Pebble Crusher Specific Energy

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Incorporation of Pebble Crusher Specific Energy Measurements for the Optimisation of SABC Grinding Circuit Throughput at Telfer
A Crawford1, X Zheng2 and P Manton3
ABSTRACT
Pebble recycle crushing circuit performance at Telfer has historically fallen significantly short of the design product P80 of 12 mm. An investigation was undertaken to evaluate the current pebble crusher circuit performance, quantify the optimum performance achievable with the existing circuit and examine the impact of pebble crusher performance on the overall grinding circuit throughput. The primary objective of this investigation was to develop an operating strategy that could consistently deliver the finest possible pebble crusher product to maximise the overall plant throughput. The pebble crusher specific energy (Wc) was proposed as a key control variable for pebble crusher operation based on the results of plant survey work. Over the range of pebble crusher specific energies encountered at Telfer, a strong linear relationship was found to exist between Wc and the crusher product size. This direct linear relationship between specific energy and crusher product size remained constant regardless of how the change in specific energy was generated, ie through changes to the crusher closed side setting (CSS), feed rate, liner profile or moisture content. Key findings for the Telfer pebble crushing circuit were: each 0.1 kWh/t change in Wc resulted in a 4.9 per cent to 6.0 per cent change in plant throughput, each 1 mm change in pebble crusher CSS resulted in a 2.2 per cent to 2.6 per cent change in plant throughput, and 0.57 tonne of new feed was displaced for each tonne of crushed pebbles recycled to the semi-autogenous grinding (SAG) mill. The presence of an existing 3000 tonne pebble stockpile between the SAG mill and pebble crushers provides an opportunity to manipulate the feed rate to the pebble crushers independently of the SAG mill pebble production rate. This flexibility, along with excess pebble crushing capacity, enables the pebble crusher specific energy to be maximised the majority of the time. Pebble crusher specific energy has subsequently been incorporated as an online crusher control measure to assist in maximising plant throughput.
examine the impact of pebble crusher performance on overall

grinding circuit throughput. The results of this review were used to develop empirical models relating crusher closed side setting and feed rate to crusher specific energy. The effect of crusher specific energy on plant throughput was then also quantified. The importance of the crusher specific energy to the crusher product size and hence overall plant throughput was demonstrated. This relationship is exploited to achieve the overall objective of developing an operating strategy that can consistently deliver the finest possible pebble crusher product size to maximise overall plant throughput.
CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
Each train has a 36 ft diameter SAG mill with a 15 MW gearless drive which operates in closed circuit with pebble recycle crushers. Each pebble recycle crushing circuit consists of two 7 ft HD Symons short head cone crushers, each fitted with a 315 kW motor. Either single crusher operation or parallel operation of two crushers is possible. The SAG mill product passes through 70 mm grates before discharging onto a trommel screen fitted with 15 35 mm aperture panels. The trommel screen oversize then discharges onto a vibrating pebble screen, currently fitted with 12 32 mm apertures. The pebble screen oversize is conveyed to a 3000 tonne pebble stockpile. This stockpile was incorporated within the original circuit design to reduce pebble moisture and to provide consistent pebble crusher feed. These stockpiles also allow flexibility in terms of crusher operation and circuit surveying. Pebbles are reclaimed from beneath the pebble stockpile via a chute and a variable speed conveyor. A dedicated feed surge bin is situated above each of the pebble crushers. A variable speed belt feeder beneath each surge bin feeds each cone crusher. The crushed product is then conveyed to the SAG mill feed conveyors. This arrangement allows easy access for obtaining crusher product samples without having to stop the SAG mill feed conveyors.
INTRODUCTION
The Telfer grinding circuit consists of two separate trains with identical (SABC) circuit arrangements. The initial design criterion for each trains pebble crushing circuit was to produce a product with a P80 of 12 mm at a maximum solids handling rate of 583 t/h. Historically the pebble crusher product size distribution has been significantly coarser than that in the original design, creat- ing an additional constraint to plant throughput. As part of a wider initiative to improve plant throughput a review of the pebble crushing circuit was undertaken to:
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A number of surveys were undertaken within the Telfer pebble crushing circuit under various operating conditions. The results from these surveys are presented and discussed below. Throughout this document repeated reference is made to the crusher specific energy. The crusher specific energy is calculated from the crushers net power consumed per tonne of material crushed. The crushers net power draw is the total crusher power draw minus the no load power. The no load power is the power drawn by the crusher when idling without pebble feed. This specific energy therefore includes the energy used by the crusher for size reduction, plus any acoustic and heat energy dissipated during the breakage process. The no load power is a significant portion of Telfers total pebble crusher power draw, being approximately 63 kW, or 20 per cent of the total installed motor power. The crusher power draw was not measured directly therefore a relationship between the crusher power draw and measured current readings was developed by incorporating power
evaluate current circuit performance under a range of

