Contents

Contents................................................................................................................ 1 Basic OP AMP Circuits............................................................................................2 Use of non-inverting amplifier............................................................................7 The Inverting Amplifier.......................................................................................8 Actual Circuit in Differential Amplifier Tutorial .................................................13 An Op amp can be used to construct a current source as in fig 1. ...............15 The transistor can either be bi polar or field effect transistor. The important point is that voltage at the top of R1 is controlled by the Op amp out put voltage and current into the transistor base is negligible in comparision to the output current. The circuit could more properly be called current sinks, since out put current is directed inside.........................................................15 Lets analyse the operation of the circuit. Vn must be +ve or else we would need transistor to pull current into emitter . npn can not do this , pnp can do this.................................................................................................................... 15 We assume vn > 0, the op amp is ideal. We can say that a virtual short at the op amp inputs, we can say that vp=vn=v1(please note that circuit works for only v1>0)........................................................................................................ 15 To make sure circuit is functioning properly , vary V1 and then see what happens............................................................................................................ 16 if v1 increases a little , the differential input voltage of the op amp , vp vn, will increase. We can say that differential input increases by an amount $. The op amp output voltage will increase by $a(where a is the gain of the op.)...........16 the increase in op amp output voltage will in turn increase the vbe of the transistor. Therefore current through transistor will increase..........................16 Since the ideal op amp input current is zero, we can say that vn=vr1=ier1....16 When transistor current increases , so will vn..................................................16 Feed back reduces the magnitude of $ and is negative. With an ideal op amp, a goes to infinity and $ will be driven to 0.(virtual shorts)..................................16 We know that vn=v1, using ohm law we can say that plus op amp input current is zero...................................................................................................16 Io=alpha*Ie=alpha(v1/r1) nearly equal to V1/R1(out put current)...................16 Above relation show interesting thing and that is that transistor Ic and VBE does not effect in out put current.....................................................................16

This independence occur because feed back forces the op amp out put voltage, transistor vbe is whatever required to set vn equal to v1. Must remember that this circuit only works for +ve v1.....................................................................16 Same circuit using FET transistor ....................................................................17 In Fig 2.............................................................................................................. 17 The analyses of the FET is same except that value of alpha is 1 for MOSFET at low frequencies. The difference between two circuit:.......................................17 In bipolar transistor, voltage at the R1 is controlled by the op amp out put whether or not collector of transistor is connected to anything, since there is pn junction between base to emitter , current through R1 can be supplied by the om amp directly.........................................................................................17 In FET, there must be load connection, so that current can be supplied to R1, otherwise gat voltage does not control the voltage across R1, and negative feed back is gone.............................................................................................17 Voltage regulators............................................................................................18 Input current ...................................................................................................21 Input offset current .......................................................................................21 Input Impedance .........................................................................................21 Common-mode input range...........................................................................21 There are op-amps available with common-mode input ranges down to the negative supply.............................................................................................22 Differential Input Range................................................................................22 Output Impedance; output swing versus load resistance..............................22 Voltage gain and phase shift.........................................................................22 Input offset voltage.......................................................................................22 Slew rate....................................................................................................... 22 Effect of op-amp limitation on the circuit behaviour......................................23 Grounding , Differential-Mode signals and Interference Rejection....................26 Interference signals..........................................................................................27

Basic OP AMP Circuits

An operational amplifier is a differential input. See the relation between input and out: Vo=a(vp-vn) Vp is positive or non-inverting input. Vn is the negative or inverting input. a is the gain. Vo is the output voltage. Point to note that only difference between input voltages that matters in determining the output. This is why it is called differential input amplifier. We can use VID to denote the difference between vp and vn(vp-vn). The output voltage Vo is single ended with respect to ground.

Vp

An ideal Op amp has zero input current or can say that Infinite input impedance( i.e. open circuit in between the inputs), zero output impedance. Infinite gain and infinite bandwidth.

