Electrical Drives

MEP 1422
2004/2005-02
Module 1. Introduction to drives:
Elements in electrical drives, overview of DC and AC drives.
Torque equations,
Components of load torque, torque characteristics. Four-quadrant
operation
Notes on Introduction to Electromechanical Energy Conversion
Module 2 Converters in electric drive systems:
Controlled rectifier, Linear scheme, Non-linear scheme,
Switched-mode converters - average model and transfer function,
Two-quadrant converters, Four-quadrant converters, Bipolar
switching, Unipolar switching,
Current-controlled converters, Fixed switching frequency control,
Hysteresis control
Example of Simulink file for 2-Q converter (switching and average
model)
Current ripple in 4 Q converter
Space Vector Modulation (SVM)
Module 3 DC motor drives
DC drives in power point format, in .pdf
Construction, modeling and transfer function, Converters for DC
drives quadrant of operations.
MATLABbased controller design method here
Linear analysis in Simulink
Large signal simulation using SIMULINK here
http://encon.fke.utm.my/courses/mep1422/modules.html (1 von 2) [17.05.2005 17:09:50]
Module 4. Induction motor drives
Dynamic model of induction machine
Construction and principle of operations,
Speed Control-
constant V/f, Scalar control problems at low speed,
current
Simulink example on open-loop constant V/Hz using SIMULINK
s-function for IM simulation
Compiled with Borland C - here
Current controlled and voltage boost, open-loop and closed-loop
control.
Field-oriented control of IM:
Rotor flux orientation
Stator flux orientation
Simulink example on indirect FOC IM requires imch.dll
PPoint for principles of direct torque control and in pdf
Direct Torque Control using SIMULINK and the required *.dll files
for the S-function
http://encon.fke.utm.my/courses/mep1422/modules.html (2 von 2) [17.05.2005 17:09:50]
1
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL DRIVES

Drivcs can lc dcfincd as sysicns cnloycd for noiion conirol c.g. iransoriaiion, fans, rolois,
uns, cic.

Princ novcrs arc rcquircd in drivc sysicns io rovidc iIc novcncni - can lc dicscl cngincs,
cirol cngincs, Iydraulic noiors, clcciric noiors cic

Drivcs iIai usc clcciric noiors as iIc rinc novcrs arc lnown as clccirical drivcs


Cononcnis of clccirical drivcs.
Elcciric drivcs is nulii-discilinary ficld. Various rcscarcI arcas can lc sul-dividcd fron
clcciric drivcs.
Advaniagcs of clccirical drivcs.
casy io conirol (c.g. ly varying voliagc or currcni} widc rangc of sccd
IigI cfficicncy swiicI-nodc convcricrs and clccirical noiors arc vcry cfficicni
clcan docs noi olluic
casy io siorc or iransori cncrgy
Sourcc
Conirol
f/lacl
Powcr
roccssor
Conirol
Unii
Moior
Elcciric
Drivcs
MacIinc
TIcory
Powcr
clccironics
Conirol
TIcory
Scnsors
Fcal-iinc
DSP or
Uiiliiy
inicrfacc
Load
2
Components oI EIectrIcaI DrIves

Moiors
Moiors oliain owcr fron clccirical sourccs. TIcy convcri cncrgy fron clccirical io nccIanical -
iIcrcforc can lc rcgardcd as cncrgy convcricrs.
TIcrc arc scvcral iycs of noiors uscd in clcciric drivcs cIoicc of iyc uscd dccnds on
alicaiions and clccirical sourccs availallc. Droadly, iIcy can lc classificd as ciiIcr DC or AC
noiors.
DC noiors (wound or crnancni nagnci} - DC voliagc,
AC noiors
Induciion noiors squirrcl cagc, wound roior - AC voliagc
syncIronous noiors wound ficld, crnancni nagnci - AC voliagc
DrusIlcss DC noior - AC voliagc
Siccr noiors rcquirc owcr clccironic convcricrs
SyncIronous rcluciancc noiors or swiicIcd rcluciancc noior rcquirc owcr clccironic
convcricrs

