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Variable-resistance Transducers
Potentiometer Rotary Potentiometer Optical Potentiometer
Rotary Potentiometer
Principle of Operation
Rectilinear/Rotary Potentiometer: The transducer output signal is a dc voltage which is proportional to the potentiometer resistance that is proportional to the slider displacement. Optical Potentiometer: It has a photoresistive layer which acts as an electrical insulator if no light is projected on it. The displacement of moving object a moving light beam which cause a change in voltage accordingly.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem
Advantages of Potentiometers:
They are relatively inexpensive. Potentiometers provide high-voltage (lowimpedance) output signals, requiring no amplification in most applications. They are simple voltage dividers and don't need any special conditioning electronics They monitor in real-time, without any signal lag from electronics, to give an accurate results
Dr. Ashraf Saleem
Disadvantages of Potentiometer
The force needed to move the slider is provided by the displacement source. This mechanical loading distorts the measured signal itself. High-frequency (or highly transient) measurements are not feasible Variations in the supply voltage cause error. Resolution is limited by the number of turns in the coil and by the coil uniformity. Wear out and heating up in the coil or film, and slider contact cause accelerated degradation.
Typical Applications
The majority of suspension position monitoring on saloon cars, single seat race cars and motorbikes use hybrid linear potentiometers. In servo technology applications. All applications that requires simple displacement transducer For real time applications since there is no signal lag.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem
Variable-inductance Transducers
Linear-Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
Principle of Operation
Motion of a magnetic core changes the mutual inductance of two secondary coils relative to a primary coil. Primary coil voltage: VSsin(wt) Secondary coil induced emf: V1=k1sin(wt) and V2=k2sin(wt) Where k1 and k2 depend on the amount of coupling between the primary and the secondary coils, which is proportional to the position of the coil. When the coil is in the central position, k1=k2 VOUT=V1-V2=0 When the coil is displaced x units, k1k2 VOUT=(k1-k2)sin(wt) Positive or negative displacements are determined from the phase of VOUT.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem
Principle of Operation
Conditioning Circuit
Advantages Of LVDTs
It is essentially a non-contacting device with no frictional resistance. Near-ideal electromechanical energy conversion and light-weight core will result in very small resistive forces It has low output impedance, typically on the order of 100 . (Signal amplification is usually not needed beyond what is provided by the conditioning circuit.) Directional measurements
Dr. Ashraf Saleem
Disadvantages Of LVDTs
Inductive sensors require sophisticated signal conditioning electronics to condition and linearize the coil signal.
Variable-Capacitance Transducers
The capacitance between two plates is determined by three things:
Size of the plates: capacitance increases as the plate size increases Gap Size: capacitance decreases as the gap increases Material between the plates (the dielectric): Dielectric material will cause the capacitance to increase or decrease depending on the material
Variable-Capacitance Transducers
Capacitive-Displacement Sensors One of the capacitor plates is attached to the moving object and the other is kept stationary. Therefore the capacitance is proportional to the object displacement.
Variable-Capacitance Transducers
Capacitive-Displacement Sensors One plate of the capacitor rotates with a rotating object (shaft) and the other plate is kept stationary. Since the common area is proportional to the angle of rotation then the capacitance is proportional to the angle of rotation.
Variable-Capacitance Transducers
Liquid level sensor
Displacement Measurement
Capacitance bridge circuit.
vo =
vref Z1 (1 + Z 4 Z 3 )
Typical Applications
Capacitive sensors can be used to determine the presence or absence of liquids or solids through non-conductive containers, tubes or pipes. A capacitance type sensor can be an ideal solution where cost is a critical factor. Capacitive gauges and capacitive sensors are used to measure structural vibration. Capacitance sensors are ideal for providing servo system feedback in piezo motor driven nanopositioning applications.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem
Permanent-Magnet Transducers
DC Tachometer Similar to a dc generator. The rotor is directly connected to the rotating object. The output signal that is induced in the rotating coil is picked up as a dc voltage using a suitable commutator device. According to Faraday's law, the induced voltage is proportional to the rate of change in magnetic flux linkage. The proportionality between the output voltage and the angular velocity is used to measure the angular velocity,
DC Tachometer
For a coil of height h and width 2r that has n turns, moving at an angular speed wc in a uniform magnetic field of flux this is given by:
vo = (2nhr ) wc = Kwc
This proportionality between vo and wc is used to measure the angular speed wc. The proportionality constant K is known as back-emf constant.
