51)
Making use of the relation between angles implied by the first delta function we can write the second one as8(-@,,/A+O.5A/A2-y/A) so that the total integral becomes
(4.52)
98 Substituting (4.52)and (4.47) into (4.45), we find
Chapter 4
(4.53)
EUsing the same method for I gives

~-1(@)=-0.25jkC~(-@-@~)~~@+2@~)
(4.55)
Comparison of(4.54),(4.55)with(3.160),(3.161)shows them to be identical, thus confirming the heuristic reasoning used in Sec. 3.3.3.
4.7
STRONGPLANE-WAVEINTERACTIONANALYSIS
Following Korpel [24], we will start from the two-dimensional generalized Raman-Nath equations (4.33) and write the light and sound fields inside the active medium as plane-wave compositions. For the sound field, we use (4.48); for the incident light field, we use (4.49), but the light fields generated inside the medium, i.e., &(p), we describe by z-dependent angular spectra
- jkz cos 4) d -
(9
(4.56)
Note that, as explained in Sec. 3.1.1, the E,,(@) are a generalization of the plane-wave amplitudes En(:) used in Ch. 3and Sec. 4.1. Substituting (4.56)into (4.33) and assuming that (4.57) we find
The FormalApproach
99
-[2jkcos@[
'En~'z)]exp(-jkxsin@- jkzcos@)d
+ 0.5k2Cj
jscn$-, z) (4;
4
xexp(-jkxsin@- jkzcos@-jKzsiny-jficosy)
~d[$d(:)+OSk~Cljs'(y),!?~+~(@;~)
xexp(-jkxsinq- jkzcos@+ jKzsiny+jficosy)
(4.58)
xd(3d(--)=O @ Y
We now multiply both sides of (4.58) exp(jknxx), where by knx=kSin$, and @n is a specific angle in the spectrum of E n . Subsequently, we integrate from x= -m to x=+m.Setting cos @= in the amplitude factor, we find for the 1 first integral in (4.58). (4.59) The second integral becomes,to a second order inf in the phase term,
where we neglect a term( K / k ) f in the argument of &I
and define
The third integral becomes, similarly,
(4.62)
100 where
Chapter 4
(4.63) and the same approximations have been made as before. Combining (4.59), (4.60), and (4.62), we find
x exp(- j sin y - jkz cos &
- j&qn-,Y2
2
x jkzcos@,,)d(;)
x exp(jfi sin y - jkz cos x jkz cos $,,)d(
X)
+ j&4,,+Iy2 2 -
(4.64)
With (4.61) and (4.63), it may be readily shown that k COS 4n-k k COS 4 n - k
COS
Qin-1~-K(Qin-4~)
(4.65) (4.66)
COS Qin+lS(Qin+4~)
Substituting (4.65) and (4.66) into (4.641, W find e

I
dZ
= -0.25 jkCk,,-l ($,, - 24.9; z)
(4.67)
The
Approach
101
where we have written siny foryin order to facilitate the interpretation and have left out phase contributions -jk$Ef/2 in the terms on the right-hand side of (4.64). If we now introduce coordinates
%+l
= z($n
+$B)
(4.68b)
then it is seen readily, with(4.48), that (4.67) may be written
(4.69)
j , where we have replaced q, by $. An alternative derivation of (4.69), based on graphical constructions, is given in Ref. 24. Note that the validity of (4.69) is subject to the condition for that the neglected phase term be small, i.e., Kz,,,,,$~~y~/241 the relevant range of 7 Equation (4.69) is the basic equation describing strong, small Bragg angle interaction between an arbitrary light field and an arbitrary sound field. It has a very simple and obvious physical significance that we shall now discuss. First, we note that the angular spectrumof each order is directly coupled to that of the neighboring orders only. Second, each plane wave of one particular orderis coupled to two specific plane waves in neighboring orders, i.e., those that are moving in directions different by &2$E. All this is to be expected from the wave vector diagrams discussed before. The characterof the coupling is best interpreted means of the diagram by shown in Fig. 4.5. In this diagram, each plane wave (i.e., one from the spectrum of each order)is representedby a solid line. The sound fields along the dashed bisectors (called the Bragg lines) are given by S(xL1, z) and S(X;+I, 2). Thus, the interpretationof (4.69) is that in each pointz, there are two contributions to l?. The first one is an upshifted contribution; it originates from &-I and is caused by the sound amplitude at (&I, z) on the bisector between l?,, and &-I. Similarly, a downshifted contribution arises from &=I, mediated through the conjugate of the sound amplitudeat (+ x, ;, z) on the Bragg line between E,, and &,+I. This interpretation is intuitively very appealing as the Bragg lines are at exactly the correct angles for interaction of the light, if they are regarded as pseudo wavefronts S(x2-I, z)and S(X;+I, z).
I02
X
Chapter 4
Figure 4.5 Diagram illustrating coupling between plane waves of adjacent orders
E,, through sound field along (dashed) Bragg lines.
To make the notation in(4.69)somewhatmore compact, we shall introduce the following notation for coupling factors: A quantity that upshifts from the (n-1)th order to the nth order we shall call S L I ;one that downshifts fromthe (n+ I)th order to the nth order we shall denote by S;+,. Thus, with (4.69),
These quantities are also indicated in Fig. 4.5.The rule to remember is that a minus superscript always refers to the conjugate of a sound amplitude.
The Also, because of the physical interpretation, quantities S and S+ refer the ; ;, to the same Bragg line; hence,: = &+I)*. This may be checked from (4.70) S with (4.63). With (4.70a)and (4.70b), (4.69) may be written in short-hand notation (4.71) where a=0.25kC (4.72)
The symbol a used here should not be confused with that used in the characterization of Mathieu functions (4.19). As sharp boundaries no longer exist in arbitrary fields configuration, our the boundary conditions must now be written
E,($;-~)=O
for n z ~
(4.73a) (4.73b)
&(4;-c9=E@)
For the discussion to follow, it is convenient to combine (4.71) and (4.73) in the following integral form.
for
n#0
(4.74)
for n = 0
(4.75)
It is of interest to consider the case of a single plane waveof light E,(z)exp( -jkx sin @,,-jkz cos A I ) in each spectrum of order n, proceeding at an angle inside the interaction medium. In that case, it is readily shown, by using (3.138),that (4.76) For the terms in the right-hand side of (4.69). then find we E,+, (4 - 24H; =) =
E,,,(
m 4- 24H -$,,-l
(4.77a)
104
Chapter 4 (4.77b)
Substituting (4.76) and (4.77) into (4.69), we find by equating arguments of delta functions the usual relations (4.12) between and also &S
"
dEn - -jaE,,-,S,+_, jaE,+,S;+, dz
(4.78)
[It will be clear that (4.78), including boundary conditions, may be written in integral form.It then becomes similar (4.74), without the tildes.] to Not surprising, (4.78) is similar in form to (4.74), because it basically expresses the same individual plane wave interaction. Nevertheless, it is important to keep in mind the difference in formalism expressed by (4.76) as that relates a plane-wave spectral density to a corresponding plane-wave amplitude., One particular case of (4.78) we have already considered often is the artificial one in which the sound field is a rectangular column extending from z=O to z=L. In that case, -j&) S(x,z)=S exp( from which it follows readily, with (4.70) (4.63), that and
Substituting (4.80a,b) into (4.78), we find
(4.81) With (4.65), (4.66), and (4.72) this may be written as
In (4.82) we recognize our version (3.77) of the Raman-Nath equations that thus appear to be a special case of the presently discussed more general theory, as they shouldbe.
The Formal Approach
105
Before proceeding with the explicit solution, we shall, as an example of the application of (4.71) and (4.73), treat the case of upshifted Bragg diffraction by a rectangular sound column. The heuristic versionthis was of discussed in Sec. 3.3.2. In agreement with that discussion, we assume that only G(@) El(@) coupled. According (4.71) and (4.72), we write and are to
is short for where The Bragg lines corresponding to the coupling factors S$ and S- are shownFig. in 4.6. They define the sound fields S[z($-@),z] and S*[Z(@+@B),Z), as indicated in the figure. With the sound field given by (4.79), we find readilythat
S,' = Sexp[-jKx(@- @ B ) ]
a@)
e@,,.).
(4.85a)
IX
a Figure 4.6 (a) Bragglinepertaining to upshiftedscatteringinto Similarfordownshiftedscatteringinto (4).
8 (4). (b) 1
106
Chapter 4
Substituting (4.85) into (4.83), (4.84), and in the second resulting equation replacing 4 by 4 - 2 4 ~on both sides, we find
a ~ * ( 4 ) / a z = - 0 . 2 5 j k ~ ~ ~ ( 4 - 2 4 B ~ ) e x p [ - ~ ~ ~ ( 4 - 2 ~ B ) 1 (4.86)
Comparing (4.86) and(4.87) with (3.1 13)and (3.1 14), we find that they are identical if the substitutions are madethat were discussed in Sec. 3.2.2.The final result is then identical the one found in the heuristic treatment, to given by (3.168).
4.8
FEYNMAN DIAGRAM PATHINTEGRAL METHOD
We will now proceed to derive the exact solutionof (4.74) and (4.75) by the diagrammatic methods developed Korpel and Poon[25]. The basic idea is by to reduce the recursive relation (4.74) by repeated applications until one of the terms on the right-hand side is reduced to contain l . An example will % make this procedure clearer; it is symbolically expressedFig. 4.7. Suppose by we are interested in According to (4.74). this quantity is contributed by &. to both & and l. Let us arbitrarily choose the 4 contribution (solid line) and , & E & leave l (dashed line) until later.Now, E4 is contributed to by & and l&.In the example shown, the l contribution is chosen and the Es contributions % left until later. In the next step, we arbitrarily choose &, etc. This process
7 6
0
-1
-2
-3
No. of Steps Figure 4.7 Typical Feynmandiagrams illustrating various routes of scattering from the zeroth order into the fifth order. (From Ref. 25.)
The Formal Approach
107
cowinues (dotted line) until we reach l. Now, according to (4.73,there are % three contributions to choosefrom. We select the knownone, &=kinc (arrow), leaving the other two for later. It will now be clear that the dotted line from point A on level zero to the final destination on level 5 is a valid contribution, one of infinitely many. Some paths starting at B, C, and D other are shown as examples of alternative routes. It will be clear that the shortest possible path has exactly five steps, 0 moving along a diagonal line from through 1,2, 3 and 4 to 5. The longest paths consist of infinitely many steps wander all over grid of Fig. 4.7 and the (perhaps crossing level5 many times) before terminatingon level 5. Such a procedure, which consists of enumerating all different pathways from the initial to the final state, and summing their probabilities (sum over within the context of his own histories) was first developed Feynman [26] by unique development of quantum mechanics. Diagrams, similar to those shown here, that symbolize the various possibilities are called Feynman diagrams. A good introduction to such diagrams and their applications may be found in Refs. 27 and 28. It may be readily shown that the contribution to along the dotted path in Fig. 4.7 is given by
(4.88)
JQ J-
where m is the number of steps(13 in this example). In cases where single plane waves are involved [see (4.7811, it will be clear that (4.83) represents one of the contributions to E,,, provided 6.is replaced by Et. Equation (4.88) represents a typical path integral: the exact solution consists of summing infinity of such integrals.In symbolic terms. an
kn(qk ) = x ( a l 1 path integrals) z

(4.89) Written as in (4.89). the solution looks deceptively simple; in practice, of course, the path integrals can only rarely be evaluated analytically. The beauty of Feynman's technique lies rather the fact that, frequently, certain in path integrals may be ignored because physical institution tells us that their contribution is negligible. An acousto-optic example of this may be found in Ref 29, one in a completely different field (the impulse response of acoustic
108
Chapter 4
transducers in Refs. 30 and 31. Syms has applied path integrals to optical problems involving chain matrices [32]. We shallnowapply the path integral method to upshiftedBragg diffraction by a rectangular sound column of a single plane wave of light, incident at the negative Bragg angle. Ifwe use (4.79), it may be shown readily with (4.80)that
Si-l = Sexp{-jKz[$o + (2n (4.90a) -l)$,]}

S;, =S*exp{jKz[$o+(2n+1)$,]}
(4.90b)
where we have used the relation 4=&+2n$~

As &= -$B, we may write for (4.90a) and (4.90b)
(4.90~)
S;-, = Sexp -jQ(n
-1)-
1 1
(4.91a)
(4.91b) For ideal Bragg diffraction, Q=m, and consequently any path integral containing Q in an exponential term vanishes because of infinitely rapid oscillations along the integration path. From (4.91), it is then clear that the only effective coupling factors are those connect levels 0 and + l , i.e., that
S,' = S
S; = S *
(4.92a) (4.92b)
This situation is illustrated graphically in Figs. 4.8(a)4.8(b), which show and some of the infinitely many contributions to the levels l and 0, respectively. (Note that all paths only involve these two levels.) For simplicity, taking to be real, we find readily that S E, ( L )=
2
I=O
(- j u ) 21f!S dzZ1 S dz2r-l .

0 0
r'
I,"SEidzl
(4.93)
n e Formal Approach
109
'
'm
a
b Figure 4.8 (a) Five-step scattering path from zeroth to first order.
path from zeroth order back into itself.
(b) Six-step
where we have usedthe relation

(4.94)
Similarly, we obtain for the + 1 order
In (4.93) and (4.95), we recognize the well-known expressions for Bragg diffraction interaction, thus confirming the Feynman diagram technique. 21 The caseof Raman-Nath diffractionmay beconfirmed in a similar way 1 5 .
4.9
EIKONAL THEORY OF BRAGG DIFFRACTION
The goal of the eikonal theory is to justify intuitive ray tracing techniques and to quantify themby calculating the amplitude of the diffracted ray.
l10
Chapter 4
At first glance, it seems rather strange that a ray tracing theory could be developed within the context of acousto-optic c/$fractiun, but we may convinceourselvesof that by the Gedanken experiment illustrated in Fig. 4.9 (borrowed from Ref. 33). The drawing shows a typical upshifted Bragg diffraction experiment, using sound and light beams of finite width. As we have remarked often before, such a picture is essentially unrealistic because of the diffraction of both sound and light that makes both beams diverge. This latter effect, however, disappears whenever k 0 , h-0 (i.e., k=m, K=m). The width of the beams may then be made infinitesimally small, in which case we call them rays. In the limit of infinitesimally small wavelengths, we may thus replace the upshifted beam interaction of Fig. 4.9 by the ray interaction of Fig. 4.10(a), with Fig. 4.10(b) showing the case for downshifted Bragg interaction. The next step consists of applying the ray tracing method to local interaction situations, e.g, the interaction ofan incoming ray with a curved wavefrontof sound. Figure 4.11shows a typical and self-explanatory example. It is taken from an article by Pieper and Korpel [34] dealing with strung local interaction through a combination of eikonal theory and Feynman diagram techniques. In present chapter,we will limit ourselves, the however, to weak interaction.
X
Figure 4.9 Gedanken experiment illustrating development of ray-tracing method. (From Ref. 33.)
The Formal Approach
111
INCIDENT RAY
DIFFRACTED RAY
SOUND RAY
SOUND RAY
b
of upshifted rayand (b)
Figure 4.10 Ray-tracingdiagramsfor(a)generation generation of downshifted ray. (From Ref. 33.)
Figure 4.11 Localdownshiftedinteractionwithacurvedwavefront (From Ref. 34.)
of sound.
112
Chapter 4
Following Korpel [22,33], we start with the generalized Raman-Nath equations [4.32] for EOand El, and the weak interaction assumption that Eo(r)=Ei(r)
V2El(r)+k2E1(r)= -0.5k2CS(r)Et(r)
(4.96)
Using the eikonal functions Y(r) [35], which have the significance that Y(r)=constant represents a geometrical wavefront, write we
E~(r)=IE~(r)lexp[-jkUl,(r)]
(4.97a)
(4.98)
where A(r)=k~(r)+K~(r)-kYl(r) (4.99)
It should be noted that the incident sound and light fields S(r) and E@) satisfy an equation identical in form to (4.98) with the driving term on the right-hand side missing. If we follow the usual geometrical optics treatment [35],valid for k, K = w , the coefficients of (l/k)O, (Ilk)', (1/k)2, and ( U r n o , (Urn1,(1/Q2 are separatelyset equal to zero. For the (l/k)O, ( l / K ) O coefficients, this results in the eikonal equations for the homogeneous medium:
IVY,{r)l= 1
(4.1OOa) (4.1OOb)
IVYs(r)l 1 =
which signify that the rays of these fields propagate in straight lines [35] in the direction of the unit vector
s=w
(4.1Ooc)
The Formal Approach
113
[Note that in the conventional treatment, the right-hand side of (4.100a) equals no rather than unity. In our analysis, this is already taken into account by the definition (4.97b), in which k refers to the propagation constant inside the medium. Also note that the s notation for ray directions and lengths should not be confused with the sound field s ( ~ , t ) nor with the , subscript S that refers to the sound.] Setting the coefficient of (Ilk) equal to zero eventually leads to the transport equation for the field strength along the rays. In the case of Ei, it can then be shown readily [35] that IEi(s)l=(Ei(s,)Iexp -0.5
le
V 2 Y i ( s ds )
(4.101)
where S is the distance measured along the ray from an arbitrary point so. Equation (4.101) essentially expresses conservation of energy a ray pencil. in Returning now to (4.98) and following the same approach, first obtain we IVYl(r)l=l expressing the fact that the diffracted rays also propagate in straight lines. To find the transport equation for lE11,we again select the coefficient of (llk), but this time equate to the driving term rather it than to zero (as in the case of Ei):
(4.
IEl(r)lVzYl(r)+2W~(r).VIE,(r)l
= -OSjkqS(r)lE,{r)(exp[-jA(r)]
(4.103)
Using the distances along the diffracted ray ratherthan the position vector r, we write
IEl(s)lV2Y(s)+2alEl(s)llas
= -0.5jkqs(s)llEl(s)lexp[-jAOl
(4.105)
As pointed out before, without the right-hand driving term the solution would be of the form (4.101).In our case, we shall try a variation
IEl(s)l = IE,(s)lexp -0.5
[ e
V2Yl(s)ds
(4.106)
114
Chapter 4
where the coefficient of the exponential term isno longer a constant, and so is an as yet undetermined pointon the diffracted ray. Substituting (4.106) into (4.105), we find
(4.107)
from .which IE;(s)l= 0.25j k C r IS(s)llE,(s)lexp[-jA(s)]

sb
V2yli(s)ds ds+E,(sb) where Sb is another point on theray. A logical choice is

(4.109)
(4.108)
IE;(s)I = -0.25jkCS ~~(s)lJE,cs>lexP[-iAcs,l a

x exp 0.5 V2yli(s)
[d
d ds r
(4.110)
From (4.99) it will be clear that, when k, Kern, the term exp[-jA(s)] will oscillate infinitely- rapidly. Mathematically, therefore, (4.1 10) may, in the limit, be solved exactly with the method of stationary phase [13, 231. The stationary phase pointA may be found by solving
(4.1 11)
which may be written
Vyl1(s)*VA(s)=O
With (4.99) and (4. 1 0 0 ~we find for (4.112) )~ s1-(Kss+ksi)=k
(4.112)
(4.1 13)
where ss, Si, and SI are unit vectors in the direction of the sound ray, the incident light ray, and the diffracted lightray.
The Formal Approach
115
It may be shown [22,23] that the only solution to (4.1 13) satisfying the one ray through one point condition given by is
In (4.1 14) we recognize a local wave vector triangle, as is obvious from the construction in Fig. 4.12. Thus, (4.114) defines a locus of ray-crossing interaction points and hence proves the validity of the heuristic method illustrated in Fig.4.10. We will return to the actual use of the method later. It next remains to calculate the amplitudeof the diffracted ray. Let us, for simplicity, equate the point on the diffracted ray with the stationary phase sa point A shown in Fig. 4.12. According to the method of stationary phase [23], the solutionof (4.1 10) is then given by
IEl(s)l=O
for scs,
(4.1 15)
and (E;(s)( -0.25 jkC(s(sa)~~Ei(sa)lexp[-j,4(sa)-$] =

(4,116)
for s>sa and (C32Al~s2)sa>0. For )E ](S)] to be a positive real quantity, it necessary that A&)= -3d4 is if C>O and + d 4 if CcO. The phase of E] then follows directly from(4.99). Hence, at the interaction point A , the amplitude of the generated diffracted ray is given by
(4.1 17)
after which the amplitude varies along the according to (4.106). ray If, at the stationary phase point, ~3~A(s)lC3s~<O, readily be shown it may that
A($@)=z
i f C > O or - i f C C 0
3?r 4
(4,118)
116
Chapter 4
Figure 4.12 Wave vector triangle diagram in localinteraction. (From Ref 33.)
and
The case of downshifted interaction maybe treated similarly, the only sr difference being that y ( )in (4.99) is to be replaced by -ys(r)with a subsequent change of (4.1 14)to read
-Kss+ks*=ks-1
(4.120)
as is to be expected. We started out with the theory sketched from above (4.32) that applies to three dimensions. It is clear that by starting from (4.33), entirely analogous results would have been obtained in two dimensions, through replacing p. r by It is of interest to briefly consider an actual application of the acoustooptical eikonal theory. Figure 4.13 shows a two-dimensional configuration in which a cylindrical wave of sound interacts with a ray of light at the stationary phase point A . It is assumed that the Bragg angles 4~ are very small so that to all intents and purposes the S axis (the S here not to be confused with the complex sound amplitude) coincides with the axis, i.e., X
a/aEa/ax.
The Formal Approach
117
Figure 4.13 Two-dimensional upshifted interaction diagram used to calculate amplitude of ray diffracted by curved wavefront ofsound.
According to (4.110), we must now calculate a2A/ax2.From (4.93) it is clear that, apart from multiplicative factors, A(p) contains two plane wavefronts Yl(p), Yz{p)and one curved wavefront Ys(p).For the first two, the curvature a2Y/ax2is evidently zero. The sound eikonal function is given b Y
Ys(P)=P
(4.121)
and, in the neighborhood of A , may be written

Ys(x) ( R 2+ x ) ~ . R + =
0 . 5 ~ ~ R
(4.122)
Hence,
(4.123)
118
Chapter 4
With (4.123), (4.99), and (4.117), we find readily the diffracted light amplitude at A
If we compare (4.124) with the weak interaction version v a 0 ) of (3.1 lo), it ( is easily seen, with v=kCLIq2, that we may define an effective interaction length LI It will be intuitively clear that the eikonal theory becomes less accurateif there are significant variations in sound amplitude over the length LI, for instance, if the curved sound wavefront is truncated a length smaller to than LI. More details may be found in Ref. 34. Note that in the pure geometric optics, limit ha0 and the effective interaction length becomes infinitesimally small, so that we may now speak of interaction points.
=m.
4.10
STRONG INTERACTION WITH CURVED SOUND WAVEFRONTS
Having at our disposal a Feynman diagram theory for strong interaction (with path integrals that are difficult to evaluate) and an eikonal theory of weak interaction, it is reasonable to ask whether these two approaches could be combined into an eikonal theory for strong interaction. The first step toward this goal was taken by Pieper and Korpel [34], who assumed single Bragg interaction with a curved sound wavefront similar 4.13, but for to Fig. downshifted interaction. Their general configuration is shown in Fig. 4.14. Downshifted interaction is involved with the point shown the only interaction point on the wavefront. The different Feynman diagrams leading from the zeroth order back to itself or to the - 1 order are shown in Fig. 4.15. The sound is modeled as
S(x, z)= S(z) = So exp
(4.125)
where L is the length of the interaction region to z=L), and (z=O
{=(.-g)
(4.126)
The Formal Approach
119
Figure 4.14 Ray interaction with curved sound wavefront. (From Ref
34.)
, I - 1
I I
I I I I I
21
22
23
Figure 4.15 Feynman diagrams for generation of the -1 order. (From Ref. 34.)
120
Chapter 4
It is assumed that the incident light beam is narrow the incident angle and small, so that within the interaction region the curvature of the sound wavefront is substantially constant. In other words, the sound field is a phase-profiled column. The coupling factors S21 and S6 that mediate the transition from orders -1 to 0 and 0 to -1 (see Secs. 4.6 and 4.7) are given b Y
S2 1 =Soexp(+&)
(4.127) (4.128)
Sij=Soexp(-&)
where (4.129) Let us now lookat a typical Feynman diagrampath integral, for example, the one labeled3 on Fig. 4.15. With the notation of (4.88), we may write for the path integral
x exp[-jy(z)]dz dz, dz2

0
(4.130)
We now apply the stationary phase method (Appendix B) to the first integral (in z) of (4.130). With (4.128) it is easily found that the stationary phase point z2 is given by (4.131) As can be seen from Fig. 4.14, this represents exactly the local interaction point arrived at by ray tracing. The value of the first integral be readily may found by applying the stationary phase method with (4.132)
The Formal Approach
121
where U(ZI-Z,) is a unit step function, indicating that the stationary phase point must be within the integration interval (z1>zs) for the integral not to vanish. Now, if (4.132) is substituted into (4.130) and the integral over ZI is evaluated on a stationary phase basis, we'll find the same stationary phase point as before, and
pexP[+iv(Zl)l~exP[-iv(z)ldz
0 0
d.1 =
im ~ ( O ) ~ (- zG ,>
(4.134)
1 =-A&U(z,-z,)
2
where we have used the property U(O)=1/2. Proceeding in this manner it is easily shown from(4.130) that
x exp[-jyl(z)]dz dz, dz2

0
(4.135)
By summing over all odd-numbered paths 1, 3, 5, etc., in Fig. 4.15, we find finally
so that
where
(4.137)
and v=2aS0L is the Raman-Nath parameter.
122
Chapter 4
In the same waywe can evaluate the sum of the integrals involving all even numbered paths to obtain (4.138) Note that IE-1I2+Eo2=1. Note also that the phase of the (conjugate) sound fieldpreserved is in the diffracted light through the factor + exp[-jw(zs)]. For b e 1 (using order 1rather than - 1and setting z,=O as in Fig. 4.13) we again find the expression for lE-11 (4.124) of the previous section. In Ref. 36 the concept of local interaction is heuristically extended to multiple interaction points. A typical configuration is shown in Fig. 4.16. Interaction points A, B, C, and D are found by simpleray tracing techniques, discussed before. The converging sound field is modeled as a phase-profiled beam with constant phase curvature (4.139)
Figure 4.16 Multiple interactionpointsoncurvedsound
wavefronts. (From
Ref. 36.)
The Formal Approach
123
where y = K h is the edge phase as shown in Fig. 4.16. As with a flat sound wavefront, a Q factor is defined as
Q=K
~ L
(4.140)
It will be seen from Fig. 4.16 that the interaction points are separatedby 2Rqb. The number of potential interaction points is thus given by L / ( ~ R ~ B , which may be shown to equal 8lyl/Q. The number of actual interaction points and their locations depend on the angle incidence. If, for example, of the incident ray is rotated clockwise, then the interaction points are as well, as shown in Fig. 4.17. It is assumed in Ref36 that the interaction points are independenttheir if separation 2Rqb is substantially greater than the effective local interaction length may expressed the This be by condition that the separation divided by the interaction length much greaterthan 1: is
(4.141)
It is further assumed that the interaction at independent points is determined by a diffraction efficiency 7 based on (4.136):
Ix
I I
I
\\\
sound
Figure 4.17 As Fig. 4.16, but with oblique incidence of the light.(From Ref. 36.)
124
Chapter 4
(4.142) The heuristic conjectures of Ref. 35 were confirmed by simulation with an effective numerical algorithm to be discussed in Sec.5.8. Figure 4.1 8 shows a simulation for a configuration with Q=50, ty=50, v=27r, and qhinc=-4@B. There are 8 potential interaction points-the interaction length L=16Ro@~-and the spacing between them equals the in (4.141)]. In spite of this the effective interaction length [i.e., Q/4*=1 interaction points appearto be largely independent, as the measured powers in the different orders are in close agreement with (4.141). Note that the growth length of each order roughly equals their separation, and hence equals the effective interaction length. In Fig. 4.19 the same parameters apply, but the incident ray is rotated counterclockwise by 8 @ ~ . shift of The the interaction points in Fig.4.19 is found to have the same value (one-half as the interaction length 16@~) conjectured. of References 37 and 38 give a rigorous treatment of multiple plane-wave interaction and prove that the geometrically determined points coincide with the stationary phase points in the corresponding path integrals. It is also shown that certain Feynman diagrams are forbidden, namely those that would make rays go backward through interaction points already passed. A
0.20 0.18
0.16 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.00 0.06 0.04 0.02 0.00 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.0 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
c .-
0)
Normalized interaction length
Figure 4.18 Simulationresults for configuration of Fig. 4.17 with 4nc=-44B. (From Ref. 36.)
The Formal Approach
125
Figure 4.19 As Fig. 4.18, but with & = + 4 4 ~ . (From Ref. 36.)
typical allowed Feynman diagram representing progressive scattering into the fourth order is shown in Fig. 4.20. Reference 37 also gives some more comparisons between the eikonal-Feynman theory .and the numerical algorithm of Sec. 5.8. Two of these, applying to the configuration of Fig. 4.17, are shown in Figs.4.21 and 4.22. In summary, the central feature of the eikonal-Feynman theory is the multiple interaction at local interaction points. It would appear that extension to the general case should be relatively straightforward in those cases where phase curvature can be defined and the interaction points are separated by at least one effective local interaction length. A necessary condition is, of course, always that the total interaction length L be smaller (This condition isobviously than the local interaction length flagrantly violated for flat wavefronts of sound, as in a sound column; the eikonal theory cannot be used in such cases.)
mo.
4.11 VECTOR ANALYSIS

So far we have tacitly assumed that our equations could be written scalar in
form. In most treatises, this has conventionally been the case, although some important historical exceptions exist [39,40]. The aim of the present section is to derive the theory of acousto-optic interaction by starting from Maxwells equations, and then discuss under which condition the scalar
126
Chapter 4
0
W
k steps
all at z0 j steps
Figure 4.20 Typical allowed Feynman diagram for progressive scattering into the fourth order. (From Ref. 38.)
1.o
7
0.8
0.6
g
2
0.4
0.2
( 1
$ ... a -
00 . 0
10
20
30
Raman Nath parameter v
Figure 4.21 Powerin - 1 orderatthe exit of theconfiguration of Fig. 4.18. (From Ref. 38.)
The Formal Approach

1.o
0
L
127
g 0
W
L
al
0.8
0.6
m 2
W
2 Q
0.4
0.2
0.0 0
10
20
30
Raman Nath parameterv
Figure 4.22 Power in order 0 at the exit of configuration of Fig. 4.19. From Ref. 38.)
formulation used so far is correct. Specific polarization phenomena having to do with the anisotropy of the elasto-optic effect will be discussed later. Here, we will still adhere to the simple assumption that the change in the electrical permittivity is a scalar function the strain (condensation),i.e., it of is supposed to be independent of the polarization of the electric field, and causes no cross-coupling of polarization states. Consequently,we shall write for the time-varying permittivity
E(r, t)=a+&(r, t)
(4.143)
where
E @ t)=EoCs(r, t ) ,
(4.144)
so that
(4.145) where the subscript r refers to the relative dielectric constant.Hence,
&(r, t)=0.5noCs(r, t )
(4.146)
a relation we have used before in (3.6) and (3.76b). We shall next assume that the incident field (as it would exist in the
128
Chapter 4
absence of any sound field) is source-free in the interaction regionhence and satisfies the Maxwell equations
Vxhi(r,t)=Eo-
dt
Ai(r,
(4.147)
(4.148) Vqei(r, t )=0 V-hdr, t)=O (4.149) (4.150)
where we have assumed that b = p V . When the soundfield is present, we may think of the total field as the sum of the incident field plus a scattered field
e(r, t)=ei(r, t)+e'(r, t ) h(r, t)=hi(r, t)+h'(r,
t)
(4.151) (4.152)
The total field must satisfy the relations

V x h(r, t ) = -[&(r, t)e(r, t ) ]
dt
(4.153) (4.154) (4.155) (4.156)
Vxe(r, t)= -pdh(r, t)/at V*[E(r,t)e(r, t)]=O V-h(r, t)=O
It is relatively simple derive the following relations for the scattered field: to
w r yt ) V x h'(r, t ) = (4.157)
dt
w V x e'(r, t ) = -pLy r y2) r3r
(4.158) (4.159)
V.d'(r, t)=O
The Formal Approach

V.h(r, t)=O
129 (4.160)
where
W , t)=Eoe(r, t)+p(r, t )
(4.161) (4.162)
p@, ?)=E@, t)[eXr, ?)+e@, tll
It is thus clear that the essential part of the scattered field is caused by an electric polarization p that, in turn, is induced by the time-varying permittivity d(r, t ) acted upon by the total field. To simplify matters, we introduce the Hertz vector t ) of the scattered n(r, field, in terms of which both h(r, t ) and e(r, t ) can be expressed
h(r, t ) = E ~ x V &(h t )
at
(4.163)
e(r, t ) = V[V d(r, t ) ]- &EO
d2d(r, t )
at
t ) must
(4.164) then satisfy [22,40] (4.165)
In order to satisfy (4.157)-(4.160), T(r,

