Nonlinear growth of Neoclassical Tearing modes in a Tokamak Plasma

Joao Vasco Ribeiro Ferreira Gama

Dissertacao para obtencao do Grau de Mestre em

Engenharia Fsica Tecnologica

Juri
Presidente: Prof. Joao Seixas Orientador: Prof. Bernardo Brotas Co-orientador: Doutor Rui Coelho Vogal: Prof. Fernando Serra

Novembro de 2009

Resumo O trabalho desenvolvido na presente tese e baseado num codigo numerico criado para resolver equacoes diferenciais que descrevem genericamente o comportamento dos modos tearing neoclassicos, cuja derivacao e apresentada. Em primeiro lugar o programa e simplicado para estudar o comportamento linear do modo tearing. Os resultados sao comparados com a solucao da equacao tearing, e com as relacoes de dispersao da literatura. E proposta uma dependencia diferente da taxa de crescimento com a viscosidade. Posteriormente, e estudada a evolucao quasi-linar dos modos tearing, tendo como base varios di analisada a inuencia do campo externo ressonante, e o agramas de fase obtidos pelo programa. E fenomeno de mode ipping, e seguidamente a rotacao dos modos. Sao entao apresentados os resultados relativos ao estudo dos NTMs, que conrmam a teoria ex posta. Sao obtidos resultados inovadores atraves da activacao da corrente externa.

Palavras chave: Tokamak, Modelo MHD, Neoclassico, NTM, modo Tearing, Bootstrap

Abstract The work developed in this thesis is based on a numerical code created to solve differential equations which generically describe the behavior of neoclassical tearing modes. Derivation of these equations is presented. Firstly, the computer program is simplied in order to study the linear behavior of the mode. Results are compared with the tearing equation solution, as well as with theoretical predictions for dispersion relations. A new scaling for the growth rate, as a function of viscosity, is proposed. The quasi-linear evolution of tearing modes is subsequently analyzed, based on several phase portraits obtained by the program. The inuence of the resonant external eld is examined, along with the mode ipping and mode rotation. Results concerning the study of NTMs are nally presented, as conrming the previously expounded theory. Innovative results are obtained through external current activation.

Keywords: Tokamak, MHD model, Neoclassical, NTM, Tearing mode, Bootstrap

ii

Acknowledgements Este trabalho resultou de um desao do Doutor Rui Coelho, que desde entao teve a porta sempre aberta, perdendo varias tardes para me esclarecer qualquer duvida que eu tivesse, e - sempre com entusiasmo - falar sobre varios outros aspectos associados a este interessante campo das intabilidades magnetohidrodinamicas. Obrigado pela assistencia, disponibilidade e simpatia. Desejo tambem agradecer ao Professor Bernardo Brotas, pela disponbilidade em supervisionar o trabalho efectuado. Os meus agradecimentos para o Instituto de Plasmas e Fusao Nuclear, nao so pelo nanciamento, atraves de bolsa, para a realizacao desta tese, como pelo ambiente de trabalho estimulante, e pela oportunidade de investigar num tema que me e caro. ` Nao posso deixar de agradecer a toda a minha famlia, em particular a minha mae, pela forca que todos me deram. Gostaria de agradecer aos meus amigos mais proximos, por todo o apoio; e ao Antonio Afonso, Andre Mourao, Duarte Alvim e Fernando Patrcio em particular, pois a sua ajuda reecte-se nas paginas que se seguem. Por m, por varias razoes diferentes, um agradecimento muito especial para a Ana.

iii

Contents
List of Tables List of Figures 1 Introduction 1.1 Thermonuclear fusion in the face of global energetic needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 The Deuterium-Tritium reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Tokamak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 MHD stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 The Tearing mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 Outline of the thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Tearing Mode Numerical Model 2.1 Equations used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Magnetic ux evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Vorticity and velocity evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Temperature evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 Bootstrap current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Linear dynamics of the tearing mode 3.1 The Tearing Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Dispersion relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 MHD Linear model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Effects of Nonvanishing Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 MHD Linear model with viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Quasi-linear evolution of the tearing mode 4.1 Effects of third order non-linear forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 MHD quasi-linear model without rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Interaction with resonant external magnetic elds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 MHD model for toroidally rotating modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Quasi-linear evolution of neoclassical tearing modes 5.1 Effects of the bootstrap current on mode growth and saturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Neoclassical MHD model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Interaction with resonant external magnetic elds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Mode stabilization through ECCD and ECRH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Conclusions vi x 1 1 4 6 9 13 16 18 18 19 22 24 26 30 30 32 36 40 43 48 48 49 57 60 64 64 67 70 75 78

iv

A Normalizations A.1 Auxiliary denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.2 Normalizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B Values for Contour Plots B.1 Growth rate in linear regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.2 Island width in the end of the linear regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.3 Tearing Layer size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C Numerical details C.1 Finite diferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C.2 Explicit step . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C.3 Implicit step . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C.4 Implementation of Runge-Kutta method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C.5 Spatial grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C.6 Adaptive Stepsize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C.7 Computational details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D Boundary conditions D.1 Boundary conditions in time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.1.1 Equilibrium Magnetic ux as a function of Safety Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.1.2 Equilibrium Electric Current and Electrical resistivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.1.3 Perturbed Magnetic ux and stream function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.1.4 Equilibrium velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.1.5 Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.2 Boundary conditions in space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.2.1 axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.2.2 edge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

81 81 81 82 82 83 84 85 85 88 89 90 90 91 92 94 94 94 94 95 95 95 96 96 97

List of Tables
1 2 3 4 Estimated world energy resources in 2005 [5] [6] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6

Growth rates 10 as a function of magnetic Prandtl number and Reynolds number S. 82 Island width in the end of the linear regime w 103 as a function of magnetic Prandtl number and Reynolds number S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Tearing layer L 103 calculated using expression (9) and values of section B.1, as a function of magnetic Prandtl number and Reynolds number S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

vi

List of Figures
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Increase in world energy consumption [1]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GDP and electricity consumption [2]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Energy consumption per type of fuel in 2006 according to [3] and [4]. . . . . . . . . . . . . Potential energy as a function of nuclear separation [5]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reactivity as function of the temperature [8]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . progress in the achieved value for np E Tp [9]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Structure and operation of the tokamak[10]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tokamak geometry [5]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evolution over time of electron density, magnetic signal (B , m=2), electron temperature and total plasma current during a disruption [5]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Flux surfaces [5]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Field line in a q = 2 ux surface [5]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stabilizing effects for MHD modes: magnetic eld line bending (left); magnetic eld compression (middle); negative pressure gradient in the direction of the curvature (right)[5]. . Stability diagram for a safety factor prole between qo 1 and qa 3 [5]. . . . . . . . . . Poloidal section showing magnetic islands of modes (2, 1) (left) and (3, 2) (right) [15]. . . . Magnetic island geometry [5]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Perturbation with (2, 1) mode projected over the ux surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Helical ribbon of a given ux surface [21]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Diagram of plasma connement method through employment of magnetic mirrors[26]. . . Diagram depicting banana orbits of two ions with opposite poloidal velocities at the starting point[25]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Numerical solution of the tearing equation for a (2, 1) mode with q(x) = qo + (qa qo )x2 , qo = 1.3, qa = 3.5 and a perfect conducting wall at the edge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Numerical solutions of the tearing equation for a (2, 1) mode with q(x) = qo + (qa qo )x , qo = 1.3, qa = 3.5 and positive external current (I + ); vacuum (v ); and negative external current (I ) at the edge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2

1 2 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10 11 12 13 16 19 21 26 27 30

31 31

22 23

Radial derivative of the solution found for the tearing equation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Calculation of : difference between the derivative of the magnetic ux in the two points closest to the resonant surface in function of the minimal spatial step on the grid. estimate will be the value of b on the linear t (y = ax + b). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Calculation of A: applying the denition to the two points closest to the resonant surface and plotting it as a function of the minimal spatial step on the grid used. A estimate will be the value of b on the linear t (y = ax + b) using the tow smaller grid distances. . . . .

32

24

35 35 36

25 26

Growth rate as a function of Reynolds number S, both in logarithmic scale. Points are solutions of equation 69, and the line represents the standard dispersion relation (61). . . k, o , J and as function of x. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

vii

27 28 29 30

Sum of the absolute values of the differences between consecutive points (in time) divided by the respective time interval, and time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normalized proles of mn for different time values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

37 38

Normalized proles of mn for the tearing equation solution (points), the initial prole in the MHD simulation (blue line), and the prole in the MHD simulation at t = 575 a (red line). 39 Magnetic ux on the resonant surface as a function of time, with different boundary conditions: external current
I+ Ip

= 7.43 105 (purple); vacuum (black); perfectly conducting

I Ip

wall (blue); and external current 31

= 7.43 105 (green). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

40

Dispersion relations obtained using expression (69) for different values of and A (lines); and growth rates computed by the numerical code for different values of Reynolds number (red points). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Numerical solution of equation (76) (full line); and analytical approximation given by equation (77) (dot line) [31]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Growth rate as a function of the logarithm of the magnetic Prandtl number . Each point is a solution of equation (79). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vorticity proles at t = 25a (red line); t = 45a (purple line); t = 117a (blue line) and t = 575a (black line in the larger graph). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Growth rates as a function of the logarithm of the magnetic Prandtl number , with S = 105 . The dot line is the asymptotical limit, obtained by using = 0. . . . . . . . . . . Growth rates as a function of the logarithm of the magnetic Prandtl number , with S = 108 . The black line is the solution of equation (79), the blue line is the solution of equation (82), and red points are results obtained by the simulation program. The dot line is the asymptotical limit, obtained by using = 0, which is the same in all cases. . . . . . 41 42 43 44 45

32 33 34 35 36

46 47 48 49

37 38 39 40

Growth rates 10 as a function of the logarithm of magnetic Prandtl number and the logarithm of magnetic Reynolds number S. Values are on table B.1. . . . . . . . . . . . .
6

Tearing mode structure in the resistive layer; plasma ow pattern and non-linear third order forces [18]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Phase portrait of island width. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s 107 as a function of time, with S = 105 , = 0.01 and: a) o = 107 , in the initial prole, qo = 1.3 and qa = 3.5 in the parabolic safety factor prole; b) o = 107 , qo = 1.0

41

and qa = 3.5; c) o = 1.7 104 , qo = 1.3 and qa = 3.5; d) o = 104 , qo = 1.0 and qa = 3.5. 50 Radial prole of the equilibrium current in the absence of perturbations (blue), and when the island is near its saturated size (red). Apart from the region near the resonant surface, the proles are mostly identical. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Phase portrait, with S = 105 , = 0.01 and: a) o = 107 , in the initial prole, qo = 1.3 and qa = 3.5 in the parabolic safety factor prole; b) o = 107 , qo = 1.0 and qa = 3.5; c) o = 1.7 104 , qo = 1.3 and qa = 3.5; d) o = 104 , qo = 1.0 and qa = 3.5. . . . . . . . . Phase portrait, with S = 105 , = 0.01, o = 107 , in the initial prole, qo = 1.3 and qa = 3.5 in the parabolic safety factor prole. Four regimes of growth may be observed. . 51

42

52 53

43

viii

44 45

Partial phase portrait, with S = 107 , = 0.01, o = 107 , in the initial prole, qo = 1.3 and qa = 3.5 in the parabolic safety factor prole. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Island width when linear growth regime ceases, as a function of the logarithm of magnetic Prandtl number and the logarithm of magnetic Reynolds number S. Values are on table B.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tearing Layer calculated using expression (9), as a function of the logarithm of magnetic Prandtl number and the logarithm of magnetic Reynolds number S. Values are on table B.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Prole of mn , subject to a resonant helical eld generated by a current sheet at x = 1.3. The green line is the rational surface, the blue line is the plasma edge, and the red line is the current sheet radial location. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Phase portrait of the island width w, showing different external currents at x = 1.3. The red dash corresponds to the saturated island width in the absence of external current. The colored dashes are values of stable equilibrium island size for different values of the external current bigger than Itr , with the exception of the purple line which corresponds to an unstable equilibrium with IE = Itr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Perturbed magnetic ux in the resonant surface as a function of time. The branches related to time dependence of the external current are signaled in different colors, respectively gray, red and blue. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

54

55

46

56

47

57

48

58

49

59

50

Perturbed magnetic ux in the resonant surface as a function of time showing mode ipping. The branches related to time dependence of the external current are signaled in different colors, respectively gray, red and blue. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mode frequency as a function of time, with q(x) = qo + (qa qo )x2 , qo = 1.3, qa = 3.5, vzi = vzo + (vza vzo )x3 , vzo = 5 kHz, vza = 0.2 kHz, S = 105 , = 0.01, = 0.3, /mp = 1019 m3 , and perfectly-conducting wall boundary conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . Perturbed magnetic ux in the resonant surface as a function of time. The branches related to time dependence of the external current are signaled in different colours, respectively gray, red and blue. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Phase space diagram of the neoclassical MHD tearing mode [39]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . s x 107 as a function of time, for o = 128.0 x 107 and o = 88.0 x 107 . . . . . . . . . s x 10 as a function of time, for o = 128.0 x 10
7 7

60

51

61

52

53 54 55 56 57

63 67 69 69 70

and o = 88.0 x 10

, when changes

in the bootstrap current are turned of. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Phase portrait for a simulation with o = 110.0 x 107 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Phase diagram associated with equations(110) and (119). The red dot marks the unstable equilibrium corresponding to the threshold for the NTMs growth. Its value diminishes once the effect of a destabilizing resonant external magnetic eld is taken into account . . . . .

58

s x 10 as a function of time, for o = 98.0 x 10 (above) and o = 1.0 x 10 (below), with an external current in the form IE = Ci t turned off when t = 4000 a . The timeline with non-null external eld is signaled in red. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

71

72

ix

59

s x 107 as a function of time, for o = 1.0 x 107 with an external current in the form IE = Ci t and turned off at t = 10000 a . The timeline with non-null external eld is signaled in red. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 74 74 75

60 61 62 63

s x 10 as a function of time, for o = 10.0 x 10 with an external current which starts Ie as a ramp and stabilizes at t = 80000a with a ratio Ip = 7.43 105 . . . . . . . . . . . . . s x 107 as a function of time, with an external current which starts as a ramp and then stabilizes[40] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gyrotron, high powered source of electromagnetic waves with frequencies reaching an order of magnitude of hundreds of GHz [41] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Effect of preventive ECCD inhibiting the occurrence of (3, 2) modes. Green dots depict potentially unstable situations which resulted stable with ECCD, and red crosses portray situations which revealed unstable. The red line marks the prevision of meta-stability with preventive ECCD [44] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scheme of the asymmetrical grid considered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

64

77 85

1 Introduction
1.1 Thermonuclear fusion in the face of global energetic needs
Several studies and projections show that global energy needs will increase drastically within the next decades (Figure 1). There are both demographic and economic reasons behind this escalation (Figure 2).