Sourcc
Elccirical sourccs or owcr sulics rovidc iIc cncrgy io iIc clccirical noiors. For IigI
cfficicncy ocraiion, iIc owcr oliaincd fron iIc clccirical sourccs nccd io lc rcgulaicd using
owcr clccironic convcricrs
Powcr sourccs can lc AC or DC in naiurc and iIcy nornally unconirollallc, i.c. iIcir
nagniiudcs or frcqucncics arc ficd or dccnd on iIc sourccs of cncrgy sucI as solar or wind.
AC sourcc can lc ciiIcr iIrcc Iasc or singlc Iasc
3-Iasc sourccs arc nornally for IigI owcr alicaiions

Powcr roccssor or owcr nodulaior
Sincc iIc clccirical sourccs arc nornally unconirollallc, ii is iIcrcforc ncccssary io lc allc io
conirol iIc flow of owcr io iIc noior iIis is acIicvcd using owcr roccssor or owcr
nodulaior. WiiI conirollallc sourccs (i.c. ouiui of owcr roccssor}, iIc noior can lc rcvcrscd,
lralc or can lc ocraicd wiiI variallc sccd. Classical nciIod uscd, for canlc, variallc
incdancc or rclays, io sIac iIc voliagc or currcni iIai is sulicd io iIc noior iIcsc
nciIods Iowcvcr arc inflcillc and incfficicni.
Incrcasing nunlcr of owcr roccssors usc owcr clccironic convcricrs wIicI Ias advaniagcs
ovcr classical nciIod sucI as .
Morc cfficicni sincc idcally no losscs occur in owcr clccironic convcricrs
Flcillc voliagc and currcni can lc sIacd ly sinly conirolling swiicIing funciions of
iIc owcr convcricr

Pouc ccctonc conuctcs
Convcricrs arc uscd io convcri and ossilly rcgulaic (i.c. using closcd-loo conirol} iIc
availallc sourccs io suii iIc load i.c. noiors
DC io AC,
AC io DC,
DC io DC
AC io AC
TIcsc convcricrs arc cfficicni lccausc iIc swiicIcs ocraic in ciiIcr cui-off or
saiuraiion nodcs

Conirol Unii
Conlciiy dccnds on drivc crfornancc
analog - noisc, nonflcillc, infiniic landwidiI
digiial innunc io noisc, configurallc, landwidiI dccnds on sanling frcqucncy
DSP/nicroroccssor flcillc, lowcr landwidiI conarcd io alovc. DSPs crforn fasicr
ocraiion iIan nicroroccssors (nuliilicaiion in singlc cyclc}. WiiI DSP/nicro.,
conlc csiinaiions and olscrvcrs can lc casily inlcncnicd.


3

OvervIew oI AC and DC drIves

Dcforc scniconducior dcviccs wcrc iniroduccd.
AC drivcs uscd for ficd sccd ocraiion. TIis is lccausc ii is noi casy io oliain variallc
frcqucncy suly. TIc cfficicncy of iIc drivc is low wIcn ficd frcqucncy and variallc voliagc
suly is uscd io conirol iIc sccd of iIc noiors. Howcvcr, variallc DC suly can lc casily
oliaincd. Conscqucnily, DC drivcs arc widcly uscd for variallc sccd ocraiion.

Aficr scniconducior dcviccs wcrc iniroduccd in 1950s
Sccd conirol is acIicvallc in AC drivcs lccausc variallc frcqucncy can lc oliaincd
using voliagc sourcc invcricr (i.c. owcr clccironic convcricr}. DC drivcs wcrc rclaccd wiiI AC
drivcs in variallc sccd alicaiions wIicI do noi rcquirc IigI crfornancc ocraiions. AC
drivcs uscs AC noiors Icncc rcquirc lcss nainicnancc c.g. squirrclcagc induciion noiors
rcquirc nininun nainicnancc sincc no coniaci lrusIcs arc uscd.

Aficr scniconducior dcviccs wcrc iniroduccd aficr nid 1980s
WiiI iIc advanccncni of owcr scniconducior dcviccs and owcrful nicroroccssors
(sucI as digiial signal roccssors (DSP}}, ii is ossillc io conirol iIc AC noiors iIai will givc
conarallc crfornancc io iIai of iIc DC drivcs. AC drivcs uiilizing conirol iccIniqucs sucI as
cd-ocntcd conto (FOC} and dcct toquc conto (DTC} arc now gradually rclacing DC drivcs
in IigI crfornancc alicaiions.