V2d(r, t)] -
d2d(r, t ) = -p(r, t ) dt2
EO
which has the explicit solution (4.166) where R=lr-rl, l/c=d(p~,dV is a volume element of r space, and the integration extends over the entire interaction region. Substituting (4.162) and (4.164) into (4.166), we find readily
130
Chapter 4
Equation (4.167) is an integro-differential equation for and was first used e by Bhatia and Noble in their research [35,42]. A weak interaction approximation correspondsto neglecting the term withe in the right-hand side of (4.167). The fact that e and ei need not necessarily have the same polarization is due to the VV. operator. Let us investigate this more closely. In the two-dimensional configurationswe have most often used, nothing changes in the Y direction; hence, a/ay=O. If now the polarization of the incident lightis in the same direction, then
(4.168)
Thus, the VV. operator drops out of the equation,and, according to (4.167), the scattered light will have the same polarization as the incident light, namely in theY direction, perpendicularto the plane of interaction. In a general three-dimensional configuration, compare the terms we
z = - pvEOo2&ei k2Eei dt
E
d2(&ei)
(4.169)
(where we have neglected the temporal variation of with
relative to that of e;)

(4.170)
V(V*E~~)=(V~E)~;+~(V.~~)(VE)+EV(V*~~)
The first term is,at most, of order K%jed and the second one always smaller than kKEle;l. As it is assumed that K e k , both terms are small relativeto the a2/at2 term in (4.167) and may be neglected. That leaves us with the third term, i.e., EV(V-ei). We have used the paraxial assumption that the light nominally propagates in the 2 direction. Because ei must be perpendicular to this direction, V*ei is-at most-of the order ksinqlej, where $J is the maximum angle a plane wave in the spectrum ei makes with the 2 axis. Hence, EV(V*ei)is-at most-of the order k2sin$Jeil.The paraxial approximation assumes that sinqM1; hence this term also may be neglected. The same reasoning applies to e. In summary then, for our assumptions of small Bragg angleand paraxial propagation, theoperator VV. in (4.167) may be neglected irrespective the of incident polarization, and (4.167) reverts to a scalar equation. In the first Born approximation, we may write
The Formal Approach
131
where we have ignored the time variation E' relative to that of e;. Relating of E' to S through (4.145)"using the conventional phasor notation for e', ei, and S as exemplifiedby(4.30) and (4.31),replacing R by lr-r'l, and assuming that !2<u-we retrieve (4.37) and (4.38) as is to be expected. Returning now to (4.165) and adding to it the equation for the Hertz vector of the source-free incident field (4.172) we obtain for thetotal Hertz vector
T(r, t ) =nf{r, t ) + a ' ( c t )
(4.173)
(4.174) The total field e(r, t ) follows from n(r, t ) in the usualway:
d2n(r,t ) e(r, t ) = V[V x(r, t)] pveo - dt
(4.175)
Substituting (4.162) into (4.166), we find with (4.175) (4.176) Using the same arguments as before regarding polarization, we may again neglect the operator VV., both in (4.175) and (4.176), so that, using (4.143) and differentiating (4.176) twice with respect time, we obtain to (4.177)
132
Chapter 4
where e(r, t ) now refers to anarbitrary polarization component.Upon using (4.144), (4.145), and (4.27), it is readily seenthat (4.177) reverts to (4.28). In summary then, we seen have thatour previously used scalar formulation is correct in all respects, providedthat either (1) we have a two dimensional X - 2 configuration with Y polarization, or (2) that K&, the sound propagates paraxially in X, and the light in 2.As a historical footnote, it should be mentioned that the relative insensitivity to polarization was first pointed out by Brillouin [39]. It should once more be stressed that all of the above, strictly speaking, only apply when there exists a simple scalar isotropic relationship between the change in permittivity and the strain. This is hardly ever the case in practice; even certain liquids exhibitan anisotropy due to localized velocity gradients. Nevertheless, by suitable choice of crystal orientation and light polarization, most of the theory developed so far can be applied. By the same token, contrary configurations may give rise to interesting and useful polarization effects. We will discuss some of these later.
REFERENCES
1. Klein, W. R.,and Cook, B. D., IEEE Trans., SU-14, 123 (1967). 2. Brillouin, L., Actual. Sci. Znd., 59 (1933). 3. Blanch, G., Mathieu Functions, i Handbook of Mathematical Functions (M. n Abramowitz and I.A. Stegun, eds.), Dover, New York, p. 721 (1965). 4. Jahnke-Emde, Tables of Higher Functions, B.G. Teubner, Leipzig (1952). 5. Berry, M. V., The Diffraction o Light by Ultrasound,Academic Press, New York f (1966). 6. Mertens, R.,and Kuliasko, F., Proc. Ind. Acad Sci. A, 67, 303 (1968). 7. Kuliasko, F., Mertens, R., and Leroy, O., Proc Ind. Acad Sci. A, 67, 295 (1968). 8. Plancke-Schuyten, G., Mertens, R., and Leroy, O., Physica, 61,299 (1972). 9. Plancke-Schuyten, G., and Mertens, R.,Physica, 62,600 (1972). 10. Plancke-Schuyten, G., and Mertens, R.,Physica, 66,484 (1973). 11. Hereman, W,, Academiae Analecta (Belgium), 48 (1986). 12. Arscott, F. M., Periodic Diffirential Equations, Pergamon Press, Oxford (1964). 13. McLachlan, N. W., Theory and Applicationsof Matthieu Functions, Dover, New York (1964). 14. Chu, R.S., and Tamir, T.,IEEE Trans., MTT-18,486 (1970). 15. Papoulis, A., Systems and Transforms with Applications in Optics, McGraw-Hill, New York (1968). 16. Kyrala, A., Theoretical Physics,W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia (1967). W. J., Bessel Functions of Integer-Order, in Handbook of 17. F. Olver, Mathematical Functions (M. Abramowitz and I A. Stegun, eds.), Dover, New . York, p. 355 (1965).
The Formal Approach
133
18. Spiegel, M. R., Mathematical Handbook.Schaums Outline Series, McGraw-Hill, New York (1968). 19. Yariv, A., Optical Electronics, 3d Ed., Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York (1985). 20. Gordon, E. I., Proc IEEE, 54, 1391 (1966). 21. McMahon, D. H., IEEE Trans., SU-16,41 (1969). 22. Korpel, A., Acousto-Optics, in Applied Solid State Science, Vol. 3 (R. Wolfe, ed.), Academic Press, New York, 7 1 (1972). p. 23. Erdelyi, A., Asymptomatic Expansions, Dover, New York (1956). 24. Korpel, A., J Opt. SOCAm., 69,678 (1979). 25. Korpel, A., and Poon, T C., J Opt. Soc. Am., 70, 8 17 (1980). . 26. Feynman, R. P., Rev. Mod. Phys., 20,367 (1948). 27. Mattuck, R. D., A Guide to Feynman Diagrams in the Many Body Problem, McGraw-Hill, New York (1967). 28. Schulman, L. S., Techniques and Applications o Path Integration, Wiley, New f York (1981). 29. Poon, T. C., and Korpel, A., J: Opt. Soc. Am., 71, 1202 (1981). 30. Banah, A. H., Korpel, A., and Vogel, R. F., Proc. IEEE Ultrason Symp., p. 444 (1981). 31. Banah, A. H., Korpel, A., and Vogel, R. F., . Soc. Am., 73,677 (1983). l A. 32. Syms, R. R. A., Appl. Opt., 25,4402 (1986). 33. Korpel, A., Eikonal Theory of Bragg Diffraction Imaging, in Acoustical Holography, Vol. 2 (A. F. Metherell and L. Larmore, eda), Plenum Press, New York . (1970). . 34. Pieper, R. and Korpel, A., J: Opt. SOC Am., 75, 1435 (1985). 35. Born, M., and Wolf, E., Principles of Optics, Pergamon Press, New York (1965). 36. Korpel, A., Opt. Eng., 31,2083 (1992). 37. Chen, Y-M., Acousto-optic interaction in arbitrary soundjields, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Iowa, December 1994. 38. Chen, Y-M., and Korpel, A., .Opt. SOCAm., 12 (A): 541 (1995). l 39. Brillouin, L., Ann. Phys. (Paris), 17,88 (1922). 40. Wagner, E. H., Z. Phys., 141,604,622 (1955); also, 142,249,412 (1955). 41. Stratton, J. A., Electromagnetic Theory, McGraw-Hill, New York (1941). 42. Bhatia, A. B., and Noble, W. J., Proc Roy. SOCA, 222,356 (1953).
5
The Numerical Approach
Historically, numerical solutions first emerged for the rectangular sound column in the region where neither Raman-Nath diffraction nor Bragg diffraction applies. Most techniques solve a truncated system of RamanNath equations written in a suitable normalized form. We will show this truncation first and then take a quick look at the subsequent numerical integration. If less than six orders are involved, exact solutions are possible, this is and also the case for two orders with incidence twice the Bragg angle. Higher, at multiple Bragg angle incidence is solved numerically. A more physics-oriented approach uses successive diffraction along the lines of Van Citterts analysis. In the cascaded Bragg diffraction method, the interaction region is divided in successive Bragg diffraction modules. This technique is especially advantageous for phased array configurations. The split-step method, arguably the most powerful one, uses a modified beam propagation algorithm and may be applied to arbitrary fields. The Fourier transform technique is based on a systems approach to the problem with suitably defined transfer functions. Finally, the Monte Carlo simulation dependson a quantum-mechanicalinterpretation of the interaction process.
135
136
Chapter 5
5.1 TRUNCATION OF THE RAMAN-NATH EQUATIONS Writing D = -d dz
the general equation in the Raman-Nath formulation is given [see (3.82)] by
It should be remembered that (5.3) specificallyrefers to a sound field or Iqsin(Qt-Ki), i.e., S=-~lq 4=-7d2 [see (3.4)]. If now the truncation is from the order up to the Mth order with Lth
M30,
LSO,
L" +
N=(M-L+l)
(5.4)
then the truncated system starts with the top equation
This is followed by (M-L-1) equations of the type (5.3), after which the system is truncated with the bottom equation
The total numberofequations, N , equals (M-L+1). (5.3-5.6) are conditions for the set
The boundary
(5.7)
v 0 = VncGkO 41
where Sk0=0 if k&, and GM= 1 if k=O. The equations one finds in the literature are essentially of the type (5.3-5.6). They may (confusingly) however, vary in detail because of the diverse conventions and normalizations mentioned before [see remarks following (3.82)] and also because of the choice of
137
An important property of the truncated set is that

M
Cykty;= constant = wincwi'.c

k=L
indicating the somewhat surprising fact ofpower conservation in an incomplete system. Equation (5.8) may be proven readily by multiplying by with v k each equation characterized (D+jgk)yk, adding to it its complex conjugate, and finally adding all equations. This leads to c D ( v k v k ) = o , k from which (5.8) follows.
5.2
NUMERICAL INTEGRATION
The truncated system may be integrated numerically by letting dz+Az, dvk+Ayk, etc. This was first done by Gill[l], who also incorporated higher Taylor corrections inhis program to ensure stability. A more recent numerical integration without higher-order corrections has been presented by Klein and Cook [2].They state that for sufficient accuracy the number of steps P= L/& in thez domain must satisfy
P> lO0v
and also
(5.9)
(5.10) where nmax denotes the highest order containing any significant amount of light. In practice, according Klein and Cook, In,l equals approximately2v to for small Q and decreases with increasing Q.Some of the numerical results from Ref. 2 follow. Figure 5.1 shows nonideal Raman-Nath diffraction for perpendicular incidence ( Q = 1, QvS6); Fig. 5.2 illustrates nonideal Bragg diffraction (Q=5, Qh31.2). Note that in Fig. 5.1 the true zeros, characteristic of the Bessel function solution for the idealcase, disappear for large v. In Fig. 5.2 the periodic power exchange between the two main orders is no longer complete, indicating the presence additional orders. of Numerical investigation may, of course, also be used for the generalized equations (4.78). They have, infact, been so treated by Pieper and Korpel[3] in the contextof strong interactionwith a converging sound beam.
138
Chapter 5
1.o
0.8
0.6 0.4
0.2
0
3
V
Figure 5.1 NonidealRaman-Nathdiffraction (Q=I, QvC6)forperpendicular incidence. (Adapted from Ref.2.) 0 1967 IEEE
The Numerical
139
5.3
EXACT SOLUTIONS
If the truncated set (5.3-5.6) contains fewer than five independent equations, exact solutions may be found. This is readily seen from the characteristic equation of the system obtainedby setting yk= Ckexp(pz) and solving forp . The resulting equation is, at most, of the fourth degree and hence may be solved in terms of radicals [4]. The simplest exampleof such a set is that for which M = l , L=O or M=O, L= -1. This set has two equations, the solutions of which, for h=&$B, correspond to up- or downshifted Bragg interaction, respectively [(3.103), (3.104);(3.107),(3.108); $s=-7d2]. Ifdeviatesslightly from the exact Bragg angle, the solution is given (3.168). by An exact solution for downshifted Bragg interaction, taking into account orders -2, - 1, 0, + 1, has been given by Jaaskelainen in a study of thick transmission gratings [5]. Figure 5.3 (solid line) shows the solution so obtained in the nonideal Bragg case [Q=& Q/vSl]. Note the considerable deviation from ideal Bragg behavior (dashed line). The open circles data are points calculated by the present author using Klein and Cooks numerical integration scheme [appliedto (4.78)] with 1000 Az slices and 17 orders.
1.0
0.8
0.6
1, /I;
0.4
0.2
Figure 5.3 First-order diffraction in the nonideal Bragg region @=S, Q/v>O.5, solid line) compared with the ideal case (dashed line). The open circles are data 17 orders points calculated by the present author using numerical integration with present. (Adapted from Ref.5.)
140
Chapter 5
A calculation similar to the one above was performed by Blomme and Leroy [6] for incidence near the Bragg angle. In previous investigations, these same authorshad treated oblique incidence for four orders [7], and perpendicular incidence for five [8] and seven orders [g]. In the latter two cases, the number of independent equations turns out to be three and four, respectively, due to symmetry conditions pertainingto normal incidence, i.e., y-n=(- 1)nVn.
5.4
MULTIPLE BRAGG INCIDENCE
It has been found that appreciable power transfer between two orders is possible not only for Braggangleincidence, but also for incidence at multiple Bragg angles. If the light impinges at an angle of'm+B, then a strong interaction appears to exist between orders 0 and -m, or 0 and +m, respectively. Naturally, the intermediate orders must mediate this power transfer; a direct m-phonon interaction would require the mth harmonic of the sound frequencyto be somehow generated, a process that is excluded in the experiments and numerical simulations showing this effect. Consequently, a satisfactory physical interpretationof the phenomenon is as yet lacking, although various exact solutions have been obtained. Alferness [lo] analyzed the diffraction efficiency of thick holograms operating in the second-order Bragg regime and concluded that 100% diffraction efficiency was possible. The analogous case for acousto-optics was treated by Poon and Korpel [ll], whousedFeynman diagram methods and took into account the orders 0, 1, and 2 (i.e., M=2, L=O). For incidence at the angle y 0 = - 2 @ ~their results were in agreement with the analytic solution of the , truncated set obtained by Alferness. The results may be summarized as follows:
(5.1 1)
I2 =0.25 ( c o s ~ - c o s ~ +2 - sinx-sin< )
K)
11
(5.12) (5.13)
where
(5.14)
The Numerical
141 (5.15)
5 Q ' 7
Complete transfer of power into the second order is only possible for values of Q=4mz, (5.16) integer m is an v=2z( 4n2- m2
0.5
formodd
(5.17a)
(5.17b) where n is a positive integer. It is interesting to note, inpassing, that the requiredvalues of Q correspond to the incident ray's intersecting exactlym wavelengths of sound. The exact expressions (see [ll]) indicate that for other values of Q not exactly equal to 4mz, an appreciable amount ofenergymaystillbe transferred. Figure 5.4shows theoretical (solid line) and experimental (circles) maximum diffraction efficiencies for the acousto-optic case [l l]. Figure 5.5 illustrates diffraction efficiency as a function of v for Q=14. In both cases, there is a reasonable quantitative agreement between theoryand experiment. It is intriguing that, as follows from Alferness' data, the + l order, although nonexistent at the sound cell exit, reaches an intensity of about 25% inside the cell. Benlarbi and Solymar [l21 have given interesting analysisof still higher an Bragg angle incidence. They use a truncated system with M=O and L= -n. Making somewhat ad hoc assumptions about slow spatial variations in yo and W-,,, arrive at two first-order equations coupling these quantities. they In our terms, their solution is given by zo=cos2(o.5~q~v) I-,=~in~(OS)qlv) where (5.20) (5.19)
142
Chapter 5
0.2 0.4 14 12
0
10
I
1
1 6
'
18
20
22
24
Figure 5.4 Maximum diffraction efficiency of second-order interaction as a function of Q. The solid line indicates the theoretical values, the open circles are experimental data points. (Adapted from Ref. 11.) 0 1981 IEEE.
0.6
l
V
/'
'L
0
Figure 5.5 Diffraction efficiency of second-order interaction as a function of v for Q=14. The solid line indicates the theoretical values, the open circles are experimental data points. (Adapted fromRef. 11.) 0 1981 IEEE.
143
For n= 1, we do indeed find back the conventional Bragg diffraction behavior. For n=2, the expressions do not appear to agree with those of Alferness [lo] or Poon and Korpel [l l], although the position of the first maximum is almost the same. It is claimed that the findings do agree with the results of Chu and Tamir [13], the latter results being derived in quite a different manner. Also, the present authors numerical simulations appear to agree fairlywell with the theory.
5.5
THE NOA METHOD
The process of solving the set of equations (5.3-5.6) has been formalized by Hereman, Mertens, and Ottoy for normal light incidence [l41 and oblique incidence [15]. They gave it the name NOA method for nth order approximation, indicating the fact that their set is always truncated by orders -N and N, i.e., M= N, L= -N. For perpendicular incidence, the system is simplified because of the symmetry conditions mentioned before, i.e., ty,=(-l)nty-,. The essence of the method consists of assuming solutions of the kind C,exp(jsz). Substituting this into the set (5.3-5.6) will lead to N+ 1 simultaneous linear algebraic equations forC,. For this systemto have a nontrivial solution,it is necessary that
Det(M-sr)=O
(5.21)
where M is a matrix formed from the coefficients of the algebraic equation set, and I is the unit matrix. Expression (5.21) leads to an equation of degree ( N + l ) in S, the roots (eigenvalues) of which are found numerically. The complete solution then follows in the standard way by finding the eigenvectors corresponding to the eigenvalues [l61 and imposing the usual boundary conditions. A variant of the technique [l41 usesHeavisides operational method [l71 and is claimed to be 25% faster in regard to computer time. Figure 5.6 compares NOA (N=7) results for Q=1.26 (solid line) with experimental results (circles) obtained by Klein and Hiedemann [l 81, and with ideal Raman-Nath behavior (dashed line). It will be seen that there is excellent agreement. The NOA technique is related a method developed earlier by Leroyand to Claeys [19], who used Laplace transforms in combination with a matrix theory to arrive at an expansion in Bessel functions. Laplace transforms have also been used by Poon and Korpel [20] for the calculation of path
144
Chapter 5
(i
1 0
Figure. 5.6 NOAzerothorderpredictions far Q'1.26 andnormalincidence (solid line), compared with experiment (circles) and ideal Raman-Nath behavior (dashed line). (Adapted from Ref14.)
integrals in the Feynman diagram approach, The m t b d ofchoice, however, appears to be the NOA eigenvalue technique or its operational variant.
5.6 SUCCESSIVE DIFFRACTION

This method, developed by Hargrove [21], is a filiitc increment version of Van Cittert's cascaded thin grating analysis [22] discwsed in Sec, 3.2. The increments Az are chosen small enough that for each thin grating, the Raman-Nath Bessel function solution applies. The orders generklted by a particular grating are rediffracted by the next one, A disadvantage of the method is that Bessel functions have to be handled by the computer. Nevertheless, the technique appears to give results in good agreement with experiment. Concerning these comparisons, Hargrove makes the interesting observation that usually only agreement in order intensity is looked for, not in relative phase. The phases are, however, very important if one is interebted
The Numericdl Approach
145
in the total light Aeld at the exit of the sound cell and, in fact, may well determine its overall shape. Hargrove gives example in which, for an Q=0.31 and u=4, the calculated intensities agree within 1% with those obtained in to the pureRaman-Nathcase. There are,however,marked deviations in relative phase. The effect of this becomes clear when all the orders are put together at the exit the sound cell to give the overall intensity distribution of IT, as shown in Fig. 5.7. It is obvious that the fieldis not just phasecorrugated as it would be (by definition) for the ideal Raman-Nath case. In fact, considerable intensity modulation is seen to occur. Notice that the highest intensity peak occurs at x=11/4, i.e., at the point where the sin(&) sound field is a maximum and the rays are focussed refraction. by The successive diffraction method just discussed developed was independently by Hance [23], who gives an interesting proof in which, in the limit of Az+O, Q+O, the classical Raman-Nath solution is retrieved. Pieper and Korpel [24] developed a successive diffraction method using increments thick enough to satisfy Bragg conditions. In the next section we will elaborate on this method.
x /A
Figure 5.7 Intensitymodulation of theemergingwavefrontfor Q=0.31, v=4, calculated by the successive diffraction method. (Adapted from Ref. .) 21
146
Chapter 5
5.7
CASCADED BRAGG DIFFRACTION
Following Ref. 24 we assume near Bragg diffraction into the -1 order. The angle of incidenceqk, differs from the exact Bragg angle by an angle A$: #B
qk,O=$B+A@
(5.22)
We have treated a similar case for the+ l order in Sec. 3.2.3 In the present case we find that
(5.23)
Substituting (5.22) into (3.77), and limiting ourselves to orders - 1 and 0, we obtain the following coupled equations: dE-l -= - j u s * Eo exp(jKiA4) dz dE0 -= -jaSE-, exp(- jKzA4) dz
(5.24) (5.25)
It shauld be remembered that the phase reference in (5.24) and (5.25) is at the beginning of the first sound cell. Because dealing with a cascading we are of sound cells, it is more convenientto use a sliding phase reference point z for the solutions, so that at the input of the next cell we automatically have the correct phase reference. Ref. 24 it is shownthat the coupled equations In for the ithcell then become
"
dE-li A4 - -jusi * Eo, - j K -E-li dzi 2
(5.26)
(5.27)
where the point Zi=O denotes the left (input) edge of the ith cell. Solving (5.26) and (5.27) subject to the appropriate boundary conditions, it may be shown [24] that the ith cell is characterized by a transmission matrixTi:
(5.28)
The Numerical Approach where
147
rill =cos(yiLi)+j-sin(yiLi)
2Yi
(5.29)
si riI2-ja-sin(yiLi) =
Yi
(5.30)
S; * ri21-ja-sin(yiLi) =
Yi
(5.31)
riZ2 = cos(yiLi)-j-sin(yiLi) KA@

2Y i
(5.32)
where
(5.33)
The authors apply their matrix method to a beam steering configuration where the sound fieldsS in each cell form a phased array. Figure 5.8 shows i the frequency behaviour of a four-cell beam steering array (solid line) and compares it with a simulation using a multiple-order numerical technique (dashed line). The Q of each of the cells equals 2n at the center frequency, and the Bragg angle condition is exactly satisfied at that frequency (F=l). Figure 5.9 shows the behaviour of the same device with angular offset of an 0.1 Bragg angle at the center frequency. The accuracy of the method is foundto increase with the number of cells used.
5.8
THECARRIERLESSSPLIT-STEP METHOD
This method is a modified form of the beam propagation or split-step type Fourier transform technique [25,26]. In the latter method the medium is divided into many thin slices Az, and the field is propagated twice, in a space-marching fashion, through each slice. In the first step, the mediumisconsidered to be homogeneous and diffracting. Consequently this step involves propagating the local plane-wave spectrum through the distance Az and calculating the propagated field from the propagated plane-wave spectrum.
148
Chapter 5
Figure 5.8 Variation of diffracted intensities (orders and - 1) with normalized 0 frequency F for a four-cell beam steering phased array, as obtained by matrix multiplication (solid line) and numerical integration(dashed line), (FromRef. 24.)
In the next stepthe slice is cansidered to be inhomogeneous and nondiffracting, i.e., it is treated as a phase filter, The field emerging from this second transit isthus obtained by multiplying the previous propagated field by the phase function that represents the pertubation of refractive index. The final field is taken to the next d and the process repeated until the c ie entire interaction region has been traversed. A compact mathematical treatment of this process may be found Ref. 27. in In two dimensions the technique may be described by the following operator equation [28]:
where M is the phase filter function describing the inhomogeneity: M=exp[-jk,&(x, z)Az]
(5.35)
149
Figure 5.9 Variation of diffracted intensities (orders 0 and 1 with normalized ) frequency F for a four-cell, beam steering phased anay, the incidence light offset with D by 0.1 Bragg angle. M refers to matrix multiplication and to numerical integration. (From Ref. 24.)
and & represents the pertubation of the refractive index. The multiplier I denotes the so-called plane-wave propagator and may be written as
H = exp(-jk,Az)
where
(5.36)
(5.37)
for paraxial propagation. The extension to three dimensions is straightforward.
150
Chapter 5
The algorithm just described has been applied to the propagation of a beam in a grating [29]and could, of course, be used in the case where the grating is a sound field. A simplification of the method for sound fields has been described by Venze, Korpel, and Mehrl [28].They apply a priori knowledgeof the properties of the interaction in the individual slicesspeed the execution of to the algorithm. It is known that, to a first order, in a thin phase grating the light is split into three orders that travel the small distance Az to the next slice. The authors now use the well-known fact that the three orders are separated in direction by twice the Bragg angle. This makes it possible to ignore the spatial carrier of the sound and concentrate on the envelope (profile) ofthe sound only. Because of the greater generality of the method, we shall discuss it in 28. some detail, following the (two-dimensional) treatment outlined in Ref. The pertubation 6n of (5.35) in the case of sound-induced refractive is, index variations, a function of time and space: &(x, z, t)=Cs(x, z, t)
(5.38)
where C = - O . ~ ~ ~ O ~ = O . ~ ~defined before, and s(x, z, t ) is the (real) as O C , sound amplitude. S(X,z t)=O.SSe(x, z)exp( - j f i ) exp(jf2t) ,
Z) +0.5Se*(~, exp(jfi) exp(-jQt)
(5.39)
where S e is the complex envelope ofa sound field propagating nominally in the X direction. A snapshot of the sound field is usedat t=O (other times may be chosen; into (5.39), find we Well return to that issue later)so that, substituting (5.38) &(x, z)=OSCS,(x, z) exp(-jfi)+OSCS,*(x, z)exp(jfi) The expression forM may be approximated by
M=l -jk,&(x, z)dz
(5.41)
(5.40)
if we make the assumption Ik,Sn(x, z)dzle 1. that Substituting (5.40) into (5.41), we find for the first operation ME(x, Z) in (5.34)
ME(x, z)=E(x, z)[l -0.SjkvCAzSe(~, Z) exp(-jfi)
-O.Sjk,C&S,*(x,
z) exp(jfi)]
(5.42)
The Numerical
151
The next operation to be performed in the split-step method to take the is Fourier transform of (5.42). Use is made of the following property of the Fourier transform:
.r-'[g(x) exp(-jKi)]=.r"[g(x)] with
k,+k,-K
(5.43)
We shall denote this by . ~ - , r - ~ [ g ( xwhere .?" is a "shift operator" that )] replaces k, by k,-K. Similarly, the shift operator replaces k, by k,+K. Using (5.43) in the evaluationof the next step ,F-'ME(x, z) in (5.34), we find from (5.42)
.S/?+
Y - ~ M E ( Xz)=.F-'[E(x, z)~-o.~~~"~c'.v-.~-'[E(x, , z)Se(x, z)]
-0.5jk,~Cr.v+.r-'[E(x, z)Se*(x, z)] (5.44) Refemng back to (5.34), the split-step method may now completed by be multiplying the propagation factor H and then performing the forward Fourier transformon the result. The method is readily implemented on a computer. A flowchart of the main propagationloop of the program is shown in Fig. 5.10.
next AZ
Figure 5.10 Main propagation loop o f the carrierless algorithm. (From Ref'. 28)
152
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 1 shows the simulated evolution a Gaussian beam incidentat of the negative Bragg angle ona sound column of width z=L. The maximum sound amplitude corresponds to a Raman-Nath parameter v=a and the Klein-Cook parameter Q equals 13.1. Note the depletion of the center of the zeroth order at the center of the sound cell, asto be expected at v=z. Figure 5.12 shows data points at the exit of the sound cell and compares them with the solid line that is the result of an analytical calculation (see Sec. 3.3.4 and its applicationto a Gaussian beam in Sec.6.2). The authors of Ref. 28 also performed physical experiments addition to in simulation and numerical calculation. The results show very good mutual agreement. It should be pointedout that, although three orders are in each small used step Az of the algorithm of Fig. 5.10, the final result will show all orders generated. This is demonstrated in Ref. 30 which treats interaction with a cylindrical sound wavefront. Figure is taken fromRef. 30 and shows the 5.13
Figure 5.11 Simulation plot of the intensity of the angular spectrum of the total 28.) field at various positions along the interaction length. (From Ref.
153
Figure 5.12 Analytical and simulation plots of the angular spectrum intensityof the total field at the exitof the sound cell, where V=T, Q=13.1. (From Ref. 28.)
05 .0
0.45 0.40
0.35 0.30 0.25

0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.50.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
Figure 5.13 Simulatedevolution o f threeorders of diffractedlightinthe interaction with a converging sound wave. (From Ref 30.)
154
Chapter 5
evolution of three diffracted orders in the strong interaction of a beam of light with a converging sound field. Note that the orders appear to be generated at specific positions within the interaction regions, in the order -1, + l , and +2. In summary, the carrierless split-step method is, when extended to three dimensions, a very powerful simulation technique for strong acousto-optic interaction of arbitrary fields. If the sound field is known only at the transducer surface, the conventional split-step method may be applied to calculate the sound S(x, necessary for the carrierless algorithm. z) Finally, a word about the time dependence of &(x, z, t ) , which was eliminated in the foregoing by setting t=O. Other values may be chosen to show the (periodic) evolution in time of the diffracted field. In general, with well-separated orders, this should not show anything new-other than that the orders are shifted in frequency. Where orders overlap, the beat notes between the order frequencies should show up, but this has not yet been demonstrated.
5.9 THE FOURIER TRANSFORM APPROACH