Figure 1: Increase in world energy consumption [1]. Three kinds of sources may be used in order to provide for human energetic needs: fossil energy - oil, natural gas, and coal; renewable energy - hydric, eolic, solar, biomass, geothermal, waves, tides, among others; nuclear energy - nuclear ssion and fusion; The distribution prole of energy use per source in 2006 is shown in Figure 3 [3][4]. Fossil fuels account for more than 80% of global energy consumption. However, their availability is limited. Table 1.1 shows the estimated amount of energy still available for remaining world resources (gures are only indicative).

On the other hand, according to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports[7] there 1

Figure 2: GDP and electricity consumption [2].

Figure 3: Energy consumption per type of fuel in 2006 according to [3] and [4]. is a strong possibility that the excessive exploitation of coal, oil and natural gas will threat world climate by increasing the greenhouse effect. Renewable energies may contribute to the mitigation of this energetic problem, and technological investigation and improvement in that eld is an ongoing effort. However, some structural problems dictate a high elasticity of production costs: their cost may be competitive only insofar as they fulll a small frac-

Resources

Energy (109 joules) 1.0 1014 1.2 1013 1.4 1013 1 1013 1.0 1016

Coal Oil Natural Gas Uranium 235 Uranium 238 and Thorium 232

Divided by present world energy consumption per year - 4.8 1020 joules (years) 208 25 29 21 20833

Table 1: Estimated world energy resources in 2005 [5] [6] tion of global energy needs. Currently, the only viable alternative with no greenhouse gas emissions and high power availability is nuclear ssion. However, generated radioactive residues with millenary decay times represent a serious hazard for the environment. Additionally, the underlying physical concept in a nuclear ssion reactor core is that of an unstable system where adequate feedback control is needed. On the other hand, investing in nuclear fusion as an alternative energy source could, in principle, overcome the obstacles and harmful effects conventionally associated with nuclear energy. In the rst place, fusion energy production is inherently safe1 and there are no grounds to fear accidents as those which have occurred in ssion power plants in the past[5][11]. Moreover, the fuel necessary for nuclear fusion is virtually unlimited in nature. Deuterium is easily extractable from sea water, while Tritium may be generated at low cost from Lithium, also plentiful2 . It is equally worth noting that nuclear fusion, not unlike ssion, also generates radioactive waste material. However, fusion residues are scant when compared to those of ssion - thus avoiding nuclear waste transportation, as well as its associated hazards - and have decay times around a few decades (in contrast to thousands of years required for ssion waste material)[5][11]. The use of this energy source entails additional global advantages, such as: the large production capacity of each single fusion power plant, particularly suitable for urban energetic needs3 ); the dissemination of its fuel reserves throughout the globe, which could allow for national energy autonomy worldwide, with subsequent decline in international conict and increased security; its dependence on
1 Deuterium and Tritium gas are totally ionized (in a plasma form), and as it will be shown in section 1.3, this plasma is not perfectly conned. Therefore, eventual perturbations, internal or external, lead to a deterioration in connement, and work as a negative feedback which may result in the plasma extinction. In addition, it is possible to cease gas injection at any time, thus inhibiting additional reactions. 2 Energy obtainable from present Lithium land reserves divided by world energy consumption indicates a 20833 year time limit, while sea reserves would result in a 21106 year time line limit. 3 This factor becomes increasingly relevant as city population tends to grow worldwide.

technological progress and innovation, source of highly qualied employment; among other examples.

1.2 The Deuterium-Tritium reaction

Nuclear fusion is the process by which multiple atomic nuclei with positive charge combine to form a heavier nucleus. If occurring between nuclei with lower mass than iron, the process will release energy4 ; and it will absorb it otherwise.

Figure 4: Potential energy as a function of nuclear separation [5]. In order for nuclear fusion to take place, an energetic barrier caused by electrostatic repulsion between the positively charged nuclei must be overcome (Figure 4). A nuclear reaction will occur if the nuclei are able to come within enough proximity from each other to allow nuclear force - stronger at shorter distances - to surpass repulsive forces. Reactivity measures the product between the probability5 of a reaction taking place and the energy it delivers. Excluding impractically high temperatures, fusion reactions will reach maximum reactivity between two specic isotopes of hydrogen: Deuterium (D) and Tritium (T) (Figure 5):

D + D T + p + 4.03 M eV
4 The difference between the nuclear binding energy of the reactants and products, if positive, will increase kinetic energy of the particles, or else it will decrease it. 5 This probability is proportional to the cross section () of the collision at that temperature, calculated using the Rutherford model for collisions.2

Figure 5: Reactivity as function of the temperature [8].

D + T + n + 17.6 M eV

(1)

where p, n and stand for proton, neutron and helium nucleus respectively, and 1 eV 1.60 1019 J 11000o K. Figure 5 shows that, in order to attain an optimum regime, temperatures of the order of 10 keV should be reached. At those high temperatures Deuterium and Tritium are completely ionized: they are in a plasma state. From the fusion power produced, approximately one fth goes to -particles, which will heat the plasma through collisions. The remaining power produced goes to neutrons. In order to maintain the appropriate temperature, difference between power losses and -particle heating power must be supplied from the outside. The ratio between the amount of energy generated by the reactions and the amount of supplied heat is commonly referred to as Q. Ignition is considered to happen when Q = . The requirement for ignition to take place may be expressed approximately by6 [5]:
6 This

inequality establishes the condition that fusion heating by -particles exceeds power losses.

np E Tp = 5 1021 m3 s keV

(2)

where np and Tp stand, respectively, for density and ionic peak temperature, and E represents energy connement time7 . Since the early years of fusion research, there has been a signicant increase in the value reached for this parameter, although a prominent decline in the increase rate has been noticeable over the past decade (Figure 6).

Figure 6: progress in the achieved value for np E Tp [9].

1.3 Tokamak
Two main approaches to fusion research strive to fulll the ignition requirement: inertial connement and magnetic connement. The former consists of a rapid pulse of energy irradiating (directly or indirectly8 )
7 Energy connement time measures the rate at which a system loses energy to its environment. It is given by the ratio between energy content and power loss. 8 In the case of indirect drive, the fuel pellet is placed inside a container composed of a high atomic number material, which will convert the driver beams into x-rays. Although the container takes up a considerable amount of energy to heat, absorption of

a fuel pellet, causing it to simultaneously implode and heat up to very high pressure and temperature levels. The latter consists of using magnetic elds to conne the fusion fuel - already in a plasma form. This is a more advanced line of research. Several connement schemes have been studied (among others, mirror machines, stellarators, tokamaks, spheromaks, reversed eld pinches). Tokamak is widely considered the most promising model, at least in the short/medium term[5]. The word tokamak transliterates the Russian acronym for toroidal chamber with magnetic coils. The term stands for a toroidal-shaped machine with external coils producing a magnetic eld for conning plasma, which also works as the secondary winding of a transformer9 . The current inside the chamber will generate the poloidal component of the magnetic eld which, together with the toroidal eld created by the external coils, will result in the helicoidal magnetic eld necessary for the equilibrium of the conguration (Figure 7).

Figure 7: Structure and operation of the tokamak[10]. In spite of the high temperature and pressure levels inside the chambers core, this conguration enables equilibrium as the plasma pressure may be balanced by the magnetic pressure10 . Conventional tokamak geometry is shown in the scheme of Figure 8. The and directions are named, respectively, toroidal and poloidal directions. Ro and a are termed, sequentially, major and minor radius. The Ro and a ratio is referred to as aspect ratio. A reactor capable of electricity production in an industrial scale is yet to be built. DEMO, intended to become the rst prototype capable of industrial-scale electrical production in a few decades-time, is only still being devised. Its conception and construction will benet from the decisive contribution
thermal x-rays by the target is more efcient than direct absorption of laser light. 9 In a transformer, a varying current passing through the primary winding creates a varying magnetic eld whose ux will pass through the secondary winding, therefore inducting an electrical current there. 10 The cross product between the current density and the magnetic eld is at the origin of this magnetic pressure.

Figure 8: Tokamak geometry [5]. of research allowed by ITER: International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor. ITER (also the Latin term for path), in Cadarache, France[11], is the largest nuclear fusion reactor in construction today, aimed at attaining 500 MW of generated thermal power. The program associated with its construction will have an estimated cost of 9.3 billion dollars, and include participation by China, India, South Korea, Japan, Russia, USA and the European Union. Experimental research in tokamak systems started in 1956, and several technological improvements have been achieved since then: introduction of a limiter, and later of a divertor; plasma heating and current drive by Neutral Beam Injection and Radio Frequency Waves; and plasma shaping (elongation and triangularity). These breakthroughs enabled plasma operation in H-mode: the development of a region where the transport coefcients are reduced by up to one order of magnitude, resulting in a pedestal in the plasma density and an improvement in global connement[12]. The two major obstacles to higher connement are turbulence/transport and plasma instabilities. The latter, besides hindering connement, may also lead to disruptions in the plasma, i.e. sudden losses in connement, which may generate signicant mechanical strain on the tokamak chamber. Figure 9 shows a sudden drop in the plasma current and an abrupt increase in particle loss as a consequence of

a disruption.

Figure 9: Evolution over time of electron density, magnetic signal (B , m=2), electron temperature and total plasma current during a disruption [5].

1.4 MHD stability

In a tokamak device, plasma equilibrium relies on the existence of a set of nested toroids where the magnetic eld lines lie, opportunely referred to as magnetic surfaces (Figure 10). Along different ux surfaces, the ratio between the poloidal and toroidal magnetic elds changes. This relation is paramount in studying the stability of the magnetic conguration. Each eld line follows a helical path as it goes around the torus, each turn differing by an angle of when it returns to the same poloidal plane. Function q 11 , termed safety factor due to its role in determining stability, is dened by [5]:
11 function , termed rotational transform, is the inverse of q, dened as /2, giving a measure of the pitch of the magnetic eld lines as they twist around the torus. It is commonly used in stellarators and other toroidal plasma connement systems besides the tokamak.

Figure 10: Flux surfaces [5].

q=

2
m n,

(3) with m and n integers, a magnetic eld line

Using to label a magnetic surface, where q() =

joins up on itself after m toroidal and n poloidal turns (an example is depicted in Figure 11).

Figure 11: Field line in a q = 2 ux surface [5]. A measure of the efciency in plasma pressure connement by the magnetic eld is given by the following ratio[5]: 2 o p B2

(4)

10

where p is plasma pressure, B is the norm of the magnetic eld and o the magnetic constant. Plasma instabilities may be divided into two general categories: magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) and kinetic instabilities. The former may pose the most stringent limitations to plasma performance and detrimental effects on plasma connement[5], and are described by a magnetohydrodynamic model of the plasma. Instability drive may arise predominantly from plasma current or pressure gradients, combined with adverse magnetic eld curvature. Perturbations may be decomposed into different modes [13]. If all of them are stable in the plasma, they will attenuate, and the perturbation will vanish. On the contrary, if some modes are unstable, they will grow in time.

Figure 12: Stabilizing effects for MHD modes: magnetic eld line bending (left); magnetic eld compression (middle); negative pressure gradient in the direction of the curvature (right)[5]. Stability for each mode in a given ux surface will depend on stabilizing effects generated by the compression or curvature of the eld on that surface and those surrounding it (Figure 12). These effects will be stronger for higher m modes, but will be minimized when the m and n of the mode are matched by the safety factor q of the surface (q =
m n )[14].

This ux surface is called resonant surface for this

mode. Therefore, for lower values of m, a mode can develop inside the plasma chamber in case there is a resonant surface inside the plasma or in the vacuum region12 . Tailoring of the q prole (limiting its range, for instance) can secure some stability in tokamaks. However, it is useful to accept dealing with some unstable modes in order to achieve otherwise better conditions. In the diagram of Figure 13 the typical boundaries for q are presented, as well as the unstable modes for normal tokamak operation. Plasma instabilities that can occur even when resistivity () is null are called ideal instabilities. Pre12 in

which case it is called an external mode

11

Figure 13: Stability diagram for a safety factor prole between qo 1 and qa 3 [5]. diction of the instability of a mode by ideal MHD theory means the mode is expected to be unstable ` and evolve in a very fast Alfven time scale (a = o a/B, where is the plasma density and o the magnetic constant). This does not imply, however, that resistivity will cease to inuence the modes development. On the other hand, even when ideal MHD theory predicts a plasma to be stable, it may be unstable nevertheless. When resistivity plays a role in determining the stability of a mode, it is denominated resistive mode. The tearing mode is a resistive mode characterized by topological change (the tear ) of the ux surfaces, and formation of magnetic islands (Figure 14). Even though it follows a hybrid time scale, ` faster than the resistive diffusion time scale (r = o a2 /) but slower than the Alfen time scale[17], it is considered responsible for major plasma disruptions13 [15]. There may exist two scenarios that cause the stochastization of the whole eld line topology and subsequent connement degradation: the nonlinear coupling between two or more chains of islands; and the mode locking, where an island rotation is slowed by the resistive wall, thus breaking the plasma rotation.
13 A major plasma disruption is said to occur when the loss in connement is severe to the point of interrupting the fusion reaction.

12

Figure 14: Poloidal section showing magnetic islands of modes (2, 1) (left) and (3, 2) (right) [15]. Because of the numerous destabilization mechanisms which may trigger the tearing modes growth, nding a suitable region free of instabilities seems unattainable. Effort is rather focused on controlling the growth, magnitude and consequences of the mode[17].