operating conditions,
quantify the optimum performance achievable with the

existing circuit, and
1. 2. 3.
Metallurgical Advisor Comminution, Newcrest Mining Limited, PO Box 6380, Perth WA 6892. Email: andrew.crawford@newcrest.com.au Technical Superintendent, Telfer, Newcrest Mining Limited, PO Box 6380, Perth WA 6892. Email: xiaofeng.zheng@newcrest.com.au Ore Processing Manager, Telfer, Newcrest Mining Limited, PO Box 6380, Perth WA 6892. Email: peter.manton@newcrest.com.au
Tenth Mill Operators Conference
Adelaide, SA, 12 - 14 October 2009
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A CRAWFORD, X ZHENG and P MANTON
factors and efficiencies obtained from the motor vendors load characteristic curves.
Effect of pebble crusher closed side setting (CSS) on crusher specific energy
The crusher product size distribution is dependent on the specific energy applied to the pebbles during the crushing process. To quantify the effect of the crusher closed side setting (CSS) on the specific energy, tests were conducted at constant throughput rates whilst the crusher CSS was varied. Figure 1 illustrates the influence of crusher CSS on the crusher specific energy at a throughput rate of 385 10 t/h. Data collection took place over a number of months and therefore includes variations caused by differences in feed material and liner wear profiles. The CSS indicated is the narrowest CSS measurement (mm) obtained from four equidistant positions around the crusher. An inverse linear correlation is evident between the crusher CSS and the crusher specific energy, with the crusher specific energy increasing with a decrease in CSS.
0.7
Pebble crusher specific energy (kWh/t)
0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 6 8 10 12 14
y = -0.0440x + 0.8916 R = 0.9546
The product of the crusher specific energy and the feed rate is equivalent to the net power drawn for each crusher (kW). The installed motor power provides a limitation on the maximum crusher specific energy that can be achieved. At Telfer, the pebble crushers are generally operated at a power draw targeting approximately 85 per cent of the total installed motor power. Due to the erratic nature of Telfers crusher power draw, operation at average target levels higher than this can result in overloading of the crusher motor. The maximum net power (205 kW) has been calculated using 85 per cent of the installed power minus the no load power. This is shown by the curved dashed line in Figure 2. Once this maximum crusher net power draw has been reached, it is not possible to increase this specific energy further by increasing the feed rate without overloading the crusher motor. Achieving a finer product once the maximum net power draw has been reached requires a shift upwards and along the maximum net power draw curve, ie a lower feed rate and narrower CSS to increase the pebble crusher specific energy whilst not exceeding the maximum net power draw. There are occasions at Telfer when, if two crushers were to be operated in parallel at their maximum capacity, the maximum carrying capacity of the pebble conveying systems (720 t/h) would be exceeded. If this is the case, the current practice when operating two crushers is to choke feed, or maximise the power draw to one crusher, whilst trickle feeding the other. The result of this practice, as is shown in Table 1, suggests there is a benefit to be gained by operating in this manner, rather than evenly feeding both crushers at less than maximum power draw. TABLE 1
16
18
Comparison of overall pebble crusher specific energy at 11 mm CSS during parallel crusher operation at varying feed rate combinations.
Crusher 1 Crusher 2 Wc (kWh/t) 0.230 0.249 0.269 0.288 0.307 0.326 Feed rate (t/h) 450 425 400 375 350 325 Wc (kWh/t) 0.423 0.403 0.384 0.365 0.346 0.326 Total Feed rate 650 650 650 650 650 650 Wc Change in total Wc 11.3% 7.3% 4.1% 1.8% 0.5% 0.0%
Pebble crusher closed side setting (mm)
FIG 1 - Pebble crusher specific energy versus closed side setting using standard mantle profile at 385 t/h.
Feed rate (t/h) 200 225 250 275 300 325
Effect of pebble crusher feed rate on crusher specific energy

As with the crusher CSS the crusher feed rate can be used to vary the crusher specific energy. To quantify the effect of the crusher feed rate on this specific energy the crusher throughput rate was varied whilst maintaining a constant CSS. Figure 2 illustrates the results obtained for various feed rates at a crusher CSS of 11 mm. A positive linear correlation is evident between the crusher feed rate and the crusher specific energy, with the crusher specific energy increasing with an increase in feed rate. This result highlights the benefit of choke feeding the crushers. This causes greater inter-particle breakage and a resultant finer product.
0.9
0.363 0.350 0.340 0.332 0.328 0.326
0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4
Max net power curve @ 85% power utilisation.
In practice for normal feed properties, if the CSS is correctly set and the crusher hydraulic clamping system is in a good condition and correctly adjusted, there should be very little need for either of the crushers to be trickle fed to any great extent. Maximum available net power, or close to, should be able to be achieved on each crusher at combined throughput rates which do not exceed the conveyor capacity.
Effect of pebble crusher specific energy on discharge product size