=-Figa Vp

Vn

Vo

Vcc

=--

Vn

Vo

Gnd

The non-inverting Amplifier

In order to understand this remember that input current of ideal op amp is zero. The voltage across R1 is uneffected by the connection to the inverting input of ap amp. VR1 = VN = (R1/R1+R2)Vo

Vp

Vs
V R2

=--

VID

Vn

Vo

R1

We can conclude from above is that Vp=Vs Vo=a(vp-vn)= a(vs-(R1/R1+R2) *Vo) Now imagine that Vs increases the causes the Vid to change(which is normally 0), to change to small positive value. As a result of this increase in Vid, the value of Vo will increase positively. The increase in Vo will inturn increase the Vn and this change will reduce the magnitude the orginal disturbance in VID. The change will be compensated entirely and VId will again be zero. Same will apply if Vss is decreased. So in above connection , the Op amp has a virtual short circuit between Vp and Vn(or Vs and Vn). It is virtual because connection does not exist physically., and no current can flow, it acts like short circuit since two voltage must be same. What we have actually done in above circuit is that negative feed back the amplifier. Negative feed back means that signal feed back from output to the input of forward amplifier. Oppose any change in Vid. The op Amp it self called open loop amplifier and R1, R2 and Op am together is called closed loop amplifier. Summerize about ideal Op amp will have virtual short circuit between its input terminals as long as it has a negative feed back connection. This fact, combined with the assumption of no input current, makes the analyses of ideal op amp circuit simple: Vout = (vp vn)A //note that A is gain which is equal to Vout/Vin Vout =A[ Vp (R1/R2+R1)Vout] Vout = Avp (R1/R1+R2)Vout.A Assume R1/R1+R2 = B Vout = A.Vs (B.Vout.A) Vout + B.Vout.A= A.Vs Vout(1+B.A)=A.Vs Vout/Vs=A/(1+B.A) Vout/Vs= A/(B.A) //note that the product of A and B are much higher that 1, so then we can simplify the equation. Vout/Vs = 1/B. Now put the value of B. // please note that Vp is same as source voltage

Vout/Vin= 1/R2/R1+R2 // could be Vout/Vin Vout/Vin= (R1+R2)/R2 Vout/Vin = R1/R2 +1 Vout/Vin = 1 +R1/R2.

Vs=Vp=Vn=( R1/R1+R2)Vo. Vo =(1+R2/R1)Vs.

Use of non-inverting amplifier
This non inverting amplifier is a useful building block in analog signal processing..it has a very high input impedance(ideally infinite) and low out put impedance(ideally zero). And also well controlled voltage gain is set by the ratio of resistors.

The Inverting Amplifier

IR2

R2

IR1

Vn

R1(0V)

+ +

Vp

Vo

Vs
V

GND

GND

The configuration again is set to negative feed back. Since circuit uses negative feed back, assume Op amp to be ideal, the virtual shorts exist between two input terminals. With non inverting is connected to ground, the virtual shorts implies that the inverting input will be a virtual ground. In other words voltage at the node will be zero, also current will be zero as well. When Vn is ground , the current through R1 will be: IR1=(Vs-Vn)/R1 due to virtual short Vn will be at 0 Volts because Vp is connected to ground(GND). iR1 = Vs/R1 note that is no current will flow into ground at Vn, Op amp is assumed to be ideal , the current into the op amp is zero. Then we can say that IR2 = (Vn Vout)/R2. Vn is at 0 Volts due to virtual short. IR2 = -Vout/R2

As above we showed IR1= IR2 Then we can say that Vs/R1= -Vout/R2 Vout/VS= - R2/R1

the output voltage is given by Vo=(-R2/R1)Vs . The above equation shows that the closed loop voltage gain of the inverting amplifier is the ratio of the feed back resistance R2 to the input resistance R1.