1.5 The Tearing mode

Taking into account the Ohm law for a plasma ( E + B = J ), the evolution of the magnetic eld in v a resistive-MHD plasma is governed by the following equation[16]: B 2 = ( B ) + v B t o where is the plasma velocity, B the magnetic eld and the resistivity. v The rst term describes the convection of the magnetic eld with the plasma ow. Taking the rate of change of the magnetic ux passing trough any moving surface S, given by d = c ( E + B ).d l , v dt and assuming resistivity to be null, will yeld lines are frozen in the uid. The second term describes the resistive diffusion of the eld through the plasma. It derives from the fact that a spatial change in the magnetic eld is related to a current (Amperes law) which, in case resistivity is not null and the plasma is static, will implicate the existence of an electric eld, that will promote, in its turn, a temporal change in the magnetic eld (Faradays law of induction).
d dt

(5)

= 0. Its immediate implication is that the magnetic eld

13

In this manner, if the rst term dominates the frozen ux constraint will prevail and the topology of the magnetic eld will not be able to change. On the other hand, if the second term dominates there will be little coupling between the eld and the plasma ow and the topology of the magnetic eld will be free to change. The relative magnitude of these two terms is conventionally expressed in terms of the magnetic Reynolds number: B a o r = a o

S=

(6)

` where S is the magnetic Reynolds number, r and a are the resistive and Alfven times, respectively, B is the norm of the magnetic eld, a is the minor radius of the tokamak, and o is the plasma density. Because the magnetic Reynolds number is very high for normal tokamak operation, one could say that the motion conforms to ideal MHD. However, if there is a tearing instability in the thin layer around the resonant surface associated with a mode (designated as tearing layer ), the parallel to the equilibrium eld B contribution to Ohms law goes to zero, and the J term becomes important in balancing v the induced parallel electric eld[5]. As the perturbation on B diffuses around the resonant surface, a similar diffusion occurs for the perturbation on J . The cross product of the former with the equilibrium current density, and of the latter with the equilibrium poloidal eld will both promote the occurrence of a perturbation in the uid velocity eld. Because the equilibrium magnetic eld is not constant across the radius, the convection caused by the perturbation of velocity will cause an increase (or decrease) in the magnetic eld and its perturbation in a given point in space. In its turn, the increase in the magnetic perturbation will generate an increase in the velocity perturbation. This process will account for an exponential growth in the early development of the perturbation. When the growth of the mode occurs in timescale longer than the diffusion, it is appropriate to consider the perturbed eld inside the tearing layer to be a constant. However, matching to the ideal plasma region obliges the existence of a discontinuity in the spatial derivative of the function (a footprint of the current sheet). This jump in the logarithmic derivative of the perturbation ux is commonly designated by stability parameter, dened by ( + ) / (a (rs )) and will depend on the boundary conditions

14

[17]. Its value is related to the growth rate of the mode by[5]: ( n a2 q ) 2 ( )4 5 a 5 Rq

= 0.55 r

3 5

2 5

(7)

where is the growth rate of the mode (assuming = r e(+i)t ), q is the radial derivative of q, and n refers to the mode number (m, n). The expression above shows that the development of the instability ` takes place in a hybrid time scale, faster than the resistive diffusion time scale but slower than the Alfven time scale[17]. The reconnection taking place inside the tearing layer will generate a set of magnetic islands whose dimensions will grow with the mode. The geometry of the magnetic islands is exposed in the scheme of Figure 15. The width of the islands in the poloidal plane is given by: w=

rs Ls Brs mBz

(8)

where rs is the radius of the ressonant surface, Brs is the perturbed radial magnetic eld, and Ls =
q 2 Ro q rs ,

both evaluated at the rational surface of the mode[5].

As for the tearing layer width, it can be obtained through the condition that inertia balances the torque driven by the eddy currents triggered by the magnetic perturbation, which in the case of a tokamak yields[16]:
1 (o o ) 4 rs Ls L mBz

(9)

where o is the density in the axis, and o the resistivity in the axis. As the perturbation grows, however, its inuence on equilibrium values is no longer neglectable, and the linear approximation loses its applicability. Second-order eddy currents become signicant, and the third-order forces they produce will slow the growth of the mode [18]. At this time, the growth of the island becomes related to by[5]: dw = 1.66 ( w) dt o where w is the island width, and a term related to the curvature of the current density prole.

(10)

15

Figure 15: Magnetic island geometry [5]. A more comprehensive understanding of the tearing mode must also consider the inuence of temperature. In fact, perturbations of velocity will convect the plasma and cause perturbations on the temperature as well. Temperature will not diffuse isotropically, because the magnetic eld lines will conduct heat more readily. Its perturbations will generate the perturbation of the so-called bootsprap current.

1.6 Outline of the thesis

The work developed in the present thesis will be based on a numerical code created to solve differential equations which generically describe the behavior of neoclassical tearing modes according to approximations considered and discussed throughout the text. Results obtained by this code will be compared to literary ndings regarding linear approximation (rst neglecting viscosity; and thereafter assuming a very high S value); and subsequently compared with results concerning non-linear evolution of tearing modes (reduced MHD), and neoclassical tearing modes (NTMs). The previously described model is expected to be useful for studying the development of tearing modes in the context of assumed simplications, particularly in examining dispersion relations, stability, saturation, and response to external elds. Such an examination is of paramount importance for the development of feedback systems as well as other methods devised for controlling or stabilizing these modes. Previous sections in this chapter have attempted to argue the relevance of research conducted in the 16

last decades in the eld of thermonuclear fusion, particularly with tokamaks. MHD instabilities, one of the main obstacles to a higher and more reliable tokamak performance, have been mentioned. Specically, aspects associated with the physical mechanism and growth of tearing instabilities, which will be the focus of the present thesis, have been reviewed. In chapter 2 the reduced MHD model widely used in subsequent chapters will be derived. Chapter 3 will review relevant literature on the subject of tearing mode dispersion relations, as far as growth rates in linear approximation are concerned, regarding both Reynolds and Prandtl numbers. Results of simulations following the MHD derived model and considering the linear approximation will be presented and discussed attending to selected literature on the subject. Dispersion relations will also be produced through performed simulations, as well as compared to those identied in the reviewed literature. Chapter 4 will approach the quasi-linear evolution of tearing modes. First, the mechanism precluding linear description will be outlined, followed by a presentation and discussion of simulation results ignoring plasma rotation, particularly phase portraits where growth regimes cited in the literature may be identied. Results concerning interaction with an external resonant eld will be subsequently expounded, as well as its inuence on saturated magnetic island width and on mode ipping. Rotation will thereafter be considered, and simulation results will be discussed along with some model limitations. Chapter 5 will begin by reviewing some theoretical issues regarding neoclassical modes. A presentation of the equations implemented in the code devised in this work to simulate NTMs will follow, as well as simulation results and its discussion. On activating the external current, original results may be obtained, with implications regarding a possible mechanism for the creation of seed islands. A summary approach to ECCD and ECRH methods will then be made. The last chapter will be devoted to nal remarks and conclusions, including a summary of results presented throughout the text, as well as a discussion of some of its implications and limits. Appendixes will include a brief description of relevant details concerning the numerical code developed for this thesis. Some calculations regarding assumed normalizations and boundary conditions will also be mentioned in appendix, as well as numerical and computational details regarding the simulation program.

17

2 Tearing Mode Numerical Model

2.1 Equations used
A uid model of the plasma may help to understand phenomena related to instabilities, disruptions and magnetic reconnection. The Resistive Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) model presented in this work includes Maxwells equations for electric and magnetic elds, a plasma momentum balance equation, and the temperature evolution equation: B E = t . B = 0

(11)

(12)

B = o J

(13)

E + v B = J

(14)

d v = J B . P +2 v dt

(15)

3 dT = .(b b T + T ) + Q 2 dt

(16)

where E , B , j , , . P , T, Q are, respectively, the electric and magnetic elds, the plasma v

current density, the moving plasma velocity eld, the stress tensor term, the plasma temperature and the heating power density. The scalars , , , b , and are, sequentially, mass density, electrical resistivity, isotropic viscosity, heat conductivity along the magnetic eld lines, and perpendicularly to d d those lines. The total derivative dt is dened as dt = t + .; the operator b is dened as b a = v B ((a). b ) b , where b is the magnetic eld normalized vector; and the operator is dened
|| B ||

as a = a b a.

18

This model also includes an equation for the bootstrap current (section 2.5), which will relate evolution of the temperature prole to evolution of the magnetic eld. This work will focus on perturbations perpendicular to the equilibrium eld lines, assuming that the helicity of this mode (m, n) matches the helicity of one ux surface in the chamber - the resonant surface. Figure 16 shows a perturbation with a single mode (2, 1) projected over a ux surface.

Figure 16: Perturbation with (2, 1) mode projected over the ux surface. In a large aspect ratio tokamak with circular cross section, it is a valid approximation to write the Resistive MHD equations (11)-(16) in cylindrical geometry. In this case, the toroidal z-direction is periodic (the approximate cylindrical tokamak length is given by 2Ro ), thus =
z Ro .

2.2 Magnetic ux evolution

It is possible to merge equations (11) and (14) in order to obtain:

19

 A = B J v t where A is the potencial vector ( B = A ) and is the electrostatic gauge potential.

(17)

Considering the type of perturbations under analysis, the perturbed component of the velocity eld will always be contained in the plane perpendicular to the magnetic eld lines of the resonant surface B (with versor b mn = rs ). As such, it is possible[19], for any given plane, to establish a stream function
|| B z ||

u which satises the following condition:

g(r) u b mn v

(18)

where the function g(r) corresponds to || b ||2 . Its value equals approximately 1, and it will be thus considered in the following calculations. As for the equilibrium velocity, its poloidal component is known to be strongly damped in a tokamak [20], allowing to write the total velocity eld as: v + v zo
m n

u b mn

(19)

where is the equilibrium toroidal velocity (assumed to vary over the minor radius) and b mn v zo corresponds to b in the resonant surface. Regarding the magnetic eld, similarly to the velocity eld description, one adopts a description of a eld potential, namely the magnetic ux:

r o
s

B . n dS

(20)

Bo . dS n

(21)

where S corresponds to the ribbon of the ux surface (depicted in gure 17). In this case, the following relation applies:
B mn = r mn b mn

(22)

20

Figure 17: Helical ribbon of a given ux surface [21]. Therefore: B = B + Bz + e ez r mn b mn

m n

(23)

The subscript r used in r mn derives from the fact that the value of the perturbed magnetic ux is necessarily a real number. In fact it is half the sum of a complex conjugate pair of Fourier harmonics for that mode. The same applies to the stream function:
r mn =

mn ei(m R z) + mn ei(m R z) 2
n n

(24)

ur mn =

umn ei(m R z) + umn ei(m R z) 2

n n

(25)

where mn , mn , umn and umn are all functions of r. Applying this decomposition into Fourier harmonics to equation (17), and considering a single mode (m, n), one obtains:
Ao v mn B mn v mn B mn B + = vo + Jo o o t 4 4

(26)

21

 A mn v = B mn + mn Bo J mn vo t According to equation (13), it is possible to establish the following relations: ) ( 2n o Jo = 2 o Bo ez mR

o J mn = 2 mn b mn

(27)

(28)

(29)

Taking that into account, and since Bzo is constant in time, it is possible to determine the dot product with on both sides of equation (26), and the dot product with b on both sides of equation (27), yielding ez the following result: ) o 1 m ( 2 2n = Im(umn mn ) + o + Bo + Eo t 2 r r o mR
in mn i = k(r) umn Bo + vz mn + 2 mn t R R o

(30)

(31)

where 2 o

1 r r (r r ) o t

and 2

1 r r (r r )

1 2 r 2 2 .

Eo is the equilibrium toroidal electrical eld

mnq . q

which guarantees

= 0 in the absence of perturbations. Function k(r) is dened as k(r)

2.3 Vorticity and velocity evolution

It is possible to apply the continuity equation to each uid velocity dimension. If the plasma is considered incompressible, adding the resulting equations will yield the following vectorial form: d v = f dt

(32)

d d where the total derivative dt is dened as dt = t + . v Replacing f by the Lorentz component ( J B ), the stress tensor term, and a friction term resulting from the viscosity of the plasma, it is possible to obtain equation (15). In this work, and will be considered constant along the minor radius, which is a reasonable

22

approximation when operating in H-mode [12]. The equilibrium plasma density and viscosity will be named o and o respectively. To deal with the stress tensor term, it is useful to introduce U , the symmetrical of vorticity of plasma velocity, dened as U ( ). Thus, if the curl operator is used on both sides of equation (15), the v result will be: ) ( U + ( .) U ( U .) = ( J .) B ( B .) J + o 2 U v v t

(33)

where ( .) is an operator over the following vector, and not a dot product between ( and ). a a Considering a single mode (m, n), decomposition into Fourier harmonics is again possible. Expand ing U , , J and B will give rise to the set of equations: v

Uo 1 + 1 ( = (Uo .) vo U mn .) v mn + ( U mn .) mn v t 4 4 1 1 ( .)Uo ( mn .) U mn ( mn .) U mn vo v v 4 4 1 1 1 ( J mn .) B mn + ( J mn .) B mn + ((Jo .)Bo + o 4o 4o 1 1 1 o 2 (Bo .)Jo ( B mn .) J mn ( B mn .) J mn + Uo o 4o 4o o

(34)

U mn = (Uo .) mn +( U mn .) ( .) U mn ( mn .)Uo v vo vo v t 1 1 1 1 + (Bo .) J mn + ( B mn .)Jo (Jo .) B mn ( J mn .)Bo o o o o + o 2 U mn o

(35)

It is useful to notice that: U mn = 2 umn b mn

(36)

It is then possible to replace the velocity perturbations by the corresponding term of the stream

23

function, and also to replace the magnetic perturbations as well as the current by the corresponding terms of the magnetic ux. If one makes the dot product with on both sides of equation (34), and the e dot product with b mn on both sides of equation (35), the result will be:

) ) 1 n d( 1 n d( Uo = Im(2 mn . mn ) + Im(U mn . umn ) t 2o o R dr 2 R dr o 2 + Uo o

(37)

U mn n n Bo m Bo jz = i vz U mn i 2 vz umn +i k(r)2 mn i o t R R o o r o o mn r o 2 + U mn o

(38)

Because U ( ), it is possible to rewrite equation (37) as: v

vzo 1 n 1 n o 2 = Im(2 mn . mn ) Im(U mn . umn ) + (vzo vzi ) t 2o o R 2 R o

(39)

2.4 Temperature evolution

If one applies the perfect gas law to the plasma, the relation between plasma pressure and temperature will be: p =n T

(40)

where n is the particle density of the plasma. Because of the constant plasma density approximation, this means that p = T , and thus that equation (16) is valid for both temperature and pressure. Replacing the operators, and considering b and constant[23], it is possible to rewrite equation (16) as: ) T 2 2 ( b 2 = 2 T + 1 (.((T. b ) b )) + Q .T v t 3 3 3

(41)

24

 As the divergence on the magnetic eld is null, .((T. b ) b ) will equal b .((T. b )), which is given by: (T. b ) = T ( b ) + ( b .)T + (T.) b The following approximation is convenient: b T = To +
Tr mn ,

(42)

and b as b =

Bo +r mn b mn , ||Bo ||

1 B. ||Bo ||

Considering a single mode (m, n), T as

this result will follow:

2 Bo

2 T b

1 r mn Tr mn ( Bo Bo 2 r mn 1 r mn ) = 2 + r r r r2 r r r mn nr Bzo ) + (Bo mR r ( 1 2 2 r mn 2 Tr mn r mn T + 2 r2 2 r r r + Bo
nr mR Bzo r2

r mn r

2 Tr mn 1 2 r mn Tr mn ) 2 2 r r

1 r mn 2 r mn T + 2 r r r 1 r mn r mn 2 T 1 T + 2 ( 2 ) r r r r Once again, decomposition into Fourier harmonics is possible, according to:

Tr mn =

(43)

T mn ei(m R z) + T mn ei(m R z) 2
n n

(44)

Considering a single mode (m, n), and expanding T , and , will give rise to the set of equations: v

2 1 m Im(umn T mn ) To = 2 (To Toi ) t 3 2 r r ( ) (( ) ( ) 1 ( 2 n) mn ) m + b k(r) + Re T mn 3 2R r R r

(45)

25

 T mn 2 = 2 T mn invzo T mn + i t 3 ( )2 ) (m 2( n + b + 3 2r 2R

mn mn 1 2 k(r)2 r r 2

m To umn r r

T mn

(46)

2.5 Bootstrap current

One of the earliest methods to conne plasma has been the employment of so-called magnetic mirrors. As shown in gure 18, the magnetic eld gradient prevents certain particles - those for which the ratio between their velocity on directions parallel and perpendicular to the eld lines is below a certain threshold (dependent on maximum and minimum eld intensity) - from crossing the area where eld lines have the highest intensity.

