Introduction to Literary Studies II

Features of Narrative texts / Different approaches to definitions of Narrativity

1. Story-oriented approach:
narrative texts are characterised by a chronologically organised sequence of events, in which an event brings about a change in the situation. narrative text differs from lyric and other non-narrative genres in that they have a plot

2. Discourse-oriented approach:
Narrative Transmission as constitutive characteristic of narrativity Mediacy as most essential feature of a narrative text (acc. to Structuralists) examination of the narrative perspective or 'point of view' is important element for analysis

3. Experientiality
ability of narrative texts to give expression to human experiences by means of their narrative structure experientiality - quasi-mimetic evocation of 'real life experience' One or the other feature can predominate in certain genres, periods or individual texts

Communication Model for Narrative Texts

in contrast to drama the speech situation of the characters in narrative texts is embedded in the communication level of narrative transmission a fictive narrator addresses a fictive reader, or narratee

Level of story histoire

WHAT is narrated level of surface content WHO does WHAT, IN WHICH ORDER, WHERE, WHEN, and WHY?

Level of discourse discours

HOW it is narrated level of textualisation, of transmission

Thematic level

abstract content semantic focal point; Theme

shape of the story level, Content-related modelling the story elements red thread so as to give them a certain form/meaning/function/effe ct affects all textual levels, e.g.: typography, space, characterisation, norms and world view, communicative situation, ... abstract concept repeatedly focussed on in a text theme function e.g.: theme: child abandonment function: catharsis

story events are ordered according to basic cognitive principles chronology or causality Story elements: Action Characters Temporal + Local Setting

story level is transposable: the discourse level changes plot basically remains the with each adaption same (whether used in a play, a film, a cartoon, ...) treats signifi-elements as if they were real; invented-ness and fictional status are ignored

Minimal definition of the term 'STORY': A Story is a mediated succession of events.

STORY
Events
change of state

Existents
characters + setting

Mediacy / Mediation
no direct access to the story, but mediating agent from a temporal, cultural, ideological, emotional, DISTANCE the narrator is not the author, but a fictional character (just like any other character)

1. Action / Sequence of Events

kernel events ('cardinal functions', necessary for the plot, can change the plot) vs. satellites (or 'catalyst' - not directly relevant for plot) alternative plot lines (so-called 'possible worlds') mentioned, but not realised e.g. character's wishes, intentions, dreams; narratorial red herrings etc.) tellability what's the central point of interest, the story's attraction; conflicts?; eg. deviation from expected; story + causally and logically linked events relations = plot event = smallest plot unit

Plot Structures / Structure of Events Teleological Plot Structure

stories that drive towards an end point telos (gr. goal, aim) development on the course of the story Entwicklungsroman ( also in English, or: coming of age novel; novel of personal development) e.g. 'Quest': (auf deutsch auch Queste) significant journey on which a questor/hero embarks, seeking a desirable object holy grail/woman/for Frodo: drop the ring/etc. e.g. Parzifal, fairy tales, Homer's Odyssee, Epic of Gilgamesh (hero seeks eternal life); from rags to riches

Cyclical Structure
initial state is jeopardised or disharmonious things happen to restore this initial state e.g. romances (Ritterromanzen), Lord of the ring starts out in perfect harmony then destabilisation, etc. in the end harmony is restored

Static Structure
e.g. Waiting for Godot

Episodic plot / Mosaic plot

e.g. sitcoms no overall development or plan of the story, not much causal connection between episodes

Freytag Triangle/Pyramid (=
classic five-act tragedy) introduction/exposition (complication) rising action climax peripety/turning point falling action (moment of final suspense) catastrophe dnouement

External vs. internal plotlines

'novel of action' vs. 'novel of character' internal Plotlines especially used from 20th century onwards inner quarrels, etc. psychological events; plot of thought usually there are Multiple Plot Lines connected causally, or through character(s), common theme, etc. Hierarchy: main plot vs. subplot contrast correspondence