The inverting amplifier has a gain, set by resistors ratio and has a low output impedance just like non inverting amplifier. In contrast to non inverting amplifier, inverting amplifier has input impedance equal to R1. Also negative sign in transfer function imply that , output is inverted. In other word when vs is +ve, vo is negative and vice versa. Better way to look the inverting amplifier in two functions: 1st virtual ground is used along with R1 to convert the input voltage into a current, IR1. This current is then feed into a transresistance amplifier.(the gain has the units of resistance, vo/iR2)formed by the op amp and R2.

Another way of showing the inverting Amplifier.

The Unit gain Amplifier or voltage Follower The unit gain amplifier, or voltage follows is a special case of the non-inverting amplifier with R1 =0. Since feed back is negative, op amp is ideal. There is virtual ground between two inputs:

The unit gain amplifier, or voltage followers is a special case of the non-inverting amplifier with R1 and R2 set to 0. Since feedback is negative, op amp is ideal. There is virtual ground between two inputs. It is simply a non-inverting amplifier with (Gain=1).This is special amplifier and used as a follower. An amplifier of unit gain is sometimes called buffer because of it isolating properties (high input impedance, low output impedance. :- Vout = Vin & Zin =
This is special amplifier and used as a follower. Gain of non inverting amplifier is. Gain= Vout/Vin= 1 + R1/R2. Since R1 and R1 are Zero. Gain = 1 and Vout = Vin An amplifier of unit gain is sometimes called buffer because of it isolating properties( high input impedance, low output impedance. Fig .

Differential Amplifier: Differential amplifier as shown in fig 10.we can analyse this circuit using superposition principal. First we set VS2 equal to 0 and consider vs1 as the input. After doing that we find out R3 and R4 are in parallel and circuit can be redrawn as in fig 11:

Since the input current to an ideal op amp is zero, both the current through and the voltage across the parallel combination of R3 and R4 as in Fig 11 are zero. Therefore, the resistor R3 and R4 does not affect the operation of the circuit and can be replaced short circuit. Once we do that we will notice that resulting amplifier is inverting amplifier. Therefore we can call gain from VS1 to Vo (out put voltage) is given by: Vo/VS1 = -R2/R1

Similarly, when vs1 is shorted and we consider vs2 as the input, the circuit is identical to the non inverting amplifier of fig 12, except that of voltage divider made up of R3 and R4. However, since the op amp input current is zero, the connection of the non inverting input of the op amp to this divider does not affect the operation of the divider, so then can write: Vp= (R4/R3+R4)VS2 While VS1 is shorted, the gain from VP to Vo is given by the equation for the non inverting amplifier(while recognize that vp = vs): Vo=(R4/R3+R4)(I+ R2/R1)Vs2 Now sum up the analyses we obtained for each input source individually: Vo=-(R2/R1)VS1+ (R4/R3+R4)(1+R2/R1)VS2. After this analyses, we must think to know how to make the output voltage a functions of only difference between VS1 and VS2. Or we can say how to make this circuit into differential amplifier. Differential signals are very important and commonly used. Differential signal can improve the performance of our circuit in the presence of interference: If we make R3=R1 and R4=R2, then we can write:

Vo= - (R2/R1)VS1 + (R2/R1)VS2 = R2/R1(VS2-VS1)

Assignment: Question as in Fig: 13

Consider the differential amplifier. Determine values for R1, R2, R3 and R4, so that the amplifier has a differential gain of 10 and differentia; input resistance of 20 K ohm.

Further explanation:

Actual Circuit in Differential Amplifier Tutorial

Here V1 and V2 are inputs of the differential amplifiers. Both the transistors are biased at same operating point. The two transistors emitters are connected to each other. The circuit has two dual power supply +Vcc and -Vee which ensures a constant supply. The output voltage is difference of the two inputs signals that are out of phase. If the forward bias of the transistor 1 is increased forward bias of transistor 2 decreases and vice verse. If the two transistors are perfectly matched then the current flowing through the emitter resistance Re remains constant. The output is also balanced in the differential amplifier circuit. The main advantage is that if any noise is introduced in the circuit it will get cancelled at the output when difference is calculated. In real amplifiers if identical signal is applied at the input the output will not be

zero. The ratio of change of output voltage to change in common mode input voltage is called as common mode rejection ratio(CMRR).