Figure 18: Diagram of plasma connement method through employment of magnetic mirrors[26]. In an ideal tokamak with innite aspect ratio, this phenomenon would lose its relevance. However, in real operating tokamaks the gradient of the magnetic eld generates a set of particles trapped in so-called banana orbits. The number of trapped particles is proportional to the product between particle concentration and the square root of the inverse of aspect ratio. The fact that the magnetic eld is not homogeneous also prevents these particles from following the eld lines of the ux surface where they are, occurring a drift instead.

26

Figure 19 takes the example of two ions within the same ux surface. Starting at the same point, their toroidal velocities have opposite directions. Poloidal projections of their banana orbit trajectories are signaled respectively in red and blue, as well as the direction the particle follows in its trajectory.

Figure 19: Diagram depicting banana orbits of two ions with opposite poloidal velocities at the starting point[25]. The mean radius of each particle does not match the radius of the ux surface where it has set from. This implies to a certain extent that this surface is being populated with ions of either lower or higher mean radius depending on the direction they follow. If there isnt any radial gradient of either density or temperature, both effects are annulled, and this phenomenon becomes irrelevant. However in case such a gradient exists, the linear momentum added due to particles from higherradius surfaces is not symmetrical to the one created by particles of lower-radius surfaces. This additional linear momentum generates an electric current. It should be claried that not only trapped particles are at the origin of this electric current. Due to the particles multiple collisions the added linear momentum is also distributed among traveling particles from the ux surface in question. The resulting electric current is called bootstrap current. In order to derive this currents value the aforementioned banana orbits - resulting from the trapping of particles through the effect of magnetic mirrors which cause spatial variations in the magnetic eld inside the tokamak - need to be taken into account. Insofar as the drift connected to these orbits is at the root of the bootstrap current, it becomes important to know the length of their poloidal projections,

27

which is given by[25]: m c v eB

(47)

Where w stands for the length of the orbits poloidal projection, m is the particles mass, v represents the particles velocity component parallel to eld lines, e stands for the elementary charge, and B is the poloidal magnetic eld. On the other hand, the concentration of trapped particles within a given ux surface is given by[25]: nt r n = x n R

(48)

Where nt stands for the concentration of trapped particles, r represents the distance from the particle to the minor axis, R is the major axis, x represents the ratio between r and the chambers minor radius, stands for the inverse of the aspect ratio and n corresponds to particle concentration. Taking the formerly described drift into consideration and assuming a small w, the linear momentum added through that effect due to temperature and density gradients may be approximated by: ( ) v dpt nt = w mv + mnt dr r r

pt w

(49)

In order to assess the current density generated by that effect, the following expression should be reminded: p m

J = env=e

(50)

Therefore, by introducing a frictional factor[27] and assuming a null density radial gradient, the bootstrap current for electrons will be given by: v p e w n F m r

Jb = e F

(51)

Where F is the frictional factor due to collisions between passing electrons and ions or trapped electrons. This factor is given by F = Thus, by replacing w:
vee vei

and may be approximated by F 1 .

28

Jb

v 1 m c v x n B r

(52)

vth ) approximately by the root of . This thermal velocity is a function of temperature expressed as vth = 2T . Thus the m relation between parallel velocity and temperature may be expressed as: v = 2T m

For trapped particles, thermal velocity is slower than parallel velocity (v =

(53)

By replacing in (52) the following will be obtained: 2T 2T 1 mc m m Jb x n B r Thus: c T x n B r

(54)

Jb

(55)

Therefore, the bootstrap current due to the equilibrium temperature gradient is given by: c To x n B r

Jbo =

(56)

On the other hand, the bootstrap current due to (m, n) mode temperature perturbations, will be given by:

J bmn =

c T mn x n B r

(57)

Equations (30) and (31) should therefore be corrected taking this bootstrap current into account, which results in: ) ( 2 o m 2n = Im(umn mn ) + Bo + Eo + Jbo o + t r r mR

(58)

mn i in = k(r) umn Bo + vz mn + 2 mn + J bmn t R R

(59)

29

3 Linear dynamics of the tearing mode

3.1 The Tearing Equation
In the early phase of instability development, the effect of the perturbation on equilibrium values can be neglected. To attain a simplied approach to this problem, one might also neglect the inuence of temperature evolution, plasma rotation, viscosity and inertia. If so, in the ideal region, the perturbed ux may be obtained through the so-called tearing equation[5]:

k(r)2 mn

m jz =0 x r mn

(60)

With xed s = 1 and the appropriate boundary conditions, equation (60) may be solved numerically, and a code has been developed to this purpose. Figure 20 shows the perturbed ux prole when the edge is a perfectly conducting wall, whereas Figure 21 shows the tearing equation solution for vacuum boundary conditions as well as for different external currents.

Figure 20: Numerical solution of the tearing equation for a (2, 1) mode with q(x) = qo + (qa qo )x2 , qo = 1.3, qa = 3.5 and a perfect conducting wall at the edge. Section 1.5 introduced , stressing its dependence on boundary conditions. To calculate this value one may use different spatial grids in the calculation of the tearing equation, and its radial derivative (see gure 22). For each minimal spatial step on the grid, one may nd the difference between the 30

Figure 21: Numerical solutions of the tearing equation for a (2, 1) mode with q(x) = qo + (qa qo )x2 , qo = 1.3, qa = 3.5 and positive external current (I + ); vacuum (v ); and negative external current (I ) at the edge.

Figure 22: Radial derivative of the solution found for the tearing equation. derivative of the magnetic ux in the two points closest to the resonant surface. The limit as this spatial step goes to zero is a good approximation of . In this case, the limit is estimated by a linear t using the aforementioned points (see gure 23)

31

Figure 23: Calculation of : difference between the derivative of the magnetic ux in the two points closest to the resonant surface in function of the minimal spatial step on the grid. estimate will be the value of b on the linear t (y = ax + b).

3.2 Dispersion relation

The resistive tearing-mode instability was rst investigated by Furth, Killeen, and Rosenbluth [28]. A plane slab magnetic eld model was used, and an eigenvalue problem for the ux perturbation resulted from the assumption that there was a perturbed component on the magnetic eld growing exponentially in time. In order to solve the problem analytically, the plasma was divided into two regions: a narrow inner region for which the resistivity could not be neglected and an outer region, where the inniteconductivity assumption holds (see section 1.5). Two characteristic times arose: the resistive diffusion ` time and the Alfven time. By matching the solutions, it is possible to obtain the standard approximation for the dispersion relation: 1
5 3 q(xs ) 4 S 4 = n q (xs )

(61)

where is the growth rate of the instability, and 1 2.1. However, strong local asymmetries on the equilibrium current density introduce corrections that become important for moderate values of S (104 105 ), such as those used in some of the simulations in this work.

32

Introducing the coordinate variable xo = x xs , where xs is the normalized radius of the resonance surface, and expanding the tearing equation around xo = 0 up to terms O(x): mn ( m2 2 mn 1 a) + +b+ mn = 0 x2 xo + xs x x2 xo s where:
m xs n R djo dx q q

(62)

a=

(63) ) (64)

b=

( q n ) a 2qR

d m djo dx x dx n q R q

with a and b calculated at the resonant surface. It is possible to expand the solution in the vicinity of the rational surface[29]:

mn =

o mn

( 2 ) 2 A A a ( 1 ) 2 m a2 1 x 1+ xo + 1 xo + (3 )+b o 2 2 2 2 axs xs 2 axs 2 ) ( ) a 1 + ... + a xo + (1 + )x2 + ... Ln(xo ) o 2 axs

+

(65)

mn is the xed value for s , mn

and mn

correspond to the positive and negative values

for xo , respectively. Expansion is continuous at xo = 0. A is dened as A lim0 ( + + ) / (a (rs )) K(1 + Log()), where [30]:
j ( 2) K = 2 x 1 jz s

(66)

and dLog(q(x)) dLog(x)

s=

(67)

Solving the inner layer equations in order to match the solution for the outer layer above one gets[29]:

33

 mn =

o mn

) Aa 1 m2 a2 1 (1 ) + 2 (3 ) + b x2 o 4 axs xs 2 axs ) 1 x a a2 1 2 2 2 2 2 + xo Ln(xo + ) + (1 )x Ln(xo + ) + mn ( ) 2 4 axs 1+ A xo + 2

1

(68)

where =

( R qs )
n
qs

<< 1 is assumed, as well as

o mn

mn

= O( ), being mn a small correction.

Finally, the dispersion relation may be obtained using this solution[29]: ( aA 2 ) (2 + ) +b 1

1 S = + 1 where 2 0.378.

+ a2 Ln() a2

(69)

A code has been developed to solve this equation by Newtons method, in order to obtain the relation between and S. The safety factors prole was considered to be q(x) = qo + (qa qo )x2 with qo = 1.3 and qa = 3.5, and at the edge the wall was assumed to be perfectly conducting. To obtain and A the results of the tearing equation were used. The method to obtain A is analogous to the method used for the stability parameter: one applies the denition for a spatial grid with a given smaller step , and does so for several grids with smaller steps; until attaining the limits for the nite differences method. The limit is extrapolated by a linear t using the points obtained. To A calculation, however, only the last two points were used (see gure 24). and A were calculated as 7.24 and 25.6 respectively. Using these parameters, the dispersion relation could be calculated. Results are shown in Figure 25.

34

Figure 24: Calculation of A: applying the denition to the two points closest to the resonant surface and plotting it as a function of the minimal spatial step on the grid used. A estimate will be the value of b on the linear t (y = ax + b) using the tow smaller grid distances.

Figure 25: Growth rate as a function of Reynolds number S, both in logarithmic scale. Points are solutions of equation 69, and the line represents the standard dispersion relation (61).

35

3.3 MHD Linear model

The model described in the previous section was simplied according to the linear approximation put forth. A simplied version of equations (31) and (38) normalized according to appendix A is presented: mn (x) 2 = k(x) umn + mn t S

(70)

U mn m jz = ik(x)2 mn i t x r mn

(71)

A numerical code that solves equations (70) and (71) using fourth order Runge-Kutta method (appropriate for second-order differential equations) has been developed, enabling the study of the time evolution of the ux perturbation prole, as well as the stream function prole. The same safety factor function has been used, as well as identical parameters. k(x), o (x), J(x) and (x) were calculated accordingly and are shown in Figure 26.

Figure 26: k, o , J and as function of x.

36

The initial prole used in subsequent simulations, emanating from vacuum assumption ( j mn = 0), is:
x o ( xs )d

, x < xs , x = xs , x > xs (72)

mn =

o o ( 1x )d 1xs

where o = 107 and d = m. Whatever the initial perturbation prole, one expects the normalized prole to conform to the tearing equation solution when the mode is destabilized. Therefore, as time passes, the difference between consecutive steps divided by the time interval between those steps should tend to zero. The calculation displayed in Figure 27 consists of normalizing each mn prole to its value in the rational surface before adding the absolute values of all the differences between each point and the previous, and then dividing this sum by the time difference between both proles. This calculation conrms the prediction, as this value decreases more than one order of magnitude in just the rst ` few hundred Alfven times. Figure 28 depicts some normalized proles, as they change from the initial function to the point where changes become neglectable.

Figure 27: Sum of the absolute values of the differences between consecutive points (in time) divided by the respective time interval, and time. Once this happens one would expect no difference between this function and the tearing equation

37

Figure 28: Normalized proles of mn for different time values. solution. As shown in Figure 29, both proles are remarkably similar. The small discrepancy may be attributed either to the numerical errors associated with Runge-Kutta method or to the fact that neither prole was calculated using an innite number of points. Once the normalized prole conforms to the solution of the tearing equation, the ux in any of its points should be given by mn (t) = o et . If this is the case, the second time derivative of the function logarithm should be null. In four simulations made with S = 105 and different boundary conditions (conductive wall; vacuum; positive current I + at x = 1.3; and negative current I at the same position) the second derivative of the logarithm of the ux in the rational surface was more than nine orders of magnitude bellow the logarithm of the perturbation in that point. Figure 30 shows, for each of these simulations, the value of the magnetic ux on the resonant surface for = 0 and z = 0 as a function of time. In varying S one can compare the growth rates obtained by the numerical code with the dispersion relation (69). If both and A are obtained through the use of the numerical solution of the tearing equation, the resulting dispersion relation will signicantly differ from the values obtained in the numerical

38

Figure 29: Normalized proles of mn for the tearing equation solution (points), the initial prole in the MHD simulation (blue line), and the prole in the MHD simulation at t = 575 a (red line). simulation. It is possible, however, to use the values obtained through the numerical simulation and those computed by the program designed to solve equation (69) as a function of the calculated and A, in order to calculate A by the least-squares estimator (A = 36.6 with this method). In this manner, the discrepancy between the values will be much smaller. As an alternative, it is also possible to calculate by assuming relation (61) and using the simulation result for at S = 108 ( = 6.68 with this method). These three dispersion relations are drawn in Figure 31. These results suggest that the latter method described for calculating is more reliable than the former. The fact that the rst method entails some errors should be expected, since the logarithm of the magnetic ux derivative closest to either side of the resonant surface does not display a constant slope. Therefore, the estimated value for will inevitably depend on the minimal set distance, which should be kept above a lower bound in order to avoid numerical errors.

39

Figure 30: Magnetic ux on the resonant surface as a function of time, with different boundary conditions: + external current I p = 7.43 105 (purple); vacuum (black); perfectly conducting wall (blue); and external I current
I Ip

= 7.43 105 (green).