Conarison lciwccn DC and AC drivcs
Moiors .
DC rcquirc nainicnancc, Icavy, ccnsivc, sccd liniicd ly nccIanical consiruciion
AC lcss nainicnancc, ligIi, cIcacr, rolusi, IigI sccd (cs. squirrclcagc iyc}

Conirol unii.
DC sinlc conirol dccouling iorquc and flu ly nccIanical connuiaior iIc
conirollcr can lc inlcncnicd using sinlc analog circuii cvcn for IigI crfornancc
iorquc conirol cIcacr !
For AC drivcs, iIc iyc of conirollcrs io lc uscd dccnd on iIc rcquircd drivc
crfornancc olviously cosi incrcasc wiiI crfornancc IigI crfornancc rcquirc
rclaiivcly norc conlc conirol iccIniquc (c.g. ficldoricnicd conirol} norc ccnsivc

Pcrfornancc.
In DC noiors, flu and iorquc crcndicular iIus cannoi influcncc onc anoiIcr quicl
iorquc rcsonsc. Pcrfornancc is cccllcni.
AC induciion nacIinc
scalar conirol . iorquc and flu cononcnis of iIc siaior currcni arc coulcd sluggisI
iorquc rcsonsc. Pcrfornancc is ncdiun
vccior conirol. iorquc and flu cononcnis of siaior currcni arc dccoulcd iIus sinilar
io DC drivcs. Pcrfornancc conarallc io iIai of iIc DC drivcs.













4
Torque EquatIons For RotatIng Systems

Loads can lc dirccily coulcd io noior sIafi
iIrougI iransnission sysicns c.g. gcars or lcli sccd rcduccd
iranslaiional noiion
roiaiional noiion

For iIc urosc of analysis and conirollcr dcsign, a conlincd noiorload sysicn can lc
rcrcscnicd ly an cquivalcni roiaiional sysicn.














TIc sysicn can lc dcscrilcd ly a firsi ordcr nccIanical sysicn.


.


If dJ/di 0 (sysicn wiiI consiani incriia}






Tc Moior iorquc (Nn}
Tl Load iorquc (Nn}
J Moncni of incriia conlincd noior load (lgn
2
}
n insianiancous angular vclociiy of noior sIafi (rad/s}



dynanic iorquc rcscni during iransicni, i.c. accclcraiion or dccclcraiion. In
sicady siaic, wIcrc d/di 0 , Tc Tl

For canlc, in ordcr io accclcraic in forward dircciion, iIc nci iorquc, i.c. Tc Tl, nusi lc
osiiivc and io accclcraic in rcvcrsc dircciion, iIc nci iorquc nusi lc ncgaiivc.

Civcn a sccd rofilc of a drivc sysicn, ii is iIcrcforc ossillc io csiinaic iIc rcquircd iorquc
roduccd ly iIc noior, rovidcd iIai iIc load iorquc is lnown. In ordcr io calculaic iIc noior
iorquc, iIc sysicn Ias io lc rcrcscnicd ly iIc cquivalcni roiaiing sysicn as rcviously
dcscrilcd.





Motor Ioad
TI
Te
m
J
( )
dt
J d
T T
m
l e

+ =
( )
dt
J d
m

dt
d
J T T
m
l e

+ =
J
1

+
Tl
Tc

S
Components oI Load Torque, TI

Load iorquc can lc dividcd inio 3 najor cononcnis.

(i} Friciion iorquc, TF

Friciion iorquc cisis duc io iIc friciion lciwccn various noving aris of iIc noior, c.g. ai
iIc sIafi. TF can lc sul-dividcd inio 3 cononcnis.
TV, Viscous friciion rooriional io iIc sccd (Tv D}
TC, Colounl friciion indccndcni of iIc sccd
Ts, Siaiic friciion cisi during siariu

In nosi cascs, Tc and Ts is ncgligilly snall.



