An Op amp can be used to construct a current source as in fig 1. The transistor can either be bi polar or field effect transistor. The important point is that voltage at the top of R1 is controlled by the Op amp out put voltage and current into the transistor base is negligible in comparision to the output current. The circuit could more properly be called current sinks, since out put current is directed inside. Lets analyse the operation of the circuit. Vn must be +ve or else we would need transistor to pull current into emitter . npn can not do this , pnp can do this. We assume vn > 0, the op amp is ideal. We can say that a virtual short at the op amp inputs, we can say that vp=vn=v1(please note that circuit works for only v1>0).
If v1 increases a little , the differential input voltage of the op- amp , vp vn , will increase. If we say differential input increase by E, then output voltage increase by aE9 (where a is gain). The increase in voltage gain will in turn increase VBE of transistor. Therefore, current from transistor will increase. Since from ideal op amp current is zero, we can say that Vn=VR1=IER1. When transistor current increases so as Vn. , Therefore feed back reduces the magnitude of E. with an ideal op amp, a goes to infinity and E goes to zero. Io = V1/R1.

To make sure circuit is functioning properly , vary V1 and then see what happens. if v1 increases a little , the differential input voltage of the op amp , vp vn, will increase. We can say that differential input increases by an amount $. The op amp output voltage will increase by $a(where a is the gain of the op.) the increase in op amp output voltage will in turn increase the vbe of the transistor. Therefore current through transistor will increase. Since the ideal op amp input current is zero, we can say that vn=vr1=ier1. When transistor current increases , so will vn. Feed back reduces the magnitude of $ and is negative. With an ideal op amp, a goes to infinity and $ will be driven to 0.(virtual shorts). We know that vn=v1, using ohm law we can say that plus op amp input current is zero. Io=alpha*Ie=alpha(v1/r1) nearly equal to V1/R1(out put current). Above relation show interesting thing and that is that transistor Ic and VBE does not effect in out put current. This independence occur because feed back forces the op amp out put voltage, transistor vbe is whatever required to set vn equal to v1. Must remember that this circuit only works for +ve v1.

Same circuit using FET transistor In Fig 2 The analyses of the FET is same except that value of alpha is 1 for MOSFET at low frequencies. The difference between two circuit: In bipolar transistor, voltage at the R1 is controlled by the op amp out put whether or not collector of transistor is connected to anything, since there is pn junction between base to emitter , current through R1 can be supplied by the om amp directly. In FET, there must be load connection, so that current can be supplied to R1, otherwise gat voltage does not control the voltage across R1, and negative feed back is gone.

Voltage regulators
A voltage regulator is a circuit that ideally provides a constant voltage independent of changes in the load, the temperature, the unregulated supply from which it is driven. An op amp can be used to perform part of the function of the voltage regulator, as in fig 1. This circuit is called series regulator, since regulator appears in series with the unregulated supply Vcc and the load. The transistor present is called pass transistor, since the load current pass through it. For a series regulator, the unregulated supply voltage must be larger than the desired output. This circuit is an example of a non inverting amplifier . The idea is that voltage reference provides an output voltage that is stable with respect to changes in the unregulated supply, It is fine to design a stable reference, if it does not need to provide much out put current. The pass transistor can be eliminated all together if the op amp can provide sufficient current on its own. Anyway transistor is sometimes on separate silicon because it dissipates most of the power in the circuit and there can be significant problems with thermal feed back to the op amp internal circuit.

Frequency Dependant Op Amp Circuits

Circuits that are designed to have frequency dependent transfer functions are called filters. Filters that have op amps are called active filters because they include active components , rather than passive RLC filters.. Unlike passive filters, active filters have power gain and low out put impedence.