3.4 Effects of Nonvanishing Viscosity

Nonvanishing viscosity plays a signicant role in the stability of perturbations, sometimes stabilizing unstable ones, sometimes, when in conjunction with plasma rotation, destabilizing stable ones[31]. By linearizing equations (31) and (38) around the resonant surface, ignoring the kinetic effects related to the difference between the drift velocities of electrons and ions, assuming the thin layer approximation ( |rrs | << 1) and using the coordinate variable xo = x xs , it is possible to obtain[31]: a

mn + i

n q (rs ) Bo (rs ) xo umn = rs o mn

(73)

( ) n q (rs ) Bo (rs ) J umn umn = i xo mn +m mn rs o o ro

(74)

From these equations one can conclude that the vanishing viscosity limit is singular. Under conditions of todays tokamaks, viscous effects can be comparable to resistive ones, and the correction caused by viscosity in the dispersion relation is not negligible. Physically, viscosity will diffuse the vorticity caused 40

Figure 31: Dispersion relations obtained using expression (69) for different values of and A (lines); and growth rates computed by the numerical code for different values of Reynolds number (red points). by the tearing instability and consequently also the current density. Equations (73) and (74) may be merged into a single equation for the stream function[31]:

q (rs )

( rs a )2 ( )2 ( )2 rs 1 ( rs a )2 2 umn xo s = x2 umn +i ( ) umn + o (r ) a Bo (rs ) nq s o n q (rs ) a o

(75)

In dimensionless form, this equation is:

Y Y + z 2 Y = z where z is obtained through the coordinate change z = 3 )B and is dened as = ei 2 n q (rsso (rs ) . r o
xo

(76)
rs umn , n q (rs ) Bo (rs )

, Y is given by Y =

An analytic expression which approximates (Figure 32) the solution of this equation is [31]:

41

1 y(z) = z 2

z2 cos()

( ) ( 2) z 1 z 2 1 sin() d + z K1 ( ) e 4 2 2 4 2

(77)

where K 1 is a modied Bessel function. 4

Figure 32: Numerical solution of equation (76) (full line); and analytical approximation given by equation (77) (dot line) [31]. In order to calculate the dispersion relation one must match the inner with a given exterior , considering only the odd parity solutions of (75):
1

= lim s
0

(xo ) dx = i

(
C

) 1 z Y (z) dz

(78)

where C is a suitable contour in the complex plane. Retrieving equation (61), valid in the limit of high S, it is possible to obtain the dispersion relation for nonvanishing viscosity[31]: 4
3

1+

2 ei 8 ( 1 ) 4

( n q (rs ) Bo (rs ) 3 4 (i) 4 = 1 5 rs o

q(xs ) ) 4 3 4 5 S 5 5 n q (xs )

(79)

A code has been developed to solve this equation by Newtons method, in order to attain the relation between and , the magnetic Prandtl number. The safety factors prole was considered to be q(x) = qo + (qa qo )x2 with qo = 1.3 and qa = 3.5, Reynolds number was S = 108 , and at the edge the wall was considered to be perfectly conducting. Results are shown in Figure 33.

42

Figure 33: Growth rate as a function of the logarithm of the magnetic Prandtl number . Each point is a solution of equation (79).

3.5 MHD Linear model with viscosity

To account for the effect of viscosity, equations (31) and (38) were normalized according to appendix A without setting to zero: mn (x) 2 = k(x) umn + mn t S

(80)

U mn m jz = ik(x)2 mn i + 2 U mn t x r mn S

(81)

A numerical code that solves equations (80) and (81) using fourth order Runge-Kutta method has been developed, enabling the study of the time evolution of the ux perturbation prole, as well as the stream function prole. The same safety factor function has been used, as well as the same parameters, except for the magnetic Prandtl number, set as = 0.01. Figure 34 displays four snapshots of the perturbed vorticity prole. The smaller ones show the transition between the initial null prole and a later stage when the perturbed magnetic ux has already conformed to the tearing equation. This scenario still preserves a steady exponential growth, and its

43

vorticity prole is depicted in the same gure.

Figure 34: Vorticity proles at t = 25a (red line); t = 45a (purple line); t = 117a (blue line) and t = 575a (black line in the larger graph). By varying the magnetic Prandtl number in the simulations, it is possible to graph the growth rates obtained by the numerical code as a function of that parameter. Figure 35 shows these values in a logarithmic scale for . The value for when = 0 is shown as an asymptotical limit (dot line). Figure 36 shows the same relation, but with S = 108 , where equation (79) applies. Solutions of that equation are drawn in black, and the values obtained by solving equations (80) and (81) are in red. The asymptotical limit is the same in both cases. There is some discrepancy between the values obtained by the simulation program and those obtained using equation (79). The scaling of this equation with seems inaccurate. A different scaling was tried: 6 4
3

1+

1 2 ei 8 ( 4 )

( n q (rs ) Bo (rs ) 3 4 (i) 4 = 1 5 rs o

q(xs ) ) 4 3 4 5 S 5 5 (x ) nq s

(82)

The new set of values obtained using this modied equation was compared to the simulation results, as shown in gure 36. Indeed the discrepancies are small, and these values suggest this is a more accurate scaling. This subject should be object of further investigation.

44

Figure 35: Growth rates as a function of the logarithm of the magnetic Prandtl number , with S = 105 . The dot line is the asymptotical limit, obtained by using = 0. In order to relate both S and with the growth of the mode, one hundred simulations were made using the same q(x) prole, and identical boundary conditions. Results are shown in Figure 37 and table B.1. Boundary results are coherent with the aforementioned analytical dispersion relations, and the overall results seem to show a continuous function (S, ) with those boundaries. The red line in the gure shows the boundary for stability. Because its slope is lower than the unit, it is possible to conclude that the viscosity necessary for a mode to be stable increases as the resistivity decreases. As a result, it is unlikely that viscosity turns to be a key factor on stability, since experimentally < 20.

45

Figure 36: Growth rates as a function of the logarithm of the magnetic Prandtl number , with S = 108 . The black line is the solution of equation (79), the blue line is the solution of equation (82), and red points are results obtained by the simulation program. The dot line is the asymptotical limit, obtained by using = 0, which is the same in all cases.

46

Figure 37: Growth rates 106 as a function of the logarithm of magnetic Prandtl number and the logarithm of magnetic Reynolds number S. Values are on table B.1.

47

4 Quasi-linear evolution of the tearing mode

4.1 Effects of third order non-linear forces
As noted in section 1.5, the linear approximation loses applicability once the perturbation grows to the point where its inuence on equilibrium values becomes apparent. The cross product between the second order perturbed current density driven by the plasma ow and the perturbed magnetic eld will give rise to third order non-linear forces (Figure 38).

Figure 38: Tearing mode structure in the resistive layer; plasma ow pattern and non-linear third order forces [18]. These forces will oppose the plasma ow, and increase rapidly with the amplitude of the perturbation. When both island width and tearing layer width are within the same order of magnitude, the island enters the nonlinear regime[16]. Following Rutherfords demonstration in slab geometry, once this happens the island will grow linearly with time[18]: dw 1.16 dt o In cylindrical geometry this expression needs to be adjusted[16]:

(83)

48

dw Zef 1.16 Re( ) dt o where Zef is a correction to the resistivity.

(84)

Afterwards, second-order perturbed current density will alter the equilibrium current density in such a way as to cause a saturation of the mode. As mentioned in section 1.5, the growth of the island will be given by: dw 1.66 ( w) dt o

(85)

Figure 39 shows the phase portrait of the island width where the regime described by equation (85) applies. The island will grow by itself in case its width is under ws (given by ws =
),

and decrease

otherwise. Thus, the saturated size of the island does not depend on S, in spite of its importance in affecting the time it takes the island to achieve such size.

Figure 39: Phase portrait of island width.

4.2 MHD quasi-linear model without rotation

The model described in section 2 has been simplied neglecting the inuence of temperature evolution and plasma rotation. A reduced version of equations (31), (38) and (30) normalized according to 49

appendix A is presented as follows: mn (x) 2 = k(r) umn + mn t S

(86)

U mn m jz = ik(r)2 mn i + 2 U mn t x r mn S

(87)

o 1 m (x) 2 = Im(umn mn ) + o t 2 x x S where o oi + o and oi o (t = 0).

(88)

A numerical code to solve these equations using fourth order Runge-Kutta method has been developed, enabling the study of time evolution of the ux perturbation prole, the stream function prole and the equilibrium magnetic ux prole. Figure 40 shows the value of the magnetic ux in the resonant surface for = 0 and z = 0 as a function of time for two q proles and different initial perturbations (o = s (t = 0)).

Figure 40: s 107 as a function of time, with S = 105 , = 0.01 and: a) o = 107 , in the initial prole, qo = 1.3 and qa = 3.5 in the parabolic safety factor prole; b) o = 107 , qo = 1.0 and qa = 3.5; c) o = 1.7 104 , qo = 1.3 and qa = 3.5; d) o = 104 , qo = 1.0 and qa = 3.5.

50

Since the gradient of the equilibrium current in the rational surface is precisely what destabilizes the mode, one should expect that, viscous effects apart, it would take a decrease in the radial derivative of this current for the mode to saturate. This was tested in the simulations mentioned. When the island is near its saturated size, the change in the equilibrium current prole is noticeable near the resonant surface, since its derivative changes to a value near zero. These results are shown in Figure 41.

Figure 41: Radial prole of the equilibrium current in the absence of perturbations (blue), and when the island is near its saturated size (red). Apart from the region near the resonant surface, the proles are mostly identical. Numerical problems related with the Runge-Kutta method cause some numerical noise associated with the time derivative of the island size. To deal with these problems, the program was changed to associate each point for w with the average of the previous 100 points, and the same was done to time steps in order to calculate the time derivative. This way it became possible to trace the phase portrait of the four performed simulations, which are shown in Figure 42. Phase portraits of simulations a) and b) show the four regimes mentioned so far. This is apparent in Figure 43, where the diagram of simulation a) is depicted again, and four regions have been highlighted. In region I, the normalized prole is changing so that the unstable eigenmode emerges from the initial perturbation prole, as already explained in section 3.3. In region II, where the perturbation eigenfunctions are clearly set, the growth of is exponential in time, and thus the slope in the graph should be 51

Figure 42: Phase portrait, with S = 105 , = 0.01 and: a) o = 107 , in the initial prole, qo = 1.3 and qa = 3.5 in the parabolic safety factor prole; b) o = 107 , qo = 1.0 and qa = 3.5; c) o = 1.7 104 , qo = 1.3 and qa = 3.5; d) o = 104 , qo = 1.0 and qa = 3.5. given by m = . In fact its value is m = 5.2104 , which is quite similar to m = 6.6525104 , calculated 2 using the value for obtained in a simulation with identical parameters in the previous chapter. In region III, the slope becomes null. This means a constant
dw dt ,

or a linear growth in time. One can

notice, however, that this regime ceases soon after it started. The slope is approximately null only for a narrow range in w. That should be expected: in cylindrical geometry the Rutherford growth regime is more circumscribed than in slab geometry. Equation (84) could be normalized according to appendix A: dw 1.22 dt S

(89)

This equation enables the calculation of through the use of the phase portrait. In the present case, = 3.361. This value is of the same order of magnitude than the other values calculated for in a

52

Figure 43: Phase portrait, with S = 105 , = 0.01, o = 107 , in the initial prole, qo = 1.3 and qa = 3.5 in the parabolic safety factor prole. Four regimes of growth may be observed. simulation with the same parameters and boundary conditions ( 7.24 with the tearing equation, and = 6.68 using the standard dispersion relation) but it still remains quite different. Such difference is explained by the high resistivity used in this simulation. In fact, a simulation made with S = 107 resulted in a value for the stability parameter much closer (see results in gure 44) In region IV, there is once again a constant slope. This region is perfectly described by equation 85. This same behavior may be found in the phase portrait of simulation b). As for simulations c) and d), they are both in the regime of region IV. In order to relate both S and with tearing-layer width, 59 simulations have been conducted using the same q(x) prole and identical boundary conditions. As soon as the second time derivative of the logarithm of the ux in the rational surface reaches a value nine orders of magnitude smaller than the ux logarithm, the island is deemed to be in the linear growth regime, and this ratio will be expected to decrease further before increasing again. Island development ceases to be in the linear growth regime once this second time derivative increases one order of magnitude - as explained above, its width should be within the same order as the tearing layer. Results for island size when this happens (as a function 53

Figure 44: Partial phase portrait, with S = 107 , = 0.01, o = 107 , in the initial prole, qo = 1.3 and qa = 3.5 in the parabolic safety factor prole. of Reynolds and Prandlt numbers) are shown in Figure 45 and table B.2. As equation (9) relates tearing-layer width with the growth rate of the mode, results of section 3.5 may be retrieved in order to obtain an estimate of the tearing layer for different values of S and . This is shown in Figure 46 and table B.3, conrming that, for small viscosity, when the island ceases to be in the linear regime, its width is in fact within the same order of magnitude as tearing-layer width, both decreasing as S increases. With an increase in the Prandtl number, however, these calculations show a different evolution. This is due to the fact that the calculation of the tearing layer using expression (9) does not account for the effects of viscosity. In fact, one may consider the existence of a viscous layer increasing with [31], therefore changing the width in which linear growth regime ceases.

54

Figure 45: Island width when linear growth regime ceases, as a function of the logarithm of magnetic Prandtl number and the logarithm of magnetic Reynolds number S. Values are on table B.2.

55

Figure 46: Tearing Layer calculated using expression (9), as a function of the logarithm of magnetic Prandtl number and the logarithm of magnetic Reynolds number S. Values are on table B.3.

56

4.3 Interaction with resonant external magnetic elds

Toroidal eld coils may be used to create a current sheet that interacts resonantly with the tearing mode. In fact, inevitable misalignments of the eld coils used for normal tokamak operation produce a magnetic error-eld which may have a (m, n) component that will interact with the mode.

Figure 47: Prole of mn , subject to a resonant helical eld generated by a current sheet at x = 1.3. The green line is the rational surface, the blue line is the plasma edge, and the red line is the current sheet radial location. As a consequence of this current sheet, the (m, n) perturbation of the magnetic ux will have a discontinuity at the location of the coils, proportional to the intensity of the current (Figure 47). The growth of the island is affected by this external eld as[17]: ( ) dw o ( b )m IE i(E o ) = 1.66 vac + e w dt o rs rs k w2

(90)

where is the stability parameter in the absence of any external eld, r = b is the location of vac the current sheet, o is the phase of the mode (zero, since rotation is not yet being considered) and k=
xs q (xs ) 16 q 2 (xs ) Bo .

If the phase difference is between 90o and 270o ,

dw dt

may decrease, enabling a stabilization scheme

57

based on the use of the external eld. However, there is a value of island width below which it cannot be reduced by this method, and any attempt to do so by using an external current IE with higher absolute value will cause the mode to ip14 , thus bringing the eld to further destabilize the mode.

Figure 48: Phase portrait of the island width w, showing different external currents at x = 1.3. The red dash corresponds to the saturated island width in the absence of external current. The colored dashes are values of stable equilibrium island size for different values of the external current bigger than Itr , with the exception of the purple line which corresponds to an unstable equilibrium with IE = Itr . Equation
dw dt

= 0 can have one, two, or no real roots, depending on the value of IE , as shown in

Figure 48. The value of the stable saturated island width will correspond to the highest root in case there is more than one, or to the only root if that is the case, with the exception of IE = Itresh , for which the equilibrium will be unstable. There will be no roots for IE < Itresh , which means the phase portrait seems failing to show mode ipping. In fact, when the ipping occurs, there is a phase shift in the mode, so that the new current interacting with the mode acts like its value is symmetrical. Consequently, island size will not decrease indenitely as the graph would indicate, but instead grow to a larger saturated size than it would otherwise achieve15 , as if destabilized by a positive IE with the same absolute value.
a mode ips, there is a shift of in the position of the O, effectively causing the value of the perturbed ux s at the resonant surface to change sign[32] 15 This will no longer hold when plasma rotation is considered: when a steady phase difference is maintained, an I E slightly
14 When

58

Figure 49: Perturbed magnetic ux in the resonant surface as a function of time. The branches related to time dependence of the external current are signaled in different colors, respectively gray, red and blue. Figure 49 shows the results of two simulations performed with the following parameters: = 0.3, S = 105 ; = 0.01; o = 107 , in the initial prole; qo = 1.3 and qa = 3.5 in the parabolic safety factor prole. The perturbed ux on the resonant surface is shown as a function of time, and the dependence of the saturated value on the external eld is highlighted. The external current varies in time as: I(t) =
t9000 2000

0
IE IE

, t < 9000 a , 9000 a > t > 11000 a , t > 11000 a (91)

One can clearly observe that the external current (with module |IE | < |Itresh |) changes the saturated equilibrium width, decreasing it in case there is phase opposition, or increasing it otherwise. If |IE | > |Itresh |, one would expect to nd a mode ipping. Figure 50 depicts this situation: after the saturation of the mode, the external eld leads the perturbed eld in the singular surface to saturate at a negative value. A negative value for s corresponds to an imaginary value for w. The physical meaning of this imaginary width consists precisely of the shift in the phase that characterizes the ipping of the
higher than Itresh may in fact be stabilizing on a small scale[33]

59

mode.