This technique, developedby Tarn and Banerjee [31-331, uses the notion of a slowly varying transverse profile (envelope) of the light field. Thus the phasor of the rnth order optical field at any point in the sound cell is represented by
&(x, z)= ye,m(x, z) exp(-jkz
COS
Qim-jkx sin 6 )
(5.45)
where Qim denotes the nominal direction of the mth order, and itsslowly varying profile (envelope).The incident light atz=O is describedby
and sin
= sin &,c
K +k
(5.47)
Now, rather than working directly with the profile of the light orders, the authors introduce the local spectrum these profiles: of
(5.48)
The Numerical
ea
155
w e ,m
=.
1,=mJye.m(x, z)exp(-jk,x)dx
(5.49)
It is now assumed that both and i change only slowly with and that the P z sound field in the interaction regionmay be written as exp(-jlux) S(X,z)=Se(Z)
(5.50)
In other words, the sound profile &(z) does not vary significantly with x inside the interaction region; a profiled sound beam is used as a model. In most cases this is satisfactory model. a A final assumption is that the configuration is such that Bragg operation can be assumed, i.e., only two orders (0 and - 1 in this case) interact. With the above assumptions, the authors find, upon substituting the various expressions in the waveequation
(5.51)
(5.52)
The boundary conditions pertainingto (5.51) and (5.52) are Ye,o(kx, O)=yinc(kx) ye,-l(kx,o)=O
(5.53) (5.54)
In (5.51) and (5.52) the first terms on the right-hand side express the propagation of Ye,o and Y~,-I the absence of the sound. Thus, these terms in describe the effect of diffraction. The second terms describe the interaction with the sound. In Ref. 33 the authors apply their formalism to interaction of a Gaussian light beam with waist W O with a diverging Gaussian sound beam, which in the interaction regionis approximated by
156
Chapter 5
where W denotes the waist of the sound beam, and R its radius of phase curvature. Substituting (5.55) into (5.51) and (5.52), the authors then solve the equations numerically by the Runge-Kutta method. The fixed parameters . are w0=2h, W = q Q=8,f,,,,d=24 MHz, h=0.128 mm and A=0.632 p Figure 5.14 shows (a) the profile the zeroth order (b) that of the - 1 of and order as a function of a (=v, the Raman-Nath parameter) and Xlwo at the exit of the sound cell, for a radius of curvature m. R=40 Figure 5.15 shows a similar case with R=4 m, and Fig. 5.16 with R= 1 m. Note how with R=40 m, the behavior with v is very close to that of the conventional case. Maxima of the - 1 order appear at v=lt and 3n, minima at 2n and 4n. For the smaller radii of curvature R=4 m and R = l m, the periodic behavior has disappeared, and the first maxima in the - 1 order appears for increasingly larger values v. of
5.10
MONTE CARLO SIMULATION
A s pointed out in Sec. 4.8, two-dimensional strong acousto-optic interaction

of arbitrary sound and light fields is, in principle, solvable by the use of Feynman diagrams and path integrals. Figure 5.17, taken from Ref. 34, shows the general configuration with the light propagating nominally in the 2 direction and the sound in the X direction. The arrows labeled n- 1, n, n+l denote the direction of scattered, upshifted orders generated from a particular plane wave in the plane-wave spectrum of the incident light. The dotted lines, bisecting the angles between consecutive orders, are called Bragg lines. As explained in Sec. 4.7, they play an important role in the scattering process in that the sound field along their length mediates the interaction between neighboring orders. The formalism expressing this is given by the recurrence relations (4.74) and (4.75), where, with reference to Fig. 5.17, we have
S+,- 1=S(&1,z)
(5.56) (5.57)
S-n+l=S*(Xfl+l,
z)
The constant a is a material constant:
1 a=-kC=--kn1 4
2p
(5.58)
157
Figure 5.14 Profile of the (a) zeroth order and (b) -1order as a function of a (=v, the Raman-Nath parameter) andXIWO the exitof the sound cell, for a radius at
of curvature R=40 m. Other parameters are wo=2A, W = m , Q=8, &und =24 MHz, A=0.128 mm, and il=0.632 p m . (From Ref. 33.)
158
Chapter 5
0.00
<
2.09
Figure 5.15 As Fig. 5.14, but with R=4 m.(From Ref. 33.)
159
2.99
Figure 5.16 As Fig. 5.14, but with R = l m.(From Ref. 33.)
160
Chapter 5
Figure 5.17 General interaction configuration with Bragg lines. (From Ref. 34.)
As discussed in Sec.4 7 by repeated successive application of . (4.74), can E, be expressed as an infinite sum of path integrals, the paths themselves being illustrated by Feynman diagrams. One way of depicting these diagrams is shown in Fig. 4 7 but a way more suitedto the present treatment is shown in ., Fig. 5.18. The scattering is from the incident lightthe fourth order through to the intermediate orders indicated. The path amplitude for this path isby given
&(k) = (-jaI6 jS:dz5 ]S:dz,
(5.59)
Figure 5.18 TypicalFeynmandiagramforscatteringintotheplusfourthorder. (From Ref. 34.)
The Numerical
161
where k is an ordering label for classifying paths leading from B;,, to &. The total scattering amplitude is given by a summation over the infinity of such paths:
k4= 2k4(k)
k=l
(5.60)
In the Monte Carlo method to be discussed, the evaluation of path integrals such as(5.59) has its basis in the interpretation of factors-jaSo+, -ja&+, -jaS2+, etc., as essential parts of quantum-mechanical probability amplitude densities. Thus, in eq. (5.59), the probability amplitude of a transition from order 0 to 1 during dz isgivenby - j a S t d z , and the probability amplitude ofa photon existing in order1 and ZI is given by
-j a
]S:dz
(5.61)
where Einc is normalized to unity for simplicity. The probability amplitude of a photon making a transition from 1 to 2 between 21 and zl+dz is -jaS:dz provided there is a photon available in 1. But the probability of the latter is given by expression (5.61). Hence, the overall probability amplitude of a transition between ZI and a + d z is expressed by (5.62) Continuing the argumentin the same fashion, we arrive at (5.59), i.e., the probability amplitude of a photon existing in level 4 at z. The authors of Ref. 34 add the following noteto their discussion: Naturally this picture must not be taken to seriously. At best it is a metaphor for the quantum mechanicalbehavior of the photon, a behavior that cannot be described by any classical picture. (For one thing, the probability amplitudes from to 4 must be added vectorially, 0 as if the photon traversed all paths simultaneously.) However, when used with caution, the model is of considerable valueinguiding the probabilistic simulation. A further discussion of this subject may be found in Ref. 35. In the simulation the authors divide the interaction region in N slices, as shown in Fig. 5.19(a). At any discrete point 1,2, 3 . . . N,. the photon may ,
162
Chapter 5
LIN
1
4
N
W
:+p
m
l
0 b
1 """"""""".._______.___.___..
0
m
2
C
0
m
1
Figure 5.19 (a) Transition points. (b) Transition from order 0 to 1 at m1 in pure Bragg diffraction. (c) Transition back 0 at mz.(d) Final transitionto order 1 at mg. to (From Ref. 34.)
make a transition from the level it is in . Figures 5.19(b, c, and d) show typical transitions for exact Bragg diffraction in a sound column where all S,,+ and S,- have the same value of SOand there are only two levels. Hence, the probability of transition p = -jSodz= -jSo(WN). The authors prove that for smallp (i.e., N95)the final results such a model in agreement with of are the known laws for Bragg diffraction. In the actual simulation a difficulty arises: The quantum-mechanical probability of a transition equals p , and of no transition equals unity. Obviously 1+IpI2> 1. This does not lead to difficulties in the quantummechanical model, because the probability doesnot have to equal unity total until all parts are summed vectorial&. However, in a simulation with classical
7'he Numerical
163
computers, if the probability of a transition is IpI, then the probability of no transition is automatically l-bl. The authors get around this difficulty as shown in Fig. 5.20, illustrating how the transition probabilities are handled in each transition pointof Fig. 5.18. The numbers in brackets indicate probabilities, while the numbers in parentheses indicate weighting factors. Thus, a nontransitioning photon withunavoidable(classical) transition probability of 1-bl isgiven a weighting factor of (l-bl)" to compensate for that. In a transition the photon is "multiplied" by -j to account for the imaginary probability amplitude. Whether a photon makes a transition at m is determined by a uniform random number generator, that generates a number between zero and 1. This number is compared with the value of in (5.58), and if it is found to be smaller, the photon changes its level number (label0 or 1) while being multiplied by -j. In the other case, the photon keeps its level number and is multiplied by (1-bl)-*.The process is repeated at the next slice, and after N steps the photon is stored in the appropriate bin (0 or 1) with its
.""""."""".""
n
Figure 5.20 Simulation of quantum-mechanical transition probability amplitudesbyclassicalcomputersforBragg diffraction. The bracketsindicate classical probabilities, the parentheses indicate weighting factors. (a) up-transition, (b) down-transition. (From Ref.34.)
Chapter 5
0 .o
1 .o
NORMALIZED SOUND AMPLITUDE
Figure 5.21 Bragg diffraction simulation with 10,000 photons and 100 divisions. (From Ref. 34.)
1.0
+
I
ORDER0
ORDER1
z
c
c
-PREDICTED
g
Lu
---PREDICTED l
0.8-
5
A
0.6-
2 r
U
0.4
I
0.2
c
i d
4
II
0.0. d 0 .o
NORMALIZED SOUND AMPLITUDE
l .o
Figure 5.22 Near-Braggsimulationwith A @ B = M ~ L , 10,000 photons,and 1000 divisions. (From Ref.34.)
165
.
C
Figure 5.23 Raman-Nath simulation for M=9, 10,000 photons, and 1000 divisions. Orders0 and 1 are shown. (From Ref. 34.)
proper phase and weighting factor. After this the next photon is processed. In the final step, weighted photons in each bin are added vectorially, squared (to calculate the power), and their number normalized to the square of the total number of photons used in the simulation. A typical result for 10,000 photons and 100 steps is shown in Fig. 5.21. The dashed and solid lines are the values predicted from conventional Bragg diffraction theory. The agreement is very close,but the results begin to deviate if the Raman-Nath parameters v774 corresponding to a normalized sound amplitude of 1. It is found that the number of photons used in the simulation is more critical than the number of steps. In the example discussed above,the probability densityp does not depend on the transition point m. The authors of Ref 34 also show a simulation for near-Bragg diffraction, where this is no longer the case (see Sec. 3.2.3). Figure 5.22 shows the result for offset angle ofM4L. an
166
1.0 r , +
Chapter 5
g z
0.40.4
0.20.2
' 9 9
.*
U ,
*
1 .O
0.0 0.0
. d
NORMALIZEDSOUND AMPLITUDE
Figure 5.24 Raman-Nath simulation for M=9, 10,000 photons, and 1000 divisions. Orders 2 through 4 are shown. (From Ref. 34.)
+
a .
Figure 5.25 Raman-Nath simulation with parameters that are the same as Fig. 24, but orders 2,3, and 4 are shown.
167
5.23 shows the transition probabilities and weighting factors in the case of Raman-Nath diffraction with the orders ranging from -M to +M. When
the highest orders are reached only down- (or up-) transitions are possible. Figure 5.24 shows simulation results for orders 0 and 1 , while Figure 5.25 shows orders 2 through 4. In summary, this simulation method appears to be versatile and accurate, although perhaps not as convenient to use as the carrierless algorithm. In contrast to the latter, it is notsuitable for three-dimensional simulation.
For the general case, more than two orders must be considered. Figure
REFERENCES
1. Gill, S. P, Office of Naval Res., Contract Nom-1866 (24) NR-384-903,Tech. . Memor., 58 (1 964). 2. Klein, W R., and Cook, B. D., IEEE Trans., SU-14, 123 (1967). . l 3. Pieper, R., and Korpel, A., . Opt. Soc. Am., 2, 1435 (1985). 4. Spiegel, M. R., Mathematical Handbook., Schaums Outline Series, McGrawHill, New York(1968). 5. Jaskelainen, T., Nuovo Cimento,26,439 (1979). 6. Blomme, E., and Leroy, O., Acustica, 59, 182 (1986). 7. Blomme, E., and Leroy, O., Acustica, 58,4 (1985). . l Ac 8. Blomme, E ,and Leroy, O.,.. Soc India, 11, 1 (1983). 9. Blomme, E., and Leroy, O., Acustica, 57, 170 (1985). 10. Alferness, R., . Opt. Soc. Am, 66, 353 (1976). l 11. Poon, T. C., and Korpel, A., Proc 1981 Ultrason. Symp., 751 (1981). l 12. Benlarbi, B., and Solymar, L., Int. . Elect, 48,361 (1980). 13. Chu, R. S., and Tamir, T., IEEE Trans., MTT-18,486 (1970). 14. Mertens, R., Hereman, W., and Ottoy, J. P , Proc Ultrason Int., 85,422 (1985). . 15. Mertens, R., Hereman, W., and Ottoy, J. P., The Raman-Nath Equations Revisited 11. Oblique Incidence of Light-Bragg Reflection, in Proc. Symp. the Ultrason. Int., London (1987). 16. Franklin, J. N., Matrix Theory, Prentice-Hall, New York (1968). f 17. Jeffreys, H., and Jeffreys, B., Methods o Mathematical Physics, 3d ed., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, Chs.and 8 (1966). 7 18. Klein, W. R., and Hiedemann, E. A., Physica, 29,981 (1963). 19. Leroy, O., and Claeys, J. M., Wave Motion, 6, 33 (1984). 20. Poon, T. C., and Korpel, A., Optics Lett., 6, 546 (1981). 21. Hargrove, L. E., J Ac Soc. Am., 34,1547 (1962). 22. Van Cittert, P H., Physica, 4, 590 (1937). . 23. Hance, H. V., Light Diffraction by Ultrasonics Waves as a Multiple Scattering Process, Tech. Rept. Physics, 6-74-64-35, Lockheed Missile and Space Co., Sunnyvale, Calif, (July 1964). 24. Pieper, R.J., and Korpel, A., Appl. Opt., 22,4073 (1983). 25. Hardin, R., and Tappert, F., SZAM Rev., 15,423 (1973).
168
Chapter 5
26. Korpel, A., Lonngren, K. E., Banerjee, P. P., Sim, H. K., and Chatterjee, M. R., . Opt. Soc. Am., 3 (B), 885 (1986). l 27. Korpel, A., Lin, H. H., and Mehrl, D. J, J: Opt. Soc Am., 6 (A), 630-635. . 1 28. Venzke, C., Korpel, A., and Mehrl, D., App. Opt., 3 , 656 (1992). l 29. Yevick, D., and Thylen, L., . Opt., Soc, Am., 72, 1084 (1982). 30. Korpel, A., Opt. Eng., 31,2083-2088 (1992). 31. Banerjee, P. P,and Tam, C. W., Acusticu, 74, 181(1991). . 32. Tarn, C. W., and Banerjee, P. P, Opt. Comm., M,481 (1991). 33. Tam, C. W., Banerjee, P. P,and Korpel, A., Opt. Comm., 104,141 (1993). 34. Korpel, A., and Bridge, W., J: Opt. Soc Am., 7 (A), 1505 (1990). 35. Korpel, A., Appl. Opt.,26, 1582 (1987).
6
Selected Applications
In this chapter wewill discuss the application of the theory to many examples, chosen mainly for their suitability in this context, and not in the first place for their relevance to current technology. Examples of the latter kindcanbe found inmanyof the available bookson acousto-optic applications (e.g., Ref. 1). Aneffort has beenmade to analyzeeach application fromtwo different pointsof view, for instance from the points of view of modulation detection and sideband heterodyning in modulators, plane-wave availability, and phase asynchronism in beam deflectors, etc The last section is devoted to signal processing, a subject which has become very popular recently. The reader will find the basic principles of image plane processing and frequency plane processing reviewed in detail. Some common architectures are discussed briefly.
6.1 WEAK INTERACTION OF GAUSSIAN BEAMS

In this section we shall investigate the two-dimensional interaction of an incident Gaussian light beam with a Gaussian sound beam. The relevant configuration is shown in Fig. 6.1. For simplicity, we shall locate the waists of both beams symmetrically about the origin. To within the paraxial approximation, the field the incident beam along is given by of X
169
170
X
I
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Interaction geometryof Gaussian light and sound beams.
E i ( x , 0) = Eiexp(-jk&x) exp
($ )
where W i is the beam radius the lle amplitude point. to The sound beam is given by
S(0, z) = S exp
(3
For our calculation, we shall use the plane-wave weak interaction formalism as expressed by (4.54). T that purpose, wevmust first calculate the angular o plane-wave spectra g(@) and f(<.n, according to (3.138) and (3.144). After some algebra, it follows readily tHat
171
With (4.54) we find for incidenceat the appropriateBragg angle h=-$B
k,(4) = -0.25jkCmswiSEiexp
El($) represents
-(Kw,
+k2w:)(4-eB)*
4
Comparison of (6.5) with (6.3) shows that outside the interaction region, a Gaussian beam propagating at an angle @B and having a waist W Igiven by
It will be clear from (6.5) that if kwi*KWs (i.e., the diffraction spread of the light beam is much less than that of the sound beam), then W l s W i . This is the usual case in beam deflectors, etc.,and approximates a configuration in which the incident beam is a plane wave, as usually assumed. If, on the other hand, kwi4KWs (i.e., the incident light may now better be described as a converging or diverging beam), then W I =Kw,lk. Thus the emerging beam is a demagnified (xlk) replica of the sound beam. This is a typical case of Bragg diffraction imaging [2], already discussed in more general terms in Sec.3.3.3 and tobe analyzed in detail in Sec. 6.9. Let us next calculate the power the diffracted beamand how it depends in on W, and Wi. It may be readily shownthat
First, consider the case where the width of the sound beam is fixed. We write (6.7) as
It is clear that an asymptotic maximum will be reached when w r ) q i.e., when the incident light beam resembles a plane wave. Apparently, the best strategy is to concentrate all the incident power into one plane wave interacting with the strongest plane waveof sound in the spectrum. However, not much change occurs as long as KWJwi<k, i.e., as long as the diffraction spread of the light beam is less the diffraction spread of the than sound beam. When the former substantially exceeds the latter, many plane waves of light are not interacted with, and the scattered power decreases
172
Chapter 6
rapidly, in proportion to the ratio of sound diffraction spread to light diffraction spread. If the width of light beam is fixed, similar considerations can be shown the to apply. The best strategy is to concentrate all the sound power into one plane wave interacting with the strongest plane wave of light, but, again, there is not much change until the sound beam is made so small that a substantial number of plane waves of sound do not find any light waves to interact with. The above analysis can be repeated for the more practical case of a rectangular sound beam. The calculation is somewhat more involved, but the results are basically the same. The general effect of beam width on scattered power for this case was analyzed by Gordon [3], who used a threedimensional volume scattering formalism.
6.2
STRONG BRAGG DIFFRACTION OF A GNJSSlAN LIGHT BEAM BY A SOUND COLUMN
The general configuration is as shown in Fig. 3.15, and the general theory has been described in Sec. 3.3.4 and 4.6 for the arbitrary 6mss section of the incident light beam. We will here analyze the specific case of a Gaussian incident beam as specified by (6.1), with the angular plane-wave spectrum given by (6.3), with &=-@B. Assuming, for convenience, that S = J ~ Swe ~, find upon substituting (6.3) into (3.168) and normalizing relative to
I&-@B)I
Note that &-@B) represents the maximum plane-wave amplitude (density) @=@B and v = z , it follows that &@B)=&{-+B), in the angular spectrum. For i.e., the center incident plane wave has been completely diffracted. This obviously must leave a hole in the plane-wave spectrum of the zeroth-order diffracted light. The phenomenon is shown in Fig. 6.2 that depicts, for the zeroth order, the results of a numerical calculation performed by Chu, Kong, and Tamir [4]. Figure 6.3 shows the corresponding - 1 order. Beam profiles other than Gaussian also have been analyzed. Results may be found in 5. Ref.
173
-.l2
-.08
-.04
.04
.08
.l 2
Figure 6.2 Angular plane-wave spectrum of the zeroth order beam forv=z(solid 4.) line) and v = d 2 (dashed line). (Adapted from Ref.
Apart from beam distortion, the process of selective diffraction also causes decreased diffraction efficiency for the entire beam. This effect has been calculated by Magdich and Molchanov [q.The decrease in diffraction efficiency depends strongly on the parameter
which denotes the ratio of angular widths of incident light and sound. Figure 6.4 shows the relative power in the diffracted + l order beam as a function of electrical power applied the acoustic transducer. is seenthat to It for all values of a, the maximum diffraction efficiency occurs at the same power level. This level should, according to (6.9), correspond to v=z. For increasing angular spread in the incident light, the maximum diffraction efficieficy decreases, as more and more plane waves of light are diffracted kds efficiently. Note that Fig. 6.4. shows reasonable agreement between heoryand experinient.
174
Chapter 6
4
-12
-.08
-.04
I
4
.4 0
.OB
.2 l
V=K
Figure 6.3 Angularplane-wavespectrum of the -1 orderbeamfor 4.) line) and v = d 2 (dashed line). (Adapted from Ref.
(solid
9 P (Watts)
12
15 of
Figure 6.4 Relative power first-order in diffracted beam a as function 6.) electrical power applied to the transducer. (From Ref.
175
6.3
BANDWIDTH AND RESOLUTION OF LIGHT DEFLECTOR
The conventional configuration used for analysis is shown in Fig. 6.5. An infinite plane wave of light with amplitude Ei is incident at -@B,, and a + 1 order beam with amplitude El, is generated at +@B,. The subscript C refers to the center frequency F,. By changing the frequency of operation, the diffracted beam, (now called El) is made to change its direction to 2@bb-@Bc. angle of incidence is fixed, and the Bragg angle condition is The satisfied for each frequency by appropriate planewave at F -(@B-@B,) in an the angular spectrum the sound. of For weak interaction, the process may be analyzedby the use of (3.160). For @o=-@B, we find, using (3.128)to calculate Bi(@), (6.11) where q3~=K/2k=Q/(2kV) the independent variable, proportional to Q. is The diffracted light is obviously a plane wave propagating in the expected
Figure 6.5 Beam deflector showing plane-wave Ei incident at the correct Bragg angle @B, for center frequency operation. The diffracted wave El is shown at an arbitrary operating frequencyF, for which the appropriate Bragg angle equals @B.
176
Chapter 6
(6.12) Denoting
M= Kc K1 we find that the zerosof E occur at
(6.13)
(6.14) corresponding to the case where the interacting plane waves of sound fall on the first (positive and negative) zeros of the angular plane-wave spectrum. For largeL, the solutionof (6.14) is approximately given by (6.15) Defining the bandwidth B as one-half of the frequency difference between zeros, we find from (6.15) (6.16)
A different argument, appropriate for the sound column picture, is based on Fig. 6.6. The column is considered to approximate a plane wave whose interaction is represented by the wave vector diagram kt, kl, K,. The end points of all diffractedwave vectors must lieon the circle throughA and B, with 0 as the center. If the sound frequency of the column is raised from f, tof, the lengthof the soundwave vector increases fromKc to K,its direction remaining the same, because it represents the entire sound column in this model. Ideally, the new wave vector trianglek;,kl, K should be closed,but, as shown, there existsa deficiency Ak. This deficiency leads to a cumulative phase mismatch LAk in the interaction, as a result the and total contribution 1 from E to E vanishes when
LAk= r 2 a
177
/hk
Figure 6.6 Wave vector diagram showing phase match at center frequency and phase mismatch Ak at frequency F,corresponding to propagation constant K.
It may be shown readily from Fig. that 6.6

(6.18)
Substituting (6.170) into (6.18), we find forthe first zeros

(6.19)
Note that this is identical to (6.15); hence, the phase mismatch reasoning leads to the same bandwidth prediction as the angular plane-wave spectrum argument. From a point of view of efficiency, it is important to make L,and hence Q, large. As shown by (6.16), this will adversely affect the bandwidth. A way around this difficulty has been found by having the sound beam track the required Bragg angle when the frequency changes.
178
Chapter 6
The principle of such a beam-steering phased array is illustrated in Fig. 6.7. The stair-step device has four individual transducers [7,8] alternatively energized in opposite phase, as indicated by the + and - signs. The height of the stair-steps equals one-halfof the wavelength & at the center frequency&. Thus, when the device is operated the center frequency, as at in Fig. 6.7(a), the effective wavefront propagates vertically upward.The light p is incident at the center frequency Bragg angle $B= so as to cause optimal generation of the +1 order. If nowthe frequency is reduced, then the required
Figure 6.7 (a) Stair-step'phased array operating at the center frequency fc. (b)
Same phased array operating at a slightly lower frequency. (c) Direction of the incident light relative to rotated wavefront p .
179
Bragg angle is smaller. This is automatically brought about by the effective wavefront rotating clockwiseby an angle @l, as indicated i Figs. 6.7 (b and n c). It is readily seen from the figures the angleof rotation is given by that (6.20)
As seen from Fig. 6.7 (c), the angle of incidence now equals @ B ~ - @ ~The . required angleof incidence, of course, equals so that the angle of error +B, @e is given by
The spacing between the transducers is now chosen that dc$eldA=O at so A=&. With (6.20)and using the conventional definition for Bragg angle, the we may write (6.22) from which it follows readilythat (6.23) Thus tomake this zero, the design requires that
(6.24) It is interesting to calculate the weak interaction behavior of the phased array and compare it with the conventional sound cell. This is very simple, because we have done most of the work already in connection with (6.11) and (6.12). In fact, a little reflection will showthat we only have to change the argument of the sinc function in (6.12) (representative of the angular spectrum of the sound field) in the following @Bc-@B+@Bc-@t-+B=@e. way: With (6.22), (6.24),and (6.12), we then find readily (6.25)
180
Chapter 6
If again we define the bandwidthas one-half the difference between zeros of the sinc function,we find
(6.26)
We should compare (6.26) with (6.16). If, for example, Q=16n, then the fractional bandwidth for the conventional deflector equals 25%, that of the phased array deflector%YO. The first phased array deflector was used in a laser television display system developed at the Zenith Radio Corporation in 1966 [9].Figure 6.8 shows the transducer array used in that system. Figure 6.9 shows plots of diffracted light intensityvs. cell orientation for three distinct frequencies: (a) refers to the phased array of Fig. 6.8, (b) to a comparable but conventional transducer. Finally, Fig. 6.10 shows the frequency response of the phased array at low power input. More details about phased arrays may be found in books or articles devoted to applications (see, e.g., Ref. 10). The resolution of the deflector used as a scanner can be expressed as the number N of resolvable angles within the scan. air the diffraction angle In & of the light beam width L can be .expressed of
&J=&,c L
(6.27)
Figure 6.8 Phasedarraytransducerusedin (From Ref. 9.)
1966 Zenith laser display system.
181
YIUIRAMANS
YILLIRAMUS
Figure 6.9 Plot of diffracted light intensity vs. cell orientation for (a) the phased (b) 9.) array of Fig. 6.8 and a comparable but conventional transducer. (From Ref.
Figure 6.10 Frequencyresponse of thephasedarraylightdeflector (From Ref. 9.)
of Fig. 6.8.
182 and the total scan angle is given by
Chapter 6
(6.28) Hence; (6.29) where t is the transit time of the sound cell. The expression (6.29) was first demonstrated experimentallyby Korpel et al. [l l]. 6.4
RESOLUTION OF SPECTRUM ANALYZER
In a light deflector operating in the scanning mode, the transducer is sequentially energized by adescending or ascendingseries of sound frequencies. That same device may be used as a spectrum analyzer if the frequencies are applied in parallel. This is shown schematically in Fig. 6.11. A wide beam (width L) of coherent light, represented schematically by the , ray marked a, is incident upon a Bragg cell. Frequencies f l y f2, . . . f generate upshifted rays that are focused by the lens with focal length F in 2 , points XI,x . . .)x of back focal plane X. (Refraction of the rays on the surfaces of the sound cell is ignored in the drawing.) The brightness distribution I(x) in that plane is then proportional to the power spectrum Pv) of the electronic signal according the following rule: to
1-1
A
x-
L I
I 1-1 f , y
I I=I
l
1-1
1-1
It II
f*
.. .L
\I
II
II
ji,
Figure 6.11 Operation of spectrum analyzer. Power at sound frequenciesfi, . . .. ,fm is displayed as optical brightness points XI, x2, . . .. ,Xm. in
Selected
183
I(x)
P f ) withx = F- f (
v,
(6.30)
Now, the brightness distribution around a particular position x, is of course not a point, as indicated in the ray drawing. Instead consists of the it diffraction pattern caused by the entrance pupil of the lens. If this is determined by the length L of the sound cell, then may be written as it
2
I,(x -x,)
sinc
(6.31)
where h, denotes the free space wavelength. Let us denote the width this pattern in the conventional as half the of way distance between the first zeros of the sinc function:
(6.32)
This width determines an effective resolution Af of the sound cell. From (6.30) we find that h=F-Af Comparing (6.32) and (6.33), we find finally
(6.34)
a v,
(6.33)
This is a very plausible result, because it seems reasonable the frequency that resolution should be inversely proportional to the transit time (observation time) of the sound. It should be remarked that the light distribution in theX plane does not just represent the power spectrum of the input signal; if we concentrate on the optical amplitude, then this distribution is, in a profound sense, the frequency spectrum (Fourier transform), because not only complex amplitude, but also frequency itself (through upshifting) is conserved. We will return to that aspect in Section6.13 on optical processing. The resolution of the spectrum analyzer may also be expressed as the number N of resolvable frequencies within the bandwidthB. With (6.34) we find readily that
1S4
Chapter 6
N=Bz
(6.35)
We find that this expression is identical (6.29), which gives the number of to resolvable points of the deflector. This should not be a surprise, because, as stated before, the only difference between the two devices is the serial vs. parallel frequency input.
6.5
BANDWIDTHOFMODULATOR
The essential configuration of a Bragg modulator is shown in Fig. 6.12. The sinusoidal pattern is a symbolic representationof a carrier with wavelength A, modulated by a sinusoidal signal of wavelength h. AM modulated The carrier may be written as
X
Figure 6.12 A typicalBraggmodulatorconfiguration.Thesinosoidalpattern symbolizes the modulated acoustic signal.
Selected
$ x t ) = q l +m ~~~(Qrnt-Kmx)] (6.36) (, cos(Qt-Kk)
185
where S is real, m is the modulation index, Q, the modulation frequency, and K,,,=2lclh, the propagation constant the envelope. of As the signal moves through the incident beam (amplitude Ei, angle of incidence 4 ~ ~ = x / 2 k ) , + l order diffracted beam is modulated in power. the When a,,,increases (hence, A m decreases), a larger part of the modulation cycle with appear within the width D of the incident beam. It appears intuitively plausible that the modulation index of E1 will then decrease to D=&. reach a zero when We will analyze the modulator response in two different ways that are often thought to be incompatible and todescribe different effects. the first In method, we integrate the locally diffracted power in order calculate to (6.37) As before, we assume weak interaction for convenience, although the analysis may equally well be carried for strong interaction. From lo), out (3.1 we find for smallv I, IiV2 =4 (6.38)
We are here concerned with a modulated beam; hence, write we

v=v(x, t)= Vo[l +m cos(Q,t-K,x)] (6.39)
where
v,=-kCLS 2
The total integrated power inthe diffracted beam is given by
(6.40)
S(?)= 0.25r
Dl2
-D/2
Iiv(x,t) dx
(6.41)
1, Assuming m<< we find (6.42)
186
Chapter 6
where
Pi=IiD
(6.43)
and
m,=2msinc
(k D )
As Km=2dh,=QmlV, it is clear that the effective modulation index m 1 decreases with increasing modulation frequency. The first zero will be reached when D = & , , as may be verified from ( 6 4 , and is in accordance with physical intuition. The above analysis is essentially one of localEy sampling the diffracted power. It is justified as long the sampling ray bundles not so small that as are they overlapby diffraction inthe interaction region.The condition for this is similar to the one we have encountered in using the SURA method (see Sec. 3.1.3), but this time with respect to the modulation wavelength h rather , than.the carrier wavelength.Replacing A by h,in (3.57), we find ultimately
(6.45)
As an example, consider a sound cell operating at 50 MHz with Q=lO. The local sampling analysis then valid for(Q,JQc)2*0.1, say, Fm<5 MHz. is For higher modulation frequencies, the analysis must proceed on the basis of angular plane-wave spectra and becomes increasingly complicated, even more so as the nature of the optical detector has to be taken into account. The latter point will become clearer from the alternative analysis to be presented next. The essence of the alternative method is shown in Fig. 6.13. Instead of one diffracted beam, three are shown, this time with amplitudes El+, EIO, and El-. The center beam correspondsto diffraction by the carrier and has a frequency @+Q, where o is the light frequency. The two other beams correspond to diffraction by the sidebands at QkQ, of the modulated signal. They have frequencies ofo+Q+Qm for El+, and O+Q-Qm for El-. Our analysis now proceeds as follows. Imagine a photodetector positioned perpendicularly to the El0 beam so as to intercept all three diffracted beams. Let us ignore, for the time being, the fact that the beams, propagating at slightly different angles, do not overlap exactly. The detector is assumedto deliver a current proportionalto the total integrated power. Leavingout the
'
X
187
Figure 6.13 Interpretation o f Bragg modulation in terms of sideband-carrier mixing. (identical) z dependence of the three beams and the common frequency shift Q, we find
i(t) = SD121E,o exp(- jkA@x+ jQ,t +E,+
-Dl2
+E,- exp(+jkAqx - jQmt)l dx

where A+ is the angle between the beams
(6.46)
A@=K
as followsdirectly from Bragg angle consideration [see (6.3)].
188
Chapter 6
The total sound signal (6.36) may be written as S(X,t)=S COS ( Q t - f i ) + 0 . 5 m S cos[(Q+Qm)t
-(K+K,)x]+OSmS co~[(Q-Qm)t-(K-Km)x] (6.48)
The last two terms in (6.48) represent the sidebands that diffract El+ and E l - . Treating each term (sound field) in (6.48) separately and assuming weak interaction, we find with (3.103) and (6.39)
EIO= E1+=E1-=-0.25jmViE~
Substituting (6.49) and (6.50) into (6.46), we find i(t) = 0 . 2 5 q b 2 1 + 2m sin .(kY)]
(6.51)
With (6.47) we find that (6.51) is identical with (6.42). Thus, the second method gives the same results as the first one, as must be implicit in the mathematics. Rather more important than the formal equivalence, though, is the interpretation of the new method. To see that, we write (6.46) in the following way: i(t)=io+ir(t)
io= EoEi dx
(6.52) (6.53) (6.54)
il(t)=Re[Ip
where the phasor I*, representing the ac current from the photo detector, is given by Ip 2 E,',E,+exp(jkA4x) dx + 2 EloE;- exp(-jkA4x) dx =
(6.55)
Each of the RH terms of (6.55) represents the mixing of two light fields at frequencies differing by a m . These fields are, of course, the carrier beam ( E I o )with the upper sideband ( E l + ) beam, and the carrier beam with the lower sideband (E1 -) beam. The mixing beams are inclinedat an angle A+,
Selected
189
and, as a result, the mixing efficiency is reduced until, at A+=AID, the beat frequency disappears. The importance of the above interpretation is that it makes it clear that the detector output may vanish while the diffracted light connected with the modulation process is still present in the total beam. The information may, in fact, berecovered again by narrowing the photodetector aperture, or covering it with a periodic transmission mask the form(1+cos &x). The of stroboscopic effect of such a mask on the running (intensity) interference pattern 1+2m cos(Qmt-Kmx), brought about by the interfering beams, , results in an output current at frequency Q. Thus, in order to discuss modulation efficiencyand bandwidths, the detector should be specified. A detector-independent bandwidth also existsand comes into play when the bandwidth of the device as a defector is exceeded and the diffracted beams El+ and El- can no longer be generated. The criterion for that has been derived in Sec. 6.3. At the beginning of our discussion, we had tacitly ignored beam spreading and separation. That this may be done is a consequence of a remarkably simple theorem that is, however, so important to the application of signal-processing sound cells that we devote the next section it. to Finally, it will be clear from our analysis that the modulation bandwidth D may be increased by decreasing the width of the incident beam. However, if this is pushed to the point where the angular spread of the light beam begins to exceed that of the sound beam, diffraction efficiency begins to decrease, as was shown in Sec. 6.1.
6.6 THE QUASI THEOREM