The integrator and first order low pass filter

Consider the op am circuit in fig 1. From the circuit we can say that it has a
negative feed back for all frequencies except DC(no frequency). Please note that at DC , the impedence of the feed back capacitor does to infinity, and the feed back is nonexistent. We can say that negative feed back and ideal op amp will combine to produce a virtual ground at the inverting input. So we can say: I1=Vs/R1 And because input current to op amp is zero we can say that I1 = If. Note that voltage across the capacitor is proportional to the integral of the current into it. Vo(t)= -1/Cf integralfrom 0 to 1 vs(taw)d(taw)/R1 Vc(0) If assume that capacitor is initially uncharged, the output voltage is proportional to the integral of the source voltage: Vo(t)=-1/R1C1 integral from 0 to1 vs(taw)d(taw) Now lets see what happen at DC, real op amp have some non zero offset voltage that can be modelled as a voltage source in series with one of it input. In fig 2 we have added this small source in series with non inverting input of an op amp . Now lets see the effect: I1(t)= vs(t)-Voff/R1 Vo(t)= vn-vc= Voff-1/cf integral 0 to 1(vs(tow)-v(off)/R1)d(taw) Vo(t)=voff(1+t/R1Cf)-1/R1Cf integral from 0 to t (vs(taw)d(taw).

Above shows that if the signal source set to zero, the output voltage will ramp towards infinity just because of this finite DC offset voltage. This shows that capacitors impedance goes to infinity at DC, so the DC gain of an amplifier will be infinity. With an real amplifier, the gain of the circuit will not go to infinity, but output will be limited by other mechanism. To correct this problem, we either need a switch in parallal with the feed back capacitor that will enable to periodically reset the voltage across to zero. In fig 3 show the integrator that has a finite DC gain.

Input current
The input terminals sink or source. A small current called input bias current Ib , which is defined as half of sum of the input current with the inputs tied together(the two input currents are approximately equal and are simply the base current or gate current of input transistor). As a rough estimate, BJT input op amp have bias current in the tens of nano amps. FET have inputs current in the tens of picoamps. The importance of input bias current is that it causes a voltage drop across the resistors of feed back network, bias network. In general, transistor op-amps intended for high speed operation have higher bias currents.

Input offset current

In put offset current is the difference in input currents between the two inputs. Unlike input bias current, the offset current Ios, is a result of manufacturing variations. The significance is that even when it is driven by identical source impedances. The op-amp will see unequal voltage drop and hence difference between its inputs.

Input Impedance
Input impedance refers to the differential input resistance ( impedance looking intone input, with the other input grounded). Zin in practice raised to very high values and usually is not as important as input bias current.

Common-mode input range

The inputs to an op-amp must stay within a certain voltage range, typically a less then full supply voltage, for proper operation. If the inputs go beyond this range, the gain of the op-amp may change drastically, even reversing sign. For a 411 operating from +-15 volt supplies, the guaranteed common-mode input range is +-11 volts. However, manufacturer claims that 411 will operate with the common-mode inputs all the way to that positive supply.

There are op-amps available with common-mode input ranges down to the negative supply.

Differential Input Range

Some bipolar op-amps allow only a limited voltage between the inputs, sometimes as small as +-0.5 volt. Exceeding the specified maximum can degrade the op-amp.

Output Impedance; output swing versus load resistance

Out put impedance Ro means the op-amps intrinsic output impedance with out feed back. For 411 it is about 40 ohms. Feed back lowers the output into insignificance, so what usually matters more is the maximum output current. This is frequently given as a graph of output voltage swing Vom as a function of load resistance. Many op-amps have asymmetrical output drive capability(vice versa)

Voltage gain and phase shift

Typically the voltage gain Avo at dc is 100,000 to 1,000,000, dropping to unity gain a frequency (called fT)of 1Mhz to 10 Mhz. This is usually given as a graph of open loop voltage gain as a function of frequency.

Input offset voltage

Op amp do not have perfectly balance input stages, if you connect two input together for zero input signal , the output will saturate at either vcc or vee. The difference in input voltages necessary to bring the output to zero is called the input offset voltage vos.

