Qualitative Variables Categorical Variable Also known as categorical variables, qualitative variables are variables with no natural sense

of ordering. They are therefore measured on a nominal scale. For instance, hair color (Black, Brown, Gray, Red, Yellow) is a qualitative variable, as is name (Adam, Becky, Christina, Dave . . .). Qualitative variables can be coded to appear numeric but their numbers are meaningless, as in male=1, female=2. Variables that are not qualitative are known as quantitative variables.
Qualitative variables refer to information grasped through modalities. For category variables, these modalities do not have any quantitative meaning and there is no ordering relationship between them. This is the case for example for the gender or the social category at individual level, the political colour of the municipal council at the municipal level, or the status of prefecture at the level of cities. When it has only two modalities, the variable is said dichotomous.

Quantitative Variable Variables that have are measured on a numeric or quantitative scale. Ordinal, interval and ratio scales are quantitative. A countrys population, a persons shoe size, or a cars speed are all quantitative variables.

The numerical data that we will use in this course falls into 1 of 2 categories : discrete and continuous. A type of data is discrete if there are only a finite number of values possible or if there is a space on the number line between each 2 possible values. Ex. A 5 question quiz is given in a Math class. The number of correct answers on a student's quiz is an example of discrete data. The number of correct answers would have to be one of the following : 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5. There are not an infinite number of values, therefore this data is discrete. Also, if we were to draw a number line and place each possible value on it, we would see a space between each pair of values. Ex. In order to obtain a taxi license in Las Vegas, a person must pass a written exam regarding different locations in the city. How many times it would take a person to pass this test is also an example of discrete data. A person could take it once, or twice, or 3 times, or 4 times, or . So, the possible values are 1, 2, 3, . There are infinitely many possible values, but if we were to put them on a number line, we would see a space between each pair of values. Discrete data usually occurs in a case where there are only a certain number of values, or when we are counting something (using whole numbers).

Continuous data makes up the rest of numerical data. This is a type of data that is usually associated with some sort of physical measurement. Ex. The height of trees at a nursery is an example of continuous data. Is it possible for a tree to be 76.2" tall? Sure. How about 76.29"? Yes. How about 76.2914563782"? You betcha! The possibilities depends upon the accuracy of our measuring device. One general way to tell if data is continuous is to ask yourself if it is possible for the data to take on values that are fractions or decimals. If your answer is yes, this is usually continuous data. Ex. The length of time it takes for a light bulb to burn out is an example of continuous data. Could it take 800 hours? How about 800.7? 800.7354? The answer to all 3 is yes.
Inferential statistics are used to draw conclusions and make predictions based on the descriptions of data. In this section, we explore inferential statistics by using an extended example of experimental studies. Key concepts used in our discussion areprobability, population Descriptive statistics, not surprisingly, "describe" data that have been collected. Commonly used descriptive statistics include frequency counts, ranges (high and low scores or values), means, modes, median scores, and standard deviations. Two concepts are essential to understanding descriptive statistics: variables anddistributions. ns, and sampling Descriptive statistics are used to reveal patterns through the analysis of numeric data. Inferential statistics are used to draw conclusions and make predictions based on the analysis of numeric data.

The major use of inferential statistics is to use information from a sample to infer something about a population. A population is a collection of data whose properties are analyzed. The population is the complete collection to be studied, it contains all subjects of interest. A sample is a part of the population of interest, a sub-collection selected from a population. A parameter is a numerical measurement that describes a characteristic of a population, while a sample is a numerical measurement that describes a characteristic of a sample. In general, we will use a statistic to infer something about a parameter.

The term probability samplingis used when the selection of the sample is purely based on chance. The human mind has no control on the selection or non- selection of the units for the sample. Every unit of the population has known nonzero probability of being selected for the sample. The probability of selection may b equal or unequal but it should be nonzero and should be known. The probability samplingis also called the random sampling (not simple random sampling). Some examples of random sampling are:

1. Simple random sampling. 2. Stratified random sampling. 3. Systematic random sampling. In non-probability sampling,the sample is not based on chance. It is rather determined by some person. We cannot assign to an element of population the probability of its being selected in the sample. Somebody may use his personal judgment in the selection of the sample. In this case the sampling is called judgment sampling.A drawback in nonprobability sampling is that such a sample cannot be used to determine the error. Any statistical method cannot be used to draw inference from this sample. But it should be remembered that judgment sampling becomes essential in some situations. Suppose we have to take a small sample from a big heap of coal. We cannot make a list of all the pieces of coal. The upper part of the heap will have perhaps big pieces of coal. We have to use our judgment in selecting a sample to have an idea about the quality of coal. The nonprobability sampling is also called non-random sampling. Types of data

Nominal
The name 'Nominal' comes from the Latin nomen, meaning 'name' and nominal data are items which are differentiated by a simple naming system. The only thing a nominal scale does is to say that items being measured have something in common, although this may not be described. Nominal items may have numbers assigned to them. This may appear ordinal but is not -- these are used to simplify capture and referencing. Nominal items are usually categorical, in that they belong to a definable category, such as 'employees'.