2. Local Setting
Space (novel) / Place (drama)
fictional space, literary spaces vs. real locations outside text where the action takes place includes locations, objects, scenery, natural world focus on atmospheric space, action space or visual space? used to organise knowledge used as a metaphor schema space stands for sth. else

correspondences + contrasts/opposition
semanticised space space is not neutral (also carries meaning, fulfils a 'narrative function')

spacial relations express non-spacial relations

opposing spaces = opposing ideology/systems/etc. town vs. country court vs. untamed nature Rome (male, intellect) vs. Egypt (female, passion) e.g. Rosamunde Pilcherfilms: contrast country (good) vs. city (bad) everything else belonging to the resp. space is good/bad too reflected in the clothes they wear: cardigans (good) vs. red leather mini skirts (bad) e.g. Twilight Save house vs. dangerous woods (danger but also hope for sth. great to happen) e.g description of Isengard Saruman actually about Saruman's change from good to evil Narrative techniques for representing space most common: description presenting consciousness (narrative situation, focalization) use of various figurative tropes (e.g. metaphor, metonymy and synechdoche)

3 basic types of functions of space (acc. to G. Hoffmann)

mood-invested space space and objects serve expressive (atmospheric or symbolic) functions space of action primarily functions as a context or setting for the characters and

their actions observed space predominantly static, supplies a panoramic overview

3. Characters + Characterisation
Character grouping
acc. to correspondences & contrasts age/social standing/attitudes/aims/behaviour/etc. character's position within system of characters characters stand for sth. else too world view, psychological principles etc. Which larger concept(s) does a character/group of characters stand for? e.g. loyalty Hamlet Horatio, Frodo Samweis Gamdschi, etc.

Character conception How complex/well-defined is a character?

static vs. dynamic some characters remain unchanged, some develop e.g. Eowyn starts out unhappy because of fate as subordinate woman in patriarchal society then goes to war, kills evil chief becomes faithful woman + marries, becomes landlady one-dimensional (personification one single characteristic, type few specific features) vs. pluridimensional (individual with many characteristics) = flat vs. round simply evil (Lord Valdemort), complex (Hamlet) Protagonist vs. Antagonist / main character(s) vs. minor character(s)

Character types (acc. to function)

rake (Lebemann) / fop (Dandy) /Witwould / witty couple confidante close friend who protagonist can trust need it in a story foil character foil = piece of shiny metal you put under stone to increase brightness of stone provides contrast to highlight features/brilliance of main character Watson (Sherlock Holmes; is of average intelligence, has no clue, sees same things as Holmes) blocking character esp. in comedies e.g. father who doesn't want couple to marry

Types of Characterisation
Who is the agent of characterising? How is a character transmitted? Is information reliable? How trustworthy? narratorial vs. figural does narrator or fictional character characterise another character? explicit vs. implicit features and traits are stated outright or are to be inferred from character's behaviour (allows recipient to draw own conclusions) auto- or vs. altero-characterisation somebody characterising himself vs. described by someone else direct or by presenting stream of consciousness

Degree of reliability, trustworthyness Is the characterisation

true/trustworthy? reader decides on basis of context (e.g. moral code) and world knowledge e.g. Edgar Allan Poe, The Tell-Tale Heart (1843) unreliability The reliability of both auto- and altero-characterisation depends on the circumstances what are the character's motives and tactics, what is the utterances's illocutionary aim etc.
(illocutionary = illokutionr auf ein kommunikatives Ziel ausgerichtet; die Absichten des Sprechers zum Ausdruck bringend)

explicit characterisation: static to be / to have external traits: long hair, , jealous, likes to smoke pipe, etc. implicit characterisation: usually unintentional unintended auto-characterisation: characters always characterise themselves implicitly by means of their behaviour, actions and manners of speaking clothing, physical appearance, behaviour, speaking in a certain manner in a certain situation (good conversationalist, shy, ...), educational background, jargon, sociolects narratorial characterisation: if narrator characterises someone usually you

trust it e.g descriptions in stage directions, 'telling names' correspondences and contrasts between characters also contribute to characterisation figural characterisations: comments are always distorted by the individual character's perspective may therefore be unreliable auto- or self-characterisation I am/I usually am/I have like in real life (facebook, parship.at, letters of application, etc.) sometimes not trustworthy because of image-selling strategies, personal views, etc. altero-characterisation can also be unreliable subjective filters or in presence of other person

All explicit altero-characterisations are always implicit autocharacterisations!