315 kW
motor
0.3
11mm CSS
0.2 0.1 0.0 200 y = 0.00077x + 0.07622 R = 0.82045 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650
Pebble crusher feed rate (t/h)
FIG 2 - Example of pebble crusher specific energy versus feed rate using standard mantle profile at 11 mm closed side setting.
To quantify the impact of the crusher specific energy on the crusher discharge product size distribution, a number of belt cuts were obtained at various crusher specific energy levels to determine the corresponding product size distributions. A positive linear correlation between the crusher specific energy and the percentage of material passing 12.5 mm in the crusher product was found to exist over the range of specific energies tested. This is shown in Figure 3. Regardless of how the change in specific energy was generated, ie through adjustment of CSS, feed rate, liner profile or other means, this linear relationship remained unchanged. The percentage of material passing 12.5 mm has been
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INCORPORATION OF PEBBLE CRUSHER SPECIFIC ENERGY MEASUREMENTS
80 70 y = 86.972x + 3.0138 R = 0.9472
60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
FIG 3 - Pebble crusher discharge product size (per cent <12.5 mm) versus specific energy.
the drop weight tests. If a smaller energy range of the drop weight test is examined, for example the pebble crusher operational range tested at Telfer of 0.1 - 0.7 kWh/t, the relationship can be approximated with sufficient accuracy by a linear correlation. Different ores, with different breakage characteristics, will exhibit a different relationship between specific energy and breakage. The data points shown in Figure 3 were collected over a number of months. The fact that a very consistent correlation between the crusher specific energy and the product size distribution was obtained suggests that the feed size distribution and breakage characteristics of the pebbles were relatively consistent. It also suggests that the energy utilisation efficiency of the equipment remained relatively unchanged, which is in agreement with observations made by Morrell (2008). JK drop weight tests were performed on two sets of pebble samples to quantify the ore breakage A b and abrasion parameters (ta). A summary of the results are shown in Table 2. TABLE 2
Ore breakage and abrasion for Telfer pebbles.
Sample Pebble crusher feed 03/08/08 Pebble crusher feed 17/08/08 A 74.7 59.3 b 0.39 0.55 A b ta 0.11 0.16
used to quantify the product size in this instance because this is a critical size range with respect to the downstream SAG milling process. Once finer than 12.5 mm the particle is almost assured of passing through the SAG mill trommel/pebble screen. This is regardless of the amount of additional size reduction that occurs within the SAG mill. Napier-Munn et al (2005) describe the drop weight test developed by JKTech, which measures the amount of breakage in relation to the specific comminution energy (Ecs) applied. The amount of breakage is characterised by the breakage index, t10, which is the percent of material passing one-tenth of the initial mean particle size. The relationship between Ecs and the amount of breakage, t10, is defined as follows: t10 = A 1 e b .Ecs
Pebble crusher discharge product size (% < 12.5 mm)
29.1 32.6
(1)
Graphically, this relationship is as depicted in Figure 4, using as an example parameters measured from Telfer pebbles. The value of the A parameter is the limiting value of t10. At higher energies therefore, little additional size reduction occurs due to the size reduction process becoming less efficient. The b parameter represents the gradient of the curve. A steeper gradient represents a softer ore. Because A and b are not independent from each other, their product (A b) is used to characterise ore competency. The lower the value of A b the higher the competency of a specific ore. The inverse is true for higher values of A b which indicate less competent ores.
80 A = 74.7 70
From Figure 3 it can be seen that the highest proportion of product passing 12.5 mm achieved was 67.6 per cent at a crusher specific energy of 0.70 kWh/t. This is still short of the original design specification of 80 per cent passing 12 mm. Extrapolating the relationship defined in Figure 3 reveals that a crusher specific energy of 0.89 kWh/t would be required to achieve a product in which 80 per cent of the material passes 12.5 mm. Figure 5 displays the crusher product P80 versus the crusher specific energy. From this correlation it is determined that a crusher specific energy of 0.86 kWh/t would be required to achieve a P80 of 12 mm. This predicted crusher specific energy agrees closely with the value obtained using the correlation from Figure 3. For a total power utilisation of 85 per cent there is a maximum of 205 kW of crusher net power available for pebble crushing, after deducting 63 kW for the no-load power draw. The maximum net power would therefore need to be achieved at a throughput rate of 238 t/h to achieve the design product size specification. The existing crusher and liner profile combination is unable to achieve a crusher specific energy of this magnitude without having a CSS that would result in adjustment ring bounce.
28
Pebble crusher discharge product P80 (mm)
60 50
26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 y = -19.442x + 28.754 R = 0.9066
t10 (%)
b = 0.39 40 30 20 10 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 t10 = A(1-e-b.Ecs)
Specific comminution energy Ecs (kWh/t)
FIG 4 - Effect of specific comminution energy on the breakage index, t10.
At a first glance the curved relationship between the specific comminution energy and breakage shown in Figure 4 appears therefore to be in contradiction to the linear relationship observed between the crusher specific energy and product size distribution measured on site. The range of specific energies encountered on site however was significantly narrower than those applied during
FIG 5 - Pebble crusher discharge product size (P80) versus specific energy.
Table 3 compares the predicted throughput rates at which a crusher product P80 of 12 mm is achieved for a number of different crusher motor powers. Telfers 315 kW pebble crushers are compared with more powerful pebble crushers having
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TABLE 3
Predicted pebble crusher throughput at P80 = 12 mm.
Crusher motor power (kW) 315 600 750 Crusher feed rate (t/h) 238 453 566
installed motor powers of 600 kW and 750 kW respectively. The predicted performance for the larger crushers is based on three assumptions. Firstly, that the same proportion of no load power is consumed, ie 20 per cent. Secondly, that the same equipment efficiency applies as was measured for the 315 kW crushers, ie a specific energy of 0.86 kWh/t is required to generate a crusher product P80 of 12 mm. Thirdly, that the crushers are operated at an average power draw of 85 per cent available power. These predicted numbers should therefore be viewed only in conjunction with the above assumptions. Figure 6 is an extension of Figure 2, and summarises most of the effects that have been covered thus far, ie the impact of crusher CSS, feed rate, crusher power limitations and the crusher specific energy required to achieve the design product size distribution. Lines depicting the 9 mm and 16 mm CSS correlation were calculated from the Figure 1 relationship and are validated with the fitting of measured data. It is evident from Figure 6 that the existing crusher and liner combination is not capable of producing a product at the required design specifications. It also illustrates that a more powerful crusher would be better equipped to deliver the required crushing duty.
2.0
conveyors and being deposited onto the crushers and other infrastructure. There was also an increase in the frequency of crusher adjustment ring bounce following the concurrent change from an operational CSS target of 10 mm to 8 mm and the consistent use of dust control spray water. An attempt was made to quantify the impact of the spray water on crusher performance. Testing was undertaken with and without spray water. During these tests the crusher feed rate was cascaded to the crusher motor amperage and was therefore free to adjust to maintain average power draw at a target level. The crusher feed rate was recorded as 341 t/h with spray water off and 277 t/h with spray water on, a difference of 18.8 per cent. The moisture content of the crusher product with water on was measured as 1.55 wt per cent, and 0.85 wt per cent with water off. This result is in agreement with that reported by Svensson, Hedvall and Fjaestad (1996) who previously provided a more comprehensive demonstration of the impact of crusher feed moisture on capacity as illustrated in Figure 7.
1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4