Figure 50: Perturbed magnetic ux in the resonant surface as a function of time showing mode ipping. The branches related to time dependence of the external current are signaled in different colors, respectively gray, red and blue.

4.4 MHD model for toroidally rotating modes

Equilibrium bulk plasma rotation and drift velocities of the particles may contribute to a propagating tearing mode. Since v is, here, considered null, the rotation of the mode follows the toroidal direction. Considering any given prole section and a uniform toroidal rotation, the set of magnetic islands in the plasma will appear to be rotating, in which case the mode frequency will be o =
n Ro vz .

To account for these effects, the model described in section 2 has been simplied neglecting the inuence of temperature evolution. A reduced version of equations (31), (38), (30) and (39), normalized according to appendix A is presented as follows:
mn (x) 2 = k(r) umn + i n vzo mn + mn t S

(92)

( ) U mn m jz = ik(r)2 mn i mn + i n vzo U mn 2 vzo umn + 2 U mn t x r S

(93)

60

(x) 2 o 1 m = Im(umn mn ) + o t 2 x x S
vz 1 = nIm( mn .2 mn umn .2 umn ) + 2 vz t 2 S

(94)

(95)

where vz vzi + vz and vzi vz (t = 0). A numerical code to solve these equations using fourth order Runge-Kutta method has been developed, enabling the study of time evolution of the ux perturbation prole, the stream function prole, as well as the equilibrium magnetic ux and equilibrium velocity proles. In the numerical simulations carried out, the parabolic q-prole q(x) = qo + (qa qo )x2 is considered, with qo = 1.3 and qa = 3.5, as well as = 0.3, /mp = 1019 m3 (mp is the proton mass), S = 105 and = 0.01. The initial equilibrium velocity prole is vzi = vzo + (vza vzo )x3 , with vzo = 5 kHz and vza = 0.2 kHz.

Figure 51: Mode frequency as a function of time, with q(x) = qo + (qa qo )x2 , qo = 1.3, qa = 3.5, vzi = vzo + (vza vzo )x3 , vzo = 5 kHz, vza = 0.2 kHz, S = 105 , = 0.01, = 0.3, /mp = 1019 m3 , and perfectly-conducting wall boundary conditions. Figure 51 shows simulation results for s as a function of time, with perfectly-conducting wall boundary conditions. The change in the mode frequency should be expected - a toroidally rotating island is subject to two kinds of torques: electromagnetic and viscous[17]: 61

 (I ) = n.(TEM + TV c ) t

(96)

where I = C (rs )w is the island toroidal momentum of inertia, C is a geometrical constant and (rs ) is the local plasma density. The electromagnetic torque is given by[17]: 2 2 2 Bz w2 q (r) rs n Im( ) o 16 q(r)2

TEM =

(97)

The role of viscosity is that of a restitution force promoting natural mode frequency16 [17]:

TV c o (o )

(98)

Consequently, after saturation of the absolute value of the magnetic ux occurs, the mode frequency may differ from the natural mode frequency: 1 1+
1 dI Kp o dt

( o +

1 2 2 2 Bz w2 q (r) ) rs n Im( ) Kp o o 16 q(r)2

(99)

where Kp is the proportionality constant between TV c and o (o ). Recalling equation (90), it is clear that the external eld affects mode development, stabilizing and destabilizing its growth alternately. The frequency of this oscillation equals the difference between both their frequencies. The pendular behavior of phase difference expresses its dominant attractor for positive IE . The term corresponding to plasma inertia ( 90o phase[17]. If the mode locks in phase with the external eld, it will be destabilized. This hinders implementing a stabilization scheme based on a resonant external eld, since it becomes apparent, once plasma rotation is considered, that phase opposition between the eld and the mode is not easy to maintain. Figure 52 shows simulation results for s as a function of time, with an external current |IE | < |Itresh |. The current is static, since only differential rotation matters.
dI dt

dW dt

) adds a weaker attractor to the system at a

16 frequency

in the absence of any torques

62

Figure 52: Perturbed magnetic ux in the resonant surface as a function of time. The branches related to time dependence of the external current are signaled in different colours, respectively gray, red and blue.

63

5 Quasi-linear evolution of neoclassical tearing modes

5.1 Effects of the bootstrap current on mode growth and saturation
In a high pressure tokamak, modes that would otherwise be stable regarding the density gradient of the equilibrium plasma current may nonetheless be unstable[34]. The drive for these instabilities is the bootstrap current, a toroidal neoclassical effect described in section 2.5, which results from plasma pressure perturbations arising from the perturbed convection of the equilibrium temperature. Due to the heterogeneity in temperature diffusion, which is faster along the magnetic lines, when the magnetic island is large enough, plasma pressure becomes attened inside the island. The resulting local bootstrap current loss is equivalent to driving a helical current in the counter direction - which is destabilizing. In this case, non-linear growth and saturation of these so-called neoclassical tearing modes (NTM) is usually described by the generalized Rutherford equation[35]: p Lq0s ) dw o ( = A2 cb 0s2 dt o Bs w

A1

(100)

where Bs stands for the equilibrium poloidal magnetic eld on the rational surface and p0s for plasma pressure on the same surface in the absence of perturbations. cb is a constant of the order of the unity, A1 = 0.823 and A2 = 6.34. Lq0s is given by: q0 q0

Lq0s =

(101)

where q0 is the safety factor in the absence of perturbations, evaluated on the rational surface, and
the same applies to its derivative q0 . Similarly, Lp0s is calculated on the rational surface in the absence

of perturbations: p0 p 0

Lp0s =

(102)

Taking into account the effect of change in the local magnetic shear due to the loss of the bootstrap current inside the island leads to the following extension of equation (100)[36]:

64

A1

dw o ( jbs = A2 1 dt o Bs w ( Lq0s +

)
jbs Bs )

(103)

where jbs is the bootstrap current on the rational surface in the absence of perturbations. The method for calculating for classical tearing modes has been presented in section 3.1. For NTMs mn (rx ) - where rx is the minor radius of the islands x-point - may be employed in the denition of instead of mn (rs )[37]. However, when island width is not too large, the difference between mn (rx ) and mn (rs ) may be neglected. In NTMs, is often considered to be the same as that of the classical tearing mode, since it is determined by the region outside the island, and the bootstrap current is only taken into account within the island region[35]. As such, it is possible to calculate as described in section 3.1 in order to use its value in equations (100) or (103). As the island grows, equations (100) and (103) lose their validity since there are several nonlinear effects on island growth which are not taken into account, such as bootstrap current density fraction, transport coefcients, and viscosity[35]. Nonetheless, a small change in these equations allows for a good prediction of the islands saturated width[35] when the mode is unstable: p Lq0s ) dw o ( = w A2 cb 0s2 dt o Bs w

A1 and

(104)

A1

dw o ( jbs = w A2 1 dt o Bs w ( Lq0s +

)
jbs Bs )

(105)

where is the term mentioned in sections 1.5 and 4.1. The above analysis assumes the island to be above the critical size necessary to make diffusion along the magnetic eld lines signicantly more important than the diffusion perpendicular to those lines. This does not hold when the island is very small: since the perimeter of the circuit is reduced, perpendicular transport across the island dominates over parallel transport, and the temperature perturbation vanishes. ( )2 By equating characteristic times for perpendicular transport ( w 1 ) and parallel transport 2 ( 2Ls )2 1 ( m w ) one obtains a value for wd , a characteristic transport effect island width[27]:
r

65

 wd = where Ls = q
Lq0s .

1 Ls r ( ) 4 m

(106)

This value is related to the critical width above which the mode is unstable by[27]: wsat ( 1 2 ( wd )2 ) 1 2 wsat

wc =

(107)

where wsat is the saturated island size, obtained from equating (100) to zero, given by [27]: Lq0s s Lp0s ( )

wsat = where is always referring to .

(108)

Richard Fitzpatrick studied the small island limit, where perpendicular transport is signicant when compared to parallel transport and temperature is not a function of island ux surfaces. In the small island limit, island growth is shown to obey[38]:
3 dw o ( w) = C1 C2 2 s 2 dt o Ls wd

(109)

where C1 = 1.2 and C2 = 2.88, and s is the value of the derivative of calculated on the rational

surface. A more general expression, valid in both small and large island limits is also presented[38]: ) 3 dw o ( w = C1 C3 2 s 2 dt o Ls wd + w2 where C3 = 9.26. The dynamics of island evolution according to this model is summarized in the phase space diagram shown in gure 53, where < 0. Wc is the rst xed point shown on the diagram, and Wsat , the saturation width of a destabilized island, is the second one. Both may be obtained by setting equation (110).
dw dt

(110)

= 0 on

66

Figure 53: Phase space diagram of the neoclassical MHD tearing mode [39].

5.2 Neoclassical MHD model

The model described in section 2 is presented. Equations (59), (38), (58), (39), (46), (45), (56) and (57), normalized according to appendix A, are presented as follows:
(x) 2 (x) mn = k(r) umn + i n vzo mn + mn + jbmn t S S

(111)

) ( U mn m jz = ik(r)2 mn i mn + i n vzo U mn 2 vzo umn + 2 U mn t x r S

(112)

o 1 m (x) (x) 2 = Im(umn mn ) + o + jbo t 2 x x S S

vz 1 = nIm( mn .2 mn umn .2 umn ) + 2 vz t 2 S

(113)

(114)

po 2 X 2 1 m Im(umn p mn ) = (po poi ) t 3 S 2 x x ( ) ( ( ( ) 1 )) ( cb m mn ) 2 X f 1 k(x) + n Re p mn + 3 S 2 x x

(115)

67

 p mn 2 X 2 m po umn = p mn invzo p mn + i t 3 S x x ( ) )2 ( ) ( c )2 ( m 2 X n mn mn 1 2 b 2 p mn + f 1 + k(x) 3 S 2x 2 x x 2

(116)

J bo =

q(x) p o 2 x r

(117)

J bmn =

q(x) p mn 2 x r

(118)

A numerical code that solves the above system of equations using fourth order Runge-Kutta method has been developed, enabling the study of the time evolution of the magnetic ux, temperature and uid velocity. In the numerical simulations carried out, the parabolic q-prole q(x) = qo + (qa qo )x2 is considered, with qo = 0.9 and qa = 4.5, as well as = 0.3, /mp = 1019 m3 (mp is the proton mass), S = 105 , = 0.01, = 0.03, X = 50, f
b

= 104 , and theres no uid velocity. The initial prole

of the perturbations on the magnetic ux, temperature and stream function are obtained by multplying a constant o by the normalized values obtained on the linear regime on a previous simulation where the magnetic ux as already conformed to the tearing equation. Figure 54 shows the evolution of s in time with perfectly-conducting wall boundary conditions for values of o of 128.0 x 107 and 88.0 x 107 . Because with this boundary conditions and safety factor prole is negative, without bootstrap current both perturbations would vanish, regardless of the initial island size (this may be seen in g 55). However, once the changes in the bootstrap current are taken into account, the data show there is a threshold for the initial perturbation beyond which the mode is destabilized and saturates at a higher island size. Bellow this threshold, the perturbation still vanishes. As explained in section 4.2, in order to obtain the phase portrait the program was changed to associate each point for w with the average of the previous 100 points, and the same was done to time steps in order to calculate the time derivative. Figure 56 shows the results for o = 2.78 x 105 , just above the threshold for instability.

68

Figure 54: s x 107 as a function of time, for o = 128.0 x 107 and o = 88.0 x 107

Figure 55: s x 107 as a function of time, for o = 128.0 x 107 and o = 88.0 x 107 , when changes in the bootstrap current are turned of. This simulation, in spite of the absence of higher harmonics, describes the main features expected to be seen by the theory presented in section 5.1. The main result which should be emphasized is the conrmation of the widely accepted notion that

69

Figure 56: Phase portrait for a simulation with o = 110.0 x 107 neoclassical tearing modes need a seed island wseed > wc to be driven by the bootstrap current in order to grow towards a large saturated state.

5.3 Interaction with resonant external magnetic elds

As stated in section 4.3, toroidal eld coils may be used to create a current sheet that interacts resonantly with the tearing mode. It is important to address the relation between this external eld and the NTM growth, among other reasons because this interaction may be behind the triggering of some NTMs[40].
I Once the equation (110) is changed to include the external current effect (in the form ci wE ei(E o ) , 2

according to section 4.3), it will yield: ) 3 dw o ( w IE = C1 C3 2 s 2 + C4 2 ei(E o ) dt o Ls wd + w2 w with C4 =

o 1 rs k

(119)

( )m
b rs

Considering a null phase difference between the mode and the external current, it is possible to nd three positive roots in the phase diagram of equation (119). A diagram which compares equation (110) and (119) is depicted in gure 57, showing a decrease in the value of wc , the threshold beyond which the island will grow towards the large saturated state. wsat , the large saturated state width, also increases. Two simulations were made, both with an external current as a ramp (IE = Ci t), which was turned off when a maximum value was attained at t = 4000 a . The initial values were o equal to 98.0 x 107

70

Figure 57: Phase diagram associated with equations(110) and (119). The red dot marks the unstable equilibrium corresponding to the threshold for the NTMs growth. Its value diminishes once the effect of a destabilizing resonant external magnetic eld is taken into account and 1.0 x 107 respectively. Results are shown in gure 58. When initial island width is above the new threshold but below the one corresponding to the absence of external current, it will grow towards the large saturated state (which should be slightly higher than the one without the resonant current, had the external current remained on). Even when the external eld disappears, because the island is now above the neoclassical critical width, the growth will continue until saturation occurs. When starting island width is much smaller, on the other hand, it will grow to a small saturated size, as shown in gure 57. Once the external current is turned off, because the island has not attained the critical size, the perturbation will stabilize. According to equation (119) it is possible to set such a high value for IE that the threshold value for instability becomes null. This was tested on a simulation with no rotation and o equal to 1.0 x 107 . External current was once again a ramp, but this time turned off at t = 4000 a . Results are shown in gure 59. They conrm the hypothesis and suggest a possible explanation for seed islands: misalignments of the eld coils used for normal tokamak operation produce a magnetic error-eld which

71

Figure 58: s x 107 as a function of time, for o = 98.0 x 107 (above) and o = 1.0 x 107 (below), with an external current in the form IE = Ci t turned off when t = 4000 a . The timeline with non-null external eld is signaled in red. may have an (m, n) component that drives the mode above the threshold value for neoclassical growth. Figure 60 shows results for a simulation where differential rotation was considered, by setting the initial equilibrium velocity prole as vzi = vzo , with vzo = 20 Hz and the external current starts as a ramp, but stabilizes at t = 80000a with a ratio
Ie Ip

= 7.43 105 . Similarities may be found with gure 60, taken

from ref. [40] where a reduced MHD model is used and the bootstrap current is simulated through a

72

Figure 59: s x 107 as a function of time, for o = 1.0 x 107 with an external current in the form IE = Ci t and turned off at t = 10000 a . The timeline with non-null external eld is signaled in red. dependence on the size of the island. In both cases the bifurcation can be seen clearly.