If someone describes someone else, he always implicitly describes himself, e.g. often in Jane Austen

4. Time / Temporal Setting

concerns relations between story time vs. discourse time / real time

Order of events
Chronology in a natural sequence / chronological order vs. Anachrony:

Flashbacks (analepsis) move backward in time Flashforward (prolepsis) move forward Objective (real happenings in the story) vs. subjective (within so. thoughts,
dreams, memories) anachronies Objective vs. Subjective anachrony factual vs. imaginary / through narrator vs. as perceived by character

Duration (How long?) how long in the story / how long to read it
Discourse time Ellipsis (cut) Summary (speed up) Scene Stretch (slow down) Pause runs on 0 < = > 0 Story time runs on

Ellipsis (cut) certain things are not mentioned at all Summary (speed up) Scene e.g. direct speech; play, innerer Monolog Stretch (slow down) slow motion, longer discourse time than time event takes Pause e.g. descriptions, when narrator thinks, when narrator argues/teaches/... about something

Frequency how often does a

certain element appear singulative repetitive multi-singulative iterative (a form of summary)

DISCOURSE LEVEL NARRATIVE SITUATION

Erzhlsituation Speech and thought representation how is the story mediated? shaping of narrative commentation, mediating level Form Format Focalisation View Mode

1. Form of Narration Erzhlform Voice

Where is the narrator situated vis--vis the fictional world About whom is the story told (either about I or he someone remote)

Homodiegetic narrator is part of the narrated story (looking on the

story, witness character, standing in for the truth) 1st person narration

Autodiegetic somebody relates his own life, pseudo-autobiographical is

clearly the center of the story 1st person narration In special case of autodiegetic n.: I as narrator vs. I as character (more nave)

Heterodiegetic narrator hast nothing to do with fictional world, lives in

completely different world - 3rd person narrator (but not necessarily for comments, to teach a lesson)

2. Format of Narration Erzhlformat

about prominence of narrator; specific shape of narrator character

Overt you have a personalised narrator or Ich mit Leib (Stanzel) Covert deep personalised self (you don't think that some one is telling you this;
narrative agent; narrative function)

Degree of narrator's knowledge compared to characters omniscience (godlike narrator, some narrators seem to know everything, even
foretell the future)

same degree of knowledge limited knowledge (narrator has no idea what is going on, characters know
more) Reliable vs. unreliable Henry Fielding The History of Tom Jones very early novel overt (I should have left him ), omniscient, reliable

3. View (Bewusstseinsdarstellung) seeing, feeling, knowing, believing,

remembering Do we get to know the character's thoughts? Inside view Outside view do we get internal, psychological insights or not? e.g Ernest Hemingway The Killers only outside view, no feelings, thoughts, views, etc.

4. Focalisation Fokalisierung, Perspektive

From which perspective is the story viewed who sees who narrates

Focaliser/Reflector: character within the story whose focus of perception is

(temporarily) taken over by the narrator; doesn't know he narrates Geschehen spiegelt sich im Bewusstsein, wird nicht erzhlt;

External focalisation godlike omniscience, standpoint outside of the fiction,

no perspectivity, no limitation whatsoever; Olympian Narrator, elevated viewpoint; 18th century reflected the worldview god is omnipotent, etc.

Internal focalisation authors wanted to be more realistic limited

knowledge, realistic perspective info which can be known by focaliser(s); focaliser can change narrator slips inside mind of a character inside the story + looks at world through her eyes

5. Mode

Telling (diegesis; narrative mode, mediation)

strong narrator intervention Descriptive mode is to do with spacial objects; not with kinetic movement through time Argumentative mode about logics, narrator commenting on characters

vs. Showing (mimesis; dramatic mode) no mediating, direct access drama; dialogues
e.g. Alan Sillitoe The Fishing boat picture- argumentative not about stories or sequences, but about argueing Bradbury Description

SPEECH AND THOUGHT REPRESENTATION

discourse speech + thoughts! narrator's discourse & characters' discourse groer Teil natrlich narrator's d. frame (narrator's discourse) inset (characters' discourse within narrator's discourse) Inquit-formula / tag & act of speech (or thought, or perception) e.g. Hey, she said, come back here. Attitude narrator can be of same opinion or not consonance vs. distance vs. dissonance actual vs. virtual real or thoughts accuracy either narrator chooses to give you exact words or not either any utterance of a character is given precisely or through rough approximations or a summary

DIRECT DISCOURSE
tagged and untagged verbatim rendering of speech/thought

FREE INDIRECT DISCOURSE Erlebte Rede v.a. bergang 19.-20. Jh.

3rd person (eg. Has she observed me at all? Had she observed him at all?) main clause (no tags) Often, but no always untagged pronouns + tenses are made to match with tense structure of narrator Deixis retained, but transposed emotive signals (exclamation marks, swear words, ) are retained
In linguistics, deixis refers to the phenomenon wherein understanding the meaning of certain words and phrases in an utterance requires contextual information. Words are deictic if their semantic meaning is fixed but their denotational meaning varies depending on time and/or place.