9mm CSS 16mm CSS
Max net power curves @ 85% power utilisation.
FIG 7 - Crusher capacity reduction due to increasing feed moisture content, after Svensson, Hedvall and Fjaestad (1996).
750 kW 600 kW
0.86 kWh/t = 12 mm P80
315 kW
0.2 11mm CSS 0.0 200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
FIG 6 - Examples of pebble crusher specific energy versus feed rate and closed side setting.
Effect of pebble crusher feed moisture on crusher specific energy

The vast majority of sampling and measurement of crusher performance was undertaken during the cooler months of the year with no dust control spray water activated. As temperatures increased, dust generation from transfer points and the crushers themselves increased. This led to the installation and use of dust control sprays at various points within the pebble crusher feed handling system. Although these initiatives reduced dust generation from the pebble crushing circuit, concerns existed over the impact that this water had on pebble crusher operation and maintenance requirements. As temperatures increased the spray water addition into the crusher feed bins was consistently activated. Because the uncrushed pebbles have very little capacity to absorb water it is difficult to dampen the pebbles sufficiently to control dust without excess water draining from the pebbles and flowing into the crushers. This excess water also created housekeeping concerns, with fine slurry being carried back on belt feeders and
Because the average power draw remained relatively constant for both tests, and throughput rate decreased with spray water on, an increase in the crusher specific energy was observed with spray water on. A specific energy of 0.48 kWh/t was measured with spray water off and 0.59 kWh/t with spray water on. The wetter feed presented to the crusher with spray water on restricts the flow of material through the crusher by increasing the adhesion of fine particles to each other and the crushing surfaces. The classification of particles finer than the CSS to the product stream will therefore also be reduced. A belt cut sample of the crusher product was collected for particle size analysis to verify if the higher specific energy obtained with spray water on resulted in a finer crusher product. The size distributions obtained with water on and off are shown in Figure 8. A noticeably finer crushed product was obtained with spray water on. When the percentage of material passing 12.5 mm is plotted against the crusher specific energy, as is done in Figure 9, it can be seen that the two data points fit the same correlation previously obtained in Figure 3. From this observation it can be concluded that the addition of spray water did not alter the crushing efficiency but instead shifted the operating position on the crusher specific energy versus discharge product size relationship. For a given crusher CSS and the range of moisture levels measured, the addition of water increased the crusher specific energy and therefore also increased the chances of adjustment ring bounce occurring. Material packing will occur within the narrower cross section of the crushing chamber if the bulk density increases to a point where the material becomes fully compacted. Because finer particles are generated and retained for longer within the crushing chamber at this higher moisture level,
308
100% 90%
Pebble crusher discharge product (Cumulative % passing)
80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 1 10 100
Size (mm)
Spray water on Spray water off
FIG 8 - Example of pebble crusher discharge product size distribution versus spray water addition.
80
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0
y = 87.542x + 2.8576 R = 0.9515
FIG 10 - Relationship between feed moisture content and crusher capacity, after Svensson and Steer (1990).
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8

Normal Spray water on Spray water off
FIG 9 - Pebble crusher discharge product size (per cent <12.5 mm) versus specific energy, including impact of water addition.
0.6 1300
1250 1200 1150 1100 1050 1000
0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1
950
Effect of pebble crusher specific energy on plant throughput