73

Figure 60: s x 107 as a function of time, for o = 10.0 x 107 with an external current which starts as a Ie ramp and stabilizes at t = 80000a with a ratio Ip = 7.43 105 .

Figure 61: s x 107 as a function of time, with an external current which starts as a ramp and then stabilizes[40]

74

5.4 Mode stabilization through ECCD and ECRH

A method widely known to inuence a modes amplitude operates through electron cyclotron resonant heating (ECRH), as well as through electron cyclotron current drive (ECCD). Electromagnetic waves with a frequency often reaching an order of magnitude of hundreds of GHz traveling in an approximately toroidal direction both induce a current and heat up the surrounding plasma. Heating not only changes the bootstrap current due to its dependence on the temperature prole, but also changes the ohmic current because of the change in the resistivity caused by temperature variation. The total currents variation resulting from these factors operates a stabilizing effect.

Figure 62: Gyrotron, high powered source of electromagnetic waves with frequencies reaching an order of magnitude of hundreds of GHz [41] Regarding the effects of current drive, its effect diminishes with the size of the island. One could say, therefore, that electron cyclotron current drive (ECCD) should not, in itself, lead to mode suppression [17]. However, attending to the tearing mode dynamics, if the current is capable of driving the island bellow the tearing mode threshold, it should stabilize. It is possible also to combine both effects in order to more effectively obtain complete mode suppression. This has been experimentally veried, rst in ASDEX Upgrade[42] for a (3,2) mode, and then in several tokamaks and stelerators for that as well as other modes[43]. Frequencies employed to generate ECCD and ECRH are within an order of magnitude of hundreds of GHz and the high powered sources of those frequencies, used for this as well as other ends, are called gyrotrons. These devices are characterized by their power, pulse frequency and duration, as well 75

as deposition width, which ranges necessarily between that of electron cyclotron resonance and that of the beams wave length[43]. This parameter assumes vital importance as the efcacy of both methods described depends on deposition width and localization in a decisive way. Its importance is easily explained in theory by the bootstrap currents dependence on the temperature derivative, which causes the effect of a more localized heating to overcome the wider availability of energy to the region. The location of the deposition region may be controlled by toroidal eld adjustment; the gyrotrons movement; or variation of emitted frequency, without disregarding that the plasma density prole may entail cut-off frequencies. Propagation and absorption of electro-cyclotron waves is reasonably predicted by ray tracing codes, and experimental results for efciency are consistent with models based on Fokker-Planck equation[43]. Operation of ITER will depend on the efcacy and accuracy of these techniques. ITERs project has been changed to alter its implementation, allowing for the presence of a moving mirror of electrocyclotron waves near the plasma, which would predictably obtain higher efcacy in the suppression of tearing modes[44] - even though a misalignment of 2 cm would be enough to make efcacy drop to zero. There are basically three alignment techniques[44]: toroidal eld variation between shots, employing Mirnov coils to identify the location of signal decay; step-by-step toroidal eld variation (through a feedback control system) aiming to identify optimal location at each single shot; and use of real-time computing in order to infer the security factors radial prole from plasma diagnoses, and thus accurately locate the resonant surface just before the occurrence of a mode (active tracking). The latter method, striving to obtain real-time results, also employs a code to attend to electro-cyclotron wave refraction, which compares uctuations with a pre-calculated reference scenario for a specic source location. One of the advantages of the active tracking method is its increased stabilization efcacy when island size is very small, as observable in the following expression relating island growth with deposited heating power[45]: dw o = dt o ( Prf (w) Ch Te w
2

) (120)

Where Prf is the deposition power, and is given by:

76

( )

Rq 2 mq (121)

This expression applies when w < as long as both values remain below deposition width. It is apparent that the stabilizing effect will tend to innity when island size tends to zero, predicting high efcacy for the active tracking method in case alignment is accurate enough. Experimental procedures have demonstrated the possibility of preventing (3, 2) modes from ever occurring through the use of this method (see gure 63).

Figure 63: Effect of preventive ECCD inhibiting the occurrence of (3, 2) modes. Green dots depict potentially unstable situations which resulted stable with ECCD, and red crosses portray situations which revealed unstable. The red line marks the prevision of meta-stability with preventive ECCD [44] In this manner, ECCD and ECRH have proven to be adequate methods to deal with the effects of MHD instabilities. Its importance makes, however, all the more necessary to understand the role of temperature evolution in the behavior of these instabilities.

77

6 Conclusions
The present dissertation has striven to explain in chapter 1 the physical mechanism underlying the development of tearing instabilities, underscoring the importance of understanding and controlling these instabilities in nuclear fusion research. Chapter 2 has presented a detailed derivation of the MHD model guiding the creation of the computer program used for performed simulations. The construction of this computer program from scratch was an important part of this thesis. Chapter 3 has examined the tearing mode within the scope of linear approximation. The tearing equation has been reproduced alongside the results of a numerical code created to solve it. These results were subsequently compared to those obtained by the code simulating the development of the mode according to MHD equations using regarded simplications (linear approximation and null viscosity). Despite the difference in method, it has been veried that obtained results were similar in both cases. The standard dispersion relation has also been presented in this chapter, as well as the work developed by Militello et al. [29], whose analysis considers the corrections required by asymmetries in the current density of the tearing layer which are signicant for S values within the same order of magnitude as those used in numerical simulations. The results of a numerical code developed to solve that dispersion equation using Newtons method have been reported, and subsequently compared to those obtained by MHD simulations. This comparison evinces the fallibility of calculating A through the solution of the tearing equation - which are due to the limitations of the nite differences method once the minimal spatial step goes to zero - and suggests another approach to A calculation, by using the values of the MHD simulation and using a least-squares estimator. Considering thereafter a non-null viscosity, the results by Lazzaro et al. [31], valid for high S values, have been also been reported in this chapter, describing the train of thought leading to the equation relating the modes growth rate to . The results of a program conceived to solve this relation by Newtons method have also been presented, and compared to those obtained by MHD simulations. It has been concluded that a different scaling on (given by equation(82)) would lead to smaller discrepancies between the two sets of values. The simulation program was used in order to run 100 MHD simulations with different values of S and . Values for were coherent with a continuous function whose boundaries coincide with those studied

78

previously (no viscosity and different values of S, and high S and different values of viscosity). It has been shown that the value of viscosity necessary for the mode to become stable increases as resistivity decreases, and that for the values of both parameters used in real tokamaks viscosity is not a key factor on stability. Chapter 4 begun by explaining the physical mechanism behind the inapplicability of linear description once the magnetic island reaches a certain width. Results of MHD simulations were presented subsequently, especially the phase portraits which display the aforementioned growth regimes. These phase portraits have enabled the calculation of some parameters associated to the modes development, which have thus been compared to the values produced in the former chapter. It has been veried that calculating the growth rate within the linear regime through the phase portrait enables an estimate which is quite close to the value computed straightforwardly. On the other hand, it has been shown that computing for Rutherfords regime generates a result rather different from the previously calculated one, although remaining within the same order of magnitude, if resistivity is high (S < 105 ). Such differences have been explained both by the low resistivity assumption present on the model used for calculation. Sixty simulations for various values of S and have subsequently been used in order to assess the islands width once the growth of the perturbed ux ceases to be exponential. Those values have been compared with the dimensions of a purely resistive tearing layer. It has been concluded, as expected, that for identical parameters at low both values belong to the same order of magnitude. For higher , the results are compatible with a viscous resistive layer, instead of a purely resistive one. Some aspects concerning the relation between saturated island width and external resonant elds were reviewed, mentioning the limitations associated with a stabilizing method based on the existence of an external current, which are due to mode ipping when this current overcomes a certain threshold. Values obtained by MHD simulations illustrate both stabilizing and destabilizing possibilities of external currents, as well as mode ipping. Results for a set of MHD simulations with plasma rotation have been subsequently produced. The evolution of mode frequency has been displayed, including a discussion of its underlying physical mechanism and a brief mentioning of external current inuence on rotation, apparent in results of an MHD simulation. Chapter 5 begun by reviewing some theoretical issues regarding neoclassical modes. It was followed by a presentation of the equations implemented in the code devised in this work to simulate NTMs, as well as by results obtained by some of the effected simulations, which conrm the most relevant theoret79

ical aspects introduced. Original results are then produced by activating the external current. It can be concluded that, following theoretical predictions, the external eld may reduce the threshold necessary for the mode to saturate at a high value, and that for sufciently high external current values the perturbation may be driven above that threshold. This mechanism is a possible source of seed islands. One should note that for high plasmas this seeding resonant magnetic eld may be considerably low since the threshold of instability is also lower. As it was shown, even in the presence of differential rotation between the driving eld and the natural mode frequency, excitation can always occur. Lastly, a summary approach is made to ECCD and ECRH methods, which operate by either modifying temperature or driving helical currents, and present an additional argument for the importance of understanding the role of temperature in MHD instability dynamics. It is also mentioned that the implementation of these methods has led to the complete suppression of different tearing modes.

80

A Normalizations
A.1 Auxiliary denitions
a o o Bo a2 o o a2 o o a2

(122)

r a

r v

(123)

a R

k(r)

m nq(r) q(r)

(124)

A.2 Normalizations

t t a

(125)

r x a

(126)

mn mn Bz a

(127)

umn umn

a2 a

(128)

(x) o (x)

(129)

P (x) Po P (x)

(130)

81

B Values for Contour Plots

B.1 Growth rate in linear regime

(, S) 106 0.01 0.0359381 0.129155 0.464159 1.6681 5.99484 21.5443 77.4264 278.256 1000

108

43.735

40.390

31.354

29.130

18.586

16.378

11.312

7.593

6.624

4.918

46415900

61.988

55.964

52.641

38.557

29.216

24.525

14.089

13.434

9.879

7.071

21544300 107

97.975

90.474

76.186

60.350

46.942

39.677

26.696

19.985

14.370

9.896

151.752

138.369

119.137

94.833

74.567

55.303

40.376

28.861

19.789

12.687

4641590

230.332

210.782

183.356

138.010

110.585

81.333

57.829

39.254

24.753

13.569

2154430 106

336.125

316.005

273.932

220.374

162.553

115.401

77.584

47.967

25.151

7.871

469.803

453.746

405.789

317.758

227.911

152.410

92.296

45.842

10.734

-15.148

464159

747.288

687.990

574.262

435.900

295.188

175.678

81.687

10.511

-41.745

-78.697

215443 105

1020.939

935.901

771.719

549.712

327.158

140.701

-2.862

-108.199

-182.076

-230.708

1304.805

1178.006

925.528

576.862

227.822

-56.646

-269.406

-416.882

-512.581

-571.388

Table 2: Growth rates 106 as a function of magnetic Prandtl number and Reynolds number S.

82

B.2 Island width in the end of the linear regime

w (, S) 103 0.01 0.0359381 0.129155

0.464159

1.6681

5.99484

108

3.8360

3.8318

3.8389

3.8393

3.8381

3.8370

46415900

3.8478

3.8484

3.8485

3.8467

3.8453

3.8431

21544300

3.8626

3.8628

3.8600

3.8655

3.9592

3.8747

107

3.8795

3.8877

3.8804

3.8782

3.9228

3.8937

4641590

3.9314

3.9184

3.9221

3.9091

3.9421

3.8933

2154430

3.9763

3.9888

3.9465

3.9458

120.8329

56.1027

106

5.4379

5.2297

4.2261

37.8054

52.2845

59.8497

464159

11.8922

14.5289

28.4550

46.2915

58.0472

97.8231

215443

14.8511

31.8985

32.3248

52.6727

52.4482

110.2865

105

33.0723

38.6315

70.4288

52.7269

119.4123

Table 3: Island width in the end of the linear regime w 103 as a function of magnetic Prandtl number and Reynolds number S.

83

B.3 Tearing Layer size

L(, S) 103 0.01 0.0359381 0.129155 0.464159 1.6681 5.99484

108

5.29971

4.28824

3.32240

2.69234

1.98613

1.58833

46415900

5.78257

4.65253

3.78188

2.88781

2.22390

1.75703

21544300

6.48371

5.24617

4.14807

3.23009

2.50381

1.98158

107

7.23315

5.83405

4.63862

2.99878

2.81091

2.15311

4641590

8.02847

6.4814

5.16656

3.97212

3.10195

2.37107

2154430

8.82408

7.17190

5.71200

4.46513

3.41554

2.58779

106

9.59452

7.85080

6.30162

4.89292

3.71665

2.77416

464159

10.77500

8.71177

6.87314

5.2953

3.96493

2.87446

215443

11.6491

9.40845

7.40018

5.61149

4.06818

2.71927

105

12.38600

9.96547

7.74417

5.67953

3.71629

Table 4: Tearing layer L 103 calculated using expression (9) and values of section B.1, as a function of magnetic Prandtl number and Reynolds number S.