Permanent-Magnet Transducers
Permanent-Magnate AC Tachometer One set of the windings is energized using an ac reference voltage. When the rotor is stationary , the output voltage is a constant amplitude signal much like the reference voltage. As the rotor moves in a finite speed an additional induced voltage in the other set of windings, is generated in the secondary windings. This voltage is proportional to the rotor speed
Permanent-Magnet Transducers
AC Induction Tachometer Similar to a 2-phase induction motor. It is also same as the Permanent-Magnate AC Tachometer except that the rotor has windings, which are shorted and not energized by an external source. The induced voltage is proportional to the speed of the rotor rotation. The output voltage is a result of both the stator (primary) windings and the rotor winding.
Advantages of AC Tachometer
The absence of slip-ring and brush devices, since the output is obtained from the stator. Relatively accurate speed readings
Disadvantages of Tachometers
The noise components will dominate at low levels of output signal. In particular, since the output of a tachometer is proportional to the measured speed, at low speeds, the level of noise, as a fraction of the output signal, can be large. Signal demodulation is necessary, particularly for measuring transient speeds. The output signal level depends on the supply voltage; hence, a stabilized voltage source, which has very small output impedance is necessary for accurate measurements. At high speeds the output from an ac tachometer is somewhat nonlinear (primarily due to the saturation effect)
Dr. Ashraf Saleem
Typical Applications
AC and DC motors speed control. Automotive speed gauge
Piezoelectric transducers
Piezoelectric materials: Barium titanate, single crystal quartz. Piezoelectric Effect: When mechanical stress or strain is applied to the piezoelectric material, generates an electric charge and associated potential difference. The direct application of piezoelectric effect is used in pressure and strain measuring devices
--Force
+++
Due to properties of symmetry, charges are net + on one side & net - on the opposite side: crystal gets thinner and longer Dr. Ashraf Saleem
----. Changes the direction of current flow, and the crystal gets shorter and fatter.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem
Piezoelectric Accelerometers
Example 1: Accelerometer
An accelerometer has a mass of 0.05 kg and a spring constant of 3X103 N/m. Maximum mass displacement is 0.02 m (before the mass hits the stops). Calculate the maximum measurable acceleration in g.
Example 2: Accelerometer
An accelerometer outputs 14 mV per g. Design a signal conditioning circuit that provides a velocity signal scaled at 0.25 V for every m/s.
Rf
Cp
Transducer
Cc
Cable
-A
Charge amplifier
Force Sensing
Elastic Sensing: Strain Sensing: Pressure Sensing:
F = kx
F = A
F = PA
Acceleration Sensing: F = m a
eT F l l eL A F
e T = e L
Poissons ratio
Elastic Modulus:
E=
(stress) e (strain)
R=
Material resistivity
l
A
R l + R A + R R = l A
Dr. Ashraf Saleem
Strain Gages
Characteristics:
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 7) 8) able to measure strains of 1mm/m small in size and light in weight able to response to high frequency signals wide range of linear response flexible in use and wide range applications low in cost easy compensation to various factors
Gage factor
The sensitivity of a strain gage is described in terms of a characteristic called gage factor defined as the unit change in resistance per unit change in length, or
R R K= l l
R R K= strain
Comments
The nominal resistance of the strain gauge varies with the type and application. Wire gauges have resistances in the range of 60 ohms to 350 ohms, foil and semiconductor gauges from 120 ohms to 5 k ohms and thin film types around 10 k ohms. Selection criteria may include size, selfheating and power requirements. If several load cells are to be connected together then matched resistance may be important.