For this paper the plant throughput is defined as the mass flow of solids through the SAG mill trommel/pebble screen and into the recovery section of the plant. The new feed throughput is the
900
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40 43 46 49 52 55 58 61 64 67 70 73 76 79 82 85
Plant throughput
Pebble crusher specific energy
FIG 11 - Time series chart showing example of effect of pebble crusher specific energy on plant throughput.
309
the amount of voidage decreases which increases the materials bulk density. If the force required to compact this higher density material exceeds the crushing force of the machine then adjustment ring bounce will occur. This has been witnessed at Telfer with relatively small increases in feed moisture content. The relationship between crusher motor power and crushing force is not constant and is influenced by the feed material properties (Svensson and Steer, 1990). Crusher feed that has a large proportion of fines or particle sizes close to the CSS can give rise to high crushing forces even though power consumption is relatively low. Increases in feed moisture to levels that increase fine particle generation and adhesion and retention within the crushing chamber will potentially also result in generation of a higher crushing force for a given power draw. Svensson and Steer (1990) also outlined how crusher capacity can be increased at higher moisture levels. They outlined the generic relationship between crusher feed moisture content and crusher capacity over a broader range of feed moisture content, as shown in Figure 10. In some operations significant quantities of water are injected into the crusher feed to saturate the feed and provide a large amount of free water. Svensson, Hedvall and Fjaestad (1996) reported that for such operations between 0.75 and 1.5 cubic metres of water were added per tonne of feed material (43 wt per cent to 60 wt per cent water). This large amount of free water increases the transport of fine material through the crusher and a coarser product results.
mass flow of new feed, or the coarse ore stockpile (COS) reclaim rate. These two mass flows will not be the same if the pebble recycle rate is not equal to the SAG mill pebble production rate. This occurrence is not uncommon at Telfer in the short term given the large pebble stockpile between these two streams. A finer pebble crusher product assists in producing a higher plant throughput. The portion of crusher product finer than 12.5 mm is important because at this size surveys indicate that 99.8 per cent will report to the SAG mill trommel/pebble screen undersize, regardless of whether any further size reduction has occurred within the SAG mill. Crusher product that is finer than 12.5 mm will therefore not recycle again to the pebble stockpile at a rate of any significance. Such unnecessary recycle of crushed pebbles results in additional operating and maintenance costs, as well as consuming SAG mill volume which could otherwise be utilised for fresh feed. Some of the surveys conducted involved longer periods between pebble crusher parameter changes. This was intended to allow the grinding circuit throughput to reach an approximate state of equilibrium following such a change, so that the impact of pebble crusher performance on the SAG mill performance and plant throughput could be determined. Figure 11 is a time series chart which shows the results of the step tests performed whereby various pebble crusher specific energies were applied and repeated during the course of a 12 hour shift. Product samples from these tests were not obtained for sizing, however it has been previously shown (Figures 3 and 5) that the product size is directly proportional to the crusher specific energy over the range of operational specific energies encountered. It is concluded that the energy
1400 1350 0.7
Plant throughput (t/h)
applied to the pebbles has a significant influence on the plant throughput. The pebble recycle during these tests was maintained at a constant rate of 385 t/h. Figure 12 shows the regression result for plant throughput versus crusher specific energy using the same data. Each 0.1 kWh/t change in crusher specific energy resulted in a 59 t/h change in plant throughput. The correlation between crusher CSS and specific energy in Figure 1, at a pebble crushing rate of 385 t/h, indicated that each 1 mm change in CSS results in a 0.044 kWh/t change in crusher specific energy. Combining the Figure 1 and Figure 12 results it is estimated that each 1 mm change in crusher CSS results in a 26 t/h change in plant throughput (or 2.2 per cent change at a base throughput rate of 1200 t/h).
1400 1350 1300 y = 589.66x + 924.65 R = 0.8511
1600 1500 y = 0.9983x R2 = 0.8229
Predicted plant throughput (t/h)
1400 1300 1200 1100 1000 900 800 800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
Observed plant throughput (t/h)

Block 1 Block 2 Block 3
FIG 13 - Predicted versus observed plant throughput based upon pebble crusher specific energy with data blocking.
1600
1250
1150 1100 1050 1000 950 900 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Predicted plant throughput (t/h)
1200
1500 1400 1300 1200 1100 1000 900 800 800
y = 0.9928x R2 = 0.13
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
FIG 12 - Example of pebble crusher specific energy effect on plant throughput.
Observed plant throughput (t/h)

Block 1 Block 2 Block 3
To analyse the impact of crusher specific energy on plant throughput, using all of the survey periods where the SAG mill throughput was allowed to reach an approximate state of equilibrium following a change in pebble crushing parameters, the influence of changes in new feed ore type needs to be accounted for to calibrate the data. This was achieved by blocking the data into groups which showed similar new feed ore characteristics. The blocks of data containing similar ore characteristics were selected based upon the time of processing and the throughput rate achieved when SAG feed consisted of new feed alone, ie when there was no recycle of pebbles. These periods served as a control test for assessing the baseline throughput rate for a particular ore feed. The data was categorised into three separate blocks that aligned with the three separate days of survey work. Equation 2 was developed from this data using linear regression and estimates that each 0.1 kWh/t change in crusher specific energy results in a 72 t/h change in plant throughput. Fp = 980 + 719 Wc where: Fp Wc = Plant feed rate (t/h) = Crusher specific energy (kWh/t) (2)
FIG 14 - Predicted versus observed plant throughput based upon pebble crusher specific energy without data blocking.
coefficients which can change markedly with the new feed ore characteristics and SAG mill operating parameters. Combining this relationship with that from Figure 1 predicts a 32 t/h change in plant throughput for each 1 mm change in closed side setting (or 2.6 per cent change at a base throughput rate of 1200 t/h). In summary, the above analyses indicate that each;
0.1 kWh/t change in pebble crusher specific energy resulted

in a 59 72 t/h change in plant throughput (or 4.9 per cent to 6.0 per cent at a base throughput rate of 1200 t/h), and
1 mm change in pebble crusher CSS resulted in a 26 - 32 t/h

change in plant throughput (or 2.2 per cent to 2.6 per cent at a base throughput rate of 1200 t/h). The presence of a 3000 tonne pebble stockpile, and the excess pebble crusher capacity that exists when two crushers are available, enables operation of the pebble crushers to be managed in a manner that maximises plant throughput. This arrangement provides the opportunity to operate the pebble crushers at their maximum specific energy, and hence maximise plant throughput, the majority of the time. Because crushing capacity is not a constraint when two crushers are available, crusher specific energy does not have to be sacrificed to achieve a higher crusher throughput. Operation of a single crusher at its maximum crusher specific energy is generally not sufficient to keep pace with the rate of pebble production. Without the presence of a pebble stockpile, this situation would necessitate either;
Using Equation 2 and the three block coefficients (89.5, 19.9 and -109.4) the predicted plant throughput is calculated and compared with the observed plant throughput, as shown in Figure 13. Without compensating for the differences in new feed ore types over this period the correlation is greatly reduced, as shown in Figure 14. The block coefficients are effectively an adjustment of the equations constant or y axis intercept for each block of data. The most important term obtained from this regression result is the coefficient of the crusher specific energy, or slope of the relationship between crusher specific energy and plant throughput, not the absolute value of the constant or block
the operation of a single crusher at a larger CSS and hence