The quasi theorem gets its name fromfact that it usually, butnot always, the applies. It is best discussed by using a concrete example, e.g., the mixing of a (the common carrier at o with upper and lower sidebands at o+Qm frequency shift Q brought about by a sound carrier, as in Sec. 6.5, has been absorbed in 0). The relevant configuration is shown in Fig. 6.14. An infinite extent one-dimensional photodetector is located at z1 and collects all three beams. Subsequent heterodyning results in a time-varying output il(t) that contains frequency componentsat Qm and 251,. The first component comes about by the mixingofeach sideband with the carrier. The second component results from the mutual mixing the two sidebands.It was not of No considered in Sec.6.5 because of the assumption IE1-1, IEI+I~IEIo>. such restrictions are necessary here. We are interested in what happens whenwe move the photodetector to a new position on the Z axis, say 22. At first glance, it must appear that il(t)
190
X
Chapter 6
Figure 6.14 Heterodyning of three beams as an illustration of the quasi theorem.
will decrease, because two beams no longer overlap. That would be the wrong conclusion though; the beams do, in fact, overlap morethan shown, having spread by diffraction. The first part of the quasi theorem (and his part is actually not quasi but strictly valid) says But for a time delay,il(t) is independent of the position of the (infinite) photodetector. The physical reason for this is that a photodetector basically records the arrival sequence of photons. This sequence cannot be changed, only delayed, by moving the photon counter, as long asall photons are collected. (Hence, wehave the theoretical requirement for an infinite photodetector.) A mathematical proof plus some remarkable consequences of this may be found in [12]. The secondpart of the quasi theorem says
h(t) also does not change if transparent elementsare put in the path of the light beams, provided (1) that each element covers all the relevant fields completelyand (2) that the elements arenot highly dispersive.
It is proviso (2) that accounts for the quasi nature of the theorem. A dispersive element may cause temporal bunching debunching of photons, or
191
thus changing the character of il(t). For instance, a properly designed and positioned Fabry-Perot interferometer may suppress the two sidebands in transmission and hence make i l ( t ) disappear. A less obvious way to defeat the quasi theorem is given by the following example. Imagine three parallel beams, with El+ and El-, at some reference time, in phase with and also EO assume that IEI+I,IE1-IeIEol. The total beamisobviously amplitudemodulated, and, consequently, a sinusoidal component i l ( t ) will be of the form il cos Qmt, if we neglect 2Qm terms by our previous assumption. If now a highly dispersive element is introduced that phase shifts E + and El- by 1 90"relative to EO,then the amplitude modulation changes to phase modulation and il(t) vanishes. Obviously, this requires some nontrivial and dedicated experimental effort, and hence in almost all other experiments proviso (2) is satisfied, and, subject to proviso (l), the theorem applies. Let us test this on the configuration shown in Fig. 6.14. In the first experiment, we put the photodetector at z1=0 in the plane of the aperture. The beams are then well-defined, and, following the same reasoning as in Sec. 6.5, we may write il(t)=i+(t)+i-(t) i+(t)=Re[I,+ i-(t)=Re[I,I,,+ 2 = (6.56)
E :
Dl2
ID12
E;,E,+ exp(jkA@x)dx
(6.59)
Ip- = 2
E,,E,' exp(jkA@x)dx
(6.60)
It is readily shownthat
I = 2DE,',EI+ sinc , (D?) Ip = 2DE,,E; sinc (D?) (6.61)
(6.62)
In the second experiment, we put the photodetector in the back focal plane of a lens of focal length, f, which accepts all three beams. The configuration is shown in Fig. 6.15. For convenience, the aperture is situated
192
Chapter 6
Figure 6.15 As i Fig. 6.14, but with lens inserted as Gedanken experiment. n
in the front focal plane of the lens, but that is not necessary for the argument. In the back focal plane of the lens, three Fourier transforms of the aperture D are formed, as shown [13]. The three amplitude distributions are given by
F+=
F. =
F- =
[3) [3 1 [3) +
sin(%)
sine[(x fA#)$]
(6.63)
sinc[(x fA#)$]
(6.65)
The heterodyne currents are given by Ip+= 25 F;F+ dx

(6.66)
Ip = 2 F F dx i:
(6.67)
Selected
193
Carrying out the integration [14], we retrieve, after some algebra, expressions (6.61)and (6.62), thus provingour point. Note that, in the context of experiment the interpretation of (6.61) was 1, that with increasing A#, there is increasing phase cancellation across the surface of the photo conductor. Eventually, this results in il(t) vanishing when A#=A/D, i.e., when the spatial variation in the phase of the locally generated current reaches 2n. In the context of experiment 2, the separation between the focused sinc patterns increases, resulting in less overlap and hence a smaller heterodyne current. Eventually, when A#=A/D, the separationis such that the maximum of one pattern falls a zero of the neighboring one. The sinc functions are on now orthogonal (asin conventional sampling [13]), and again the heterodyne current vanishes. Finally, we should note a trivial but important fact. If at the output of any sound cell all diffracted and undiffracted beams are heterodyned together (if desired after being processed by an optical system satisfying the quasi theorem), then the resulting heterodyne current vanishes. This is because so a sound cell does not absorb photons and hence cannot generate temporal variations in the overall photon flux. Of course, spatial variations in the photon flux do occur, and these may be transformed into temporal variations by suitable amplitude masks. An interesting example will be found in the Fresnel field signal processor described in Ref. 15.
6.7
OPTICAL PHASE AND AMPLITUDE MEASUREMENT
In optics we can only measure the time-varying flux of photons arrivingat the detector, i.e., we always measure intensity in some form another. This or is in contrast to other fields such as acousticsor the lower frequency region in the electromagnetic spectrum, where it is possible to measure the field quantities directly (strain, pressure, current, voltage, etc.). In optics must we resort to superimposing coherent fields to measure amplitude and phase. For example, we may obtain phase information from the location shift of or interference fringes. If the fields are slightly different frequencies, then in at the total power (which may be measured with a photodetector), there is a time-varying component at the difference frequency that gives information about the field amplitudes. Considerthe local output current caused by the mixing of a reference field a signal field on a photodetector placed and in some X-Y plane:
i(t, X, U)a 1
=1
~ s+ ~ (X, s
I*
IEr + 2 ~ e {(X, y)Er (X, Y ) exp[j(ar - u s >t11 ~s
l2
Y ) e x p ( ~ s t+ Er (x, ) exp(jmrt)12 ) Y
(6.68)
194
Chapter 6
where the subscripts S and r refer to signal and reference fields, respectively. It isclear that the current componentat the difference frequency carries information about the phase amplitude distributionof and the signal field relative to the reference field. The latter could be made uniform to simplify matters. Naturally, the time-varying current must be integrated over the entire photodetector, and in that operation local information vanishes, unless the photodetector is small or the reference field is limited in size, e.g., if it is a focused spot. In that case the signal field may be sampled by moving that spot around. This is exactly what is being done in the phase amplitude and sampler developed by Korpel and Whitman [16]. In that device a Bragg diffraction sound cell plays an essential role, because it is used for both scanning and frequency shifting of the reference beam. The experimental set-up is shown in Fig. 6.16. The beam from a laser is split into two beams. The upper beam goes through a beam-perturbing object (e.g., a transparency) that creates the signal field incident on a large area photodiode. The lower part of the beam is fed into a Bragg light deflector, the upshifted order of which forms the scanningreferencebeam. This beamisfocusedbylens L and semitransparent mirror M onto the photodiode. The frequency of the reference
! l
I.F. FILTER ANDAMP.

SWEEP FREQUENCY GENERATOR
VIDEO DETECTOR
GENERATOR
T.V. DISPLAY
Figure 6.16 Experimentalset-upforphaseandamplitudescanning. Ref. 16.)
(From
Selected
195
beam is upshifted by the time-varying sound frequency A(?).It is clear that all the elements we have discussed are present in this configuration. The current at &(t) is mixed with a local oscillator at fs(t)+f;., where f;. is an intermediate frequency. The amplitude of this signal is displayed on a TV monitor that isscannedinsynchronismwith the reference spot. (The relatively slow vertical scanning of the reference spot is accomplished by a mechanical mirror.) For the sake of simplicity, no phase measurements (requiring synchronous detection) were attempted in this experiment. It is clear that with lensL focused on the plane the photodiode, the field that of at plane will be displayed. What is not so obvious is that if L is focused onto some other plane, the field in other plane will be displayed in spite of the that fact that it does not coincide with the plane of detection. This is a direct consequence of the quasi theorem that we discussed in Sec. 6.6. It does not matter where the photodetector is located as long as all the, light is collected. Figure 6.17 makes this beautifully clear. It shows the field just behind the beam-perturbing object, a Ronchi grating in this case. This was achieved by virtual focus at the plane of the grating. In using forL a negative lens with its a second experiment, the lens L was removed altogether, i.e., the reference beam came to a focus at infinity. As a result the far field of the signal beam ought to be displayed. This is clearly the case, as shown in Fig. 6.18.
Figure 6.17 Display of optical field in the plane of a Ronchi grating. (From Ref. 16.)
196
Chapter 6
Figure 6.18 Display of the far field of the light transmitted through grating. (FromRef. 16.)
a Ronchi
The sensitivity of the method is surprising. For shot noise-limited operation the minimum detectable power (for a signal-to-noise ratio of unity) is given by
p& =-eBN a
(6.69)
where e is the electronic charge, B the bandwidth of the system (6 MHz in the experiment), N the number of resolvable spots (lo"), and a the detector sensitivity (0.37 m).experiment the calculated sensitivity was For the 0 . 2 6 ~ W. The measured sensivity was 1 . 5 ~ W, as system the was not shot noise limited. It is clear that Bragg diffraction cells are important elements in any amplitude or phase measurement system, not so much because they make scanning possible, but rather because they are convenient frequency shifters. In the example to follow, a Bragg cell is used in a non-scanning phase detector to measure extremely small dynamic oscillations [ l l . Figure 6.19 shows the optical configuration related electronic components. and A laser beam at frequency fo is directed through a Bragg cell where a portion of the light (the zeroth order)is passed undeflectedto lens L, which focuses it on a vibrating quartz wedge, activated by a signal generator at frequency fm. This imposes upon the reflected beamphase light a modulation atfm of modulation index m=2kvu, where U is the amplitude of
LENS
197
L
WATER FILLED
-Cf0
4
'0 'S
SIBGEM.
DRIVE
-Y
RECORDER
X.
XI
M2
Figure 6.19 Experimental set-up for the measurement of small vibrations. (From Ref. 17.)
the normal surface displacement. The reflected beam passes once more through the sound cell, where a portion of it is deflected and upshifted by the sound wave of frequency& present in the cell. This part of the signal beam, now at frequency fo+& then falls on a photodiode. It is there heterodyned with a reference beam fo-f,. This reference beam is derived from the original downshifted part of the laser beam at frequency fo-f,, whichisfocusedby L onto a stationary mirror M and sent back 2 undeflected through the sound cell. The similar treatment of reference and signalbeamensures that theyoverlap at the photodiode in the same direction and with the same wavefront curvature. The photodiode now generates a difference signal frequency 2&, phase modulatedat frequency at fm. Therefore, the diode output current contains sidebands 2fs&fm,which, at for the small modulation index involved, have amplitudes proportional to m=2kvu. One of the sidebands is selected and amplified by a receiver and detected with a square law detector. In order to achieve a high signal-tonoise ratio, the soundcell signal at& is amplitude modulatedat 1000 Hz to obtain a 1000-Hzmodulated final signal at the output of the square law detector. This is then further processed in a narrow band-tuned amplifier and fed into the Y axis of an X-Y recorder. The X axis is synchronized with the drivethat moves the quartz wedge through the focused beam. Figure 6.20 shows the surface displacement squared vs. position on the wedge atfm=8.5 MHz. The mode vibration is localized (trapped) near the of point on the wedge where the thickness equals one-half the wavelength of the sound wave. It was estimated that peak surface displacement in this
198
Chapter 6
Figure 6.20 Relativesurface displacement squared vs. position on the quartz wedge atfm=8.5MHz. (From Ref. 17.)
experiment amounted to approximately 0.6 A. The laser power in both reference and signal beam was mW. The predetection bandwidthB was 0.15 1 57 kHz and the post-detection bandwidth B2 was 15 Hz. The operationwas limited by thermal noise. For shot noise-limited operation, the minimum detectable surface displacement was calculated be to
(6.70)
where B=%, e is the electronic charge, the photodiode sensitivity,and a PI the laser power. For the values used in the experiment this value was calculated to be 2 . 6 ~ A. Yet another technique for measuring phase was invented by L.Laub [18, 191. The method is illustrated in Fig. 6.21, which is taken from the patent description. Referringto the figure, laser beam is directed through a half(12) silvered mirror (32) onto a Bragg cell ( 4 . 4 ) The cell is activated by a swept frequency generated by ramp generator (40) in order to scan the diffracted beams (16) and (18) across the (partially) reflecting topological object (26). Beams 16 and 18 are generated by two closely spaced frequencies fs+m , f where& is a modulation frequency originating in the oscillator (40). The frequencies of the beams are fo+fs+fm, where f o is the optical frequency. The frequency f m is chosen such that the diffraction spots of focused beams 16 and 18, separated by A , have a large area of overlap. Beams 16 and 18 are x
199
Figure 6.21 Scanning phase proflometry set-up. (From Ref. 18.)
reflected toward the soundcell with a phase difference A9=2kAh, where Ah of is the difference in height between the centers of the focused spots. Thus A@=2k(dhldx)Ax,as shown in Fig.6.22. At the sound cell each reflected beam is split into two other beams, such that after reflection off the half-silvered mirror (32), the final field at the photodetector (36) contains frequencies f$+2f,, f++f+2fm, f$+fs-2fm. The phase of the superheterodyne currents and at 2fm and 4fm contain the information about Aq5, i.e., about the topological gradient dhldx. This information is extractedby a phasemeter (50) being fed 2fm as a reference signal through a multiplier (52). After integration by a circuit (54), the gradient is displayed onan oscilloscope (58) whose horizontal sweep is synchronized with the ramp generator (40). Vertical scanning is accomplished by a translator (64), driven by a motor (62), and synchronized with aDC ramp generator (66). Figure 6.23 shows a drawing of an actual photograph of the oscilloscope display. The object examined consisted of a smear of red blood cells on a glass plate. The maximum height of the phase profile traces is less than 1 pm,the average width of the blood cells is approximately pm. 8 The Laub system is basically a common-path differential interferometer and therefore relatively insensitive to vibration compared with the previous system discussed (Fig. 6.19).
200
Chapter 6
Figure 6.22 Detail near foci of sampling beams. (From Ref. 18.)
Fig. 6.21. (From Ref. 18.)
Figure 6.23 Oscilloscope display of red blood cells obtained with the system of
6.8
BRAGG DIFFRACTIONINTERMODULATIONPRODUCTS
that shown in Fig.
6.24, and to be further discussed in Section 6.13, numerous frequencies are
In a typical Bragg diffraction signal processor, such as
present and may have to be processed individually. At weak interaction levels, there is no difficulty with this, but with stronger interaction, multiple scattering may occur, leading third-order intermodulation products. Thus, to a frequencyf2 may first upshift the light, followed by downshift plusa h afi
20 1
Mirror Mirror
L.O. Optical System

" "
Loca I scillator Beam
Figure 6.24 Prototype coherent acousto-optic signal processor. (From Ref. 49.)
Figure 6.25 Wave vectordiagramillustratingthird-orderacousto-opticintermodulation in Bragg diffraction.
202
Chapter 6
upshift. As shown in Fig. 6.25, the resulting spurious diffracted light is upshifted by a total of 2fi-fi. (An identical mechanism will also result in the generation of a spurious component 25 -h.) at Exactly how serious this effect is depends, of course, on the proximity of the two frequencies relative to the Bragg diffraction bandwidth. To simplify matters, we shall assumefi to be close t o h so that both frequencies induce on-angle Bragg diffraction. The Feynman diagram discussed in Sec. is a convenient tool for analysis 4.8 of this case. The diagram relevant to the present case is shown in Fig.6.26. Because of our assumption, the coupling factors that connect the levels are, as in (4.92), S:=$, Si=Si with j = 1,2, depending on the frequencies involved. With (4.95) we find that the plane-wave amplitude at level 1 is given by
With (4.94) we may write this

(6.72)
VI For equal amplitude sound signals,= v2= v, we have
(6.73)
2f2-f, f2
f2- f,
0 '
Figure 6.26 Feynmandiagramillustratingacousto-opticintermodulationin Bragg diffraction.
Selected Applications where
203
(6.74)
is thepower diffraction efficiency for$ orf2 by themselves. Thus, if lo%, q= the power in the third-order intermodulation product will be down by 1/3600, or about 35.5 db relative to the main signal. It is of interest to note that in Raman-Nath diffraction two additional paths exist, as shown in Fig. 6.27. Because again the coupling coefficient for each transition equalsS or P, find readily that the total contribution is we three times that given by (6.73). Hence, intermodulation products are likely to be more severe in Raman-Nath diffraction. It will be clear that in the formalism used here, many more complicated intermodulation scenarios-three-tone intermodulation, off-angle Bragg diffraction with limited bandwidth, etc.-may be analyzed in a way that is convenient and physically plausible. For comparison, a more conventional treatment may be found in Ref.20. Now, in accordance with our dual approach, let us analyze acousto-optic
+2
-2 f 2
2f2- f,
+l{
f,
\
\
-1
- f,
Figure 6.27 Feynmandiagramwithtreepaths,illustratingacousto-opticintermodulation in Raman-Nath diffraction.
,:f-2f
O{
204
Chapter 6
intermodulation from a different point of view. If two frequencies fi and fi are simultaneously present, with equal amplitudes, then the total sound signal in the Bragg cell may be written as
S(",
t)=Re[S exp@&t-jKIx)+S exp(j&t-jK2x)]
(6.75)
which may bewritten, if we assume S to be real,

t s(x,t)=2Scos (n,-al)Z-(K,-Kl)Z
t
xcos n,+n1"(K,+K1)5 [ 2
"I
"I
(6.76)
Hence, the signalin the sound cellmaybeconsidered a carrier at a frequency (l22+*1)/2, 100% amplitude modulated by a modulation signalat frequency (Q2-R1)/2. If the modulation frequency is small enough [see (6.45)], then from (3.103) with &=O, z = L and using a time- and spacewe dependent v(x, ?)=v cos[(!&-Ql)t/2-(K~-K1)~/2], fhd El(", L, t) = -jEi sin
[":)'I
(6.77)
where we assume v=kCLS/2e 1 The first term in (6.77) represents contributions to the first order at both f+ and fi. This may be seen readily from the first terms in the diffracted light
-Kl)-jEi(f)exp[jot+/nlr+(Kz-Kl)-
"1 "I
2 2
(6.78)
) + e . .
205
The K terms, which indicate the spatial modulation of the diffracted light, automatically guarantee the correct directions for the orders at o+a1 and w+a2. The second term in (6.77) leads the other terms to
(6.79)
If we concentrate on the with 3(!&-!21)t/2, it may be seen readily it part that gives riseto anintermodulation productof the form
with a similar expression in 2Q1-Q2. The K term in (6.80), expressing spurious spatial modulation of the diffracted light, again guarantees that this particular contribution appears in the correct spurious order. is clear It that the amplitudeof (6.80) is identical that of (6.72), if thelatter we set to in v = v2= v. We thus find perfect agreement with the earlier point of view: 1 intermodulation caused by the nonlinear [sin(v/2)] of a sound cell may equally well be explained by multiple scattering. The former model, however, is limited to small frequency differences [see (6.45)]; the latter model has no such limitations, provided we use the proper form of the coupling factors [(4.70a) and (4.70b)l. Finally, in Raman-Nath diffraction, the first model would use a nonlinear response of the kind
J1(v)=--- +... 2 2 2 v
instead of the Bragg diffraction response
YVJ
(6.81)
(6.82)
206
Chapter 6
It follows that (6.81) indicates an intermodulation contribution (the cubic term) three times higher than (6.82), in accordance with the predictions of the multiple scattering model.
6.9BRAGGDIFFRACTIONIMAGING
In Chapter 2we introduced the concept of Bragg diffraction imaging [21] as a natural consequence of the one-to-one correspondence between wave vectors of light and sound, implicit in the wave vector diagram in two dimensions. In the present section, we will investigate this notion in more depth, both on the basis of plane-wave interaction and of ray tracing. We will also perform a scattered amplitude eikonal calculation in detail as an example of general procedure.
6.9.1 Plane-Wave Interaction Analysis

In Sec. 3.3.3 it was pointed out, in connection with (3.160), that if the incident light field has large angular spread,the scattered light fields planewave composition mirrors that of the sound field. Hence, the scattered light somehow carries an image of the sound field that presumably could be retrieved by the proper optical processing. A typical experimental configuration is shown in Fig. 6.28, where the incident light is convergent and focused to a line perpendicular to the paper at the origin P outside the (dotted) sound cell. The sound emanates from a line source located at , Q, x zq, to interact withthe light in the region the sound cell around the point of M . The object ofour analysis is to find out where Q is imaged, and how the image quality is affected bythe angular widthof the incident wedge of light. To simplify matters, we assume that the focused lightspot at P is Gaussian: (6.83) where EO is real for simplicity. The angular plane-wave spectrum with reference pointP is, according to (3.139) with z=O, given by (6.84)
or, with (6.83),
207
Figure 6.28 Braggdiffractionimagingconfigurationshowingsoundsource and incident light focused atP.
(6.85) The sound at Q we model by an idealized Huygens source in the line zz: =,
S(Q) = $$(X
- xq),
z = zq
(6.86)
The sound angular spectrum, with Q as areference point, is then given by
Taking P as a reference point we find (keeping the convention for y in mind; see Fig. 3.1)
i(y, P)= i y ) = iqx p ( i h q cosy + j a qsin y ) ( e
(6.88)
208
Chapter 6
The + l order scattered light spectrum (Pas reference point) may now be determined from(3.160)
(6.89)
Now let us see if there exists point where all the plane waves of a l?*(+) are V in phase again.In other words, we look for a reference point such that
(6.90)
L
Now l?*(@,) and l?*(@, are related by a simple wavepropagator V P)
E,(Q, V )= E,(Q, P ) exp(- jkx, sin Q - jkzy cosQ)

With (6.89) and (6.91), it follows from(6.90) that
f i q
(6.91)
cOS($~-@)+fi~ Sin(@B-Q)-kxvQ-kz, sin
cos Q=O
(6.92)
for all Q. Equating cos Q and sin Q coefficients separately, we find after some trigonometry
(6.93)
(6.94)
Equations (6.93) and (6.94) will be recognized as a clockwise rotation by ( d 2 - Q B ) of a vector (zq, xq) a vector (zv, plus a scaling K/k=NA. into x") by Hence, these are the imaging rules that project the sound point Q into its image V. At the same time, the diffracted light going through Vpropagates 1 QV) nominally in the direction 4=2@B, as indicated by the maximum of 8 ( , in (6.90). The imaging rules are illustrated in Fig. 6.29. The point V is the
209
Figure 6.29 Illustration of imaging rules for upshifted @+V) downshifted and @+V) interaction.
image for the- 1 order. The calculation is entirely similar, again resulting in a scaling by Klk,but this time a counterclockwise rotation by2 - 4 ~ . d From (6.90) it is clear the imageof Q is degraded in the sense it is that that no longer a delta function like the original sound source object. Rather, it has the shapeof the focus of the incident light beam constitutes, in fact, that the impulse response of the system. This may be seen as follows. The light field along the X axis through the point V expressed as a function of x=x-xv is found by taking the Fourier transform of (6.90) (with Fourier transform variables x and qYA)
E m =m 4 , v
= -0.25jkC&E,, exp(
S)
exp(- jkx24,)
(6.95a)
Note that the profile is indeed identical that of the incident focus, whereas to the amplitudeis proportional to that of the Huygens sound source.The term exp(-jkx24~) expresses the fact that the scattered light propagates nominally in the $=24B direction.
210 For downshifted diffraction,one finds similarly
Chapter 6
(6.95b) where x " = x " x ~ . A more general analysisof the Bragg diffraction imaging process may be found in Ref. 22.
6.9.2 Eikonal Analysis

We will now try to find evidence of imaging by applying the ray-tracing of diagram of Fig. 4.10 for upshifted diffraction. Figure 6.30 shows a wedge rays emanating from the Huygen source of sound at Q. The central ray (solid line) intersects the central ray of the optical ray bundle, incident from the left, in the interaction point at the correct angled 2 + @for upshifted A, ~
Figure 6.30 Ray-tracinganalysis of Braggdiffractionimaging. Q is the sound source, the incident light is focused atP,the diffracted light atV. The circle C is the locus o f interaction points.
211
Bragg diffraction. A diffracted ray bundle leavesA with is central rayat the correct diffraction angled2+@Bwith respect to the sound ray. We now look for the locusof other interaction points such as and A". It is readily seen A' that such points mustlie on acircle (C), as this guarantees constant interaction angles. As for the diffracted rays, the angular invariance means that they must all go through one point also located on the circle. Thus, (V), V represents the image of Q. The imaging rules may be readily derived from Fig. 6.30 as follows. Considering AVAP and AVNP, we see that LV N P = L V A P = ~ @Hence, B, from AVNP we find that VP=2CN sin 2@B.If we consider APCQ, it is clear that L P C Q = ~ L P A Q = ~ ( ~ ~ - Thus, .LCQP=LCPQ=@B. It follows that @B) QP=2CQ COS@B=~CN COS@B. Hence, VPlQP=2 sin@B=Hk,which confirms our earlier prediction about scaling. It is further seen readily that L V P Q + L V A Q = z . As L V A Q = d 2 + @ s , it follows that L V P Q = ~ ~ - @ B in accordance with results from the wave theory. For downshifted imaging, a diagram similar to Fig.6.30maybe constructed and the appropriate imaging rules derived[23]. We have noted in Sec. 6.9.1 that the resolution in the sound image is limited by the size of the focused spot of light. is also evident from Fig. This 6.30. If, for instance, the incident light limited to a uniform wedge of apex is angle 2+, then thisis also true of the diffracted light. Thus, the resolution in the demagnified image is of the order of (U2) sin 4, corresponding to an effective resolution of(M2) sin @ in the sound of field. Having demonstrated the usefulness of Bragg diffraction ray tracing, we will next illustrate the other aspect of eikonal theory, i.e., the calculation of the scattered amplitude. The starting point is (4.1 17)or (4.1 19). Let us first calculate
"as,!E&( ='
%=-pi
Ys=
+PS
+ kd'Y, " as2
Kd'Y,
as2
kd'Y,
ds2
)l
(6.96)
A
in accordance with (4.99), with the eikonal functions defined by (4.97). The corresponding cylindrical wavefronts are shown in Fig. 6.31, from whichit follows readily that (6.97a) (6.97b) (6.97~)
Y1= -p1
and p are drawn from the respective 1 where the position vectors pi, ps,
212
$1
Chapter 6
X'
Figure 6.31 Diagram for eikonal calculationof Bragg-diffracted light.
sources R Q, and K By transforming eqs. (6.97) to a coordinate system with origin at V and axesin the Z'-X' direction, it maybe found, with d/ds=dl&', that (6.98a)
(6.98b)
(6.98~)
, , where p and pq represent the distance fromA to P and Q, respectively. The distance AV is denoted by p".From Fig.6.31 it is further seen by considering AAPD, AAVD, and AAQD that
Selected
213 (6.99a) (6.99b)
pp=2pccos a=2pc COS@-$E) sin(a+$)=2pc pq=2pc sin p
where P=a+OB, and pc is the radiusof circle C. Subtracting (6.99~) from (6.99a) and using sin $~=K/2k, find we
With (6.100), (6.98), and (6.96), it then follows that
$1
=Kpvcos2 $B PPPl7
(6.101)
and IS(s,)l=lS(A)I. As we use an Our next step is to find ~E,(sa)~=~E8(A)~ eikonal theory, i.e., k, K+-=, the fields may be found directly from the angular plane-wave spectra through(4.47). With (6.85) we have (6.102) where is the angle of the ray through A . (Actually, &=O for the centerray of Fig. 6.30, but we shall leave the expression as is.) With (6.87) it follows that
Substituting (6.101) and (6.103) into (4.1 17), we finally amve at (6.104)
be Now, the same expression will found if westart from different interaction points A', A", etc. We mustthenchange to f l u , etc.As $=$', the last term in (6.104) may then be generalized to e~p(-2k~w~$',,~/4) where "a" stands for any interaction point. Ifwe compare (6.104) with (6.102), it will be clearthat the former expression refers a Gaussian identical the waist to to of the incident lightbut located at V. From the same comparison, it is clear
214
Chapter 6
that the modulus of the amplitude is given by 0.25kC&Eol, in complete agreement with (6.95). The phase ofEI(A) may be found from the fact that a = - 3 ~ / 4 f o r C>O [see (4.116)]. With (4.99), (6.97), and (6.100), it follows that -3n Y -kpp + Kp, - kY: (A) = -kpy - k 1 (A) = 4 (6.105)
and, hence, the phase of &(A) is expressed by a factor proportional to exp(ikp,), in agreement with (4.47), if we remember that EI is converging rather than diverging. In summary, we have shown that the eikonal theory not only provides a convenient ray-tracing formalism, but also correctly predicts the amplitude of the scattered ray. More information may be found in Ref. 24. A raytracing analysis of axial cross-section imaging (as frequently used in signal processing) may be found in Ref. 25, whereas Refs. 26and 27 analyze signal processing applications of transverse cross-section imaging, i.e., the type discussedabove. Experiments demonstrating the spatial nature of the imaging, as in a reconstructed hologram, are discussed in 28. Ref.
6.9.3
Imagingin Three Dimensions
So far we have assumed that the imaging is two-dimensional, i.e., all "rays
are parallel to the 1-2 plane. On this assumption, any imaging in the Y direction just consists of a stackingof two-dimensional images. If this were true, then the resolution in the Y direction would be better than in the X direction, because the angular aperture of the incident light would not be relevant. Indeed, inspecting Fig. 6.32 we clearly see the difference in the resolution, as the Fresnel pattern of the illuminating sound field is only visible in the Y direction (horizontal lines). Based on the above, the assumption of stacked imagescannot be too bad, yet we knowthat not all rays can be horizontal: detail the soundfield in Y of must lead to diffracted sound rays in the Y-Z plane. In Ref. 29 the three-dimensional situation has been analyzedon the basis of diffracted ray tracing. Figure 6.33 shows the situation for downshifted imaging. The incident light is a cylinder beam focused a line 00'. The into sound originates from the point source In the X-Z plane we recognize the S. familiar circle of interaction points for horizontal rays. Diffracted rays in this plane cometo a focus inS-. SA' and SB' are sound rays out of the X-Z plane. They interact with incident rays CO' and D'O', giving riseto diffracted raysA'E' and B'F. To
215
c
Figure 6.32 Transinosonifiedacousticimage of Silver Angel fish. Notethe difference in resolution of the Fresnelfield background. (From Ref. .) 31
a first approximation, for small angles 6, it may be shown that all such diffracted rays intersect the lines S-F and EF. Hence, the imaging is astigmatic, withS-F and E F forming the vertical horizontal linefocus, and respectively. The vertical focus is located at the same position as for twodimensional imaging; the horizontal focus for downshiftedimagingis located downstream along the central diffracted raya distance( N I )times at the distance SB from the source S to the incident light. Therefore the vertical angular aperturesof the diffracted rays of light and sound are in the same ratio as the wavelengths, i.e., BBlSB-(NA)BBlBF.Hence, but for aberrations not covered by the theory (large e,the vertical aspect (1:l) of ) the sound field image suffers no degradation due to the limited angular aperture of the incident light. Indeed has been found resolution of the it that order of one wavelength of sound may be achieved inthe Y direction [30]. Figure 6.34 shows the ray tracing for upshifted imaging. Note that the horizontal line focusEF is virtual in this case.
216
Chapter 6
Figure 6.33 Ref. 29.)
Ray tracing of three-dimensionaldownshiftedimaging.(From
Figure 6.34 Ray tracing of three-dimensional upshifted imaging. (From Ref. 29.)
217
In order to remove the astigmatism of Brsgg diffraction imaging, a suitable lens system must be employed merge the horizontal and vertical to line focus. At the sametime the severe anamorphism (the horizontal magnification is %A, the vertical one unity) must be compensated for. The simplest way to dothis is by a simple cylinder lensthat images the point Sonto the lineE'F, with the proper magnification of NA. An interesting question is what will happen if the illuminating beam has the more practical shapeof a cone rather than a wedge. It will be seen that the symmetry inherent in this configuration allows the rotation of figure the in the diagram of Fig. 6.30 about the axis QI!Thus, rays that are out of the plane form additional images Q on a circle through V with radius pf as indicated [31]. For small angle approximations can be shown it that in sucha system again two line foci occur[32]. References 32 and 33 describe and analyze by ray methods an experimental system with almost spherical illumination, i.e., the main illumination lens is spherical and a weak cylinder lens merges two foci. the The sound field originates from eight transducers spaced in the horizonal ( X ) direction. One of the inner transducers is defective. A wave-theory analysis of this systemmay be found in Ref. 34, Figure 6.35 shows the brightness distribution (without the weak cylinder lens) in some horizontal cross sections (X-?) near the vertical focus, while Fig. 6.36 shows the distribution in some vertical crms sections (Y-2) near
7 mm beyond vert. focus