Example
The number pinned on a sports person. A set of countries.

Ordinal
Items on an ordinal scale are set into some kind of order by their position on the scale. This may indicate such as temporal position, superiority, etc. The order of items is often defined by assigning numbers to them to show their relative position. Letters or other sequential symbols may also be used as appropriate.

Ordinal items are usually categorical, in that they belong to a definable category, such as '1956 marathon runners'. You cannot do arithmetic with ordinal numbers -- they show sequence only.

Example
The first, third and fifth person in a race. Pay bands in an organization, as denoted by A, B, C and D.

Interval
Interval data (also sometimes called integer) is measured along a scale in which each position is equidistant from one another. This allows for the distance between two pairs to be equivalent in some way. This is often used in psychological experiments that measure attributes along an arbitrary scale between two extremes. Interval data cannot be multiplied or divided.

Example
My level of happiness, rated from 1 to 10. Temperature, in degrees Fahrenheit.

Ratio
In a ratio scale, numbers can be compared as multiples of one another. Thus one person can be twice as tall as another person. Important also, the number zero has meaning. Thus the difference between a person of 35 and a person 38 is the same as the difference between people who are 12 and 15. A person can also have an age of zero. Ratio data can be multiplied and divided because not only is the difference between 1 and 2 the same as between 3 and 4, but also that 4 is twice as much as 2. Interval and ratio data measure quantities and hence are quantitative. Because they can be measured on a scale, they are also called scale data.

Example
A person's weight The number of pizzas I can eat before fainting

4 kind of sampling techniques

) Simple Random Sampling This is the ideal choice as it is a 'perfect' random method. Using this method, individuals are randomly selected from a list of the population and every single individual has an equal chance of selection. This method is ideal, but if it cannot be adopted, one of the following alternatives may be chosen if any shortfall in accuracy. 2) Systematic Sampling Systematic sampling is a frequently used variant of simple random sampling. When performing systematic sampling, every kth element from the list is selected (this is referred to as the sample interval) from a randomly selected starting point. For example, if we have a listed population of 6000 members and wish to draw a sample of 2000, we would select every 30th (6000 divided by 200) person from the list. In practice, we would randomly select a number between 1 and 30 to act as our starting point.

The one potential problem with this method of sampling concerns the arrangement of elements in the list.? If the list is arranged in any kind of order e.g. if every 30th house is smaller than the others from which the sample is being recruited, there is a possibility that the sample produced could be seriously biased.

3) Stratified Sampling Stratified sampling is a variant on simple random and systematic methods and is used when there are a number of distinct subgroups, within each of which it is required that there is full representation. A stratified sample is constructed by classifying the population in sub-populations (or strata), base on some well-known characteristics of the population, such as age, gender or socio-economic status. The selection of elements is then made separately from within each strata, usually by random or systematic sampling methods. Stratified sampling methods also come in two types - proportionate and disproportionate. In proportionate sampling, the strata sample sizes are made proportional to the strata population sizes.For example if the first strata is made up of males, then as there are around 50% of males in the UK population, the male strata will need to represent around 50% of the total sample.

In disproportionate methods, the strata are not sampled according to the population sizes, but higher proportions are selected from some groups and not others. This technique is typically used in a number of distinct situations:

The costs of collecting data may differ from subgroup to subgroup. We might require more cases in some groups if estimations of populations values are likely to be harder to make i.e. the larger the sample size (up to certain limits), the more accurate any estimations are likely to be. We expect different response rates from different groups of people. Therefore, the less co-operative groups might be 'over-sampled' to compensate. 4) Cluster or Multi-stage Sampling Cluster sampling is a frequently-used, and usually more practical, random sampling method. It is particularly useful in situations for which no list of the elements within a population is available and therefore cannot be

selected directly. As this form of sampling is conducted by randomly selecting subgroups of the population, possibly in several stages, it should produce results equivalent to a simple random sample.