Slew rate
The op-amp capacitance and small drive current act together to limit the rate at ahich output can change. this limiting speed is called slew rate .

Effect of op-amp limitation on the circuit behaviour

Open loop gain Because of finite open-loop gain, the voltage gain of the amplifier with feed back(closed loop gain) will begin dropping at a frequency where open-loop gain approaches R2/R1. As in figure 1: This means that open-loop gain is down to 100 at 50Khz, that mean amplifier will show noticeable falloff of gain of frequencies approaching 50 Khz.

Slew Rate In fig 1. Because of limited slew rate, the maximum undistorted sine-wave output swing, drops above a certain frequency. The slew rate limitation of om-amp can usually be exploited to filter sharp noise from signal. Output current Because of limited output current , am op-amp output swing is reduces for small load resistances.

Offset voltage Because of input offset voltages, a zero input produces an output of vout=GdcVos. For an inverting amplifier with voltage gain of 100 built with 411, the out put could be as large as +-0.2 v, when the input is grounded. Solution:if we do not need dc gain then use capacitor to drop the gain to unity. Or trim the voltage offset using manufacturing recommended trimming network.

Input bias current Even with a perfectly trimmed op-amp(vos=0), out inverting amplifier circuit will produce non zero output volts when its input terminal is connected to ground. This is because of finite input bias current , IB, produces a voltage drop across the resistors , which is then amplified by the circuit voltage gain.

In this circuit the inverting input sees a driving impedance of R1||R2, so that bias current produces a voltage Vin=Ib(R1||R2), which is then amplified by the gain at dc, -R2/R1. With FET input op-amp the effect is negligible, but the substantial input current of bipolar op-amps can cause real issue. Ex. take a inverting amplifier with R1 = 10 K and R2 = 1M, Zin 10k. if we choose low noise bi polar LM833, the output for grounded input could be 100*1000nA*9.9k or 0.99 volt. There are solution to this problems:

Differential Mode and Common Mode Signal

A signal that is specified, generated, or measured as the difference in potential between some node and ground is called a single ended or ground reference signal. Some time even possible to express two single ended signals as a differential signal. In fig 1(two single ended voltage sources VS1 and VS2). These two sources are connected to two nodes called VA and VB in fig 2: From Fig 2 we can say that: VA = VCM+VDM/2

Grounding , Differential-Mode signals and Interference Rejection

In normal circuit analyses, we assume that all connections to ground represent a single node. In practice such a universal ground node does not exist, because all connections are made with real conductors that have non zero resistance and inductance. For example: we are design control system for Air conditioning and Heating. Such system use many sensors to measure air flow and temperature, these sensors are often located at a considerable distance from control electronics. Consider just one of these sensors, and assume we want to connect it to receiving amplifier in the control electronics: Fig 1: Fig 1 shows the connections of the sensors to the receiving amplifier. The wires connecting the sensors to the amplifier are modelled by ideal conductor in series with resistance , RW1 and RW2. The sensor is modelled as a voltage source vs and its associated resistance Rs. Node vg1 is the local ground at the sensor and node vg2 is the local ground at the receive. The amplifier is assume to have input resistance to local ground equal to Ri. The local grounds are connected together by the wires of the distributed ground system having resistance RG. Because there may be current flow in the ground connection, we have no reason to believe that two gound will have same potential. In truth current from other electrical equipment flowing into the local ground nodes can create differences in the ground potential that are quite large and also time varying. For the purpose of analysing the difference between grounds is denoted by VGD. Analysing fig 1( we assume that we know VGD , we can treat this as voltage source. Therefore Rw2 does not enter into the equation: Vi =(Vs+VGS) Ri/Ri+Rs+Rw1. From above we can say that Vi is not equal to Vs. it can be seen that signal is attenuated going from Vs to Vi, but if Ri >> (RS+RW1), the loss can be neglected.