Profiles are Individually Normalized
Figure 6.35 Horizontal cross sections near the vertical focus. (From Ref. 32)
218
Chapter 6
the horizontal focus. Note that in the center horizontal cross section the resolution is sufficient to show up the defective transducer, but not enough to clearly separate theother ones. Figures 6.37 and 6.38 show horizontal and vertical cross sections ih the wt foci made to coincide. In this final experiment the spherical lens aperturek
horiz. locus
Profiles are Individually Normalized
15(mm)
: C Y
9 mm in front of
Figure 6.36 Vertical cross.sections near the horizontal focus. (From Ref 32.)
l.O?
I
0
5 10
15 20 25 Position (mm)
;?
30
35
Figure 6.37 Horizontal image distributionwith the foci made to coincide. (From
Ref. 32.)
219
I .
0.0-1.' 0
>
5
10 15
20
Position (mm)
Figure 6.38 Verticalimagedistributionwiththefocimade Ref. 32.)
to coincide. (From
increased by a factor of 2 and hence the horizontal resolution doubles.The , individual transducersnow show up clearly.
6.10
BRAGG DIFFRACTION SAMPLING
In the area of acoustics in general, there exists a need for small nonmechanical probes with which to sample a sound field locally without disturbing it. The question naturally arises whether acousto-optics could satisfy this need. If the sound field is too wide ( e e l ) , one may think of not probing it with a parallel light beam and recording the power in a single diffracted order. According to (3.173), what is measured is then the sound field integrated over the interaction path, rather than its valueat one specific point. Moreover, the phase of the sound can never be retrieved from a powe measurement. The phase retrieval problem might be overcome by heterodyne detection, perhaps along the lines indicated Ref 15. As for the in integrating effect, could that be avoided by not using a parallel beam, but instead focusing the incident light? Would this not create something like a narrow parallel beam of finitelength in the focalregion? It is not immediately clear how to answer this question, but the notion is worth following up. Now, in Bragg diffraction imagingwe have all the elements necessary for a Gedanken experiment. With reference Fig. 6.39, we see in the focal plane to
220
Chapter 6
figure 6.39 Heterodyne model of sound probing.
of the incident wedge of light the undiffracted light focused to a sinc type pattern at P,while at V1 and V2 are images of sound sources at QIand Q2. The latter are up-and downshifted, respectively, bythe sound frequency Q. If somehow P could be made to coincide with V1 on a photodetector, the resulting RF current wouldpresumably carry information about the amplitude and phase of the sound at Q .Also, because of the narrow local l oscillator spot at VI, the effective resolution would, as in imaging, again be determined by the angular aperture the incident light, i.e., be equal N2 of to sin q5 for the focused light beam.This scheme appears promising but for the required coincidence of P and V I . Some further reflectionwillreveal, however, that we already have overlapping spots, namely P itself wherethe in imagesof the sound field at P overlap with each other and with the undiffracted light. Both images are offset in frequency from the zeroth order
Selected
22 I
by the same amount; presumably, all have to dois just heterodyne P with we the now coinciding VI and V2, i.e., find the RF component in the current of all out a photodetector collecting the light. Unfortunately, as was pointed in Sec. 6.6, this will not work. A sound field does not absorb photons,hence, a modulation of all the light passing through it cannot occur. In a more restricted context: the signals at VI and VZ are, according to (6.95), in quadrature to the carrier,thus effectively constituting a phase modulation of the undiffracted light. The result is that the heterodyne current from VI and P exactly cancelsthat from V2 and P. Is there a way to frustrate this cancellation? It turns out that there exist two ways to do this. The first method makes use of fact that the nominal the directions of light propagation from VI and V2 differ by 4@3. This, in turn, means that in the far field the patterns do not overlap precisely. Although the total current will still be zero, is now possibleto use a selective mask in it front of the photodiode to suppress one of the cancelling heterodyne currents, thereby frustrating the cancellation. A knife edge or a graded neutral density filter will satisfy the requirements. Another way to look at this is illustrated in Fig. 6.40. This shows our initial picture of a narrow (width=w) parallel light beam of finite length l that makes up the focal region of the incident light. The sound wave propagating through this beam will make it deflect periodically, indicated by the thinlines. A knife edgeK as placed in front of a photodetector PD will periodically obstruct the light beam moreor less, thus causing an RF component in the output current i(t). Both the heterodyning and the periodic deflection model are equivalent and have been used with much success in the acousto-optic monitoring of surface acousticwaves. We will return to that topic shortly. A completely different way of detection is to rely on polarization effects. Under certain circumstances(to be detailed later), the scattered light has a polarization component perpendicular to that of the incident light. By the use of a quarter-wave plate, the phase the diffracted orders is changed of by d2, and by means of an analyzer, a common component is selected for heterodyning. The basic principle is identical to that used in the Zernike phase contrast microscope [ 131 or in the electronic detection of phasemodulated signals [35]. A typical configuration is shown in Fig. 6.41. Note that the incident beam forms a cone rather than a wedge of light. In Sec. 6.9.3 we have argued that such a cone would cause the diffracted images to be ring-shaped. However, the diameter of the ring for images of P itself is zero; hence, there is deleterious effect forour particular application. no To analyze the complete device shown in Fig. 6.41, we first assume ideal operation of the quarter-wave plate plus analyzer section, i.e., we assume that the phase of the diffracted light has been shifted by 90" somehow and that all the light is intercepted a photodetector. In the figure, the latter by is
222
Chapter 6
PD
L
i (t)
Figure 6.40 Periodic deflection model of sound probing.
S(P1
Quarter-wave
Sound
Figure 6.41 Actual sound probing configuration. (From Ref. 36.)
placed i the X-Z plane. According to what was discussed before in Secs. 6.4 n and 6.5, the relevant RF current is then given by
I II{E:(x,z)[jEl(x,z)]+E,(x,z)[-jE-,(x, dxdz , , z)]*}
(6.106)
Selected
223
where the js refer to the 90" phase shift imparted by the quarter-wave plate. Born approximation from the volume Now, E1 may be calculated in the first scattering integral (4.41), and E-I may be obtained in a similar way. Full details of this calculation may be found in Ref. 36. The final result is I,, that may be expressedas follows (6.107) where the integration is over the entire interaction volume. Expression (6.107) shows that the sound field is indeed being sampled in amplitude and phase by a three-dimensional sampling function, i.e.,IEi(r)l2. With reference to Fig. 6.40, the effective resolution is given by 1'/2, i.e., that distance away from focus where the width W' of the incident cone equals about one wavelength of sound. Phase cancellation in S(r) will then cause the contributionto the integral in (6.107) vanish at that point. It is easyto to see that by this criterion the resolution is of the order of M2 sin@,in agreement with earlier predictions. In the periodically deflected beam model, the same distance 1'12 sets a limit to net effective deflection,and, hence, the same approximate resolution is predicted. However, a precise analysis on the basis of this simple model is impossible. It cannot treat regions far out of focus whereW'> N2. In Fig. 2.8 we have already shown a plot of a sound field cross section obtained with the method of Fig. 6.41. A two-dimensional image is shown in Fig. 6.42.
6.11
SCHLIEREN IMAGING
Schlieren imaging makes possible visualization of inhomogeneities inan the otherwise uniform medium. Typical examples are bubbles and striations air (Schlieren in German) in glass and density variations of the air in a wind tunnel. A typical schlieren set-up is shown in Fig. 6.43. Referring to the figure, a parallel bundle of light, exemplified by raysc, d, and e, is incident from the left on the glass block U.By means of lenses L 1 and L2 with focallengthf, the block (i.e., the representative cross section is a) imaged onto the plane b. A schlieren stop V in the center of focal plane g stops all direct rays like c and d. Thus, in the absence of scattering, the image plane b will be dark. Ray e is scatteredby air bubble A (actually, an infinity of rays is generated in the scattering process), travels past schlierenstop V, and generates an image of A at A'. Hence, inhomogeneities in the medium Uwill be imaged as bright objects on dark background (dark field imaging). a
224
Figure 6.42 Two-dimensionalimageobtainedwiththeapparatus (From Ref. 36.)
of Fig. 6.41.
225
Figure 6.43 4 configuration for schlieren imaging. f
It is obvious that a propagating sound field may be regarded a special as distribution of refractive index variations and hence visualized by schlieren methods. This was first accomplished by Toepler in 1867 [37]. His basic method hasbeen used for acoustic visualization transducers ever since, as of was mentioned in the introduction. The problem at hand is to analyze whatwe see exactly when we visualize a sound field by schlieren methods. The simplest way attack the problem is to to use the straight undiffracted ray analysis (SURA) that was developed in Chapter 3. Let us assume that in Fig. 6.43 a three-dimensional sound field s(x, y z, t ) propagates in theXdirection, contained within the boundaries , of the glass block. This will give rise a refractive index variation to &(x, y z, t), , which, according to the three-dimensional generalization (3.6), is given by of
&(x, y, z, t)=Cs(x, y,
2 9
t)
(6.108)
According to the three-dimensional generalization of (3.17), the phase8 of the light at the output of the glass block is given by
L
8(x, y L, t ) = -kv J&(x, y z, t ) dz ,

0
(6.109)
where we have left out constant terms. If Ei represents the phasor of the uniform, normally incident light field, then the field E(x, y, L, t ) is given by
226
Chapter 6
if it is assumedthat lela1 (weak interaction). Let us now model the sound fieldas
s(x, y , z, t ) = -&(x, y , z) exp(jQt - jKx) + C.C. 2
(6.11 1)
where S, denotes the complex sound profile and c c stands for the complex conjugate. Upon substituting (6.1 11) into (6.108), the result into (6.109), and the overall resultinto (6.1 lo), we find
y , L, t ) = E i
1 -- jkvCEi exp(-j&)
2 2
L
exp(jQt)jSe(x,y , z) dz
0
1 --jkvCEi exp(jKx) exp(-jQt)jSi(x,y, z) dz (6.112)

0
We recognize theh t term in (6.112) as the background light, the second term as the upshifted scattered light and the third term as the downshifted scattered light. These three components will come to separate foci in the focal plane g of Fig. 6.43 due to the fact that their nominal directions of propagation differ by twice the nominal Bragg angle. We now replace the schlieren stop of Fig. 6.43 by a knife edge that blocks both. the background light and the downshifted light. The phasor field of the upshifted light in plane b is thengiven by
E+(x,y ) = -- jkvCEi exp(-jKx) exp(jQt)lS.(x, y, z) dz

0
1 2
(6.1 13)
where we have ignored the image inversionby the 4f system. Whatwe see in plane b is the image intensity
(6.1 14)
It is not immediately obvious what (6.1 14) represents. However, if S, is predominantly independent of z-say, the sound is generated by a long ( 2 ) transducer of limited height (-the schlieren picture shows the evolution
Selected
227
in the Y direction of a one-dimensional sound field along the propagation direction:
This evolution is evident, for example, in Fig. 2.4, where the left side of the picture represents the IFresnel field of the sound and the right side evolves graduallyinto the Fraunhofer field (far field). In the general case, the interpretation of (6.114) is not self-evident. It should be noted though that (6.113) represents a projection in the sense of tomography. Projections at different angles may be obtained by rotating the sound cell about the X and Y axes. By proper tomographic processing and addition of such projections, it should be possible to reconstruct the entire three-dimensional sound field. In Ref. it is argued and demonstrated that, 38 in two dimensions, such a reconstruction is equivalent to Bragg diffraction imaging. The method we have used to analyze schlieren imaging (SURA) is no longer applicable at high frequencies;it runs into the same difficulties as we have encountered with simple sound column configurations where @>l. How then shall we proceed in this potentially useful high-frequency case? A straightforward approach is to use the three-dimensional plane-wave in interaction analysisto be discussed later Sec. 8.5. A treatment along those lines may be found in Ref. 39. However, it is more instructive to start from first principles based on the wave vector diagram. Such an approach has been followed in Ref. 40. Figure 6.44 is a drawing from that reference illustrating wave vectors of soundand light participating inthe interaction.
X'
Figure 6.44 Wave vector diagram for three-dimensional schlieren interaction. (From Ref.40.)
228
Chapter 6
In the drawing the sound propagates nominally in the X direction and the light in the Z direction. The incident light is a plane wave characterized by the vector QO. The sound is three-dimensional, and vectors OA, OB, and OC represent some plane waves in the (continuous) spectrum of the sound. These particular vectors havebeen chosen so as to form wave vector diagrams with the incident plane vector QO, giving upshifted diffracted wave vectors QA, QB, and QC. The wave vector triangle QOA lies in the X-Z plane, and the other two are generated by rotating QOA about the Z axis. It is clear that in general the sound vectors selected in the interaction form a continuum that lies on the hollow cone OABC. By the same token the diffracted light vectors lie on the hollow cone QABC. We shall denote the fictitious sound field that is represented by the selected sound vectors on the hollow cone by S+, and the (real) corresponding diffracted light field by E+. Their angular spectra will be denoted by S+and 8,. Now, two points are worth noting: 1. The selected sound vectors on the hollow cone with apex at 0 all have the same z component K,. The same applies to the upshifted vectorskz on the hollow cone with apexQ . Therefore, both these fields represent at diffraction-jree patterns (generalized diffraction-free beams [41]) that do not spread by propagation. 2. The diffracted light vectors and the selected sound vectors have the kd K same X and Y components (kd,=K, and kdy=Ky), and hence the two corresponding fields have the same pattern (E+ QT S+). This pattern, of course, is the schlieren image S. of In Ref. 39 it has been shown experimentally that indeed the schlieren image does not suffer propagational diffraction. Figure 6.45, taken from that reference, shows how the schlieren pattern of part of a sound field is invariant to propagation. Figure 6.46 shows the amplitude of the selected sound spectrum along the circle bounding the hollow cone. Now let us derive the form of the selected sound field S+, which, as we have seen, is identical to the schlieren image. The angular spectrum S+ follows fromthe angular spectrumS by a filter operation
S+=R+$
(6.116)
that the K, components are constant: where the filterR+ expresses the fact
KZ=- K sin @B
(6.117)
Selected
229
.Figure 6.45 Experimental schlieren image of a sound cell formed by a 4f system at various distances z from the image plane: (a) z=O, (b) z=2J (c) z=4J (d) z=6J The light is incident so as to maximizethe complexity of the image. The part of the image near the transducer is not shown. (FromRef. 40.)
as follows from the triangle QOA in Fig. 6.44. Following Ref. we now use 42 K and K, as the spectrum variables rather than YA and ?/A as we did in , Sec. 3.3 [for a definitionof yand V, see Fig. 8.12@)].The filterR+may now be defined as
l+ ?
=2n6(K, K sin $B)
(6.118)
where 2n is an appropriate scaling factor. The soundfield S+at some arbitrary x is given by
s+=s(PS+)
(6.119)
where s denotes the Fourier transform and P the propagator, i.e., the factor P=exp(-jlY,x) that accounts for the phase shift upon propagation.
230
Chapter 6
Figure 6.46 Amplitude of the selected sound spectrum along the circle bounding the hollow cone of diffracted rays. The width of the pattern is due to the finite illumination aperture. (From Ref. 40.)
23 1
[See (3.13 1) with K cos y=K,]. By the same token
S+=P-' 3-
-' (S+)
(6.120)
We now substitute (6.116) into (6.1 19):
s+=s ( P A+
(6.121)
and then apply (6.120) to S, instead of to S+, and substitute into (6.121):
s+=s[P A+P-'
s -'(S)]
(6.122)
because the operatorsE A+,and P-' commute, (6.122) may be written as
s+=s[R+F" (S)]
(6.123)
Finally, using the convolution propertyof the Fourier transform,we get
where * denotes two-dimensional convolution. It is seen readily that (6.124) results in the following expression for the schlieren image
00
S+ exp(j k i sin &) =

d
exp(- j k i sin $B )S(x y z)dz ,,
(6.125)
In our case of a limited sound field as in Fig. 6.43 the integration limits may be replaced by0 and L. Now the sound phasor is related to the sound profile used in(6.1 1 l), S Se, as follows:
~(x,y,z,t)=-S,(x,y,z)exp(jC2t-jlYx)+c.c.
1 2 1 = -S(x, y z)exp(jQt) + C.C. , 2
(6.126)
so that
S=Se exp(-jKi)
(6.127)
232
Chapter 6
Substituting (6.127) into (6.125) gives
(6.128)
For low-frequency operation where QGl, it maybeshown that the (6.128) varies but little over In z. exponential term under the integral sign in that case
S+ = exp(-j&l
Se(x, z) dz y,
(6.129)
Thus, (6.128) predicts a schlieren image identical to (6,113), which was derivedwith the SURAmethod valid for Q e l . This gives us some confidence in the correctness of analysis. our At high frequencieswe must use (6.128) or (6.125). Let us consider in the latter an integration along the Bragg line 2 (Fig. 4.5) that is inclined at an angle (PB with respect to the Z axis:
zf =z, yf= ,x=x+z sin +B y
(6.130)
As a first approximation it may be assumed that

S(xf, yf, z)=exp[-jfi sin
(PB]s(% y z) ,
(6.131)
i.e., the amplitude 1 does not change appreciably over this small distance. 4 Then (6.125) may be written as
(6.132)
Thus, the schlieren image, evenhigh frequencies, is seen consist of an at to integration of the sound field,but along Bragg lines rather than along lines parallel to the Z axis. Most important is that S+ still constitutesa projection in the tomographic sense. To a first order in OB, the diffracted light field has the form of (6.132) multiplied by the interaction term- */zjkvC=-l/&C=-ju [39,42]:
on
E+(x,y)= -juE,
4
S(x, y, z)dz
(6.133)
Selected .Applications
233
6.12
PROBING OF SURFACE ACOUSTIC WAVES
Surface acoustic waves (SAWS) have become of increasing importance in signal processing [43], and a noncontacting probeis needed for checking of diffraction, reflections, etc. Similar to the situation in bulk waves discussed in Sec. 6.10, there exist two ways of acousto-optically probing an acoustic surface wave. In the first method, thewave is considered to form a reflective phase grating on the surface of a mirrorlike substrate. A relatively broad beam of coherent light is incident at an angle. The reflectedbeamis accompanied by two diffracted orders, one of which is measured by a photodetector [ 4 .Because the height of the corrugated surface is very 4] small, of the order of 10-lo m, it acts as an ideal Raman-Nath grating, but diffracts only very little light. Therefore, the dominant noise in the detection system is of thermal origin, and, consequently, the technique has all the disadvantages of direct detection [45]. Heterodyne detection with its inherent shot noise (quantum noise) character is inherently superior, and as fortunately may be used in the same waydiscussed in Sec. 6.10.This time, however, a polarization method is not feasible, and knife edge detection is commonly used. As before, the explanation may be given either in terms of periodic beam deflection or in terms of heterodyning. Because the SAW interaction is much simpler than the bulk interaction discussed in Sec.6.10,
' / l /
/SUBSTRATE
/ / /
//
Figure 6.47 Probing of surface acoustic waves by focused light beam and knife edge (heterodyne) detection.
234
Chapter 6
we shall give a brief analysis of the former at this,time. A typical setup is shown in Fig. 6.47. A beam of coherent lightof total power P is almost normally incidenton a surface acoustic wave of depth h. When the wave moves through the beam focus, it will periodically, at the sound frequency, deflect the reflected beam by ?A@, where
A@=2hK
(6.134)
The spot (far field) the photodetector isof angular width28, and, hence, on the fractional peak variation the input power is ofthe orderof AN20. If a of is the sensitivity of photodetector in amp/W, the peak RF current out of the the diode equals
(6.135)
From (6.135) it is clear that, because K=QlV, the sensitivity increases linearly with the acoustic frequency. A limit is reached, however, when the wavelength A becomes equal to the sized of the focused spot, because at that point the net effect averages out. Thus, we may expect maximum just current when d ~ N 2i.e., 8=iv2d=AIA. From (6.135) we then find that ,
Now let uslook at the heterodyne model. This time, the interpretation of Fig. 6.47 is different. The dotted lines now do not represent a periodically deflected beam, but rather two diffracted beams separated by A@=AIA.The distance from the focus to the photodetector is denoted by E. The fields on the photodetector are sketched in Fig. 6.48. For simplicity, the diffracted spots are shown as squares of size 281x281 rather than as circles. The undiffracted center spot0 with amplitudeEi partially overlaps upshifted the diffracted spot O+ with amplitude E+ and the downshifted spot 0-with amplitude E-. The relative displacementsof the spots areIA4=1ivA. E+ and E- are given by
(6.137)
where the peak phase shift (Raman-Nath parameter) is givenby v

v=2kh
(6.138)
235
Figure. 6.4% Heterodynecurrentcontributions on thesurface of the photodetector.
Wherever there is overlap with current densities are givenby
the undiffracted beam, the heterodyne
Z h = aE,,EI, = j ( f ) l E o r
(6.139a)
(6.139b) It is clear from (6.139) in the regionI, where all three beams overlap, the that plus and minus contributions cancel locally. In regions and V, there is no IV overlap; hence, no current. Finally, the output from I1 cancelsthat from I11 unless the latter region is shielded from the light by a mask. This is, however, precisely what the knife edge K does. With K in place, the total current is then equalto the output from I1 alone:
I, =Zk x ( 2 l O ) x ( ~ ) = - j ( f ) / E 0 ~
Realizing that the total power P is given by
P=IE01*(281)~
h2 x 1 ' ~ ~
(6.140)
(6.141)
236 we find with (6.138)and (6.140)
Chapter 6
(6.142) which is equivalent to (6.135), but, in addition, gives some information about the phase of the current. The factor -j refers to the fact that the maximum current is caused for maximum slope (under the focus) of the SAW, a factwhich we did not take into account in the deflector model. it As for the maximum current IIplmax, is readily seen from Fig. 6.48 that this occurs when area I1 reaches the maximum value of le. This happens when the displacement lUL equals le, the same conditionwe derived before. Hence, the two models are equivalent. However, only the heterodyning model reveals what happens when d>N2, namely, a complete cutoff when d=A. After this, i.e., whend>A, no more signal is generated due tothe lack of overlap of the heterodyning fields. In the near field, however, the beams do overlap, and running amplitude fringe patterns occur periodically due to Talbot imaging [13]. A matching amplitude grating, placed in one of these positions, followed by a photodetector, will again produce a heterodyne current [151. A complete review of various kinds of heterodyne probing may be found in Ref. 46.
6.13 SIGNAL PROCESSING

Acousto-optic devices are widely used for signal processing. nontrivial Most applications makeuse of the fact that, with the information signal modulated on the acoustic carrier, the acou_sto-optic acts as a temporary cell storage medium that can be addressed in parallel by a wide optical beam. The diffracted light then carries a moving image modulation signal. of the As was pointed out in Chapter 1, parallel processing for display purposes was pioneered in the 1930s and further developed in the 1960s. More general signal processing evolved gradually in the 1960s and 1970s. This, too, has been reviewed in Chapter 1. Acousto-optic signal processing may take place the image plane or the in frequency plane of the associated optical system. Detectionof the resulting signals may be by baseband or by heterodyning techniques. Integration for higher resolution may be over space or overtime.Finally, the second dimension may be used to further increase frequency resolution, or to display special timefrequency distributions. In this section we shall concentrate on the fundamental mechanisms common to all these techniques. An extensive discussion of architectures may be found in Ref. 47.
237
6.13.1 Image Plane Processing

Figure 6.49 shows how a Bragg cell may be thought of as containing a moving image of a modulated sound beam. The electronic signal to the transducer is represented by the analytic signal e(t) exp(in,t), where Q, denotes the carrier frequency and e(t) is the modulation signal. The real physical signal at the transducer is given by Re[e(t) exp(ind)l. BY allowing e(t) to be complex, both phase and amplitude modulation can be modeled. For general phase modulation, write we e(t)=expp(t)] where, for an FM signal, <p(t)=acos(sLmO and for a chirp signal
(6.145) (6.144) (6.143)
e(-x+ V&). (left) Upshifted interaction; (right) downshifted interaction. (From
Figure 6.49 Bragg cell carrying an amplitude image of the modulation signal
Ref. 48.)
238
Chapter 6
For conventional AM modulation, we write e'(t)= 1 +acos(R,t) The analytic signal in the soundcell may be written as
So(t) = d[t -
(6.146)
$1
exp(jRct- jKx) (6.147)

= e(x - Ct) exp(jR,t
- jKx)
as indicated in Fig. 6.49. As discussed in Sec. 6.11, we may write for the phasor of the upshifted, scattered light El(t) 0~ jEe(-x+ Vst) exp(jL$t-jkpx) (6.148)
where E is the incident light and p the nominal Bragg angle. Note that in Fig. 6.49 (left), taken from Ref. 48, the scattered light is indicated by its analytic signal, which includes the factor exp0.m). In (6.148) the exponential part expresses a plane wave travelling upward at an angle p, and having been upshifted in frequency by Rc. The first factor indicates that the light carries an amplitude image of the modulation signal. For downshifted interaction, the situation is as in Fig. 6.49 (right), and the scattered light may be expressed as
E 0~ l
jEe*(-x+ Vst) exp(-jR,t+jkpx)
(6.149)
In the rest of the discussion, we will emphasize upshifted operation. One of the simplest signal processing operations to perform is convolution with a fixed mask pattern. The principle of operation is shown in Fig. 6.50. As shown, an image of the sound amplitude in upshifted light is formed on the amplitude mask g(x), i.e., the phasor amplitude distribution immediately to the left of the mask is given by En]-a jEe(x+ Vst) exp(jact+jkpx) and immediately to the right of the mask the field is
Err,+ 0~ jEe(x+ Vst)g(x) exp(jR,t +jkpx) (6.15 1)
(6.150)
A photodetector with pinhole aperture is situated in the focal plane of the lens L and centered on the diffracted beam. The offset of the pinhole 3
Sound in cell: e(c"+\t ex pj(Q2 - K x I transparency current from photo detector
239
Pinhole on axis
Signal to transducer
in diffracted light je ( x + V , t ) e x p [ j ( o t ~ , ) t + j k p x ]
e'( t
expj(ln, t
Figure 6.50 Convolution of signal carried by Bragg cell with a fixed mask. (From Ref. 48.)
corresponds to an angle - p in the Fourier transform plane. The amplitude at the aperture Eapis therefore given by the inverse Fourier transform evaluated at that angle: (6.152) Finally, the current i(t) out of the photodetector is proportional to the square of the amplitude Eap.
i(t) =
Ih(x +
I-
l2
V't)g(x) dx
(6.153)
Note from Fig. 6.50 that in practice the function e(x+V,t) is limited by the aperture to a range x= -D/2 to x=D/2. Thus the integration limits in (6.153) should be replaced by these proper limits. It is readily seen that (6.153) represents a finite convolution if we use a reflected coordinate system for the mask plane so that g(x) is replaced by g ( - x ) . Then (6.153) may be written as
240
Chapter 6
(6.154) If no pinhole is used in front of the photodetector, as shown in Fig. 6.51 is (left), then the current given by
i(t) = jle(x +Vt)g(-x) dxrdx
d
(6.155)
Equation (6.155) represents a less useful output than (6.154), but even (6.154) is limitedto positive values. If the pinhole is not centered on the diffracted beam, but offset by an angle as shown in Fig. 6.51 (right), then the current is given by
If, using (6.149), we applythe same reasoning the downshifted light,we to find that (6.153) must be replaced by
all light collected
I
3
Current from photodetector:

j ( e ( x t + x ) g ( x ) l dx
2
Selected
24 1
i(t)
a / j e * ( x + V s t ) gdx ) (x
(6.157)
with the pinhole aperture being placed in the center of the downshifted beam, and g(x)referring to the nonreflected X coordinate. The fact that the conjugate signal appears in(6.157)makes this a correlation rather than a convolution. Here, too, we are limited to positive values of the output. Moreover it is difficult to make g ( x ) a complex function; phase-shifting masks are easy to construct. not To achieve a more general phase amplitude mask function,e use the and w heterodyning technique shown in Fig. 6.52. Here the undiffracted light is not stopped, but modified by an optical filter to appear in plane c (the former mask plane) as reference field &(x). For the sake of simplicity, a simple symbolic light path has been shown in Fig. 6.52. goes without sayingthat It in actuality the path could be quite involved and the optical filter quite complex. If we now observe currentat Q, delivered by the photodetector the (without pinhole) as a result of the heterodyning of the reference field and the Bragg diffracted field,we find
W
I ( Q , ) a E: ( x ) e ( x+ Vst)exp(jkj3x) dx
a
(6.158)
Sound in cell eCrc+Vst )expj(fiCt-Kx)
yeterodyne current a t L?c:(E,(xle(Vst+x)exp(jk~x)d~ Reference field
Signal to transducer e'(t)exp(jilct)
for shaping reference field
Image of sound cell in diffracted light j e (~+~,t)exp[j(wtSl,)ty'kpx]
Figure 6.52 Processing by heterodyning with reference field. (From Ref.48.)
242
Chapter 6
where I(aJis a time-varying complex amplitude (time-varying phasor). the It will be clearthat we have a wide choice for 'effective mask function" geff(x) [compare with (6.153)]: (6.159) geff(X)=Er*(x) exp(ikDx)
Moreover, theoutput is not squared, but directly proportional the finite to correlation of e and gd. Thus, if for example, E,(X)=er(x) exp(ikpx) (i.e., propagating in the same direction as the upshifted beam), then (6.160) which represents atrue correlation. Note, by the way, that a correlation can alwaysbechanged into a convolution by the use of a reflected coordinate and a conjugate operation, i.e., the convolution of h(x) and g(x) is equal to the correlation of h(x) and g*(-). To derive (6.158) we have implicitly applied the quasi theorem (Sec. 6.6), because we superimposed the reference field the upshifted field in plane and c, although the photodiode (assumed infinite) is located in plane which is d, an inverse Fourier transform plane ofc. According to the quasi theorem, it makes no difference where we calculate the heterodyning current. Had we calculated thiscurrent in plane d,we would have found
I(a,) Is-'*[e(x) a exp(jk/3x)]s"[E~(x)]