The sample is generally done by first sampling at the higher level(s) e.g. randomly sampled countries, then sampling from subsequent levels in turn e.g. within the selected countries sample counties, then within these postcodes, the within these households, until the final stage is reached, at which point the sampling is done in a simple random manner e.g. sampling people within the selected households. The 'levels' in question are defined by subgroups into which it is appropriate to subdivide your population.

Cluster samples are generally used if:

- No list of the population exists. - Well-defined clusters, which will often be geographic areas exist. - A reasonable estimate of the number of elements in each level of clustering can be made. - Often the total sample size must be fairly large to enable cluster sampling to be used effectively.

Kinds of Variables
We will distinguish three different kinds of variables. Many more are possible, but for our purposes this will be sufficient.
1. Interval Variables: A measurement of something where the relationship among values is clearly defined in a quantitative manner. Can say that one level is a mathematically defined function of another.

Height, Income, Percent time spent studying. An income of $10000 is twice that of an income of $5000.
2. Ordinal Variables: A qualitative assessment of something where the relationship among levels of the variable is known but only in a qualitative manner.

Ranks of things like preferences for physical attributes in possible mates.

3. Nominal Variables: Qualitative assessment of something where relationship among values of the variable is unknown.

Sex, ethnicity, religious affiliation.

What are the methods of collecting data

In social sciences the methods available for collecting data can be classified into two categories: qualitative and quantitative.

- Qualitative research - generally used for exploratory purposes - examples include focus groups, in-depth interviews, and projective techniques - Quantitative research - generally used to draw conclusions - examples include surveys and questionnaires You can also use experiments and observation but the real answer is. 1. Use surveys, observation, and focus groups

Levels of measurement

Magical Happiness - Negima!? - Anime Description: <br>Description: OVA Natsu Ending Lyrics by FLAT 5th Rico Composed/Arranged by Masaru Yokoyama Sung by Mamiko Noto nanda kane kimi no koto bakari kangaeteru mune no koto ga hora chaimu ni kawaru fushigi na yo o kan ashite nee sowa sowa shiteru yukurito kagayaeta dee chio meguru nee honto ni docchi na watashi hikkomi jian na seikoku dakedo kimi to deae dakara tsuyoku natte yuku kara kitto ima ne majikaru hapiinesu doki doki shitemasu kimi ga daisuki desu sotto kuchibiru ni amai jumon ono seite koi wa mahou soushite yuuki dan dan daitan fuu ni kissu dare kono souba deki ni mo mune ga kyuun tonaru no tsuto sonna koto shinpai shiteru sorami ukabu mirai no shizu kono mata kara mieru kana shinjiru koto negau koto de yume wa kanan kiwasuru kitto ima ne rabu rabu hapiinesu kyuun kyuun shitemasu egao daisuki desu sotto kuchibiru ni amai jumon ono seite kiseki oko shitai urame majikaru hapiinesu jin jin kitemasu tsutae na kucha I Love You soto kuchibiru de amai yume o tonaeite koi wa chikara sashite yuuki baby baby itoshii hapii hapiinesu kimi wa massugu yume ni mu katteru yokowa hoka toki toki oto na ni mieta sono kimi ga suki nagara watashi mone yasashiku tsuyoku na ritai tsu n da hitomi ni itsuru ashita mada kono te o tsunaide ima ne kirakira hapiinesu toki doki shitemasu kimi ga daisuki desu sotto kuchibiru ni amai jumon ono seite kimochi todoketai konna ne majikaru hapiinesu waku waku shitemasu tsutae na kucha I Love You sotto kuchibiru de amai yume oto na ete koi wa mahou o soshite yuuki dan dan daitan fuu ni kissu baby baby itoshii hapii hapiinesu konna ne majikaru hapiinesu jin jin kittemasu afureidashite hikari no naka kuchibiru de amai yume o tonaeite koi wa chikara sashite yuuki baby baby itoshii hapii hapiinesu

Egao ni Aitai - Marmalade Boy - Anime Description: <br>Description: Opening Song Dakedo ki ni naru Kinou yori mo zutto Togireta yume Futari no tsuzuki ga Shiritai! But it still bothers me much more than yesterday-A dream that ended partway I want to know what happens to us next! Ah, kamisama Jikan o Tomete yo Kyoukashou Seifuku Mada kami Kawakanai Ah, tasukete Ribon ga kimaranai Aitsu no yume mita sei yo Ah God, please stop time Books... school uniform... my hair still won't dry Ah Help me, my red ribbon isn't tying right It's all because I dreamt of him Koge kake no toosuto kajittara Naze ka fui ni Mune ga tokimeita Amakute nigai ...mamareedo Nibbling on a piece of burnt toast, for some reason, my heart skipped a beat Sweet and bitter marmalade * Dakara ki ni naru Konna kimochi wa naze? Ima ichiban Aitsu no egao ni Aitai! * That's why it bothers me What are these feelings for? Right now, more than anything I want to be greeted with his smile Ah, sono mama Shingo o Tomete yo Iraira Hitogomi Jigujagu kakedasu no Ah, konnani Iki ga hazundetara Aitsu ga unuboresou yo Ah Just like that, stop the signal Zigzagging out of the frustrated crowds