A far more significant problem is that the unknow signal VGD, which has been added to the desired signal VS. we can say that VGD represent the interference. One way to solve this to use single point grounding scheme, which can be done by disconnecting the sensor from its local ground at point x. Vi=Vs Ri/Ri+Rs+RW1+RW2. Above does not show an interference components because of VGD. Single point grounding is often a good technique to avoid problem caused by differential ground, but this has to be used with caution: Single point grounding is fine at low frequencies for low level signal, but it can cause problem at high frequencies. The impedance of the a wire increases rapidly with increasing frequency because of inductance and skin effect of the wire. Another solution to the problem is to use differential amplifier for the receiver as in fig 2: In order to calculate the input voltage of the receiving amplifier, we will calculate seperatly calculate the voltage at each of its input nodes, Vp and Vn. To express these as single ended voltages, they will be calculated with respect to the local ground at the receiving amplifier, using super position Vp = vgd+vs(Rid+Rw2)/(Rid+Rw2+Rw1+Rs) Vn= vgd+vs(Rw2/Rid+Rw2+Rw1+Rs) Vid = vp-vn = vn(Rid/Rid+Rw2+Rw1+Rs) eq 1 From above equation we saw that same interference signal Vgd, appears at the both inputs of diff. amplifier, hence it is a common model signal. The differential mode input signal given by eq1 is only the function of vs, means common mode signal will be rejected by the op amp and will not appear at the output. Conclusion: now we can see the use of differential amplifier. The input voltage of a single ended amplifier is defined with respect to its own local ground. If the corresponding source voltage is generated with respect to a different ground then difference in ground potentials will be added to the signal. On the other hand, a differential amplifier, responds to the difference between two of its inputs, so it own local ground does have to be in same loop as the desired signal. We can also see that diff. amplifier can be used to convert signal reference to one ground into the same signal referenced to another ground.

Interference signals

1, If there are other signal wires close enough so that capacitance between those lines and the sensors leads is significant, the signal can couple capacitively. 2, if the sensors leads are part of loop, changing magnetic magnetic field like those around power lines can induce voltages in the loop, and 3, The sensors leads can act as antenna and pick up electro magnetic fields

In case 2 the interference produces a current in the input loop and will generate a differential input, therefore, differential input amplifier will not help. In case 3, interference can be a combination of differential and common mode components. The common mode can be rejected by diff. amplifier. Diff. amp will also help the interference that couples into the circuit. Interfernce capacitively coupling into the circuit as in fig 3. This figure does not show the resistance of the sensors leads Rw1 and Rw2, since they are comparatively small compared to Rs and Rid. Interfering signals are represented as current source (i1 and i2) connected to signal wires. The local ground at the receiver is denoted by the symbol for chassis ground. Once again, we calculate the voltages at vp and vn wit respect to the chasis ground. We treat the ground differences vgd as it is voltage source. Using superposition, we find the components at vp due to i1 is(treat vgd as a voltage source, therefore set it to zero). Vp(due to i1) = i1(RS||Rid) Vp(due to i2)= 0 Vp(due to vs) = vs(Rid/Rid+Rs) Vp(due to vgd) = vgd Combining these equation we find: Vp=i1(Rs||Rid) + vs(Rid/Rid+Rs) + vgd Similarly we find vn = vgd Vid = vp vn = vs(Rid/Rid+Rs) + i1(Rs||Rid) We see from above that although the ground differences has been rejected , the interference can result in differential mode signal at the input of the receiving amplifier.

Solution to this problem fact that interference to both wires are almost same , assuming that two wires are physically located close to each other, which is standard practice., we can say i1=i2. The circuit can also be balanced by disconnecting the signal source from its local ground connection, as with single point grounding scheme. The two leads used in differential amplifier are often twisted together(called twisted pair). Twisting the wire together reduces the area of the loop that is formed. decreasing the magnitude of the magnetically induced voltage. Each twisted can be seen as small area loop. But voltage induced in adjacent ywists have opposite signs, so they cancel each other out