S
(6.161) dx'
where x is the coordinate in plane d, proportional to the spatial frequency ' f x . Using Parseval's theorem and the general properties of the Fourier transform, it is readily shown that (6.161) is indeed equivalent to (6.158). Thus, image plane processing and frequency plane processing are quite equivalent, and in most cases the simple insertion an appropriate lens will of transform one into the other. Nevertheless, it is instructive to consider frequency plane processing in its own right. We will take up that subject in the next section.
6.13.2 FrequencyPlaneProcessing
We will now analyze the operation of the Bragg cell of Fig. 6.49 in terms of frequencies, i.e., we considerthe soundcell to be a frequency analyzer rather than a signal delay line addressed light. by
Selected
243
First we write the modulation signal e'(t) of Fig. 6.49 in terms of its frequency spectrumS(Q,,,):
(6.162)
As showninFig. 6.53, alens L focuses both the diffracted and 1 undiffracted light in planeb. In particular, the light diffracted by the carrier at Q, is focusedat P,corresponding to a deflection angleof p relative to the horizontal, or 2 relative to the incident light. The lightat P,therefore, has p a frequencyw+Q, and anamplitude proportionalto the carrier, i.e.,to S(0). Now, a frequency Qm of e'(t) will correspond to a frequency Qc+Qm of the total signal in the sound cell. This frequency will diffract at a somewhat light larger angle with respect the incident light: to
Q m A 2p) = (
kV,
(6.163)
Figure 6.53 Braggcellasspectrumanalyzer (From Ref. 48.)
in frequencyPlaneProcessing.
244
Chapter 6
The light diffracted this component will come a focus inQ such that by to the distance PQ=xm is given by (6.164) where f is the focal length of lens L]. Thus, in Q there exists a light amplitude proportionto S(Qm) with a frequency ofo+Q,+Qm. Continuing this reasoning, wefind that the entire spectrum of e f ( t ) exp(iR,t) is displayed around point P . Not only are the amplitudes S(Qm) correctly represented by the light amplitudes, but there exists also a one-toone frequency correspondence. What is displayed around P is the actual physical spectrum of e(t) exPGact), each frequency being superimposed upon the light frequency .Thus, the phasor light field E(x, t ) along b may m now be written as E(x, t ) = j exp(jQct) S(Q,)S(x -, x) ,
j:
exp(flmt)dx,,
(6.165)
, where the relation betweenx and Qm is as in (6.164). Expression (6.165) is approximate because no account has been taken of the light spreading dueto the finite aperture size If this is done, the delta D. function in(6.165) must be replaced by a sinc function:
6(x -x&)+sinc
nD(x - XL)
f;l
(6.166)
,X Now assume that a reference field& ( ) at frequency o is also incident at plane b and that all the light is collected a photodetector, as indicated in by Fig. 6.54, which shows one particular component at Qm being focused in plane b. It is readily seen that the time-varying amplitude of the phasor total heterodyning current at Q, is given by
ea
I(Qc, t ) = JS(Qm)E;(x)S(x*-x&) exp(ji2,t) dxdx& which may be writtenas
(6.167)
(6.168)
245
Diffracted light field

jexP(i(w+S1~+S1,)t)S(S1;Zm)
Diffracted light field
je(-x+Vst)exp[j(W+fiJt+jk~x]
Figure 6.54 Relation between frequency plane (left) and image plane (right) processing. (From Ref.48.)
where dxm a a,,, (6.163)] and [see

(6.169)
Let now S(&) represent the frequency spectrum l(Qc, of
t), i.e.
(6.170)
Comparing (6.168) and (6.170) we find

S(Qm)aS(&)Eh*(Qm)
(6.171)
Equation (6.171) sums up the essence of frequency plane processing: the reference fieldEb*(Qm) acts asan arbitrary phase and amplitude filter for the signal spectrumS(Qm). Figure 6.55 shows a practical system for frequency plane processing[49]. Although the light paths are somewhat complicated, the reader have no will difficulty recognizing the essential elements of Figs. 6.53 and 6.54. The reference field E h is generated by the box labelled L.O. Optical System, which operates on the diffracted light in a separate optical path. a specific In
246
Chapter 6
application, the optical system consists of a simple lens as shown in Fig. 6.56. This causes a curved reference field:
Eb = exp - j - ( x 2R k
-, x)
'1
(6.172)
where x denotes the Xcoordinate ofthe focus formed by the lens, a distance , R in front of the detector plane. The coordinate x is related to the temporal
Figure 6.55 A practical system for frequency plane processing. (From Ref.49.)
Local Oscil
Figure 6.56 Details of the reference field used in Fig. 6.55. (From Ref. 49.)
247
sound frequenciesfprojected on this plane by lens L with focal length 11 in 1 the followingway:
(6.173)

(6.174)
Thus, the referencefieldisequivalent to asimple parabolic filter or dispersive delay line. The dispersion can be adjusted by changing R, i.e., varying the position of reference lens L2. Some results obtained with this device are shown in Fig. 6.57 in which pulse stretching (a measure of dispersion) is plotted vs. radius of curvature of the reference field.
Theoretical
2
Experimental
1.5
3.5
4.5
(cm)
Figure 6.57 Pulsebroadening vs. referencefieldradius Ref. 49.)
of curvature.(From
248
Chapter 6
6.13.3 TimeIntegratingProcessing
In an interesting variant upon the schemes outlined above, the illuminating light is modulated and the integration is carried out over time rather than space [50, 511. In the simplest example, the configuration of Fig. 6.50 is slightly modified by re-imaging the field immediately to the right of the mask (plane c) upon image plane d by means of lens Ls. This is shown in Fig. 6.58. In image plane d the image of c falls upon an integrating photodetector arrayA . Assume that the illuminating light amplitude is given by Ein(t), then with (6.151) the field is given by E,+
E m + cc jEin(t)e(X+ V.J)g(x)
exp(iln,t+jkpx)
(6.175)
Ignoring imageinversion by the lens, the field at the integrating photodetector is proportional to this. The local accumulated charge at the array q(x) may be written as (6.176)
\A
2f
Em+
Figure 6.58 Modification of the configuration of Fig. 6.50. The plane c is imaged upon plane d.
Selected
249
where T is the integration time of the device, and the mask has been removed [g(x)= l]. For conveniencewe shall write(6.176) as
(6.177)
where u =xlV.. It is clear that (6.177) represents a correlation with the correlation shift given by -U. The values are given by the charges on the diodes located at x=uV., and are read out of the diode array in a time-sequential fashion, by appropriate electronics. As follows from (6.177) the correlationis necessarily restricted to positive functions. However, negative functions are allowed by proper biasing. To that purpose we choose
le(t+u)I2= V22[1+s2(t)] where sl(t), s2(t)>
(6.179)
- 1. If it is
assumedthat
(6.180)
then (6.177) may be written as

T
q(u)aIs,(t)s*(t+u)dt+biasterm
0
(6.181)
which indicates a true correlation of real functionsover a finite time interval. of It is also possibleto perform Fourier transforms with the configuration o Fig. 6.58. T achieve that, we choose s2 as a chirp and SI as the same chirp modulated by the signals(t) to be analyzed:
s1(t)=s(t)
coss(uhnt+at2)
(6.182) (6.183)
s2(t)=cos(uhnt+at2) substituting (6.182) and (6.183) into (6.181), we find
250
T
Chapter 6
q(u) Is(r)cos(2w,r
0
+ w,u + 2ar2 +au2 +2atu) dt

(6.184)
i
0
s(r)cos(2aru + w,u
+au2)dt + bias
term
NOWwe choose ~ @ 1 2 ~ ~ t l m a x ,make 12autlmaxof the order of the and bandwidth of s(r). In that case the first term in (6.184) integrates out to zero and q(u) may be written
T
exp(-jw,u-
juu2)fs(r) exp(-j2atu) dr
0
We recognize in the integral the finite Fourier transform S(0=2au) of s(t). Let us write S(2ua)=IS(2ua)l
(6.186)
(6.185)
ppfl2ua)l
then (6.184) becomes
Equation (6.187) indicates that a chirp-type fringe pattern cos[wmu+au2 -@(2au)] develops across the photodiode array with the fringe amplitude modulated by IS(2au)l and its phase by 4(2au). With appropriate electronic processing both amplitude and phase can be retrieved; hence, in this mode of operation atrue Fourier transform can be obtained. It is noteworthythat the frequency resolution6f= UT, i.e., it depends on T rather than on the transit time z of the sound through the light beam, as is the case with space integrating configurations. The frequency range isby set Af=2~1ul=2a(D/V,)=2ag where D is the aperture of the sound cell. The chirp rate mustbelimited so thatthe maximum range 2aT of the instantaneous frequency does exceed the bandwidth B of the soundcell: not 2aTSB. Putting everything together we iind that N=AflS f S B g where N is the number of resolvable frequencies. This number is still the same the as in space integrating configuration;however, in the time integrating method, a trade-off between Sf and Af is possible by varying and T. a So far, the Y dimension has not been used in any of the signal processors discussed. A simple example of its use is the extension of the Fourier transformer just discussed to parallel operation [52, 531. Figure 6.59 shows such an arrangement taken from Ref. 53.
2-0 TIME INTEGRATWG
DETECTOR
25 1
LED
- 0
PI
LI
L2
h(0
L3
L4
p3
TOP VIEW
SIDE VIEW
Figure 6.59 Multichannel time-integratingspectrum analyzer. (From Ref. 53.)
In the horizontal plane the operationis much as described above, with (X)
s(t)=sn(t)modulating the chirp of the incident light. The subscript n refers
to an array of independent, light-emitting diodes (LEDs) arranged in the Y direction. As shown in the top view, lens L2 collimates all light sources horizontally to wide beams for illumination of the sound cell in plane P2. Lenses L2 and L3 image the sound cell horizontally upon plane P3, which contains a two-dimensional array time integrating detectors. of The side view shows how in the vertical direction ( Y ) ,lens L collimates 1 the individual light source narrow beams passing through the small height to of the sound cell. LensL4 re-images theLEDs in the vertical direction upon the arrayof detectors. It will be clear that this configuration performs a Fourier transform operation on a number signals sn(t)in parallel. of Instead of using the Y axis for parallel operation, a second sound cell may be aligned along it, as shown in Fig. 6.60, also taken from Ref. 53. Careful
252
Chapter 6
LI PO
L2
PI
p2
p3
Figure 6.60 Time-integrating triple product processor. (From Ref. 53.)
analysis will show that in this configuration the signal a(t) from the light source LED will be multiplied by b(t-xlV,)=b(t-ut) of the horizontal sound cell and c(t-ylVs)=c(t-u2) of the vertical sound cell. (No bias voltages are shown in the drawing,but it is assumed they have been applied appropriately.) The integrated chargeq(u1,u2) may be written as
T
A device characterized by (6.188) is called a triple product processor and may be used for many different purposes [54]. In one interesting application [53] the signals a, b, and c are chosen as follows:
a(t)=s(t) cos(oht+at2)
(6.189)
Selected b( t) =S( t )
253 (6.190) (6.191)
c(t)=cos(aht+at2)
By doing the same kind of analysis as we did on (6. 18l), and making ah, suitable assumptions about we find
q(u) a cos[ahu+au2-O(2au)]lF(2au)(
(6.192)
where I 1 and 8 are the magnitude and phase of the so-called ambiguity F function (6.193) Notice that F displays correlations along U I (Xdirection) and frequencies along 242 ( Y direction). It is also possible to display coarse frequency resolution along UI and fine frequency resolution alongut. For this the signals and c in (6.188) have to b be a fast chirpand a slow chirp, respectively [55]. For more detailed information about acousto-optic processors for time-frequency representations, see Ref 56. Bi-spectral processing is treated in Ref. 57, and a processor for synthetic aperture radar is discussed in Ref. 58.
REFERENCES
1. Gottlieb, M., Ireland, C. L. M., and Ley, J. M. Electro-optic and Acousto-Optic Scanning and Deflection,Marcel Dekker, New York (1983). 2. Korpel, A., ZEEE Spectrum, 5,45 (1968). 3. Gordon, E. I., Proc ZEEE, 54, 1391 (1966). 4. Chu, R.S., Kong, J. A., and Tamir, T., J; Opt. SOCAm., 67, 1555 (1977). 5. Chu, R.S. and Kong, J. A., . Opt. SOCAm., 70, 1 (1980). l 6. Magdich, L.N. and Molchanov, V.Y., . Opt. Spectrosc., 42,299 (1977). l 7 . Korpel, A., Adler, R.,and Desmares, P., Paper 11.5, International Electron Devices Meeting, Washington, D.C. (1965). 8. Korpel, A., U.S. Patent 3,424,906, Dec. 30, 1965. 9. Korpel, A. Adler, R.,Desmares, P., and Watson, W App. Opt., 5, 1667 (1966). . 10. Goutzoulis, A. P. and Pape, D. R.,eds. Desing and Fabrication o Acousto-optic f Devices, Marcel Dekker, New York(1994). 11. Korpel, A., Adler, R.,Desmares, P., and Watson, W., ZEEE . Quantum l Electron., QE-I, 60 (1965).
254
Chapter 6
12. Korpel, A., and Whitman, R.L., Appl. Opt., 8, 1577 (1969). 13. Goodman, J. W., Introduction to Fourier Optics, McGraw-Hill, New York (1968). 14. Gradhsteyn, I. S. and Ryzhik, 1. M., Table of Integrals, Series and Products, Academic Press, New York (1965). 15. Korpel, A., Laub, L. J,and Sievering, H.C., App. Phys. Lett., 10,295 (1967). . l 16. Korpel, A. and Whitman, R.L., . Opt. SOCAm., 8,1577 (1969). . . 17. Whitman, R. L. Laub, L. J,and Bates, W. J, ZEEETrans. Sonics Ultrasonics, SU-15, 186 (1968). 18. Laub, L. J., Apparatus and methods for scanning phase profilometry, U.S. Patent 3,796,495, March 12, 1974. 19. Laub, L. J, Paper ThB16,Meeting Opt. Soc. Am., New York, Spring 1972. . 20. Hecht, D. L., IEEE Trans., SU-24, 7 (1977). 21. Korpel, A. App. Phys. Lett., 9,425 (1966). 22. Korpel, A. ZEEE Trans., SU-15, 153 (1968). 23. Korpel, A. Acousto-Optics, in Applied Solid State Science, Vol. 3 (R. Wolfe, ed.), Academic Press, New York (1972). 24. Korpel, A. Eikonal Theory of Bragg Diffraction Imaging, in Acoustical Holography, Vol. 2 (A. F. Metherell and L. Larmore, eds), Plenum, New York (1970). 25. Korpel, A. and Young, A., Acta Polytechnica Scandinavica, Applied Phys., 150, 221 (1985). . 26. Szengessi, 0 I., Proc ZEEE, 60, 1461 (1972). 27. Korpel, A. Proc SPIE, 232,90 (1980). 2 . Korpel, A. Znt. 1 Nondest. Test., I , 337 (1970). 8 29. Korpel, A. 1 Ac. SOC Am., 49, 1059 (1971). . 30. Smith, R. A., Wade, G., Powers, J,and Landrey, C. J., 1 Ac SOCAm., 49,1062 (1971). 31. Korpel, A. Optical Imaging of Ultrasonic Fields by Acoustic Bragg Diffraction, Ph.D Thesis, Universityof Delft, The Netherlands (1969). 32. Korpel, A. and Mehrl, D. J, App. Opt., 28,43534359(1989). . 33. Korpel, A. and Mehrl, D.J., Proc 1988 ZEEE UltrasonicsSymposium, pp. 735-737 (1988). 34. Mehrl, D.J. Liu, Z. C., and Korpel, A., App. Opt., 32 5112-5118 (1993). 35. Haykin, S. Communication Systems, Wiley, New York (1978). l 36. Korpel, A., Kessler, L. W., and Ahmed, M., . Ac Soc. Am., 51, 1582 (1972). 37. Toepler, A. Poggendofl7s Ann., 131,33,180 (1867). 38. Chen, Y. M., Ph.D Thesis, University of Iowa (1994). 39. Mehrl, D. Korpel, A., and Bridge, W. App. Opt., 29,47664771(1990). l 40. Korpel, A., Yu, T.T.,Snyder, H. S. and Chen, Y M., . Opt. Soc Am., II(A), 2657-2663 (1994). 41. Durnin, J. 1 Opt. SOCAm., 4(A), 651 (1987). 42. Korpel, A., Mehrl, D., and Lin, H.H., Proc 1987IEEE Ultrasonics Symposium, pp. 515-518 (1987). 43. Acoustic Surface Waves (A. A. Oliner, ed.), Springer, New York(1978). 44. Ippen, E. P., Proc ZEEE, 55,248 (1967).
255
45. Yariv, A, Optical Electronics,Third Ed., Holt, Rinehart andWinston, New York (1985). 46. Whitman, R. L. and Korpel, A. Appl. Opt., 8, 1567 (1969). 47. Berg, N. J. and Pellegrino, J. M., eds, Acousto-Optic Signal Processing, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 1995. 48. Korpel, A. Acoustic-optic Signal ProcessingOptical Information Processing E. Nesterikhin and G. W. Stroke, eds.), Plenum Press, New York, p.171 (1976). 49. Whitman, R., Korpel, A., and Lotsoff, S., Application of Acoustic Bragg Diffraction to Optical Processing Techniques, Proc. Symp. Mod. Opt., Polytechnic Press, Brooklyn, New York, 243 (1967). p. 50. Sprague, R. and Koliopoulis C., App. Opt., IS, 89 (1976). 51. Sprague, R. A., Opt. Eng., 16,467 (1977). 52. Casasent, D. and Psaltis, D., App. Opt., 19,2034 (1980). 53. Psaltis, D. Proc. ZEEE, 72,962 (1984). 54. Lohmann, A. Proc. ZEEE, 72,989 (1984). 55. Lee, J. N., and Vanderlugt, A., Proc ZEEE, 77,1528 (1989). 56. Nathale, R. A., Lee, J. N., Robinson, E. L., and Szu, H. H., Opt. Lett., 8, 166 (1983). 57. Kauderer, M. H., Backer, M. F., and Powers, E. J., App. Opt., 28,627 (1989). 58. Psaltis, D., and Wagner, K., Opt. Eng, 21 ,822 (1982).
v.
7
Related Fields andMaterials
In this chapter we want to ultimately arrive at a more precise description of the intrinsic acousto-optic properties of liquids and solids than the simplified one we have used so far. Before doingthat, however, we shall give a brief review of acoustics and anisotropic optics in order to provide the necessary foundation.
7.1
ACOUSTICS
Although the word acoustics originally was synonymous with audible acoustics, the technical meaning has shifted graduallyto the point that the term now also connotes ultrasonic propagation in liquidsand solids in the frequency range from l to 4 GHz. In liquids, an acoustic wave consists of density variationsAplpo (called condensation) brought about by hydrostatic pressure [l]. There exists a simple relationship between excess pressure p and condensation S:
Sound waves in liquids are longitudinal, the particle displacement, say i.e., 5, is in the direction of propagation, say X. The situation for an infinitesimal
257
258
Chapter 7
cube of liquid is shown in Fig.la. Applying Newton's second law yields 7 () .
o where p has been approximated by p . Also, the fractional density change equals the fractional change in displacement:
Combining ( . ) 71,
( . ) (7.3)gives the wave equation 72, and
with travelling wavesolutions of the form
where the sound velocity Vis given by
Note from (7.1) that A, the bulk modulus, signifies stiffness, i.e., resistance against compression. A longitudinal wave in an isotropic solid or along certain specific directions in a crystal is characterized by equations similar to ( . - . ) 7176, with (7.1)written as
where, in comparison with the parameters pertaining to liquid, 0 1 1 = -p, 611=-s=d@Sx, and CII=A.The subscript l1 in 0 denotes a stress in the 1(X) direction acting on a plane perpendicularto the 1(X) axis. Similarly, 611 denotes a fractional extension (tensile strain) in the 1 direction of a line element along the same direction. The parameter c11 is called a stiffness constant. Alongother directions, the subscripts 22 and 33 are used. It will be clear that in an isotropic mediumcll=c22=cg3.
Related Fields and Materials
259
Figure 7.1 (a) Compression of elementary cube in longitudinal wave motion. (b) Distortion and sideways displacement cube by shear wave. of
260
Chapter 7
It is the simple kind of wave considered so far that we have used in our acousto-optic interactions. Before we discuss more complicated wave motions, it is of practical interestto derive some simple relations concerning power flow and particle velocity. With (7.3) the particle velocity u=dglSt may be written as
U = - - jdd X S
dt
so that with (7.5)
U = U cos(Qt-cfi) 0
(7.9)
where
U, =sa"=s,v K
(7.10)
In a typical isotropic solid such as glass, the strain is limited to approximately so that, with V d x lo3 d , s particlevelocities are limited to -0.4 d s . The total kinetic and potential energy stored per unit volume in the wave is given by
2 J W = O.5PoUo -
m3
(7.1 1)
and is related to the power flowor intensity I,( ~ / m * ) as follows:

W="1
(7.12)
[Equation (7.12) is most easily remembered by thinking of,awaveof intensity, I, filling up a cube of1 X 1X 1 meter with energyW during the time (1/V) it takes thewave to traverse the cube.] Combining (7.10-8.12) yields I , = 0.5povu;(7.13) = 0.5pov3s; The quantityro V is called the mechanical impedance the medium. If of (7.6) is substitutedinto (7.13), we find with (7.1) and writing V= V / V
Related Fieldsand Materials
26 1
OSP; I, =PV O or the equivalent expression for solids 0.5T; I, =POV
(7.14)
(7.15)
where PO TO and denote peak values of pressure stress. and poV Note that (7.13-7.1 5). are analogousto the electromagnetic case with taking the place of the intrinsic impedance q= U substituting forHo, 0 and TOor POsubstituting forEO.From (7.13-7.15) it follows that
m,
TO Po)=po VU0 (or
(7.16)
The analogy is very useful; it enables, for instance, the calculation of (perpendicular incidence) reflection coefficients between different mediaby using the corresponding electromagnetic relations. Equation (7.13) is of great importance in acousto-optic applications SO as is directly proportional to An and hence to the Raman-Nath parameter v=kAnL. We will discuss that in more detail later, but it will be obvious already from (7.13) that media withlow Vwill, in general, require less power to achieve a certain SO, and hence An. Such media are therefore more efficient from an acousto-optic pointof view. Comparing, for instance, glass and water, we find that typically Vglass~3Vwater,and also pglass~3.5&ater, SO that Is,glassZlOOIs,water for equal strain (condensation). Unfortunately, acoustic losses (which generally increase with frequency) are much higher in liquids than in solids, so that the improved efficiency can only be realized at relatively low frequencies, e.g.,fc20-50 MHz for water. In a longitudinal (dilatational) wave, the elementary cube is made to change its volume only,not its essential shape as is evident from Fig. 7.l(a). In shear (distortional) waves, the cube changes its shape only. This is illustrated in Fig. 7.l(b), which shows a distorted and displaced cube. Note that the displacement q is perpendicular to the direction of propagation X. The active force acting the element in the direction is the result shear on Y of forces 0 2 1 acting to the left and the right (7.17) Note that the subscript21 indicates a force acting in the Y) direction on a 2(
262
Chapter 7
plane perpendicular to the 1(X) direction. Note also that, with respect to Fig. 7.1, the usual condition of linear vibration holds, i.e., 012=021 [2]. The total distortion anglea+P=&=& is called the engineering shear strain (in most nonengineering conventions, half the total angle is called the shear strain and denoted &I), and the following relation applies:
021=c66&1
(7.18)
where C66 (the notation will be clear later) is a rigidity constant. is readily It seen from Fig.7.l(b) that, for small anglesa and p, (7.19) It should be noted that the quantity a-& called the rotation, plays a negligible role in acoustical dynamics[2]. In what follows, we shall often denote XJXI, ~ 3 x 2 ZJX~, g+, , 77352, From (7.17-7.19) we find, realizingthat d2t/dydx=0,
c+&.
(7.20) leading to shear or transverse waves of the kind (7.21) where V,, the shear velocity, is given by (7.22)
As for particle velocity and powerflow, relations analogous to (7.8-7.12) apply, whereas formal analogies the electromagnetic field may drawnin to be the sameway as before. As far as acousto-optics is concerned, it is important to note that longitudinal wave motion causes changes in the densityof dipoles and may cause changes in the orientation of dipoles, whereas shear waves only affect the orientation. In liquids, where hydrostatic pressure is the active agent, only density changes .are involved, apart from peculiar effects due to streaming of the liquid, be discussed later. to
263
It will be clear that in the general case of a crystal, the stress-strain relations are more complicated than (7.7) and (7.10). Internal oriented bonding forces will cause complex cross-coupling of motions such that the generalized form of Hookes law is given by [3]
(7.23)
An often usedconstant is Youngs modulus l ?

(7.25) which represents the stiffness of a cube free to contract laterally when extended longitudinally; it determines the velocity of propagation in a rod thin compared to the wavelength. Also frequently used is Poissons ratio v that is the ratio of lateral contraction to longitudinal extension in the above example:
v = -
a
+ P)
With respect to the rather cumbersome notation of (7.23), it should be remarked that a more efficient abbreviated notation is also in use and is
264
Chapter 7
where repeated indices are to be summed over. The cgs are generally called stiffness constants.The inverse relationto (7.28) is
where the sus are called compliance constants. An extensive list of elastic constants may be found in Ref.5. To analyze acoustic wave propagation in crystals, the matrix relations (7.28) have to be used rather than the simple scalar relations we have used before. This makes for a much more complex situation. For an arbitrary propagation direction in the crystal, there exist generally two quasi-shear waves (particle motion not quite transverse) and one quasi-longitudinal wave (particle motion not quite longitudinal) [2]. For specific directions along the crystal axes, the waves may be proper longitudinal and shear waves. In an isotropic solid, there exist in every direction one longitudinal wave and infinitely many shear waves(i.e., the transverse direction of particle motion or polarization is arbitrary). In liquids, only longitudinal waves can propagate. The three types of wave motion possible in an arbitrary direction in a crystal have mutually orthogonal displacements and different phase velocities. The latter depend the direction of propagation. is customary on It to show this graphically by the construction of a so-called slowness surface that essentially marks the endpoints of wave vectors. (As K=WV, a simple of scaling I K / f l l = 1/V transforms the locus wave vectors into such a slowness surface.) An example is given in Fig. 7.2 that shows the cross sections of three slowness surfaces with the cube face of a GaAs crystal [2] (piezoelectric effects ignored). The three curves shown refer to the three

PURE SHEAR,
265
QUASILONGITUDINAL
[1001
Figure 7.2 Slowness curves in cube face of G A .(Adapted from Ref. 2.) as
possible modes discussed before, in this case two quasi-waves and one pure wave. It should be noted that the amount of diffraction (spreading) of a beam propagating in a particular medium is proportional curvatureof to the the slowness surface. Thus, the shear beam represented by point B in wave Fig. 7.2 exhibits the same amount of diffraction as in the isotropic case because it lies on a circular slowness surface. On the other hand, the quasilongitudinal wave at A exhibits less diffraction than would correspond to an isotropic circle throughthat point. By the same token, the quasi-shearwave at C exhibits more diffraction. It is clear that such effects are of great importance in acousto-optic applications, as they may well determine the interaction efficiency and useful length of a soundcell. Another important effect of anisotropy isthat, in general, the direction of wave propagation isnot the sameas that of energy propagation. latter is The always perpendicular to the slowness surface, whereas the former is in the direction of the radius. Thus, in point D of Fig. 7.2, S, is the propagation direction (wave normal), whereas se designates the energy flow (Poynting
266
Chapter 7
vector). The severe beam walk-off that this effect may cause is strikingly illustrated in Fig. 7.3 [6]that shows a quasi-longitudinal wave in quartz propagating at a slant from the generating transducer at left bottom. Note that the wavefronts are parallel to the direction (se) the beam as a whole not is travelling in. In addition to the bulk waves discussed so far, there also exists a surface acoustic wave [7]. This is a mixed shear and longitudinal evanescent wave that clings to the surface of a solid. amplitude decays rapidly (i.e., within Its one wavelength) away from the surface, and it has generally the lowest velocities of allacoustic waves. Recently,it has become of importance alsoto acousto-optics [8], where it is used to interact with optical thin fl guided im waves in planar configurations. As in electromagnetics, it is possible guide acoustic to waves in plates, rods [9], and thin surface strips [8]. The analysis of such structures is, however, much more complicated than in electromagnetics, because of the phenomenon of mode conversion boundaries. at
Figure 7.3 Quasi-longitudinal wave in quartz. (From Ref. 6.)
Related
and Materials
267
7.2
OPTICAL ANISOTROPY
As in acoustics, the crystal structure imposes severe constraints on the possible modes of propagation. Thus, optical propagation in an arbitrary direction is, in general, only possible for two plane waves with well-defined directions of B, H, E, and D. Although B=pH, because of the absence of D magnetic anisotropiceffects, the relation between and E is more involved:
Dj=qiEi
i, j = 1,2, 3
(7.30)
where again summation is over repeated indices. The consequence of (7.30) is that, for the two possible plane waves referred to above, E and D are not i the same direction. It may be shown n [lo] that the wave normal S, (i.e., the direction of the wave vector k) is perpendicular to the plane of D and H, whereas the direction se of the Poynting vector is perpendicular to the plane of E and H. The general situation is illustrated in the diagram of Fig. 7.4. The two possible wave motions in the direction S, do have orthogonal directions of D but not necessarily of E. Also, their phase velocities are, in general, different.As in acoustics, it is possible to construct slownesssurfaces(calledindex surfaces in optics) consisting the endpoints of wave vectors whose length of depends on direction. At any point, the direction of the Poynting vector is perpendicular to the index surface. It will be obvious that such wave vector
Figure 7.4 Field vector configuration for anisotropic propagation.
268
Chapter 7
surfaces are of great importance in establishing Bragg conditions in acousto optics. We will return to this later. There exists a convenient construction, due to Fresnel, for finding phase velocities and polarizations of D of the two waves possible in any given direction. It depends on the fact that, choosing a coordinate system along by the principal dielectric axes of the crystal, eq.(7.30) maybe expressed in the simple form
D1
IEI
~22E2
(7.31a) (7.31b)
DF
The construction referred to above now consists of the following. First, construct the ellipsoid (7.32) where n?I=&iII&, n22=~22/~0, n33=~33/~o. ellipsoid defined by (7.32) and The and shown in Fig. 7 4 a ) is called optical indicatrix, index ellipsoid, or ellipsoid of wave normals. Next, consider a wave propagating in the direction S, and construct a plane through 0 perpendicular to S as shown in Fig. 7.5(b). The , intersection of this plane with the index ellipsoid is the ellipse L. The directions of the two possible dielectric displacements D, and Db now coincide with the major and minor axes of L. The appropriate refractive indices for the two allowed plane waves are given by the lengths of the two semi-axis. Thus, wave a is characterized by na=a, and wave 6 by nb=b. Both k and kb are, of course, in the direction of S,. In general, there exist , two directions spl and sPz for which the intersection L degenerates into a circle. These directions are called the optical axes of the crystal. A wave propagating in the direction of an optical axis is degenerate, i.e., its D polarization is arbitrary in the plane of L, with no effect on propagation velocity. In cubic crystals and amorphous media such as glass and plastic, rill =n22=n33, and the ellipsoid degenerates into a sphere. Each direction forms an optical axis, and the medium is called isotropic. is media of this It kind that we have considered so far. When two of the ellipsoids semi-axis are equal, say n11=n22=n0, n33=ne, the medium is called uniaxial. The optical axis is in the 3 direction, is called the ordinary refractive index, no ne the extraordinary refractive index. The corresponding waves are called
269
zI
Figure 7.5 (a) Index ellipsoid. characteristics in direction. , S
(b) Construction finding for propagation
ordinary and extraordinary waves. If no<n,, the ordinarywave travels faster, and the crystal is called positive uniaxial; if no>ne, it is called negative uniaxial. Because, as we will see later, uniaxial crystals have rather unique acousto-optic properties, we will consider them in some more detail here. Figure 7.6(a) shows a positive uniaxial crystal with a wave propagating in , the S direction in the Y-Z plane, at an angle 8 relative to the optical axis. It is seen readily that of the two allowed waves, the ordinary one (a) is always subject to the same refractive index na=no. The extraordinary wave (b), however, sees a refractive index nb that depends on 8. Let us now plot the loci of na and nb when 8 varies from0 to 2z. These are shown in Fig. 7.6(b). As na is constant, it lies on the circlena(8)=no, while it is readily proved[l l] that nb(8) is defined bythe ellipse (7.33)
It will be clear curves no(@ and nb(e) are the cross sections with Y-Z that the plane of the index surfaces discussed before. Multiplying n, and nb with ko
270
Chapter 7
IZ
Figure 7.6 (a) Wave propagation in direction S in the YZ plane of positive , uniaxial crystal. (b) Angular dependence of ordinary and extraordinary refractive index on angle of propagation.
results in two curves giving the loci ofwave vectors k and kb. As we will the , see later, such curves are of great convenience in the analysis of anisotropic acousto-optic diffraction.
7.3
ELASTO-OPTICS
So far we have assumedthat there exists a simple scalar relation between the refractive index variation and the sound amplitudeS: An A?l=c'S
(7.34)
To the extent that S stands for the condensation in a liquid, this in fact, is, quite true. In that case, C' may be found from the Lorentz-Lorenz relation v21
n2 -1 - ANa n2 +2
=
(7.35)
where A is a constant, N the density of dipoles,
and a the molecular
ds
Related
and Materials
27 1
polarizability. Following Pinnow [13], we differentiate (7.35) with respect to N.Taking into account that N a p we find , (7.36) where (7.38) The condensation S with which we have characterized a longitudinal sound wave is related to the density change by (7.39) with (7.34), (7.36), and (7.39), letting Ap+dp, h 4 n , we find (7.40)
It is clear that (7.40) represents both the effect of a change in density of dipoles as well as the change in molecular polarizability due compression to as expressed by the factor h. liquids the latter effect is small,and hence In C' is approximately given by (7.40) with = O . For water (n= 1.33), we find h C'=O.31; for mostother liquids, the value is closeto this. In isotropic solids, the factor Ilo is not always negligible; more important, however, is the fact that in such solids, AO ispolarization-sensitive: the mediumbecomes birefringent under stress, This is, of course, plausible as the dipoles tend to line up parallel to the strain. In crystals, the situation is far more complicated. In the first place, the dipoles tend to move along constrained directions whenever a strain is , applied. This means that in regard to the factor A the polarization sensitivity is a complicated (although linear) function of the various strains, and the latter themselves, according to Sec. 7.1, depend on the acoustic propagation direction in a nontrivial way. Also, pure shear waves do not cause any density variation at all; any effect they exert must come about through a direct (anisotropic) change in the polarizability, In view of the above, it is clear that the simple relation (7.36) is no longer sufficient in the general case.It must be replaced a tensor relation expresses the effect by that
272
Cha#ter 7
of dilatational or distortional strain in any directiori on the propagation of light of any polarization in any other direction. The vehicle for doing so is the strain-induced deformation of the index ellipsoid discussed in Sec. 7.2. In its most general form, ellipsoid may be written this as (7.41) where
XI=X,
m=y, x3=z,
n l = h l l , n2=n22, n3=n33, n4=n23,
ns=n31, and
n6=n12.
As we have seen before,for the unperturbed ellipsoid (7.32) when referred to the principal dielectricaxes, the coefficients, n4, n5, and n6 vanish. However, upon the application of strain, they may acquire a finite value. By n the same token, the coefficientsnl, n2, and n3 may change i value. We may thus say that strains both distort the ellipsoid and rotate it in space. All this may be succinctly expressed by relations the
(7.42) where the repeated index convention applies,and the S,s are the abbreviated p strains as defined in Sec.7.1. The material constants are called strain-optic coefficients. The number of independent p s varies from 36 in a triclinic p crystal to three or four in a cubic crystal. Inan isotropic solid, only two s are neededto describe all phenomena:
(7.43) with allother coefficients zero. In actual fact, not even(7.42)issufficientlygeneral to describe all phenomena. Nelsonand Lax [l 5,161 have shownthat not only shear but also ( l / n 2 ) if the mediumis optically local rotation maycausechangesin birefringent. (With respect to Fig. 7.l(b), a shear is defined as a+P, a rotation as a-P, the latter signifying a rotation of the centerpoint of the distorted cube.) The necessary additional parameters are directly related to the coefficientsn1-n6 [15,17]. It is of interest to consider an application of (7.42). Let us assume that in an amorphous medium, a longitudinal sound is propagating in the+X wave direction [Fig. 7.7(a)], so that the appropriate strain is denoted by r?~~ldxl=Sl. the light propagate nominally in the + Z direction and be Let
273
Figure 7.7 (a) A longitudinal wave propagating in propagating alongX with particle motion Y.
along X. (b) Shear wave
polarized along theX axis. It is evident that we have to consider changesin i.e.,pll is the appropriate coefficient. We find with (7.42) nl due to SI,
If the light is polarized in the Y direction, the relevant change is in