Ah If my breathing quickens like this He's sure to get conceited Uindou de maegami naoshitara Mune ippai Hirogatte yuku no Suki ja nai no ni ...mamareedo While I fixed my bangs in the window, Something spread throughout my chest Though I don't even like it*... marmalade Dakedo ki ni naru Kinou yori mo zutto Ima dare yori Aitsu to egao de aitai But it still bothers me much more than yesterday-More than anyone else, I want to be greeted with his smile Sukoshi zutsu otona ni naru no ka na? Naze ka fui ni Mune ga atsuku naru Suki ni natte ku ...mamareedo Am I maturing little by little? For some reason, my heart grows warm I'm beginning to like it*... marmalade * repeat

chikai hibikasu kegarenaki sora koeru SAHARA taiyou ga michibiku kage no you na todoku ga yori sou toki chikatta shinjiru koto osorezu hane wo hirogeru daichi kara atsui kaze ga fuku maboroshi wo sarai takanai tsuzukeru inochi wo moyashi tobidatsu FALCO sore wa kimi no tsuyoi negai NAIRU no nagare todomaranu yume ikiru imi wo kitto mitsukerareru yorokobi ya kanashimi kara ima uketotta chikara jyounetsu ni kawaru mirai sono te ni tobidatsu FALCO kakeru kimi yo yume wo tsukame chikai hibikasu kegarenaki sora koeru SAHARA taiyou ga michibiku inochi wo moyashi tobidatsu FALCO sore wa kimi no tsuyoi negai NAIRU no nagare todomaranu yume ikiru imi wo kitto mitsukerareru

Kokoro no Wakusei ~Little Planet~ - Heart of Planet The Law of Ueki; Ueki no Housoku - Anime Description: <br>Description: 1st Ending Song itsumo soko ni iru hazu to omotte ita kimi ga inai dokoka natsukashiku kanjiru kedo samishiku wa nai nanigenaku miageta ano awai iro no sora ni

Falco - The Law of Ueki; Ueki no Housoku - Anime Description: <br>Description: 1st Opening Theme Sung by Hitomi Shimatani kimi wa nani wo nozomu no? dare no tame ni kitsuzuki yume wa ukabu kuuhaku hitomi wo tojita SAFURAN saita kokoro ni suna arashi ga yamanai sabaku yori mo hate naki toki wo samayou yorokobi ya kanashimi kara ima uketotta chikara jyounetsu* ni kawaru mirai sono te ni tobidatsu FALCO kakeru kimi yo yume wo tsukame

kokoro ga ukabeta PLANET mayotta toki ni wa omoidashite ano hi no bokura ga kitto itsumo kanata de mitsumete kurete iru nani shiteru no ima doko ni toikaketemo kotae wa kurenai kedo hanaretemo kanjiaeru deai ga (bokura) tsunaide iru kara bokura no sagashimono yume himitsu no ano kichi de kokoro ga mitsuketa PLANET muchuu no uchuu wo kakemawari kanaeta nara kitto SMILING soshite ano hi no bokura wo FURIMUITE ano hi no hitomi ga PLANET bokura no mawari wo mawatte iru sukitooru hitomi no PLANET zutto

kawaranu omoi ga koko ni aru kokoro ga ukabeta PLANET mayotta toki ni wa omoidashite ano hi no bokura ga kitto itsumo kanata de mitsumete kurete iru
Lyrics of : Wellber no monogatari