Why for god's sake had she not talked to him? for god's sake is her thoughts temporal system equals indirect speech connected to internal focalisation, clearly implicates internal focalisation

INDIRECT DISCOURSE
3rd person, tagged, subordinate clause; summarizes, interprets grammatically straightens the character's language aligns characters' discourse to the point of view of the narrator

STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS Bewusstseinsstrom

(quite modern E.19.A.20.Jh. psyche, dreams, mind, ) 1st person, untagged solely about thought representation authors try to imitate the associative workings of the mind use incomplete sentences sort of non-logical not coherent rather associations that lead you somewhere

Narrative Situation

identity and explicitness of the narrator? from whose point of view is the narrated world presented? Is the narrator involved in the action on the same level as the other characters? from external perspective of the narrator or internal perspective of a character involved in the action? 'narrating I' and 'experiencing I' are the same person, but often seperated by temporal, sometimes also moral distance narrator has gone through a process of reflection in the meantime

3 Typical narrative situations (Stanzel)

Authorial narrative situation Auktoriale Erzhlsituation First-person narrative situation Ich-Erzhlsituation Figural narrative situation personale Erzhlsituation

Authorial Narrative Situation klassische Beschreibung

Form: extradiegetic, heterodiegetic; 3rd person Format: overt; omniscient + omnipresent; reliable narrator; narrator is presented as fictive individual by peronsal interjections, comments and moral judgements on the events Focalisation external perspective, 'olympian', usually no reflector used View: both inside and outside view possible Mode: changes between telling + showing (telling mode is dominant) Typical: addresses to the reader, flashforwards, generalisations + thematisation of the act of narration Privileges of the authorial narrator psychological privilege insight into the internal processes of all characters spacial privilege invisible and fictive omnipresence (also several places simultaneously)

temporal privilege able to survey all narrative events of the past, present + future

1st Person Narration

Form: autodiegetic, 1st person narrator is involved in fictional events (I-as-protagonist) or a peripheral character (I-as-witness) Format: overt; I-as-narrator has superior knowledge vis--vis characters generally: limited knowledge (only internal processes, thoughts and feelings of narrating and experiencing I can be related) no insights in other character's thoughts both reliability and unreliability possible Focalisation: external (when focus on I-as-narrator, erzhlendes Ich narrating I) internal possible (when focus on limited viewpoint on I-as-character, erlebendes Ich experiencing I) View: both inside and outside view possible Mode: changes between telling + showing e.g. Charlotte Bronte Jane Eyre horror, angst neutral, distant language; she only explains first, then switch gets emotional, into the thick of things 2 different states of knowledge erzhlendes Ich vs. erlebendes Ich

Figural narrative s.
Form: heterodiegetic, 3rd person Format: covert narrator; narrated world is presented from character's perspective (reflector/focaliser) focaliser often has very limited knowledge, is therefore unreliable Focalisation: internal perspective, reflector = centre of consciousness View: Inside view (but only as regards reflector's consciousness) and outside view of all other characters Mode: Showing dominant e.g. Virginia Woolfe Mrs Dalloway narrator steps back, enters Mrs Dalloway and uses her perspective to give reader a story she's not aware of being used internal focalisation no difference between world of narrator + character narrator is covert focaliser instead of narrator unreliable of course knows only little strong inside view (only of reflector's consciousness) Other features of figural narration referentless pronouns he, she who? information is known to reflector but not reader slice-of-life stories stories are limited to moments, a special point in time, etc. focus on internal (vs. external) action very subjective, impressionistic, emotional associations rather than logic or chronological order guide discourse associative, (slightly) incoherent reminiscence (personal past) conjecture (personal future)

Storytelling frame
First-person narrative s. Authorial narrative s.