lower specific energy,
the continuous operation of two crushers at a low feed rate

and hence low specific energy, or
310
batch crushing of pebbles involving regular stopping and

starting of a crusher over a short time period which introduces grinding circuit instability and detracts from crusher performance. Telfers pebble stockpiles and excess pebble crushing capacity therefore enables the operation of the pebble crushers at their maximum specific energy levels for the majority of the time resulting in maximum benefits to plant throughput.
throughput is shown in Figure 16. These results were obtained during the course of a 12 hour shift. These results have not been calibrated to account for the effect of any change in new feed ore characteristics on plant throughput during this period. Regular control tests were not conducted throughout the shift whereby the plant throughput was measured without the recycle of pebbles. The plant throughput rate when uncrushed pebbles were recycled to the SAG mill however was well below the normal operating rate.
1400 1300
Effect of pebble crusher specific energy on semi-autogenous grinding mill pebble generation
The lower the crusher specific energy imparted by the pebble crushers, the coarser the product size and the greater the proportion of crushed pebbles that will again report to the pebble screen oversize. Such recycle introduces unnecessary process inefficiency. Using the same data and blocks that were used to quantify the impact of crusher specific energy on plant throughput, the impact on the SAG mill pebble production rate can also be determined. By blocking the data, the effect of different ores and different pebble return rates can be accounted for, allowing the effect of changing the crusher specific energy to be more accurately quantified. The pebble production ratio used is the ratio of pebble discharge from the SAG mill (pebble screen oversize) to total SAG mill feed rate. The total SAG mill feed rate is the sum of the new feed and pebble recycle rates. Equation 3 defines the relationship between the crusher specific energy and the pebble production ratio as: PPR = 0.312 01596 Wc where: PPR = Pebble production ratio (SAG mill pebble production/ total SAG mill feed) Figure 15 shows the predicted pebble production ratio from Equation 3 versus observed. By maximising the pebble crusher specific energy, pebble recycle is reduced resulting in an overall improvement in the process efficiency and plant throughput rate.
Predicted ratio pebble production / total SAG feed
0.4 0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 y = 0.9968x R = 0.8808
1285
1284
1200 1169 1100 1000 900 800 700 600

8mm CSS 9mm CSS 12mm CSS 16mm CSS No Recycle Uncrushed Recycle
1095
1085
784
FIG 16 - Boxplot showing example of effect of returning uncrushed pebbles to the semi-autogenous grinding mill.
(3)
Observed ratio pebble production / total SAG feed
FIG 15 - Predicted versus observed ratio of semi-autogenous grinding pebble production/total semi-autogenous grinding feed.
Effect of pebble recycle on new feed displacement

The recycling of pebbles back to the SAG mill, be they crushed or uncrushed, displaces new feed. The extent to which new feed is displaced has been observed to increase with the size distribution of the recycled pebbles, the extreme case being the return of uncrushed pebbles to the SAG mill. An example of the impact that the return of uncrushed pebbles can have on plant
A 12 day on-off trial involving the rejection of pebbles was also undertaken. Table 4 shows the overall results from Train 2 for this period. When pebbles were not recycled, the new feed rate increased by 15.4 per cent, however plant feed decreased by 6.7 per cent. This is because the increase in the new feed rate is not sufficient to compensate for the loss of recycled pebbles, despite the pebble production rate decreasing when pebbles are not recycled. The new feed displacement ratio averaged 0.57, ie for every tonne of crushed pebbles recycled to the SAG mill, 0.57 tonne of new feed was displaced. This ratio is less than 1.0 because despite the pebbles having a greater resistance to breakage than the new feed, they are significantly finer. The new feed displacement ratio can be used to estimate the increase in plant throughput that would occur if the crushed pebbles were sufficiently fine to enable open circuiting of the SAG mill. This could be achieved by close circuiting the recycle crushers with a screen, the undersize of which reported to the mill discharge hopper. As an example, if 290 t/h pebbles were not returned to the SAG mill, the plant throughput rate would increase by 165 t/h, provided the downstream processes could cope with such an increase. Such a number should be used with caution however, because the ratio is not only dependent on the size and breakage characteristics of the pebbles being recycled, but also on the size and breakage characteristics of the new feed. When pebbles were not recycled, the percentage of new feed that discharged from the SAG mill as a pebble was observed to be 19.1 per cent. If an assumption is made that this percentage of new feed that reports as a pebble remains constant when pebbles are recycled, the source for the remainder of the pebbles can be attributed to the pebble recycle stream. Given this assumption, 28.6 per cent of the crushed pebbles remained too coarse to pass through the SAG trommel/pebble screen when they again discharged from the SAG mill.
Effect of crusher liner profile on crusher specific energy