shiniitaranu yamai shinzou ni wa PUWAZON okasarenagara mo ikiru hibi shukufuku sareta shi mabuta no oku akai ZAKURO koisuru unou okusuru sanou tsubuse hari no yama Honey dakishimete suhada no kinu no koutaku de uttori shichau jikan wo choudai KARADA wa sakete tengoku de saikai no kataware futari wa DEMIGODDO shigoku no zan to miwaku no naraku yakusoku no chi wa doko ka soko ka yume ka utsutsu ka SAA DOUZO KOKO IRA DE ZECCHOU WO MUKAEMASHOU Darling me wo akete kono yo no aku no soukutsu mo mushibamanai kokoro wo choudai nige mo shinai yuuhei no souhaku no ouji yo watashi ga megami Darling koe agete kono ima sashichigaeru hodo daiji na mono ga hoshii no nara inori wa hatete rougoku de shouten no himegimi anata ga maou kumareta yubi to zange no kubi to aganau tsumi wa nani ka dore ka uso ka makoto ka Kuuchuu Meiro - Floating Maze - Kamichama Karin Anime Description: <br>Description: 2nd Ending Theme Lyrics: micco Music & Arranged: Kikuchi Tatsuya Sung by: marble Saa, ikou yo shiranai michi Sugu kieru mayottetara Ame, kaze, sasotte Sasayaku, kocchi no hou, ikoutte tonau Sagashiteta mirai soba ni aru Messeeji ha hitotsu kasanaru yo Sora he ukabete tobashite yume wo ukabete sakebou yo Kimi ni todoke nanairo no niji to kuuchuu meiro Hakanai negai demo isshun de ii, hanatou yo Kimi ni todokeru kono omoi to tomo ni fuite kita kaze wo

Title : Kizuna -eternal rainbow-

Ankoku Tengoku - Darkness Heaven - Kamichama Karin - Anime Description: <br>Description: Opening Theme Lyrics by Arika Takarano Music by Mikiya Katakura Performed by ALI PROJECT Darling me wo akete kono yo no aku no soukutsu de tsuibamareru kokoro wo choudai nige mo dekinu yuuhei no souhaku no ouji yo watashi ga megami BATAFURAI no hane mo tenshi no daeki mo anata wo mada minu gokuraku ni tsuredase wa shinai kusarikaketa jiyuu aka ni mamirareta AMUURU rengoku no honoo de ZERO kara saisei shimashou fuya no sora ni kuroi DARIA shissuru mousou ochiru genjitsu mogake ariJIGOKU Darling koe agete kono ima sashichigaeru hodo daiji na mono ga hoshii no nara inori wa hatete rougoku de shouten no himegimi anata ga maou ikari no ken mo nageki no kizu mo atokata mo naku tokete kiete chitte utakata subete wa mitsuryouku uzumoreta wana ni HAMErareru no nara konagona ni kudaite hoshii wa

Nee, mieru? akai bara Te ni tsukanda hanabira ha Ame, kaze, sasotte Maichiru, hontou no kimochi, tonau Sasoi no sekai kodou ga yure Messeeji ha hitotsu dake de ii Sora he ukabete yurashite yume wo ukabete miteiru yo Kimi ni todoke kumori sora mukou kuuchuu meiro Chiisana negai demo isshun de ii, hanatou yo Kimi ni tokeru kono omoi to tomo ni fuite kita kaze wo Sora he ukabete tobashite yume wo ukabete sakebou yo Kimi ni todoke nanairo no niji to kuuchuu meiro Hakanai negai demo isshun de ii, hanatou yo Kimi ni todokeru kono omoi to tomo ni fuite kita kaze wo
yoake no sora ni tsuyoi kizuna irodoru RAINBOW nureta tsubasa yasumasete toritachi wa tobitatteku haiiro no kumo no kanada sashikomu hikari ni mukai yami ga kuraku fukaku demo kanarazu yoru wa akeru dare ni demo mirai no DOOR hitoshiku kagayaiteiru kawashita chikai sae yuragu you na yuku michi wo saegiru kage Ah asu e todoku RAINBOW miageru sora takaku kimi wa hitori ja nai kanjiru atsui MELODY uragiri to deai to itazura na unmei kokoro samayotte mo mirai wo shinji tsuzukete itai oreta tsubasa dakishimete kimi wa mata tabitatteku kizutsuite nagashitekita namida wo chikara ni kaete akiramete shimae to sasou koe ga mimimoto de yurameku kedo Ah nagare tsuzuku FAIR WIND hate naki sora aoku kimi wa hitori ja nai kokoro ni hibiku MELODY tsunagariau RAINBOW miageru sora takaku kokoro samayotte mo mirai wo shinju tsuzukete itai kanashimi no kakera wo ikue ni mo kasunete sora ni kakaru niji ga michibiku tsuyoi kizuna nagare tsuzuku FAIR WIND hate naki sora aoku kimi wa hitori ja nai kokoro ni atsuku MELODY asu e todoku RAINBOW miageru sora takaku kokoro samayotte mo mirai wo shinji tsuzukete itai tsubasa wo hirogete