(ii} Windagc iorquc, TW

Causcd ly wind iIai ooscs iIc noiion of iIc noior. TW is dirccily rooriional io iIc
squarc of iIc sccd, TW K
2
. In sonc cascs TW is ncgligilly snall conarcd io TV.

















(iii} Torquc rcquircd for uscful nccIanical worl, TL

TL dccnds on ariicular alicaiion. Ii nay lc consiani or ii nay vary wiiI iinc. Ii nay
dccnds on osiiion nay lc rccaiing ovcr a criod or ii nay noi.

Tc
Ts
Tv
TF
M
M
TF
Tw

6
TIc ovcrall load iorquc, Tl nay lc wriiicn as.

2
C L l
K T D T T + + + =

WiiI TC and K
2
wIicI arc nornally ncgligilly snall, iIis can lc wriiicn as.

+ +

= D T
di
d
J T
L c



Load torque cbaracterIstIcs

Ccncrally, can lc classificd inio iwo iycs.

Actuc oud toquc.
Caallc of driving iIc noior undcr cquililriun. TIc dircciion of aciivc load iorquc is
indccndcni of sccd ii rciain iIc dircciion cvcn wIcn iIc dircciion of roiaiion rcvcrsc ar
cIangc, c.g. graviiy, icnsion or conrcssion undcrgonc ly clasiic lody.

Pussuc oud toquc.
Always ooscs iIc noiion iIc dircciion dccnds on dircciion of roiaiion of iIc noior, c.g.
friciion and windagc.



Four-quadrant operatIon oI a drIve system

TIc T lanc wiiI noior's sIafi cross scciional arca is sIown.






















TIc osiiivc or forward sccd is arliirarily cIoscn in counicrcloclwisc dircciion (ii can also lc
cIoscn as cloclwisc}. TIc osiiivc iorquc is in iIc dircciion iIai will roducc accclcraiion in
forward sccd, as sIown alovc.

TIc lanc is dividcd inio 4 quadranis , iIus 4 nodcs of ocraiion. TIc quadranis arc narlcd as
I, II, III and IV





T
I II
III IV
Tc
Tc
Tc
Tc
?
Quadrani I
DoiI iorquc and sccd arc osiiivc iIc noior roiaics in forward dircciion, wIicI is in iIc sanc
dircciion as iIc noior iorquc. TIc owcr of iIc noior is iIc roduci of iIc sccd and iorquc (P
Tc}, iIcrcforc iIc owcr of iIc noior is osiiivc. Encrgy is convcricd fron clccirical forn io
nccIanical forn, wIicI is uscd io roiaic iIc noior. TIc nodc of ocraiion is lnown as forward
noioring.

Quadrani II
TIc sccd is in forward dircciion lui iIc noior iorquc is in oosiic dircciion or ncgaiivc valuc.
TIc iorquc roduccd ly iIc noior is uscd io 'lralc' iIc forward roiaiion of iIc noior. TIc
nccIanical cncrgy during iIc lraling, is convcricd io clccirical cncrgy iIus iIc flow of cncrgy
is fron iIc nccIanical sysicn io iIc clccirical sysicn. TIc roduci of iIc iorquc and sccd is
ncgaiivc iIus iIc owcr is ncgaiivc, inlying iIai iIc noior ocraics in lraling nodc. TIc
nodc of ocraiion is lnown as forward lraling.

Quadrani III
TIc sccd and iIc iorquc of iIc noior arc in iIc sanc dircciion lui arc loiI ncgaiivc. TIc
rcvcrsc clccirical iorquc is uscd io roiaic iIc noior in rcvcrsc dircciion. TIc owcr, i.c. iIc
roduci of iIc iorquc and sccd, is osiiivc inlying iIai iIc noior ocraics in noioring nodc.
TIc cncrgy is convcricd fron clccirical forn io nccIanical forn. TIis nodc of ocraiion is
lnown as rcvcrsc noioring.