the appropriate coefficient p21:
n2
and
274
=- O S ~ : ~ , , S ,
Chapter 7
An2
(7.45)
Evidently, the acousto-optic scattering coefficient will depend the optical on polarization. This makespossible an interesting effect.If the light is polarized in the direction at 45" to the X axis, i.e., X in Fig. 7.7(a), it is readily seen that the effective scattering is determinedby
However, if p1lfp21, light will now also be scattered into the orthogonal polarization Y with an effective strain-optic coefficient [l71 '
Both (7.46) and (7.47) may be derived easily by considering polarization components along Y and 2. An example of pure orthogonal scattering is shown in Fig. 7.7(b). Here, a shear wave propagates in the +X direction with particle motion along Y (i.e., d&/dXl+a&dX2=S6). As the light propagates in +Z and hence is polarized in theX-Y plane, the affected coefficients of the optical indicatrix are n1, nz, and n6 with corresponding strain optic coefficients p16, p26, and p a . According to (7.43), the first twop s vanish in an amorphoussolid. The coefficient p6 creates a term 2 A ( l / n 6 ) x 1 x 2 = 2 p ~ S a x ~ x the index ellipsoid in ~ of (7.41). It may be shown that this changes the indicatrix from a sphere (amorphous solid) to an ellipsoid with axes along X ' , Y', and 2 [l 13. The change in lengthof the initially equalX and Y semi-axis is given by '
If now the light is polarized in either the Y direction, the scattered light X or with polarization in the same direction vanishes because of the opposite signs of A n x * and Any,. Light is, however, scattered with polarization in the orthogonal direction. Its amplitude is determined an effective strain-optic by coefficientp66=0.5(pll-p12). Note that a shear wave with particle motion in the Z direction (i.e., d&/dx1+d&/dx3=S5) wouldaffect n l , n2, and n6 through p15, p25, and p65), all of which are zero according to (7.43). Such a shear wave would thus not cause any scattering. This is somewhat plausible when it is realized that in that case, the distorted rectangles Fig. 7.l(b) lie of in the X-2 plane and not in the plane of optical polarization.
Related
and Materials
275
From the examples above, it will be clear that the analysis of the general interaction case can be quite complicated, with the effective strain-optic coefficient usually a linear combination of the ones defined by (7.42) [18]. Tabulated values of the latter coefficients may be found in many review articles and application-oriented books [14,17-201. For actual applications, it is convenient to use a figure of merit that Pd indicates the relative efficiency of a material in terms of diffracted power per unit sound intensity For a weak interaction, have I,. we
pda
(&I2
(7.50)
and, from (7.44) and (7.49, ignoring tensor aspects,

n6p2SZ
(7.51)
With (7.13) we find (7.52) where M2 is a commonly used figure of merit [21] that lends itself to easy experimental evaluation [21,22]. Other figures of merit, M I and M3, are more specifically relatedto special devices such as light deflectors [18,23]. In this book, wehave throughout used simple constants C' (3.6), (3.10) and C (3.76) to denote the relation between An and S. It will be seen with (7.44) that
C = -0.5n3p
C= -n2p
(7.53) (7.54)
where p is the one opto-elastic constant characterizing liquids. Some liquids, however, exhibit dynamic birefringence under the action of a sound field [24].Wellabove the relaxation frequency of the liquid, it acts as an amorphous solid in the sense it exhibitstwo coefficientspi 1 and p21 such that that
PI1 - P21 =n37
2&
(7.56)
where 'tis the relaxation timeand Ssthe so-called Sadronconstant [25].
276
Chapter 7
REFERENCES
1. Thurston, R. N., Wave Propagation in Fluids and Normal Solids, in Physical Acoustics, Vol. IA (W. F Mason, ed.), Academic Press, New York ! (1964). 2. Auld, B. A., Acoustic Fields and Waves in Solids,Wiley, New York (1973). 3. Kolsky, H., Stress Waves in Solids, Dover, New York (1963). 4. Standards on Piezoelectric Crystals, Proc IRE, 3 7 1391 (1949). 5. Randolf-BornsteinTables, NewSeries(Hellwege, K. H. and Hellwege,A. M., eda), Springer Verlag, New York(1979). 6. Staudt, J H. and Cook, B. D., J: Acoust Soc. Am., 41: 1547 (1967). . 7. Acoustic Surface Waves(Oliner, A. A. ed.), Springer Verlag, New York (1978). 8. Tsai, C. S., ZEEE Trans., CAS-26 1072 (1979). 9. Meeker, T. R. and Meitzler, A. H., Guided Wave Propagation in Elongated 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.
Cylinderand Plates, in PhysicalAcoustics, Vol. IA(Mason, W. P. ed.), Academic Press, New York (1964). Born, M. and Wolf, E., Principles o Optics, Pergamon, New York (1965). f Yariv, A., Optical Electronics, Holt, Rinehartand Winston, New York (1985). Von Hippel, A. R., Dielectrics and Waves, Dover, New York (1956). Pinnow, D. A., ZEEEJ: Quant. Electron., QE-6:223 (1970). Nye, J. F., Physical Properties of Crystals, Oxford University Press, New York
(1 960). 15. Nelson, D. F and Lax, M., Phys. Rev. Lett., 24: 379 (1970). . 16. Nelson, D. F and Lax, M., Phys. Rev. B, 3 2778 (1971). . : 17. Korpel, A., Acousto-Optics, in Applied Solid State Science (Wolfe, R. ed.), Academic, New York (1972). 18. Dixon, R. W., J: Appl. Phys., 38 5149 (1967). 19. Musikant, S., Optical Materials, Marcel Dekker, New York (1985). 20. Gottlieb, M., Ireland, C. L. M. and Ley, J. M., Electro-Optic and Acousto-Optic Scanning and Deflection,Marcel Dekker, New York (1983). 21. Smith, T. M. and Korpel, A., ZEEEJ: Quant. Electron., QE-1: 283 (1965). 22. Dixon, R. W. and Cohen, G. M., Appl. Phys. Lett., 8: 205 (1966). 23. Gordon, E. I., Proc ZEEE, 5 4 1391 (1966). 24. Riley, W A. and Klein, W R., . . . l Acoust. Soc Am., 4 5 578 (1969). 25. Jerrard, H.C., Ultrasonics, 2: 74 (1964).
8
Special Topics
In this chapter we willdiscussbrieflysome aspects of acousto-optic diffraction that fall somewhat outside the scope of this book, that are of but relevance to device applications or are otherwise of intrinsic interest. The chapter also contains a complete three-dimensionalweak interaction formalism using the plane-wave spectra arbitrary fields. of
8.1 ANISOTROPICBRAGGDIFFRACTION
In Sec. 7.3 it was pointed out that a polarization change in scattering is likely to occur upon interaction with a shear If the medium is optically wave. anisotropic, then the incident and scattered k vectors may be of unequal lengths. This changes the condition for Bragg diffraction in some essential aspects, which we will now investigate. Let the interaction medium a positive uniaxial crystal with the optical be indicatrix oriented as shown in Fig. 7.6(a). We assume that a pure shear wave with polarization along Y propagates in the direction of the optical (2) axis. The shear wave causes orthogonal scattering of an extraordinary incident wave, propagating in the Y-Z plane, intoan ordinary wave propagating in the same plane.It will be clear that the wave vector triangle must now be constructed subject to the constraints imposed by Fig. 7.6(b). 277
278
Chapter 8
Such a construction is shown in Fig. Note that for a given k,two kls 8.l(a). are possible:kla mediated by Id, and k l b mediated by b. When $i increases, Ilr, will decrease, indicating Bragg angle behavior for frequencies down to zero. In this limit, ki and kla are parallel and opposite to Id. Another interesting aspect of anisotropic diffraction is that multiple forward scattering, and therefore Raman-Nath diffraction, is, in general, not possible. In Fig. 8.l(a), for instance, there does not exist, in general, a second wave vector Kb, equal in length to K, and directed upward, that would rescatter the kl, on the circle into k'l, on the ellipse. It is also puzzling at first glance that kl, represents upshifted light (positive Doppler
Figure 8.1 Anisotropicinteractioninpositiveuniaxialcrystal.(a)Shearwave along opticalQ axis, light wave inX- Y plane. (b) All waves inX- Y plane.
Special Topics
279
shift), whereas it is clearly directed downward with respect to the sound (negative diffraction angle). The paradox is resolved when we realize that the sound sees the incoming lighti as upshifted by a larger amount than the k subsequent downshift. In other words, the total diffraction angle is positive. From all of this, it appears that new and unexpected effects are possible in anisotropic diffraction. A popular confimration is one in which, with reference Fig. 7.6(a), the to sound and light waves all propagate in theX-Y plane perpendicular to the optic axis. It is evident in this case that the two appropriate refractive indices, no and ne, do not depend on the direction of light propagation. A diagram analogous to Fig. 8.1(a) is shown in Fig. 8.l(b). It is clear that
and it hasbeen shown by Dixon[l] that
Note that if ne=no, eqs. (8.2) and (8.3) revert to the familiar ones for isotropic Bragg diffraction. An interesting configuration is shown in Fig. 8.2(a). Here, the interaction is collinear (Bragg angle equals 90), yet occurs relatively low frequency at a
m i c a l values for Fin are of the order of 10-100 MHz [l]. The maximum frequency for which interaction can take place applies to the collinear scattering configuration of Fig. 8..2(b).
Finally, Fig. 8.3(a) shows a scattering configuration that is particularly suited for wide bandwidth beam steering [2,3]. The center frequency,
280
Chapter 8
Figure 8.2 Collinear interaction in uniaxial crystal. (a) frequency.
Low frequency, (b) high
corresponding to K,,is given by
The wide bandwidth in deflector applications is due to the fact that K, is tangential to the inner circle. Hence, to a first order, its direction does not change when Q deviates from Q,. For a given width of the angular planewave spectrum of the sound, the applied frequency may vary a relatively by
Special Topics
28 1
Figure 8.3 Tangential interaction in uniaxial crystal. (a) Basic configuration at center frequency,(b) explanation of wide bandwidth, and (c) second-order operation.
282
Chapter 8
Figure 8.3 (Continued).
large amount before no more acoustic plane waves are available for 83b, interaction. This may be seen fromthe construction in Fig.. ( ) similar to the one used before in isotropic Bragg diffraction (Fig. 6.6).As in Sec. 6.3 [eq. (6.131, we assume that the bandwidth is determined by the condition L&= k2z.From Fig. 8.3(b) if follows that
giving, with criterion(6.13,
-=(!E)
B
0.5
K
For the relatively large Q to which (8.8)applies, we see that the bandwidth has indeed improved over of an isotropic deflector(6.16). that So far, we have, in our discussion of anisotropic deflection, dealt with linear polarization only. In certain crystals, the birefringent aspects of propagation and acousto-optic diffraction apply to clockwise and counterclockwise polarization components rather than orthogonal linear polarization components. This is called optical activity. A case in point is Te02 (paratellurite)that is used extensivelyfor low-frequency birefringent
Special Topics
283
beam deflection [4]. An interesting application of Te02 is described by Chang and Hecht [5]. To increase resolution in deflection, they use the second-order mode of Bragg diffraction, shown i Fig. 8.3(c). The incident n light is scattered into kl byK1, and subsequently rescattered by K2 (=K1) into k2. It is of interest to analyze this with the tools developed in the preceding chapters. It is obvious that we are dealing with a case of two simultaneous pure Bragg interactions. With a combination of (3.101), (3.102) and (3.105), (3.106);we find
"
d2 E
dz
- -0.25jkCSE,
(8.9)
dE1 -= -0.25jkCS * E2 0.25jkCSE, dz
(8.10)
"
d o - -0.25jkCS * E, E dz
(8.11 )
Note that eqs. (8.9) and (8.11) are conventional coupling equations and quite analogous to (3.101) and (3.102). Equation (8.10) is a combination of both the latter equations and describes simultaneous contributions to E 1 from E and Eo. The solutionsto (8.9-8.1 1 may be written, with the proper 2 ) boundary conditions,
Eo= EiCOS'
[2k
--
z)
(8.12)
(8.13)
(8.14)
where it is assumed that the interaction length limited to z=L. is It is of interest to compare these expressions with (3.103), (3.104) for firstorder Bragg diffraction. We notice that 100% diffraction is still possible; the required value of v ( v = d 2) is, however, larger by a factor d 2 than the value needed ( v = z ) for first-order Bragg diffraction. Also note that the
284
Chapter 8
maximum of lE# equals 0.5lEf at v=dg 2). The other half of the powerat that point is equally divided between the zeroth the first order.A plot of and this interesting behavior is shown in Fig. 8.4.As for the bandwidth of the second-order deflector, the same construction may be appliedto Fig. 8.3(c) as used in Fig. 8.3(b). is seen readilythat the bandwidth is governed the It by same considerations as in a first-order deflector if the frequency sensitivity of kl is ignored.We find
a factor of two smaller than the first-order case(6.16). Thus, the benefits of larger deflection angle are nullified by the decrease in bandwidth, and the total number of resolvable points remains the same. If in the configurationof Fig. 8.3(c), ki and kl are interchanged, then two orders, kz (upshifted) and kl (downshifted), are generated simultaneously due to the degeneracyof the Bragg angle condition. theoretical analysisof A this case, along the lines of (8.9-8.11), has been given by Warner and coworkers [4]. In light of the above examples, it will be evident that a comprehensive theory of anisotropic light diffraction would probably betoo unwieldy to be of much use. Nevertheless,it is of interestto see how sucha theory could be constructed from basic notions induced cross-polarization. attempt at of An such a formulation has been made by Cherykin and Cherkov [q,to whom the reader is referred for further details.
1.o
0.8
06 .
0.4
02 .
00 .
Figure 8.4 Interaction behavior in anisotropic second-order Brag diffraction.
Special
Topics
285
8.2
ACOUSTO-OPTICTUNABLE FILTERS
In acousto-optic tunable filters, use is made the inherent selectivityof the of diffraction process to electronically move the optical passband. Most filters of this kind use anisotropic interaction, whichis the reason they are discussed in this chapter. Before analyzing a typical anisotropic filter, let us consider two simple isotropic configurations. Perhaps the simplest way of making a tunable optical filter or spectrometer is shown in Fig. It depends for its operation on the change 8.5. in direction of the deflected beam when the light wavelength changes, and functions asfollows. A parallel beam of quasi-monochromatic light, ray a in the figure, is incident at an appropriate angle on a low-Q Bragg cell operating at a frequency$ The width of the beam is limitedto D by the entrance pupilof the sound cell. The diffracted beamb is focused by a lens of focal length F on a pinhole in the focal plane, situatedXO. For the diffracted beam fall at to on the pinhole the wavelength of the light must satisfy the relation (8.16) or
r+
L
I
Figure 8.5 Isotropic acousto-optic filer using a pinhole for selectivity.
286
Chapter 8
In deriving these equations, we ignore the refraction of the light when leaving the sound cell. By changing the frequency of the sound (and hence A), a desired optical wavelength can be made pass through the pinhole. In to other words, Fig. 8.5 represents an electronically tunable optical filter. The width M of the passband may be estimated as follows. Thespot size formed by the focused beam b is approximately FAJD. A change M moves the center of the spot by F A ( ~ ~ B ) = F A NThus, the passband is determined A. by the condition
"
FAA -FA
A D
or
AA=-AA D
(8.18)
The spectral resolution R=AJAA is then given by

D R=A
(8.19)
In the device of fig. 8.5, the pinhole aperture is essential the operation. to The selectivityof the soundcell itself plays no role, the cell has a low Q. It as is, however, possible to reverse this situation by removing the pinhole and relying on the Q of the sound cell instead. The maximum deviation AA is then determined by the condition that the change in the Bragg angle equal the angular width the sound spectrum: of
A "_ A A 2A - L
(8.20)
or
(8.21)
A similar condition determines the acceptance angle v/ of both the above devices:
A L
(8.22)
A more common configmatichi uses collinear anisotropic interaction, as shown in Fig. 8.6. The appropriate condition for interactionis given by eq.
(8.4):
Special Topics
287
Figure 8.6 Collinear on-axis and off-axis upshifted operation.
f =-
h V
(8.23)
where An=ne n o The tolerance on the interaction consists off being indeterminate to the extent Af= l/- V/L, where z is the sound transit time and L the collinear interaction length. With (8.23) find we
(8.24)
where
R=-L h &
(8.25)
The acceptance angle of the device may be estimated from Fig..6. This 8 K) shows upshifted interactionboth for the on-axis case (sound vector and the off-axis case (sound vector angle I@ It is readily seenthat K, ,.
288
Chapter 8
(8.26)
Hence,
(8.27)
But
2 r f 2w K,"Ka=AKa=-- 7A "-=- v 2w v V L L
(8.28)
From (8.27)and (8.28) it follows that

(8.29)
Because of the square root dependence, this device has a relatively wide acceptance angle. This is also intuitively obvious from Fig. which shows 8.6, that &' changes but slowly when vincreases. Figure 8.7 shows a typical anisotropic collinear filter, together with its tuning curve[A.o e detailed informationmay be found inRefs. 8-1 1. Mr
8.3
LARGEBRAGGANGLEINTERACTION
In the case of large Bragg angles, the direction of the incident light is closer to parallel than perpendicular to the sound. A typical interaction configuration for downshifted scattering is shown in Fig. 8.8(a), and for upshifted scattering in Fig. 8.8(b). In the analysis to follow we shall limit ourselves to downshifted scatteringat the exact Bragg angle. Following [12], we first note that the boundary conditions for this case are given by
Eo=Ei
for x=O for x=L
(8.30a) (8.30b) equations
E-I=O
We start from the generalized two-dimensional Raman-Nath (4.33), leaving out all ordersother than 0 and -1:
Special Topics
REJECTED LIGHT ON
289
ACOUSTIC INCIDENT LIGHT
q1 -5
POLARIZER
il
fSELEtTED
L I y T
-c
IEZOELECTRIC
ANALYZER
140s
130
120
110
100
2 z
W
90
>x
8 0
70
w 50-
40
3020
I
350
400
I
450
I
500
I
550
I
600
I
650
I
700
WAVELENGTH, nm
Figure 8.7 Collinear CaMo04 acousto-optic tunable filter. (From Ref. 7.)
290
Chapter 8
ound
Figure 8.8 ConfigurationforlargeBragganglescattering.(a)Downshifted 12.) interaction, (b) upshifted interaction. (Adapted from Ref.
V:E~(p)+kZE,(p)+0.5kzCS(p)E_,(p)=0
(8.31)
(8.32)
In analogy to ( . 4 ,we now assume &(p) and E-l(p) to be plane waves 43) propagating the X direction with amplitudes Eo(x) and E-I(x). The sound wave is as given by (4.35). Assuming a rectangular sound column model and
Special Topics
29 1
slow variations of Eo(x) and E-l(x), i.e., ignoring second derivatives, may we readily derive the following coupled equations from (8.31) (8.32): and
dEo -jkCS -" =dx 4 sin #B
El -
(8.33)
"
dE-l - +jkCS * E O dx 4sin$,
(8.34)
With the boundary conditions (8.30a) and (8.30b), we find the following solution:
E = Ei o
cosh[kCISl(L -x) /4 #B] sin cosh[kClSIL/4 sin #B]

S*
E-1= -
jm
Ei
sinh[kCISI(L-x)/4 sin $B] cosh[kCISIL/4 sin B ] #
We note that the interaction behavior, shown in Fig. 8.9, is of essentially an different character than in the case small Bragg angles. There no longer of is any periodic behavior, but rather a gradual transfer of energy from EO backward into E- 1. This transfer reaches lOO?! only for L +CO. Upshifted interaction [Fig. 8.8(b)] shows a similar behavior starting from x=O rather than x=L.
0.2 1 ,\; Q4
0.0
Figure 8.9 Interaction behavior of large Bragg angle scattering.
292
Chapter 8
8.4 ACOUSTO-OPTIC SOUND,AMPLIFICATION AND
GENERATION
In Chapter 3 we discussed the possibility of sound amplification and generation, implied in the quantum-mechanical interpretation of downshifted interaction, Energy conservation on a per quantum basis written as
appears to hint at both possibilities because one photon is released to the sound for every photon generated in the downshifted light. Overall energy conservation may be writtenas P,'+ PI +P,'= 0 /
(8.38)
where the primed PSdenote net powers flowing into the interaction region. Let Nj(j=O, - 1,S) be the corresponding net number quanta per second of flowing into this region at frequency mi. Then, P)=NjhWjy
j = O , -1,
S
(8.39)
where 0s denotes a. Now (8.37) implies that the N,s are equal as there exists a one-to-one quantum exchange. Thus, we may write
@o
@-I
@S
From (8.39) and (8.40), it then follows that

(8.41)
(8.42)
Note that multiplying (8.41) by W 0, (8.42) by @-I, and subtracting the latter from the former gives (8.38). Equations (8.41) and (8.42) are derived here from quantum-mechanical considerations. They can be extended include more frequencies[131, such to
Special Topics
293
as would, for instance, occur in Raman-Nath diffraction. Rather startling perhaps is the fact that (8.41) and (8.42) can be derived classically for a general system of nonlinear interactions through a nondissipative process. Details may be found in the classical papers of Manley and Rowe [14]. The equations (8.41) and (8.42) are aspecialcase ofwhat are called the Manley-Rowe relations. It is of interest to calculate the actual sound amplification for a practical configuration, saylow-frequency a (-40 MHz) Bragg used cell for modulation. Such cells are characterized by diffraction efficiencies 7 on the order of 100% per 0.1W of sound power. Thus, (8.43) where CSis of the order of 10 W-1. With regard to (8.42), the amount of power U s delivered to the sound beam equals-PIs, and by the same token P - I equals -P'-l. Hence,
Combining (8.43) and (8.44), we find (8.45) In an experiment at 45 MHz by Korpel and co-workers [15], the following parameter values applied: P G lo3W, C,2 10, ws/w-l G i APs/Ps2 The results of the experimenthavebeendiscussedin Chapter 2 and presented graphically in Fig. 2.10.An experiment by Chiao and co-workers [ l q has demonstrated amplificationof thermal sound (stimulated Brillouin scattering) in quartz at a frequency of 30 GHz and a Bragg angle of go", at which all beams are collinear. It is clear from (8.45) that for such high frequencies the generated sound power may be much larger; frequently,is, it in fact, the source of internal damage in crystals subject to intense laser pulses. The factthat the Manley-Rowe relations (8.41) and (8.42) may be derived classically makes us suspect there may be a classical explanation for the that sound amplification discussed above. This is indeed the case. The force driving the sound field is wave of radiation pressure caused the moving a by interference pattern of incident and diffracted light [12, 17-19]. For large angle downshifted Bragg interaction [see Fig. 8.8(a)], it is found that [l21
294
Chapter 8
Is
=Is0
COS
COS
r(L-X) rL
(8.46)
(8.47) with
0.5
(:I,)
(8.48)
where I,o is the initial sound intensity, is the amplified sound intensity, I, and it has been assumedthat the incident light intensity has been noticeably not depleted. A plot of I - ] and I, as a function of x,for TL=0.7, is shown in Fig. 8.10. Note that the sound increases the Xdirection, the scattered light in the in -Xdirection. For rL=ld2, the sound and diffracted light intensities become infinite, and the devicenow functions as abackward wave oscillator. However, the assumption of constant pump intensity is violated at that point, and the simplified theory breaks down. does, however, indicatethat It a threshold effect exists in stimulated Brillouin scattering. a h a 1 point of As interest, it should be noticed that the Manley-Rowe relations are satisfied locally in the interaction described by (8.46) and (8.47). It may be shown readily that
2 ,
Figure 8.10 Interactionbehavior of amplifiedsoundandscatteredlightin optically pumped backward wave amplifier.
Special Topics
295
(8.49)
In isotropic substances, collinear sound generation is possible for high frequencies only. The 90" Bragg angle requires that K=2k or ws=(Vlc)w. Typical sound frequencies in solids for visible light pumping the order are of of 10'O Hz. By using anisotropic diffraction in crystals, as in Fig. 8.6, it is possible to generate sound at lower frequencies (-lo8 Hz). Details may be found in Refs. 20and 21.
8.5
THREE-DIMENSIONAL INTERACTION
So far, we have limited our discussion by and large to two-dimensional interaction, although most the basic equations, e.g., (4.32), (4.41), (4.108), of are formulated in three dimensions.It is, however, very difficultto work out the consequences of the full dimensional equations. The simple rectangular sound column, being such a convenient fiction in two dimensions, to be fails even that when a dimension is added. The plane-wave interaction formalism loses its nice one-to-one correspondence aspect; as remarked before, one incident plane wave may nowinteract with a sound of sound and light wave vectors, as shown in Fig. 8.11(a). Consequently, even for weak interaction, simple wave interaction equations such as (4.54) and (4.55) do not exist. As pointed out in Sec. 6.1, if it is really necessary to analyze three-dimensional configurations, the volume scattering integral (4.37) is used [21, 221. Yet this approach seems cumbersome, even more so when it is realized that, in principle, a single integration should suffice. This is so because the soundmodulated polarization over which the spatial integral extends is itself proportional to the product of sound and light fields. These fields satisfy Helmholtz's equation, and, hence, their N3 spatial values are completely determined by their N values in one arbitrary cross section, or, alternatively, their N values in their angular plane-wave spectrum. In short, the (F)* values specifying the combined fields in the volume integral exceed the by necessaryminimum of (P)2 N. Thus, by using an appropriate formalism, it should be possible to reduce the triple integration to a single one. It is plausible to try and develop such a formalism by using angular plane-wave spectra. The fact that any particular scattered plane wave is contributed to by a one-dimensional distribution of sound and light waves [i.e., those with wave vectors on the cone of Fig. 8.1 would presumably l(a)] A theory along account for the one integration remaining in this formalism. these lines, but in a somewhat conceptual form, was developed by Korpel
296
Chapter 8
IZ
Figure 8.11 (a) Cone of incident light vectors ki, interacting with cone of sound vectors K to generate scattered light vector kl. (b) Interpretation of corresponding mathematical formalism.
Special Topics
297
[l21 using the Hertz vector formulation of Sec. 4.1 1. The basic equations derive from (4.145), (4.163), and (4.166) with the weak scattering assumption that the scattered light e is very weak relative to the incident light ei. For time-harmonic quantities, we find in terms of the arbitrary spatial component phasorsrI+(r), rI-(r), S@),and E&).
n+(r) &j =
exp(-jkR) dz,,
(8.50)
(8.51)
where dz,,=dxdydz, and the subscripts and downshifted light. Next, all fields are decomposed plane waves: into
S(r) = JG,(K) exp(-JK.r) d o K
refer to up- and
(8.52)
Ei(r)= JGi(k) exp(-/k-r) d o k
(8.53)
n+(r) JG+(k)exp(-Jk.r) = n-(r)= JG-(k) exp(-Jk.r)
do,
(8.54)
dok
(8.55)
where doK and dok are infinitesimal areas on the half-spheres that form the loci of the endpoints of K and k. We recognize in the Gs the plane-wave spectra of the interactingfields. Analogously to the development in Sec.4.5, it can now be shown that far away from the interaction region - w ) (r
(8.56)
298
Chapter 8
Substituting (8.52) and (8.53) into (8.50) and (8.51), evaluating the integral for R+w, and comparing the result with (8.56) and (8.57), we find that
The mutual relation the vectors k, kB, and Kg is illustrated in Fig. l(b). of 8.1 As expected, the final results involve integration over a one-dimensional an distribution of interacting wave vectors lying on a cone. Although (8.58) and (8.59) give a compact account of three-dimensional interaction, these equations are not immediately applicable to real-life situations. Recently, a more practical version was developedby Korpel and co-workers [23]. In this formalism, the angular plane-wave spectra E(@,$) and S(y, 7) are defined as in (3.133) and (3.144) (with the assumption of weak interaction), extended to two dimensions. Paraxial propagation is assumed, the sound along X, the light along Z. The angles 4, C , y, y are p shown in Fig. 8.12(a) and 8,12(b). Following a method similar to the one just discussed and retaining terms downto second order in 4, Cp, y , y , the following interaction equations are obtained.
A geometric interpretation of (8.60) is shown in Fig. 8.13 for a specific direction of incident light. The angles $ and @ (8.60) are denoted by $1 in
Special
Topics
299
IY
IY
Figure 8.12 Propagationanglesandwavevector (From Ref. 23).
for (a) sound and (b) light.
300
Chapter 8
Figure 8.13 Interpretation of paraxial mathematical formalism. (From Ref 23.)
(8.62)
@:=($)Yt
(8.63)
Special Topics
301
From the argumentof S, it follows that

y=-m,+-y9+(k)y/2 K
With (8.62), (8.63), eq. (8.64) may also be written as
F -@B
(8.65)
It will be seen from Fig. 8.13 that (8.63) defines the cone, with apex P,of scattered wave vectors, whereas (8.65) defines the cone, with apex 0, of sound vectors. It mayshown be readily that for two-dimensional a situation characterized by
(8.66)
Equations (8.60) and (8.61) revert to the two-dimensional interaction equations (3.160) and (3.161) derived earlier. In many cases, (8.60) and (8.61) may be written in a simpler form. If the angular spectra of sound and light are characterized by angular widths A@, A#, A x A y ,then it may be shown that the (K/k)y* terms may be ignored if
(8.68) A sufficient condition for ignoring the $ l term is y (8.69)
while the term with(Klk)y may be ignored if