Viewing Frame
Figural narrative situation

impression of clearly identifiable speaker

impression of following events through the eyes or experiential perspective of one of the characters

presence and proximity of individualised reflector mode narrator impression of immediate access

Other narrative situations

Second-person narration
addresses a character, involves reader in the plot

Dialogue novels
rather avoid narrative transmission + consist almost entirely of conversations between characters reported in direct speech often characterised by scarcity of action and by stylised dialogues between the characters narrator's contributions are restricted to attributing comments to speakers and giving information on spatial and temporal context and on the character's body language

Camera-eye technique
conveys impression that the narrator functions as a passive observer (recording, not thinking, judging) but actually is not neutral or 'objective' objective representation of reality in narrative texts (or film) is always an illusion

DRAMA
A impersonates B while C looks on Impersonation: present physical not telling, but showing iconic relation

Narratives absence (refers to sth. absent) arbitrary use of signs static monomedial

Drama presence iconic relation (relation of similarity) between actor and fictional character dynamic Multimediality (use of linguistic + non-linguistic channels of communication): Acoustic (language, sounds, music, ) Visual (set, props, lighting, costumes, make-up, gestures, posture, everything is potentially semiotic, can mean something performance is unmediated, no narrative guidance (except epic drama) audience as eye-witnesses, experience story as it unfolds

substitute for actual event physicality, iconicity

mediating agent past tense, sense of closure, of narrating with hindsight direct insights into character's mind

difficult to do this; soliloquy (Monolog) actor alone on stage not realistic, but convention (you accept it as real) 3-dimensional: experience effect character has on s.o. else not only linguistic channel but many other codes with semiotically relevant information

Synchronic presence of multiplicity of signs: involves all senses (except for touching... but you're very close) information-packed (lots of things going on) high (cognitive) audience activity can be like a room without 4th wall illusionist ( very life-like imitates real life) usually

Action

one or several plots? how are they connected? (shared characters, causal relations, ) correspondences/contrasts (eg. romantic vs. sexual love; marriage for love vs. for money; ) what kind of action? verbal action (lying, swearing, abusing, offending, ) physical action (hurting, pushing, killing, kissing, ) mental/internal/ideological/emotional changes Structure of events Freytag triangle teleological linear plot vs. mosaic plot (=episodic)

 Internal (characters character) vs. external (play total audience) system of communication dialogue of the characters is the most important medium for transmission of information information about characters themselves, time, place, other aspects of fictional world

Immediacy
lack of a mediating level most important difference between drama and narrative texts absolute nature of dramatic texts (Pfister) but: many dramas also contain narrative elements, particularly at the beginning 'epic elements' 1. Absolute drama prototypical 2. Epic drama mediated by some kind of mediation figure or device (mediator, narrator, teller etc.) either heterodiegetic or homodiegetic verbal (stage directions, commentary, projections, banners) and non-verbal forms of epic elements (destruction of theatrical illustion + exposure of its mechanisms) eg. one character steps out of his/her role alienation effect (Bertolt Brecht epic theatre) narrating instances or messenger speeches function to give information enhance rather than destroy aesthetic illustion

Collectivity
Collectivity of production Actors, director, costume designer, scene designer, dramaturg Collectivity of reception audience as unique collective (anonymous) vs. solitary reading Communication situation of theatre performance collective involved in production assumes the role of the addresser performance = message

 audience (a collective as well) assumes the role of the addressee influence each other (feedback effects actors)

Levels of meaning formation dramatic level (interaction between characters on stage) theatrical level (communication between cast and audience) everyday life level (social communication about the production and its relation to everyday norms) Primary text characters' remarks, dialogue Secondary text all parts of dramatic text that are not part of the dialogue, eg. stage directions can be prescribed more or less by the playwright

Semiotics of Theatre
verbal vs. non-verbal signs non-verbal related to the actors, the stage or other aspects of production? acoustic vs. visual signs of both stage (acoustic: music, noise, loudspeaker, visual: stage set, props,...) + actors durative vs. non-durative signs durative: eg. stage-set, visual appearance (costume, stature, make-up) , voice-quality + individual vocal characteristics of actors) non-durative: utterances, body language, props, lighting, music,

Distribution of Information
Exposition vs. dramatic introduction
can occur simultaneously in the opening or the first act but also in succession of some dramas Dramatic Introduction: primarily serves to establish communication channel between stage and audience (phatic function), to awaken interest of audience, to acclimatise it to atmosphere of the play

Exposition: both dramatic + narrative texts = introductory information necessary

for understanding initial dramatic events; prehistory of the plot introducing audience to time and place of action, characters (referential function, providing information) Isolated vs. integrated Exposition (initial-isolierte vs. sukzessiv-integrierte Exposition) Initial exposition all expository information in isolated passage at beginning of text integrated exposition expository information is distributed throughout text, woven into action Monological vs. dialogical exposition 1. one figure comes on stage at beginning of play gives you information you need all

at once) 2. or dialogical exposition through protatic figure (Protatische Figur) or confidant(e) as dialog partner