Quadrani IV
TIc sccd is in rcvcrsc dircciion lui iIc iorquc is osiiivc. TIc noior iorquc is uscd io 'lralc'
iIc rcvcrsc roiaiion of iIc noior. TIc nccIanical cncrgy gaincd during iIc lraling is convcricd
io clccirical forn iIus owcr flow fron iIc nccIanical sysicn io iIc clccirical sysicn. TIc
roduci of iIc sccd and iorquc is ncgaiivc inlying iIai iIc noior ocraics in lraling nodc.
TIis nodc of ocraiion is lnown as rcvcrsc lraling.


ReIerences

G.K. Dubey, Fundamental of Electrical Drives, Narosa, 1994.
N. Mohan, Power Electronics: Converters, applications and design John Wiley and Sons, 1995.
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CURRENT RIPPLE FOR UNIPOLAR AND BIPOLAR SWITCHING SCHEMES

TIc ouiui voliagc of a dc-dc owcr convcricr is conoscd of iIc dcsircd avcragc voliagc and ac
cononcnis, or rilc. TIc rilc in ouiui voliagc conscqucnily coniriluics io iIc rilc in
arnaiurc currcni. Ii is cusionary io nininizc iIc currcni rilc in clccirical drivcs for iIc
following rcasons.

a} Torquc is nornally dirccily rclaicd io currcni. TIus, rilc in currcni will causc rilc in iIc
clccironagnciic iorquc. Filc in iorquc will lc rcflccicd in iIc sccd or osiiion rcsonscs,
in ariicular for sysicns wiiI snall incriia.

l} Currcni rilc Ias zcro avcragc valuc and docs noi coniriluic io iIc uscful iorquc
roduciion. Insicad, currcni rilc incrcasc nacIinc Icaiing cddy currcni and Iysicrcsis
losscs.

c} Currcni coniaining IigI rilc nusi lc considcrcd wIcn sclcciing iIc swiicIing dcviccs for
iIc convcricr. A IigI currcni rilc rcquircs IigI raiing of cal currcni for iIc dcviccs.


Currcni rilc is invcrscly rooriional io iIc swiicIing frcqucncy and dirccily rooriional io iIc
inui dc voliagc of iIc convcricr. For iIc sanc iriangular frcqucncy and DC voliagc, uniolar and
liolar swiicIing scIcncs rcsuli in diffcrcni anouni of rilc rcscni in iIc arnaiurc currcni.
TIis can lc analyzcd as follows.

UnIpoIar swItcbIng
TIc ouiui voliagc wiiI uniolar scIcnc swings lciwccn Vdc and 0 or 0 and Vdc voliagcs. Dccausc
of iIc diffcrcni (i.c. invcricd} conirol signals uscd for iIc iwo lcgs in iIc invcricr, iIc frcqucncy of
iIc ouiui voliagc is iwicc iIai of iIc iriangular wavcforn. TIc currcni rilc can lc calculaicd ly
considcring iIc rilc cononcni of iIc ouiui voliagc. TIis is acconlisIcd ly scaraiing an
avcragc and rilc cononcnis of iIc wavcforn as dcicicd in Fig.1. Assuning iIai rilc voliagc
nainly acar across iIc inducior, iIc currcni rilc can lc calculaicd ly using iIc voliagc
currcni rclaiion of an inducior.


























+
irr
Tdal
T
vL
Vdc Vavc
Vdc
T
Vdc Vavc
Vavc
Tiri


TIc currcni rilc calcal is givcn ly.


T d
L
V V
i
al
avc dc
rr

= (1}

TIc avcragc voliagc, Vavc in icrns of ouiui voliagc duiy raiio, dal and criod, T, is givcn ly

Vavc dalVdc (2}

WIicI givcs iIc currcni rilc calcal as.

( )
2
al al
dc
rr
d d
L
T V
i = (3}

Ii can lc sIown iIai iIc nainun rilc calcal is wIcn dal 0.5

Wc Iavc alrcady sccn iIai dal 2da 1 , wIcrc da is iIc duiy raiio of lcg a (osiiivc conirol signal}.
TIcrcforc, iIc nainun calcal currcni rilc occurs wIcn da 0.75. For uniolar swiicIing
scIcnc, iIc criod of iIc iriangular wavcforn is iwicc iIai of iIc ouiui voliagc, i.c. 2TTiri . TIus
iIc nainun rilc currcni can lc csiinaicd as.