(8.70)
where the notation(A@, Aj)min means the smaller ofA@iy Ayl
302
If, as is often the case, (8.68-8.70) are all satisfied, then
Chapter 8
k-l(@,@') . 2 5 j k C ~ i ( $ + 2 @ B , @*'()- @ -mB , =-0 $ ~@

-cD
y')
($1
(8.72)
A typical example of an interaction configuration that may be analyzed conveniently is the interaction of two Gaussian beams shown in Fig. 8.14. The sound beam with axis in the X-Y plane and waist L (2L between lle amplitude points) at ys causes diffraction of the incident light beam with axis X - 2 and waist w at the origin. The following expressions apply:
S(0, x, y , z ) = So exp
(8.73)
Figure 8.14 Interaction of Gaussian sound and light beam. (From Ref. 23.)
Specia1 Topics
303
(8.74)
(8.75)
(8.76)
L
It is readily shown that (8.68-8.70) apply if

U <<
(8.77)
If (8.77) is assumed, the substitution of (8.74) and (8.76) into (8.60) yields
-k2w2($- 2@8- @i)2- k2w2qS2 K2L(-@, +@)2 4
(8.78)
It is readily seen that a maximum occurs for @i= - @B, @ = @ B as is to be expected. Upon changing ys, the amplitude of this wave, is then seen to trace out the y-dependence of the sound beam.
8.6
SPECTRAL FORMALISMS
In the usual definition of the plane-wave spectrum, the phase reference is located at the observation point on the nominal axis of propagation, say, the 2 axis. We will call such a spectrum with a shifting phase reference point a local angular spectrum. The components of this spectrum change in phase when the field propagates. This change expresses, of course, what is commonly called diffraction. In a nonhomogeneous or nonlinear medium, there will be additional phase and/or amplitude changes imparted to the components by material interaction or self-interaction. In acousto-optics configurations, such changes come about through interaction with a sound field. Two kinds of effects then should be kept in mind: diffraction effects and interaction effects. The local plane-wave spectrum takes both into account in a straightforward manner.
304
Chapter 8
The virtual plane-wave spectrum is the local plane-wave spectrum at z back-propagated to the origin through the unperturbed medium. By definition its value does not depend on z if no interaction mechanism is involved. If interaction of some kind takes place, then the virtual plane-wave spectrum changes with z, i.e., it depends on which particular local planewave spectrum is back-propagated. The advantage of using this kind of spectrum is that diffraction effects are already included its very definition. by The propagation equations then describe interaction effects only, and are generally easier to handle. Its application to acousto-optic interaction has been 3.3. It is sometimes more convenient consider the spatial profile of the field to only, rather than including the spatial carrier. Such an approach makes it possible, for example, devise algorithms for acousto-optic interaction to that circumvent the necessity of processing the high resolution spatial carrier [24]. The spectrum of the profile is in all essential respects analogous the to spectrum of a modulating signal in communications [25]. Like the latter, it suffices for the analysis of signal processing, here to be understood as interaction and propagation. discussion of this method-sometimes called A the Fourier transform Approach-in the context of acousto-optics may be found in Refs.26 and 27. The spatial profile spectrum discussed above is a local spectrum in the same sense as the conventional angular plane-wave spectrum. Like the latter it too may be back-propagated to the origin.It then becomes avirtualprofile spectrum, implicitly accounting for diffraction effects in the unperturbed medium, and explicitly representing interaction in the perturbed medium. A unified treatment of spectral formalisms, with relevance to acoustooptics has beengiveninRef. 28. In this section we shall follow that treatment closely.
8.6.1 The Local and the Virtual Plane-Wave Spectrum

In Sec. 3.3.1 we defined the plane-wave spectrum for two dimensions in terms of the angle 4. For the present discussion will extend the definition we to three dimensions and use the wave vector components kx and ky rather than the angles 4 and 4':
Special Topics
305
where
(8.80)
for paraxial propagation. The spectrum so defined is called the virtual spectrum, because, according z to (8.79), the local field at is obtained by propagating allthe plane waves in the spectrum to z as if there were no interaction. The virtual plane-wave spectrum is obtained by back-propagating the actual local plane-wave spectrum to the origin asif the medium were unperturbed:
(8.81)
where the local planewave spectrum is defined by
(8.82)
with the inverse
(8.83)
According to (8.81) and (8.82), the relation between the virtual spectrum and the local spectrum is given by
(8.84)
If no interaction is involved, the virtual plane-wave spectrum &kx, ky;z) 2. If there is interaction, then it depends on which particular plane-wave spectrum is being back-propagated, i.e., depends on it z The advantage of using this kind of spectrum is diffraction effects are . that included by its very definition. This isnot the case with the local spectrum
is independent of
306
Chapter 8
A(kx,ky; z). Each of the plane waves in the spectrum propagates as so exp( -jk,z) in the nominal propagation direction that
The quantity H is called the propagator. It specifies the evolution of the spectrum in the absence of interaction. For the virtual spectrum the propagator equals unity in the absenceinteraction. of For paraxial propagation where lkxl,Ikylekwe may write
(8.86)
8.6.2 The
Local and Virtual Spatial Profile Spectrum
It is sometimes more convenient consider only the spatial profile take to and the spatial carrier for granted. Such an approach makes it possible, for example, to devise algorithms for acousto-optics interactions that circumvent the necessity process the high frequency carrier [24]. This is implemented by writing
where E e is the spatial profile.In communication theory thisquantity would [25]. be called the complex envelope The local profile spectrum defined as is
with the inverse
Substituting (8.87) into (8.88), we fmd readily, after comparing with(8.84) z)z)=exp(ikz)A(kx, ky; Ae(kx, ky;
(8.90) into (8.85): (8.90)
The propagationlaw for A , follows readily from that of A by substitution
Special Topics
307
(8.91)
where
H,(k,,k,)=exp(jkz-jkz,z)=exp
( y;
j-+j-
7) ;
(8.92)
for paraxial propagation. A virtual profile spectrum may now be definedback-propagation: by

A,&, k,,; z) = exp
(8.93)
Substituting (8.90) into (8.93) and then (8.84) into the result, we find
Ae(kx, ky; z)=E(kx, ky; Z)
(8.94)
8.6.3
SpecialAcousto-OpticProfileSpectra
Here we are concerned with spectra of a particular order propagate in n that a particular direction k It then seems reasonable to define spatial profiles , . yen in the following way:
En(x,y z)= ,
v&,
y z) exp(-ik,xx-jk,yy-jk,zz) ,
(8.95)
By taking the Fourier transform (8.93), we find of
(8.96)
where
YfW=9(yot)
(8.97)
We readily find the propagation law for Y e n from (8.95) by invoking the propagation law for A, [(8.91) with A , replaced by A,,]:
308
Chapter 8
where
in the paraxial approximation. The propagatorHenis sometimes called the

transfer function for propagation [27].
A virtual acousto-optic profile spectrum can be defined in the usual way by back-propagating:
qen
(kx, k y ;Z )
For convenience, the various quantities introduced, their mutual relations, and their propagators are shown Table 8.1. in
Table 8.1 List of Various Quantities Describing Propagation, Their Definitions,
Mutual Relations, and Propagating Factors [Adapted fromRef 28.1 Quantity Definition real physical field e=Re[E exp(jot)] g=E, exp(-j kz) E n = v m exp(-jk, r) A=9-'+[E] E=A exp(jk, z) Ae=Y-'[Et]=A exp(jkz) y=Y"[ven] Propagator (transfer function)
exp[-j(k-kxz/2k-kyz/2k)z] 1 exp~(kxz+kyz)z/2k] e~plj(k~~+2k,,~k, +kyz+2kn,ky)z/2k]

1 1
&A,
exp[-j(kxz +ky2)z/2k] =B qm 6(kx knXky kny; = z) = Y e n exp[-j(kx2+2knXkx +ky2+2knyky)z/2k]
REFERENCES
1. Dixon, R. W., IEEE .Quunt. Electr., QE-3: 85 (1967). l 2. Lean, E. G. H., Quate, C. F. and Shaw, H. J. App. Phys. Let., IO: 48 (1967). 3. Collins, J. H., Lean, E. G. H. and Shaw, H. J. App. Phys. Lett., 11: 240 (1967). 4. Warner, A. W., White, D. L. and Bonner, W A., .Appl. Phys., 43: 4490 (1972). . l
Special Topics
309
5. Chang I. C. and Hecht, D. L.App. Phys. Lett., 27: 517 (1975). 6. Parygin, V. N. and Chirkov, L. E. Sov. 2 Quant. Electr., 5: 181 (1975). 7. Chang, I. C. Acousto-optic tenable feelers, inAcousto-optic Signal Processing (N. J. Berg and Y N. Lee, eds.) Marcel Dekker, W 1983. , 8. Harris, S. E. and Wallace, R. W. . Opt. Soc Am. 5 9 774 (1969). l 9. Xu Jieping and Stroud, R., Acousto-Optic Devices,Wiley, New York (1992). 10. Goutzoulis, A. P. and Pape, D. R. (eds.). Design and Fabrication of AcoustoOptic Devices, Marcel Dekker, New York (1989). 11. Magdich, L. N. and Molchanov, V. Ya. Acoustooptic Devices and Their Applications, Gordon & Breach, New York(1959). 12. Korpel, A. Acousto-0ptics,in Applied Solid State Science,Vol. 3 (R. Wolfe, ed.), Academic Press, New York, 1972. 13. Weiss, M. T. Proc IRE, 4 5 113 (1957). 14. Manley, J. M. and Rowe, H. E. POCIRE, 44: 904 (1956). 15. Korpel, A., Adler, R. and Alpiner, B. App. Phys. Lett., 5: 86 (1964). ! 16. Chiao, R. Y, Townes, C. H. and Stoicheff, B. F Phys. Rev. Lett., 12: 592 (1964). 17. Quate, C. F., Wilkinson, C. D.W. and Winslow, D. K. Proc IEEE, 53: 1604 (1965). 18. Kastler, A. C. R Acad. Sci. B, 259 4233 (1964); :77 (1965). 20 6 1 . Caddbs, D. E. and Hansen, W. . Lab. Phys. M. L.Rept. 1483 (1966). 9 W 20. Hsu, H. and Kavage, W. Phys. Lett., 15: 206 (1965). 21. Piltch, M. and Cassedy, E. S. Appl. Phys. Lett. 17: 87 (1970). 22. Gordon, E. I. Proc. IEEE, 54: 1391 (1966). 23. Korpel, A., Lin, H. H. and Mehrl, D. J. . Opt. SOC Am.A., 4: 2260 (1987). l 24. Venzke, C., Korpel, A. and Mehrl, D. App. Opt., 31: 656 (1992). 25. Haykin, S. Communication Systems, 3rd Ed., Wiley, New York (1994). . to 26. Tam, C. W A Spatio-temporal Fourier Transform Approach Acousto-optic Interactions, Ph.D. Thesis, Syracuse University(1991). 27. Banerjee, P. P. Tarn, C. W. Acustica, 74 181 (1991). and . 28. Korpel, A., Banerjee, P. and Tam, C. W Opt. Comm, 97: 250 (1993).
Appendix A
Summary of Research and Design Formulas
GENERAL PARAMETERS (Fig. A . l )

K=21r -
A denotes soundwavelength.
i denotes light wavelength in medium. l
k = 21r h Q =GL h v=k,AnL
Klein and Cook parameter. Raman-Nath parameter. k , denotes propagation constant in vacuum. See also after P. Sound-induced peak refractive index also after V. index Refractive change. See
An= -0.5nipS0
no P
of medium.
Appropriate elasto-optic coefficient (Sec. 7.3). Amplitude of condensation Ap/p or strain (Sec. 7.2).
s0=(2l~~" y.5 v3 -
31 1
312
Appendix A
Figure A.l
Is
Sound intensity. Density of medium. Sound velocity.
Po V
Figure of merit (Sec. 7.3).
Acoustic power radiated by transducer.

0.5M2PL
lvl=kv(
)
Bragg angle. For large angles @B*sin
@E,
2k=X @BzK2A
RAMAN-NATH DIFFRACTION (Fig. A.2)

Conditions:
Q . 1 ,
Qv41
Diffraction angles:
+n=+o+2n+~
Diffracted orders:
In=lEn12=I&In(v')12
Summary o Research and Design Formulas f
313
Figure A.2
where
v = v
sine(
WOL
A plot of ( A 3 with +0=0, is shown in Fig. 3.3. For a standing sound wave
Refs.: Sec. 3.1, eqs (3.13), (3.14), (3.45-3.47), (3.49). profiled sound column, see Sec. 3.35, eq. (3.173).
For diffraction by a
BRAGG DIFFRACTION (Fig. A.3)

Conditions:
Q 1 Q/v ))l ,
and A$ small enough so that only Bragg orders are generated. Diffracted orders:
3 14
Appendix A
-l
Figure A.3
Plots of (A.7) and (A.8) are shown in Fig. 3.9. For conventional Bragg diffraction, A@=O and
(A. 10)
Plots of (A.9) and (A.10) are shown in Fig. 3.8. Identical expressions apply for the - 1 order. Refs.: Sec. 3.2.3, eq. (3.124). For diffraction of a profiled light beam, see Sec. 3.3.4, eq. (3.168) and (3.169).
BRAGG MODULATOR (Fig. A.4)

Relative (small) modulation index for weak interaction:
(A.ll)
where Km=2dAmand A,,, is the modulation wavelength. An identical expression applies for - 1 order operation. Refs.: Sec. 6.5, eqs. (6.44), (6.51).
315
Figure A.4
BRAGG DEFLECTOR (Fig. A.5)

Deflection angle:
(A. 12)
~ Fe. where @ B is the Bragg angle at the center frequency
Deflected intensity for weak interaction a function of F: as
(A.13)
Refs.: Sec. 6.3, eqs. (6.12), (6.14-6.16). Bandwidth (one half-frequency difference between zeros):
(A. 14)
where QCis the Q at center frequency. Identical expressions apply for the -1 order. For beam steering deflectors, see Eq. 6.25. For anisotropic deflectors, see Sec. 8.1.
316
Appendix A
Figure A.5
WEAK INTERACTION OF ARBITRARY FIELDS IN TERMS OF PLANE WAVES Two-Dimensional Interaction (Fig. A.6)
81(g)=-O.25jkC~(-g+g~)BXg-2g~)
(A. 15) (A. 16)
8-1(g))=-o.25jkcS"*(-g-gB)Bxg+2gB)
where C=-pn,2 and S" and B are angular plane-wave spectra with phase reference at the origin. An interpretation of (A.15) and (A.16) is shown in Fig. 3.14. Refs.: Sec. 3.3, eqs (3.138), (3.144), (3.160), and (3.161).
317
Three-Dimensional Interaction (Fig. A.7)

&(@,@)=-0.25jkCI&
-@+$B
-Y@+-Y,Y k
(A. 17)
d(ylA)
(A. 18)
For the definition of 4, (8.61).
@, y, see Fig. 8.12. Refs.: Sec. 8.5, eqs. (8.60), yand
STRONG INTERACTION OF ARBITRARY FIELDS Two-Dimensional Case in Terms of Plane Waves

-= -jaE,,-lSi-l- jaE,,+IS;+l
di
6 %
m,
(A. 19)
Figure A.7
318 where (see Fig. 4.5)
Appendix A
(A.20)
and a=0.25kC=-0.25kpn$ Refs.: Sec. 4.7. For explicit solution by path integrals, see Sec. 4.8.
Two-Dimensional in General Terms
V,2E,(p)+k2E,(p)+0.5k2CS(p)~~-~(p) +0.5k2CSr(p)E,+l(p)=0
(A.22)
Three-Dimensional in General Terms
v~,(r)+k~E,(r)+O.Sk~CS(r)E,-,(r)
+O.5k2CP(r)En+l(r)=O Refs.: Sec. 4.4, eqs. (4.32), (4.33). (A.23)
EIKONAL THEORY
Amplitude of diffracted ray at interaction point:
where the interaction point, is defined by the local ray triangle (Fig. 4.12). S
kss+ksi=ksl
(A.24)
319
Also,
(A.25)
(A.26) (A.27) (A.28) and A&)= -?if

C>O, T if C<O.Similar relations applyto the
- 1 order.
Refs.: Sec. 4.9;eqs. (4.99), (4.1 17), and (4.1 19); Sec.6.9.2.
VECTOR EQUATIONS
(A.29)
(A.30)
e(r, t)=ef, t)+e(r, t)
(A.31) (A.32)
d2n(r,t ) e(r,t)=V[V,~(r,t)]-~~at2
ei(r,t)=VIV.ni(r,t)]-p$o
d2ni(r, ) t
dt2
(A.33)
e(r,t)=VIV.n(r,t)]-pU,&o
d(r, r)=EoCs(r, t )
Refs.: Sec. 4.1 1.
dZd(r, ) t
dt2
(A.34) (A.35)
320
Appendix A
REFERENCES
1. Grottlieb, M., Ireland, C. L. M.. and Ley, J. M. Electro-Optic and Acousto2. Korpel, A. Acousto-Optics, in Applied Solid State Science, Vol. 3 (R. Wolfe,
Optic Scanning and Deflection, Marcel Dekker, New York (1983).
ed.), Academic Press, New York (1972).
Appendix B
The Stationary Phase Method
The stationary phase method applies the evaluation of the following type to of integral [l]:
I = Limk,,
h(x) exp[jkg(x)] dx
where h(x) and &x) are real functionsof x and k is a real constant. Now, in any part of the integration interval where dg/dx# 0, the phase angle kg(x) will go through many multiples of 2a if k becomes very large. In that case, Re{explikg(x)]}=cos[kg(x)] will oscillate very rapidly and, unless h(x) has discontinuities, this will completely average out the real part of the integral (B.1). The same holds for the imaginary part of the integral involving sin[kg(x)]. The only point on X where there is a contribution to (B.l) is the so-called stationary phase point where dg/dx=O. x,, Expanding g(x) around the stationary phase point x,, the integral (B.l) may be written
where g"(x) = dg/dx. 32 1
322
Appendix B
Substituting a new variable x=x-xp into (B.2), we find (3.4) using the following integral formula p], [exp(-px kqx) dx = -exp P
(:j2)
Re(p) 2 0
then The integration range (B.l) need not always be - W to QJ.If k+ QJ, of any integration range is okay, as long as it includes x,. If there are more stationary phase points, their contributions to be summed. have
REFERENCES
1. Erdelyi, A. Asymptotic Expansions, Dover, New York (1954). 2. Gradshteyn, I. S. and Ryzhik, I. M. Table of Integrals, Series and Products, Academic Press,New York (1965).
Appendix C
Symbols and Definitions"
Local angular plane wave spectrum. Local profile spectrum. Material constant: a=kCl4. Light velocity in medium. Light velocity in vacuum. Material constant such that An= C'S; C'= -0.5Pno3
Refractive index variation. Amplitude of plane wave of refractive index variation; may be complex: An= C 'S. Generalized light phasor with time variation slow relative to the associated frequencyo Spatial profile of light field. Phasor referring to the general nth-order field. associated The frequency equals o : En(x, z, t)=En(X, z) exp(jnR t). Phasor referring to general nth-order field. The associated frequency equals o+nQ. See above.
323
324
Appendix C
As above.
En@) Ef"'(x, t; z)
Asthree above in dimensions. Virtual phasor field along the X axis,i.e.,back-projected physical field E(x, r, z). Asabove but referring to nth order: En(")(x, t; z)=En(")(x;z) exp(jnL2 t). See above. Back-projected En(x, field 2. ) Short for En(")(x; m),nn'. Short for -m)=E,(x, EP)(x;
0).
EP)(x, t; z) En(")(x; z) &(")(x) EP)(x)

En
Amplitude of nth-order plane wave, with the origin as a phase reference point. Virtual plane-wave amplitude. The corresponding real physical fieldis &(X, Z)=En(z)X exp(-jkx sin P-jkz cos $,,). The corresponding virtual (back-projected) field is En(")(x, Z)=En(z)X exp(-jkx sin e n ) . Amplitude of incident plane wave. Sometimes shorthand for z) the incident light field Ei(x, when clear from the context. Virtual angular plane-wave spectrum of with light phase reference at the origin. The corresponding physical field is
En(z)
-5
E($; 2)
k sin$ x exp(-jkx sin$ - jkz cos 9) d 2K
The corresponding virtual (back-projected) is field E'"(x;

2) =
p($;2)
k sin$ x exp(-jkx sin$) d 2K
&(e)
Short for E n ( @ , W), n# i. Short for E,(@, -m); sometimes used from context. Dielectric constant of medium. for El(@, z) clear when
J%e)
EO
E '(r,
Time-varying part of dielectric constant.
Symbols and Dejnitions

EO+&
325
'(r, t).
Dielectic constant of vacuum. Fourier transform operator. Inverse Fourier transform operator. Angle used for optical waves; positive counterclockwise with respect to the 2 axis. Propagation angleof nth order: 4 n = $ o+n@ B . Incident angles. Bragg angle:4 B z 0% IA. Phase of the sound. Angle used for sound waves; positive clockwise with respect to the X axis. wave: In=lEnI2. Light intensity of the nth-order plane Light propagationconstant in medium. Sound propagationconstant. Light propagationconstant in vacuum. Light wavelength in medium. Light wavelength in vacuum. Sound wavelength. Permeability of vacuum.
, , Refractive index: n(x, z t)=no+6n(x, z t).

Constant part of the refractive index. Elasto-optic coefficient. Three-dimensional position vector. Two-dimensional position vector. Generalized sound phasor with time variation slow relative to d.The associated frequency equals R. Time-independent sound equals d. phasor. Associated frequency
326
S
Appendix C Plane-wave sound amplitude; sometimes shorthand for the field S(x,z) when clear from the context. Angular plane-wave spectrum of sound with phase reference at the origin. The physical field (x,z) is given by at
x exp(- jivz sin y - jKx cos y ) d -
Ksin y 2n
S(x2,z)=s[z($
S(&,
V
,+e z)=S*[z($,-e
B),
2 . Sound field along a Bragg line. 1

z]. Conjugate sound field along a
E),
Bragg line. Raman-Nathparameter, peak phase shift: v=kGJC'IISI =kLIqIqI2=2aLIq=KvAn L. Accumulated peak phase shift = 0 . 5 z l klCllS(z)ldz. :v'(z)
V
Sound velocity. Susceptibility of medium. Peak time-varying susceptibility. Point on Bragg line:xn+=z($n+$ Point on Bragg line:x =z($ ; Eikonal function. kY,{r)+KYls(r)-kYI(r). Angular light frequency. Angular sound frequency.
B).
B).
"-4
Index
Acoustic holography, 29 Acoustic microscope, 29 Acoustic surface waves (see Surface acoustic waves) Acoustics, 257-266 Acousto-optic tunable filters, 285-288 anisotropic, 287 isotropic, 285 Amplification, of sound by acousto-optics,25,292-295 Amplitude, of diffracted ray, 23, 11 5 Angle convention in three dimensions, 299 in two dimensions,36 Angular planewave spectrum, 20,21,71,304 coupling ofwaves in, 101 of light field, definition, 67 rescattering in, 71 of sound field, definition, 68 Anisotropy in acoustics, 264-265
[Anisotropy] in optics, 267-270 Backward wave amplifier, 294 Beam deflector, 16, 19, 175-182 using birefringence, 27,279 Beam steering, 19,178-181 Born approximation, 15 Bragg angle, 6 incidence at multiple values of, 140-143 large values of, 288,292 tracking of, 19 Bragg diffraction, 6-8, 58-61 in anisotropic crystals, 277-285 criteria for, 63,64 in downshiftedlupshifted configuration, 59, 70 eikonal theory of, 109-118 equations, 60 higher order, 140-143 in birefringent medium, 283
327
Index
[Bragg diffraction] imaging, 21,22,206-219 in pulsed mode, 23 rules of, 209 by sampling, 23,219-223 in three dimensions, 214-219 using birefringence,27 sound field probing by, 23,219-223 Bragg lines, 102,105,160 Brillouin scattering, 24 Broad light beaminteraction, 77-79 Condensation, 257 Coupled modes, 26,86 Coupled waves, 20,21 Correlator, 19 Corrugated wave front, 37 Curved sound wave fronts strong interaction, 80-83, 118-125 weak interaction, 116-1 18 Debye-Sears criterion (see Raman-Nath criterion) Doppler shift of scattered light, 14, 17,24,42 Dynamic birefringence, 275 Eikonal theory, 23 of Bragg diffraction, 109-118 of Braggdiffraction imaging, 210-214 Elasto-optic coefficient, 26,272 Elasto-optics,270-275 Electro-opticeffect, 16 Energy, conservation of, in interaction, 24,292 Feynman diagrams, 10 in curved soundwave front interaction, 118 in ideal Bragg diffraction, 108, 109 in intermodulation products, 203 in Monte Carloalgorithm, 160 in scattering calculations, 106, 107 Figure of merit, 26 Fourier plane, processing in, 19, 242-248 Fourier transform, use in angular plane wave spectrum, 67-69 Fourier transform method, 154-156 Fresnel diffraction, 11 Fresnel image,23,28 Frequency shifting, 17 for electro-optic heterodyning, 28,246 for interferometricvisualization, 28 Gaussian beam strong interaction with sound column, 172-175 weak interaction, 169-172, 302, 303 Generating function, 13 Generation, of sound by acousto-optics,25,292-295 Grating cascaded, for analysis, 52-56 induced by sound wave, 7, 13,27,40-44 induced by surface acoustic wave, 27 Helmholtz equation, 14 Hertz vector, 129 Heterodyning, 17, 19,28 as explanation of modulator, 186 in SAW probing, 233-236 in signal processing, 241,248 in sound field probing,219-223 Hologram, 14,26 Hookes law, 263 Image plane, signal processing in, 19,237-242 Index ellipsoid, 268 Intermodulation products, 200-206 Klein-Cook parameter, 9,49 Longitudinal wave, 257 Lorentz-Lorenz relation, 26,270 Manly-Rowe relations, 293 Mathieu functions, 11-13, 16, 89
Index
Measurements of optical fields, 193-196 Modal theory, 90 Modulator, 17 bandwidth of, 184-189 Momentum, conservation of, in interaction, 24 Monte Carlo simulation, 156-1 67 Multiple scattering, 71, 106 NOA method, 143, 144 Normal modes, 11,26,88-90 Numerical approach, 135-168 by carrierless split-step method, 147 by eigenvalues, 143 by Fourier transforms, 154 by integration, 137 by matrix multiplication, 146 by Monte Carlo simulation, 156 for multiple Bragg incidence, 140 by successive diffraction, 144 Oblique incidence,4 5 4 8 Optical axes, 268 Optical indicatrix (see Index ellipsoid) Orthogonal scattering, 273-274,277 Parallel processing, 17,236 Paraxial propagation, 40 Path integrals, 106-109 Phased array deflector(see Beam steering) Phase modulation, 42 Phase shift accumulated, through sound field, 80 through sound beam, 45 Phase synchronism, 20,58 Phasor definition of, 36 generalizationof, 39 Photon-phonon collision, 24,292
329
Plane wave analysis of Braggdiffraction imaging, 206,210 correspondence, 21 coupling, 70-72 spectrum (see Angular plane wave spectrum) strong interaction in two dimensions, 98-106 weak interaction in three dimensions, 295-303 weak interaction in two dimensions, 23,72-77,96-98 Polarization, of scattered light, 125 Poissons ratio, 263 Poynting vector, of sound, 265 Profiled light beam,77-79 Profiled sound column,79-83 Profilometer, 198,200 Q (see Klein-Cook parameter) Q spoiler, 29 Quasi theorem, 189-193 Radiation pattern, of sound, 71 measurement of, 21,76 Raman-Nath, criterion, 49 equations, 13, 15, 55, 56, 87 generalized, 14,92 truncation of, 136 normalized parameter, 90 parameter, 42 regime, 56 Ray amplitude ofdiffracted ray, 23, 115 bending, 14,49, 50, imaging by, 23, focusing, 51, 52, theory (see Eikonal theory) tracing diagrams, 111 in Bragg diffraction imaging, 210 in curved wavefront interaction, 11 1, 122
330
Index
Spectra, 303-308 local planewave, 305 profile, 306-307 acousto-optic profile, 307-308 virtual plane wave, 304 Spectrum analyzer, 19, 182-184,251 Split-step method, 147-150 carrierless for acoustooptics, 150-1 54 Standing wave, of sound, 38 Stationary phase method, 321-322 Surface acoustic waves, 266 probing of, 233-236 visualization of,28 Transition probability, 161, 162 Uniaxial crystal,268-269 anisotropic interaction in, 278 beam deflector using, 282 collinear interaction in, 280 Vibration measurement, 196-198 Virtual field, 54,69,73 Wave vector diagram, 20,25,70 for beam deflector, 177,280 X-ray diffraction, 6, 9 Youngs modulus, 263
[Ray1 trajectories, 10 Recursion relations, 15, 57 Rescattering (see Multiple scattering) Sadron constant, 275 SAW (see Surface acoustic waves) Scattered field, calculation of, 129 Schaefer-Bergmann patterns, 18 Schlieren imaging ofsound fields, 23,223-233 diffraction free patterns in, 228 and tomography, 227 Scophony system, 17, 19 Shear wave, 262 Signal processing heterodyning in, 241-248 in frequency plane,242-248 in image plane,237-242 with time integration, 248-253 spectrum analyzer, 251 triple product processor, 252 use of Quasitheorem in, 190 Slowness surface, 264 Sound visualization by Bragg diffraction imaging, 21, 22, 206-219 by Bragg diffraction sampling, 23,219-223 by Schlieren imaging, 223-233

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IICOUSTO-OPTICS

Additional Volumes in Preparation

Korpel Arts and Sciences Iowa City, Iowa

.Marcel Dekker, Inc.

New York. Basel Hong Kong

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

C p r g t 0 1W by MARCEL DEKKER, INC. AU Rights Reserved. oyih

PRINTED IN TRE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Loni and Pat in loving memory

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From the Series Editor

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Preface to the Second Edition

Preface to the Second Edition

Preface to the First ,Edition

the First Edition

From the SeriesEditor

Preface to the Second Edition Preface to the First Edition

85 86 88 91 93 96 98 106 109 118 125 132

257 267 270 276

277 285 288 292 295 303 308

Appendix A: Summary of Research and Design Formulas

B The Stationary Phase Method

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e(t,r)= Re[E(r)exp(jwt)] wherej = & l

Figure 2.3 Raytrajectoriesinsoundfield.Thesoundispropagatingupward.

THE POST-LASER ERA

Figure 2.6 Wave vector diagram for upshifted interaction.

fs 4OMHZ A = O.lmm f@ 6.0 A x 0.6mm 1 cm out

Figure 2.8 Recording of multipletransducersoundfieldobtainedby diffraction sampling. (From Ref. 82.)

Figure 2.9 Wave vector diagram for downshifted interaction.

9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

32 91. 92. 93. 94.

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THE SOUND FIELD AS A THIN PHASE GRATING

The Heuristic Approach

S(x,z) =Sexp( -Jxx)

38 For a standing wave, we may write

where C' is a real materialsconstant. We may then write with (3.1)

where from (3.5)

t)=b(r) cos [Kx-p(r)]

where for a traveling wave

and for a standing wave b(t)=lAnl cos(Qt+&) (3.14a) (3.14b)

With (3.12) we find readily

The Heuristic Thus, the electric field at z = L is given by

The relative intensityof the various orders thus given by is

The Heuristic Approach

x exp(- jkx sin4 jkLcos@, jQt) +

x exp(- jkx sing-, - jkLcosqLI - jQt)

and for a standing wave

El(x, L, t ) = -jEi - exp(-ja)

(I) 4 -jkL cos 4 +

sin4 - jkL cos 4 - jQt - j g s ) ]

&(x, L, t ) = -jE, - exp(-ja)

&,- jkL cos

The Heuristic Approach

3.1.2 Oblique Incidence

Substituting (3.41) into (3.38) and using cos @O -1 -&2, order in $0

e0- jkL cos eo)X(- E r j)

The Heuristic Approach

L, t)=En(t) exp(-jkL cos @,-jkx sin @n)

where, to within the same negligible phase error, E,(t) = (- j) exp(

Jn[v cos(C2t + &)]E,