84

C Numerical details
C.1 Finite diferences
To solve systems of differential equations, one may use the nite differences method to replace a spatial j+p derivative in a point Aj by a sum i=jp ci F (Ai )[46], function of the values of some of the grid points. [ In this case, tree points will be considered to approach the rst and second derivative, in the form ] [ 2 ] F F (Aj1 ) + F (Aj ) + F (Aj+1 ) and F F (Aj1 ) + F (Aj ) + F (Aj+1 ). x x2
Aj Aj

The general case of an asymmetrical grid will be considered, as shown in the scheme presented in gure 64:

Figure 64: Scheme of the asymmetrical grid considered To obtain values , and with O(h3 ) precision (the best obtained with tree points [48]), one considers the following condition: [ F ] x
Aj

F (Aj1 ) + F (Aj ) + F (Aj+1 ) Or:

= O(h3 )

(131)

F (Aj h1 ) + F (Aj ) + F (Aj + h2 )

[ F ] x
Aj

= O(h3 )

(132)

It is possible to make a Taylor expansion around Aj , and obtain:

( ) [ F ] 1 [ 2F ] F (Aj ) h1 + h2 + Oa (h3 ) + F (Aj ) x Aj 2 x2 Aj 1 ( ) [ [ F ] 1 [ 2F ] F ] + F (Aj ) + h2 + h2 + Ob (h3 ) = Oc (h3 ) 2 A 2 x Aj 2 x x Aj j 85

(133)

Or:

) [ ( ( ) [ 2 ] ( 2 ) F ] F h1 h2 F (Aj ) + + + h1 +h2 1 + + 2 +Oa (h3 )+Ob (h3 ) = Oc (h3 ) x Aj x2 Aj 2 2 (134) and thus, it is possible to get the following system of equations:

+ + = 0 h2 h1 1 = 0 h2 h2 1 + 2 =0 2 2 Solving the system, one obtains the values of , and as functions of h1 and h2 : h2 h1 (h1 + h2 ) h2 h1 h2 h1 (135)

(136)

(137)

h1 h2 (h1 + h2 )

(138)

An analogous reasoning may be used to obtain values , and with O(h3 ) precision: [ 2F ] x2
Aj

F (Aj1 ) + F (Aj ) + F (Aj+1 ) Or:

= O(h3 )

(139)

F (Aj h1 ) + F (Aj ) + F (Aj + h2 ) And once again, making a Taylor expansion around Aj :

[ 2F ] x2
Aj

= O(h3 )

(140)

86

( ) [ F ] 1 [ 2F ] F (Aj ) h1 + h2 + Oa (h3 ) + F (Aj ) x Aj 2 x2 Aj 1 ( ) [ 2 ] [ F ] F 1 [ 2F ] + F (Aj ) + h2 + h2 + Ob (h3 ) = Oc (h3 ) x Aj 2 x2 Aj 2 x2 Aj Or:

(141)

( ) [ 2 ] ( 2 ) ( ) [ F h1 h2 F ] 2 h1 +h2 + + 1 +Oa (h3 )+Ob (h3 ) = Oc (h3 ) F (Aj ) + + + x Aj x2 Aj 2 2 (142) and thus, obtain a new system of equations:

+ + = 0 h2 h1 = 0 h2 h2 1 + 2 1=0 2 2 whose solution are: 2 h1 (h1 + h2 ) 2 h2 h1 (143)

(144)

(145)

2 h2 (h1 + h2 )

(146)

These coefcients allow the use the nite differences method on the asymmetrical grid considered.

87

C.2 Explicit step

If a differential equation in the form: F (x, t) 2 F (x, t) F (x, t) = D(x) + E(x)F (x, t) + Q(x, t) + C(x) 2 t x x

(147)

is considered, depending on D(x), C(x), E(x) and Q(x) an analytical solution may be impossible. That is the case with the differential equations presented in the model considered in this work. The nite differences method allows the possibility of calculation to an approximation of function F (x, t). Two kinds of steps may be used in conjunction to other methods for solving differential equations: explicit and implicit. For the explicit step, one uses the coefcients calculated in the section above, to turn analytical equation (147) into a discrete system of equations, in the following way:

( ) ( ) Fjn Fjn1 n1 n1 n1 n1 = Dj Fj1 + Fjn1 + Fj+1 + Cj Fj1 + Fjn1 + Fj+1 + Ej Fjn1 + Qn1 j dT (148) or:

(149) Therefore, if one knows the boundary conditions in time (F (x, 0)) and space (F (0, t), F (1, t)) and
n+1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 n 0 1 2 computes the sets of values {F1 , F2 , F3 , . . . , FN 2 , FN 1 }, {F0 , F0 , F0 , . . . , F0 , F0 } and {FN , FN , FN ,

88

n+1 n . . . , FN , FN }, the calculation of the remaining points is straightforward.

This explicit method is known to be numerically stable and convergent whenever the following relation holds: dT 1 2 2

(150)

where is the minimum distance in the space grid. The errors are linear over the time step and quadratic over .

C.3 Implicit step

If a differential equation in the form (147) is considered, depending on D(x), C(x), E(x) and Q(x) an analytical solution may be impossible. The nite differences method allows the possibility of calculation to an approximation of function F (x, t). For the implicit step, one uses the coefcients calculated in section C.1, to turn analytical equation (147) into a discrete system of equations, the following way:

( ) ( ) Fjn Fjn1 n n n n = Dj Fj1 + Fjn + Fj+1 + Cj Fj1 + Fjn + Fj+1 + Ej Fjn + Qn1 (151) j dT or:

(152) 89

Thus, if one knows the boundary conditions in time (F (x, 0)) and space (F (0, t), F (1, t)) and comn+1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 n 0 1 2 putes the sets of values {F1 , F2 , F3 , . . . , FN 2 , FN 1 }, {F0 , F0 , F0 , . . . , F0 , F0 } and {FN , FN , FN , n+1 n . . . , FN , FN }, in order to calculate the remaining values the presented system of equations must be

solved. The implicit step is always numerically stable and convergent. However, since it requires solving the system equations, it is more numerically intensive than the explicit method. The errors are linear over the time step and quadratic over .

C.4 Implementation of Runge-Kutta method

It is best to solve nonstiff problems using explicit steps in order to achieve acceptable accuracy with minimal costs. However, as problems become increasingly stiff, stability rather than accuracy becomes the dominant consideration, and implicit steps become the more appropriate choice[48]. In this work a compromise between both approaches was tried, using a semi-implicit fourth order Runge-Kutta method (appropriate for the second-order partial differential equations of this work) with the following Butcher tableau:
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2

0 0
1 2

0 0 0 1
1 3

0 0 0 0
1 6

0 0
1 6

(153)

0
1 3

The implementation is quite similar to the traditional explicit fourth-order Runge-Kutta method, but the rst step is implicit. This is enough to guarantee stability even for small values, and still achieve a good balance between accuracy and computational effort.

C.5 Spatial grid

The equations developed in this work are expected to be quite sensitive around the resonant surface q=
m n

of the mode, in the so-called tearing layer. There are, consequently, numerical advantages in the

use of non uniform spatial grid, concentrated around the rational surface.

90

To implement the grid with N points, one considers N = N1 + N2 + 1 where N1 is the number of grid points from x = 0 to x = xs . N1 is calculated as simple proportion
N1 N

xs 1 ,

and rounded off.

Starting from both sides of the N1 grid point, the remaining points are calculated according to: (1 )i

xN1 i+1 xN1 i =

(154)

xN1 +i+1 xN1 +i =

(2 )i

(155)

with x1 = 0, and xN = 1. For calculations where a point after the grid is needed (xN +1 = ) it was calculated assuming 1 = 1 xN 1 . is the difference between the resonant surface and the near points, and its value regulates the concentration of the grid points around this surface. 1 and 2 are calculated, by Newtons method, from the non linear equations that result from relations:
i

xN1 i+1 xN1 i = xs

(156)

xN1 +i+1 xN1 +i = 1 xs

(157)

Once determined all the grid points, , , , , , and are calculated accordingly.

C.6 Adaptive Stepsize

The program used to solve the equations of the MHD model exerts adaptive control over its own progress, making changes in its stepsize. With fourth-order Runge-Kutta, the most straightforward technique is step doubling[47] - each step is taken twice, once as a full step, then, independently, as two half steps. The difference between the two numerical estimates is a convenient indicator of truncation error: y2 y1 || y1

||

(158)

This notation hides the fact that y2 and y1 are actually vectors of solutions. In fact, the calculation of the truncation error was not so straightforward: 91

N 1 1 y2i y1i || || N i=1 y1i

(159)

Since the truncation error of a fourth-order Runge-Kutta scales as dT 4 [47], it is possible to estimate the time step that corresponds to a desired accuracy by: ( )0.25
0

dT0 = dT1

(160)

where 0 is the desired accuracy, dT1 is the present time step and 1 the corresponding truncation error. This equation would be used in two ways: if 1 is larger than 0 in magnitude, the stepsize should decrease to dT0 when the present (failed) step is tried again. If 1 is smaller than 0 , the stepsize should increase to dT0 for the next step. However, since all the matrices in the program must be recalculated once dT changes, it is not very efcient to change it at every time step. Equation (160) may be used instead as a reference to establish boundaries on that once surpassed should increase or decrease the time step. As such, a ratio R =
2 2 dT0

is calculated. If the ratio is higher than one, the step is recalculated with

a new dT1 1.5 times smaller. If the ratio is lower than 0.8, dT1 used in the next step will be 1.5 times higher.

C.7 Computational details

The implementation of the mentioned methods is computationally quite demanding: a program that solves differential equations for a reasonable time window is considerably long. For this reason, the execution speed of the algorithm was considered as an important priority in choosing the language and the libraries used. To write the code, C language has been chosen. To make simple operations between matrices, BLAS library has been selected. To solve systems of equations, the choice fell on the libraries LAPACK and ATLAS, both an expansion of the previous library. The library BLAS (Basic Linear Algebra Subprograms [49]) was originally programmed in FORTRAN and later ported to C. To ensure greater efciency of this library, it was compiled in the computers used to run the simulations.

92

Afterwards, LAPACK library [50] (dependent of BLAS) was compiled, once again in the computers used to run the simulations, in order to ensure greater efciency and computational optimization. The library ATLAS (Automatically Tuned Linear Algebra Software [51]) is implemented in FORTRAN and C and has all the functions of BLAS and some of LAPACK. The purpose of this library is to further optimize the functions of the two earlier libraries. Some of the simulations were conducted on Windows XP SP2 on a Pentium II 450 MHz with 384MB of RAM and others on Linux Ubuntu 8.10 on a Pentium IV 2.4 GHz with 512MB of RAM. In Windows, CYGWIN [52] was used to simulate a Linux interface. To compile and link in Windows, the libraries used were BLAS and LAPACK, whereas in Linux BLAS and ATLAS were selected. Among these libraries, functions suitable for operations with complex band matrices were used. One difculty in dealing with these libraries was linked to the lack of documentation, especially for the version in C, concerning the compilation process and implementation of the code. This shortage is partly due to the fact that these libraries are very old, and originally done in FORTRAN, with little documentation ported to C. The code required to solve the differential equations was built from scratch, and its design is an important part of this work. Because the length of the code is over 5000 lines, its inclusion in this thesis was considered unsuitable. A full simulation in the Pentium II computer, as shown in gure 60, where S = 105 and 100 points are used in the spatial grid, takes about 12min for each 10000a .

93

D Boundary conditions
D.1 Boundary conditions in time
D.1.1 Equilibrium Magnetic ux as a function of Safety Factor From the proles of the safety factor and the toroidal magnetic eld, it is possible to calculate the poloidal magnetic eld: r R q(r)

B (r) = B (r)

(161)

From these values, one may determine the equilibrium magnetic ux for t = 0: o (r) =
o o 2R

B ( )

d dl R q( )

(162)

Normalizing, and attending that B is constant, it is possible to obtain: o (x, t = 0) =

o x

d q( )

(163)

D.1.2 Equilibrium Electric Current and Electrical resistivity The relationship between the equilibrium current and magnetic ux, as described in section 2.2, is given by: 1 2 o (r) o

Jo (r) = Normalizing:

(164)

Jo (x, t = 0) = 2 o (x)

(165)

Thus, assuming a constant electric eld along the radius, and the verication of Ohms law, it is possible to obtain the normalized electrical resistivity from the initial equilibrium current: Jo (0) Jo (x)

(x) =

(166)

94

D.1.3 Perturbed Magnetic ux and stream function In most cases, the initial perturbation of the magnetic ux is given by the vacuum condition (2 mn 0):
x o ( xs )d

, x < xs , x = xs , x > xs (167)

mn (x, t = 0) =

o o ( 1x )d 1xs

where o = 107 and d = m. The initial perturbed stream function is zero. Therefore the perturbation on the vorticity is also zero.

D.1.4 Equilibrium velocity The equilibrium velocity is zero in most of the simulations. In simulations where there was rotation, the equilibrium velocity corresponded to the following expression:

vzi = vzo + (vza vzo )x3 Where vzo = vz (x = 0) e vza = vz (x = 1).

(168)

D.1.5 Pressure Considering the equation of pressure balance: J B = p

(169)

which implies, in equilibrium, when considering both the toroidal ohmic current and the bootstrap current, the following equality: ( ) p = jo (r)B (r) + jbo (r)B (r) r Or:

(170)

95

 ( po r po ) = jo (r)B (r) c r R r After normalizing, it is possible to obtain: ( po x po ) = CBp jo (x) x x q(x) 2 r Where CBp
Bo p(0) ,

(171)

(172)

computed before normalizing. Hence: x po = CBp jo (x) x q(x)(1 + x) 2

(173)

Thus, by knowing jo (x), it is possible to perform the numerical integration that results in po (x, t = 0). The function obtained by this numerical integration is very similar to the following function: 1 (1 + x2 )3

po (x, t = 0) =

(174)

It is therefore possible to use the latter for simplicity. The initial pressure perturbation is null:
p mn

(x, t = 0) = 0

(175)

D.2 Boundary conditions in space

D.2.1 axis Considering the physics of the problem and the cylindrical geometry in which it is described, it becomes clear that all the perturbed values (magnetic ux, velocity and pressure) shall be zero:

mn (x = 0, t) = 0

(176)

umn

(x = 0, t) = 0

(177)

96

 p mn

(x = 0, t) = 0

(178)

Concerning the equilibrium values, it is the radial derivative which should be null: o (x = 0, t) =0 x

(179)

vz (x = 0, t) =0 x

(180)

po (x = 0, t) =0 x D.2.2 edge

(181)

The perturbed magnetic ux in the plasma edge depends on the problem being studied. For most of the simulations considered, with perfectly conducting wall, its value is considered null:

mn (x = 1, t) = 0

(182)

If there is vacuum after the edge, one considers a perfectly conducting wall in the innity (2 mn 0), and a xm scaling for the solution in vacuum. To implement this result, a point N +1 after the edge is considered, which is calculated in each step through the following condition:

N +1 = N Where xN +1 is calculated by xN +1 = 2 xN 1 .

(x

N +1

)m

xN

(183)

b When there is a current sheet in vacuum xb a , the solution will have a discontinuity in the derivative

at that point which is given by: [ mn (xb , t) x

] xb + =
xb

IE (t) xb

(184)

which results in the following condition:

97

 N +1 = N

(x

N +1

)m

xN

) o IE (t) m ( m xb xN +1 xm N +1 2m

(185)

With regard to the perturbed stream function, as a consequence of the fact that the particle density outside of the edge is residual, its value is considered null:
umn

(x = 1, t) = 0

(186)

Considering the perturbed pressure, the residual particle density inhibits the heat diffusion outside the edge. As such: p mn (x = 1, t) =0 x

(187)

Regarding the equilibrium magnetic ux and the toroidal velocity in the edge, the equations considered in the MHD model adopted lead to the following conditions:

o (x = 1, t) = o (x = 1, t = 0)

(188)

vz (x = 1, t) = vz (x = 1, t = 0)

(189)

Concerning the equilibrium pressure, the inexistence of heat diffusion in the edge allows once again to nd the necessary condition: po (x = 1, t) =0 x

(190)

98

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101