A typical profile for new and worn short head cone crusher liners is shown in Figure 17. It illustrates that when new, the cavity
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TABLE 4
Impact of pebble recycle on Train 2 plant throughput rates.
Stream New feed Pebbles produced Pebbles recycled Plant feed Pebbles produced/SAG total feed Pebbles produced/SAG mill new feed New feed displacement ratio New feed reporting to pebbles produced New feed reporting to pebbles produced Crushed pebbles reporting to pebbles produced Crushed pebbles reporting to pebbles produced Units t/h t/h t/h t/h % % % % t t % Recycle status On 1315 352 352 1315 21.1 26.8 0.57 19.1 251 101 28.6
500
Difference Off 1517 290 0 1227 19.1 19.1 19.1 290 0 0.0 t/h 202 -62 -352 -88 % 15.4 -17.6 -100.0 -6.7
450
400
350
300
250 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
FIG 17 - Typical liner profile of new and worn short head cone crusher liners.
Pebble crusher close side setting (mm)

Standard mantle Stepped mantle
appears as a v shaped feed opening and crushing zone followed by a parallel section called the parallel zone. The majority of size reduction occurs within the crushing zone, with the parallel section acting more as a chute for the discharge of the crushed material. Telfer received a proposal from a crusher liner manufacturer for the supply of a mantle which was designed to decrease the crusher throughput rate and reduce the crusher product size by increasing the crusher specific energy. Crusher throughput rate was restricted by the casting of two steps into the mantle. The profile of such a mantle is depicted in Figure 18.
FIG 19 - Pebble crusher feed rate versus closed side setting for standard and stepped new mantle profiles.
the liner profile when worn. As can be seen, for a given CSS, the feed opening decreases in size and the volume of the crushing cavity decreases as the liners wear. The combination of these two factors, along with an increase in the length of the parallel shaping zone where little size reduction occurs, results in a reduction in crushing capacity. Once this situation is reached it is more economical to replace the crusher liners, even if not fully worn, rather than continue to operate at a lower crusher specific energy. Sizing results comparing a new set of stepped and standard liners are shown in Figure 20. For a particular CSS a
100% 90%
Cumulative % passing
80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 1 10 100
FIG 18 - Profile of short head cone crusher stepped mantle.
Comparative tests were undertaken between the standard liner set and stepped mantle set over a range of different closed side settings. Figure 19 illustrates the effect of the stepped mantle on crusher feed rate. The stepped mantle enabled target crusher power draw to be reached at a lower feed rate. Crusher specific energy was therefore higher with the stepped mantle. Once the crusher liners approach their fully worn condition, the crusher cavity can overfill before target power draw is reached. This proved to be the case with both the standard and stepped mantles. The profile shown in red in Figure 17 represents
Size (mm)
Standard 9 mm CSS Stepped 12 mm CSS Standard 11 mm CSS Stepped 16 mm CSS Standard 15 mm CSS Avg crusher feed Stepped 8 mm CSS
FIG 20 - Pebble crusher feed and discharge product size distributions for various pebble crusher closed side settings and new mantle profiles.
312
significantly finer product resulted from the stepped liners. The mean average feed size F80 for all of the crusher survey work was 54 mm with a standard deviation of 4.6 mm. A verification of the crusher product size distribution versus the crusher specific energy in Figure 21 reveals that the increase in the fraction of crusher product passing 12.5 mm with the stepped mantle was not due to a change in crushing efficiency, rather the fact that a greater crusher specific energy was able to be generated at a given CSS. The results from the stepped mantle testing conform to the same linear correlation between crusher specific energy and product size distribution as that of the standard mantle. The restriction of flow through the crusher appears to have resulted in an increased residence time within the crushing chamber which has enabled a greater amount of size reduction to occur.
70
8 mm CSS
TABLE 5
Wear life comparison of different mantle profiles.
Mantle type Standard Stepped Bowl vertical travel (mm) 147 141 Hours run 291 327 Tonnes crushed 109 000 119 000
60 50
12 mm CSS
a measure of crusher product quality. A poor crusher product can result, even if maximum available power is drawn, if the crusher CSS is too wide. The direct measurement and display of the crusher specific energy can alert operational personnel of suboptimal performances and allow them to take corrective action. The crusher specific energy is now calculated on the Distributive Control System (DCS) and used both for alarming and as a Key Performance Indicator (KPI). The following are the key crusher control measures utilised at Telfer:
Crusher CSS is measured, recorded and adjusted twice per

12 hour shift.
40 30 20 10 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3

15 mm CSS
16 mm CSS 11 mm CSS
9 mm CSS
Crusher vertical bowl travel is measured and recorded twice

daily as an indicator of liner wear.
Crusher feed rate is cascaded to maintain 85 per cent of the

crusher motor full load current.
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
If the crusher specific energy reaches a low level limit a DCS

alarm is activated to alert the control room operator.

Standard mantle Stepped mantle
FIG 21 - Pebble crusher feed and discharge product size distributions for various pebble crusher closed side settings and new mantle profiles.
Crusher specific energy is continuously trended on the DCS. A chart similar to Figure 2 is used to review historical
crusher performance by shift during each daily metallurgical KPI review meeting. Both the crusher feed rate and CSS position can be interpreted from this chart, which are the two main operational parameters. If crusher adjustment ring bounce occurs at a relatively low specific energy it can be an indication of possible issues with the hydraulic clamping system.
Figure 22 illustrates the size distributions obtained when the liners were worn. It is observed that the difference in performance between the stepped mantle and standard mantle has narrowed significantly since the steps on the stepped mantle have worn.
100% 90%
How much crusher specific energy is too much?