Transmission of information at the end of a drama

Closed vs. open ending resolution of all open questions and conflicts (plot lines) vs. no resolution 'poetic justice' good end happily (or keep their heroic status), bad are punished

Possible functions of Soliloquy + Aside

insight into character's subjective perspective reveal intentions, motives, thoughts, feelings, word view, etc. self-characterisation to link scenes provides information not shown on stage create empathy in the audience create expecations + supense

Uneven distribution of information

audience knows more/less than character A/all characters character A knows more/less than character B/all characters FUNCTIONS: creating interest, empathy, suspense driving action forward placing audience in a privileged/ignorant possision

Discrepant Awareness
means there's a difference in level of knowledge + awareness audience is in position of superior awareness can assess how far characters deviate from the truth god-like view Dynamic pattern of information distribution throughout the play THE tool to produce suspense, interest,
e.g. Hamlet, Act 1.2 nor Hamlet nor Claudius know that the dead king has returned, but audience knows 3.3 central scene you see Claudius kneeling + praying Hamlet doesn't want to kill Claudius (because then he would go to heaven... he's praying) Audience knows what Claudius thinks (he can't be forgiven his sins because he doesn't regret) and that Hamlet is making a mistake

Dramatic Irony (Tragic Irony)

makes fun of the fact that audience knows more character's comment has additional meaning which character is unaware of (but audience knows)
MacBeth is planning to murder the king Duncan has no clue he and his friend Banquo ride to the castle (where they will be killed shortly after) and talk about how nice the situation is

Hamlet Plot Structure ill fate drives story, 2 families involved protagonists are bound by filial relations (brothers, sisters, fathers) killed fathers, sons seeking revenge (Hamlet, Laertes, Fortinbras) who killed the king (could also be a plot, but:) becomes clear very soon is not the central point

central question is: will Hamlet manage to kill Claudius or will Claudius kill Hamlet first revenge plot love-plot is neither central to story 2 ladies passive (no arrow leads away), are objects of pity, of neglect only action is self-destruction Horatio he doesn't do things in dialogues he doesn't talk much (Hamlet talks) so as to get more insights into Hamlet's mind confidant main function is to be s.o. who Hamlet trusts, so Hamlet can speak his mind freely only one who doesn't die he's there to tell the story

Types of drama
Tragedy (according to Aristotle et al)
serious action from happiness to unhappiness peripeteia = reversal of fortune from ignorance to knowledge anagnorisis = hero learns something hero who makes mistake or has one tragic flaw hamartia Catharsis cleansing effect through pity + fear phobos & eleos Audience is to be clearified by experiencing these emotions during the play Aptum (Stndeklausel) Horaz: tragedy is the 'highest' genres, elevated style, noble proagonists classicist view three unities (time, space, action) Aristotle: action ideally has to take place within 24 hours in 1 setting Freytag triangle plot type that tragedies are supposed to follow

Comedy
humour, happy ending about human folly or social norms intrigue, disguise, mistaken identities different kinds of laughter: aggressive, excluding laughter vs. welcoming, understanding laughter Comedies usually don't single out individual fates, are not about lonely heroes, etc. but about particular social groups or type of people fixed social norms/rules, social milieu Social integration communal dance at the end Rites of Spring: victory of younger generation over older generation (rejuvenation of life theme) (Frye)

Character Configuration
when is a Character on stage and who does he tend to be on stage with

Subjective Distortion (Figurenperspektivische Brechung)

character's opinion, world view, etc. doesn't mean it's automatically the play's world view/overall norm A play's underlying norm/ideology/world view can only be assessed by considering the sum total of all the information provided by the text. Characterisation + reliability e.g. Claudius' self-characterisations he knows what he's done and that it was wrong

Functions of Speech
Emotive/Expressive often in soliloquies; purest form: exclamations presents a character's own position Referential relates to the thing spoken of Teichoscopy = Mauerschau provides information about simultaneous action not visible to the audience Poetic/Aesthetic function Phatic function maintaining contact Metalingual function Appellative/conative/rhetorical/manipulative function

Performative Language
action can be verbal stating facts vs. performative utterances can look like an utterance, but change action (because of performative function)

General Principles of Composition

Succession audience can't go back in the text, no turning back or re-reading; as a playwrite you have to make sure, everything is clear Transparency has to be clear, easy to understand Selection + Concentration has to be selective as to why which event is shown restrictions attention of audience; number of actors; money for props, scene, etc.