Temperature Sensors
Resistance Temperature Detectors Thermistors Thermocouples Other Sensors
Bimetal Strips Gas Thermometer Liquid Expansion Thermometers
T1 < T < T2
RTD Sensitivity
An estimate of RTD sensitivity can be noted from typical values of 0. For platinum, this number is typically on the order of 0.004/oC, and for nickel a typical value is 0.005/oC. With platinum, for example, a change of only 0.4 would be expected for a 100 RTD if the temperature changed by 1oC.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem
RTD Construction
An RTD is simply a length of wire whose resistance is to be monitored as a function of temperature. The construction is typically such that the wire is wound on a form (in a coil) to achieve small size and improve thermal conductivity to decrease response time.
Signal Conditioning
In the view of the very small fractional change of resistance with temperature (0.4%), the RTD is generally used in a bridge circuit.
Where: T = temperature rise because of self-heating in oC P = power dissipated in the RTD from the circuit in W PD = dissipation constant of the RTD in W/oC
P T = PD
Example:
An RTD has 0=0.005/oC, R= 500 , and a dissipation constant of PD=30 mW/oC at 20 oC. The RTD is used in a bridge circuit with R1 = R2 = 500 and R3 a variable resistor used to null the bridge. If the supply is 10 V and the RTD is placed is a bath at 0oC, find the value of R3 to null the bridge
Dr. Ashraf Saleem
Thermistors
A thermistor is a temperature sensor that has been developed from the principles of semiconductor resistance change with temperature. The particular semiconductor materials used varies widely to accommodate temperature ranges, sensitivity, resistance ranges, and other factors.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem
Thermistor Sensitivity
The sensitivity of the thermistors is a significant factor in their application. Changes in resistance of 10% per oC are common. Thus, a thermistor with a nominal resistance of 10 k at some temperature may change by 1 k per 1 oC.
Thermistors Range
The temperature range of thermistors depends on the materials used to construct the sensor. In general, there are three range limitation effects:
Melting or deterioration of the semiconductor Deterioration of encapsulation material Insensitivity of higher temperature
Response time
The response time of the thermistors depends principally on the quantity of material present and the environment. Thus, for the smallest bead thermistors in an oil bath, a response of s is typical. The same thermistor in still air will response typically in 10 s.
Signal Conditioning
In many cases, a bridge circuit is used. Since these devices are resistances, care must be taken to ensure that power dissipation in the thermistor does not exceed the limits specified or even interfere with the environment. Dissipation constants are quoted for thermistors as the power in milliwatts required to raise a thermistors temperature by 1oC above its environment. Typical values vary from 1 mW/oC in free air to 10mW/oC or more in an oil bath
Example
A thermistor is to monitor room temperature. It has a resistance of -10%/oC. The dissipation constant is PD=5 mW/oC. It is proposed to use the thermistor in a voltage divider with V=10V and R=3.5 k in order to provide a voltage of 5 V at 20oC. Evaluate the effects of self heating.
Thermocouple
When a temperature differential maintained across a given metal, the vibration of atoms and motion of electrons is affected so that a difference of potential exists across the material. This potential difference is related to the fact that electrons in the hotter end of the material have more thermal energy than those in the cooler end, and thus tend to drift towered the cooler end.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem
Seebeck effect
Using solid state theory,
= (T2 T1 )
Where = emf produced in volts = constant in V/K T1, T2 = junction temperatures in K This equation, which describes the Seebeck effect, shows that the emf produced is proportional to the difference in temperature and, further, to the difference in the metallic thermal transport constants.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem
TC Characteristics
To measure an unknown temperature, we see first that one temperature must be known since the Seebeck voltage is proportional to the difference between junctions temperature.