This crusher operating philosophy involving a maximum crusher specific energy to maximise the product fineness involves another important constraint apart from motor power, namely crusher adjustment ring bounce. The operating philosophy in place at Telfer hence involves a strategy in which the CSS is minimised to allow for the maximum sustainable crusher power to be drawn without causing adjustment ring bounce. If adjustment ring bounce is allowed to occur then excessive maintenance costs will be incurred and crusher availability will be low. Telfer is in the process of installing a trial accelerometer for measuring adjustment ring bounce. The quantitative measurement of adjustment ring bounce will alleviate maintenance concerns associated with operating close to the point where adjustment ring bounce can occur. If adjustment ring bounce is detected the feed rate can be automatically reduced and/or the operator notified to increase the operating CSS.
Cumulative % passing
80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 1 10 100
Size (mm)
Standard 8 mm CSS Stepped 13 mm CSS Standard 12 mm CSS Stepped 15 mm CSS Standard 16 mm CSS Avg crusher feed Stepped 8 mm CSS
FIG 22 - Pebble crusher feed and discharge product size distributions for various pebble crusher closed side settings and worn mantle profiles.
The wear life of the stepped liners was comparable to that obtained with the standard liners, as detailed in Table 5.
Pebble crusher performance improvement

The installation of pebble crusher product weightometers in January 2008 for control purposes also enabled an assessment of the change in crusher specific energy since that time. An estimate of the crusher feed rate can be made by correlating the feeder speed with the crusher feed rate, however prior to January 2008 there were also modifications made to the dimensions of the crusher feeder chutes which make this correlation invalid. Telfer personnel believe that some improvements in the crusher specific energy had already been achieved prior to January 2008
PEBBLE CRUSHER CONTROL PHILOSOPHY Control measures

Rather than simply controlling the crusher operation with current or power draw measurements, the previous survey results and discussions illustrate the importance of crusher specific energy as
313
due to a reduction in the target crusher CSS, however this can not be quantified. Figure 23 shows the monthly average pebble crusher specific energy since January 2008. The data includes single pebble crusher operation only. Since July 2008 there has been a noticeable increase in the crusher specific energy. From January to July 2008 the average crusher specific energy was 0.317 kWh/t. During the most recent three months the crusher specific energy has averaged 0.451 kWh/t, which is an increase of 42 per cent.
0.50
0.57 tonne of new feed was displaced for each tonne of

crushed pebbles recycled to the SAG mill. The presence of the existing 3000 tonne pebble stockpiles between the SAG mills and pebble crushers provides an opportunity to manipulate the feed rate to the pebble crushers independently of the SAG mill pebble production rate. This flexibility, along with excess pebble crushing capacity, enables the crusher specific energy to be maximised the majority of the time. The use of the crusher specific energy for the control of the crusher operational performance has been shown to provide significant benefits, with respect to the control of crusher product quality when compared to the previous philosophy which controlled the crusher motor current or power draw alone. Crusher specific energy has subsequently been incorporated as an online crusher control measure to maximise crusher product fineness and in doing so assist in maximising the plant throughput. Further work is underway to improve crusher liner design to provide consistent improvements in crusher product quality over the life of the liners, as well as continuing investigative work into the rejection of low grade pebbles from the comminution circuit.
0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25 0.20 Jan- Feb- Mar- Apr- May- Jun- Jul- Aug- Sep- Oct- Nov- Dec- Jan- Feb- Mar- Apr- May- Jun08 08 08 08 09 08 08 08 08 08 08 08 08 09 09 09 09 09
Month
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors wish to thank Newcrest Mining Limited for allowing this paper to be published and Crushing and Mining Equipment (CME) for their assistance with crusher liner design optimisation work.
FIG 23 - Average pebble crusher specific energy versus time.
Applying this increase in the crusher specific energy to the correlation with plant throughput as is shown in Figure 12, an estimated increase in plant throughput of 79 t/h is predicted as a result.
REFERENCES
Morrell, S, 2008. A method for predicting the specific energy requirement of comminution circuits and assessing their energy utilisation efficiency, in Minerals Engineering Volume 21, pp 224-233. Napier-Munn, T J, Morrell, S, Morrison, R D and Kojovic, T, 2005. Mineral Comminution Circuits, Their Operation and Optimisation (ed: T J Napier-Munn), pp 81-83 (The University of Queensland: Brisbane). Svensson, A, Hedvall, P and Fjaestad, M, 1996. New comminution applications using hydrocone crushers with setting regulation in real time, in International Journal of Mineral Processing Volumes 44-45, pp 461-469 (Elsevier Science). Svensson, A and Steer, J F, 1990. New cone crusher technology and developments in comminution circuits, in Minerals Engineering 3(1-2)83-103 (Pergamon Press: Great Britain).
CONCLUSIONS
Over the range of crusher specific energies encountered at Telfer, a strong linear relationship was found to exist between crusher specific energy and the product size distribution. The product fineness was found to increase with an increase in the crusher specific energy. This relationship was found to hold true regardless of how this change in specific energy was generated, ie through changes to the crusher closed side setting, feed rate, liner profile or moisture content. Key findings for the Telfer pebble crushing circuit were:
each 0.1 kWh/t change in Wc resulted in a 4.9 per cent to

6.0 per cent change in the plant throughput,
each 1 mm change in the pebble crusher CSS resulted in a

2.2 per cent to 2.6 per cent change in the plant throughput, and
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