Thermocouple Types
TC Tables
The thermocouple tables simply give the voltage that results for a particular type of thermocouple when the reference junctions are at a particular reference temperature. In most cases, the measured voltage does not fall exactly on a table value. When this happens, it is necessary to interpolate between table values that bracket the desired value. Use the following formula:
TH TL TM = TL = (VM VL ) VH VL
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Example 1:
A voltage of 23.72 mV is measured with a type K thermocouple at a 0 oC reference. Find the temperature of the measurement junction.
Example 2
Find the voltage of a type J thermocouple wit a 0 oC reference if the junction temperature is -172 oC.
Example 3:
A type J thermocouple with a 25 oC reference is used to measure oven temperature from 300 oC to 400 oC. What output voltages correspond to these temperature?
Example 4:
A type K thermocouple with a 23.9 oC reference produces a voltage of 35.56 mV. What is the temperature?
Thermocouple Sensitivity
A review of tables shows that the range of thermocouple output is typically less than 100 mV. The actual sensitivity strongly depends on the conditioning circuit and on the TC itself. Examples of the worst and best sensitivity:
Type J: 0.05 mV/oC (typical) Type S: 0.006 mV/oC (typical)
Dr. Ashraf Saleem
TC time response is simply related to the size of the wire and any protective material used with the sensor. Large industrial TCs using thick wire may have time constants as high as 10 to 20 s. Whereas, a TC may from very small gage wire can have a time constant as small as 10 to 20 ms
Dr. Ashraf Saleem
Ultrasonic Transducer
Bistatic
(lynxmotion usr-01)
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Monostatic
(polaroid R14-SONAR1)
Ultrasonic Sensor
1. Int sound pulses is generated and transmitted 2. Blank receiver is blank 3. Amplify received signal is amplified with increased gain (Stepped gain) over time to compensate for the decrease in sound intensity with distance 4. Echo signal exceed fixed threshold value are recorded 5. Calculate distance is calculated from elapsed time
Ultrasonic Sensor
Blanking interval occurs from the residual oscillation in the transducer after the acoustic pulse is generated (polaroid 6500 have 2.38ms blanking)
Dr. Ashraf Saleem
Ultrasonic Sensor
Maximum Detection Range: depends on both emitted power and frequency of operation. The lower the frequency, the longer range. Maximum attenuation of ultrasonice energy: amax = f/100 (dB/foot) f : operating frequency (KHz)
Ultrasonic Sensor
Acoustic reflectance: amplitude of return echo is influenced by the acoustic reflectance of object. Concrete 89% Acoustic tile 30%
Max. 35 feet
Max. 23 feet
c a
0.5(a+b+c)
Light energy
For a sensor, were interested in the light power that falls on a unit area, and how well the sensor converts that into a signal. A common unit is the lux which measures apparent brightness (power multiplied by the human eyes sensitivity). 1 lux of yellow light is about 0.0015 W/m2. 1 lux of green light (50% eff.) is 0.0029 W/m2. Sunlight corresponds to about 50,000 lux Artificial light typically 500-1000 lux
Light sensors
Simplest light sensor is an LDR (Light-Dependent Resistor). Optical characteristics close to human eye. Can be used to feed an A/D directly without amplification (one resistor in a voltage divider). Common material is CdS (Cadmium Sulphide) Advantages: Cope with harsh environmental conditions , cheaper, long life. Disadvantage: slow response
Light sensors
Semiconductor light sensors include: photodiodes, phototransistors, photodarlingtons. All of these have similar noise performance, but phototransistors and darlingtons have better sensitivity (more current for given light input). Phototransistor: 1 mA @ 1000 lux Photodarlingtons up to 100x this sensitivity. Advantages: fast response Disadvantages: high noise, more expensive, high sensitivity.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem
Pressure Sensor
Most pressure sensors used result in the transduction of pressure information into a physical displacement. There are many types of pressure sensors:
Diaphragm Bellows Solid state pressure sensors
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F=(p2-p1)A
The extend of the diaphragm deflection (i.e. the diaphragm displacement) is a measure of the pressure difference.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem
Bellows