( )
L 8
T V
5 . 0 5 . 0
L 2
T V
i
iri dc 2 iri dc
rr
= = (4}


BIpoIar scbeme
In liolar scIcnc, iIc ouiui voliagc swings lciwccn Vdc and Vdc. TIc duiy raiio of lcg a is iIc
sanc as iIc duiy raiio of iIc ouiui voliagc. Again, iIc currcni rilc can lc csiinaicd ly
considcring iIc voliagccurrcni of iIc arnaiurc induciancc. Ii is assuncd iIai all iIc voliagc
rilc acar across iIc inducior.












TIc currcni rilc calcal is givcn ly.


T d
L
V V
i
al
avc dc
rr

= (5}

TIc avcragc voliagc, Vavc in icrns of ouiui voliagc duiy raiio, dal and criod, T, is givcn ly

Vavc (2dal 1}Vdc (6}

WIicI givcs iIc currcni rilc calcal as.
+
Vdc
-Vdc
Vdc - Vavc
Vavc

2
al al
dc
rr
d d
L
T V 2
i = (7}

As in iIc uniolar scIcnc, iIc nainun rilc occurs wIcn dal 0.5

In iIc casc of liolar scIcnc, iIc duiy raiio of iIc ouiui voliagc, dal, is iIc sanc as iIc duiy
raiio of lcg a, da. TIcrcforc, iIc duiy raiio of lcg a is 0.5 ai nainun calcal currcni rilc. For
liolar swiicIing scIcnc, iIc criod of iIc iriangular wavcforn and iIc ouiui voliagc is iIc sanc,
i.c. TTiri . TIus iIc nainun rilc currcni can lc csiinaicd as.

( )
L 2
T V
5 . 0 5 . 0
L
T V 2
i
iri dc 2 iri dc
rr
= = (8}

Equaiions (4} and (8} sIow iIai in uniolar swiicIing scIcnc, iIc nainun currcni rilc is
rcduccd ly four iincs conarcd io iIc currcni rilc in liolar scIcnc.




SPACE VECTOR MODULATION

In contrast to Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM), which treats the 3-phase quantities
separately, in SVM, the 3-phase quantities are treated using single equation known as space vector.
Therefore in terms of microprocessor or digital implementation, SVM gives less computational
burden. The space vector of a 3-phase voltage is defined as:
2 4
j j
3 3
s a b c
2
v v (t) v (t)e v (t)e
3


= + +


,
where v
a
, v
b
and v
c
are the phase voltages.

In 3-phase VSI, there are 8 possible switch configurations, hence there are eight possible voltage
vectors that can be generated or obtained from the VSI. SVM utilized these 8 voltage vectors to
synthesize the reference voltage.



























Given a location of the reference voltage in any of the sectors, the actual voltage can be synthesized,
within a sampling period, by selecting the two adjacent voltage vectors and zero voltage vectors. For
example, if the reference voltage is located in sector 1, voltage vectors v
1
, v
2
, v
0
and v
7
should be
selected. This is illustrated in Figure 2








v
d
*
v
q
*
Space vector
modulator
AC
Motor
+


V
d




Figure 1 Space vector
modulator applied to AC
motor drive





















































(2/3)V
d

Sector 1 Sector 3
Sector 4
Sector 5
Sector 2
Sector 6
(1/3)V
d

[100]
[110]
[010]
[011]
[001]
[101]
*
s
v
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
-100
-50
0
50
100
a
b
c
sector 6 sector 1 sector 2 sector 3 sector 4 sector 5
Figure 3 Sinusoidal
reference voltage
Figure 4 Example of
modulated waveform in
sector 2
000 010 110 111 110 010 000
Phase a
Phase b
Phase c
T T
d
q

Figure 2 Voltage
vectors of a 3-phase
VSI
T
0
T
1 T
2
T
7
The interval for each voltage vector, as shown in Figure 4, is determined by equating volt-second
integral of v
s
with the sum of all voltage vectors within a cycle. Thus, for example in sector 1,

7 7 2 2 1 1 o o s
T v T v T v T v T v + + + =
Note that v
1
and v
2
equal
d
V
3
2
. Thus in terms of d-q components this can be written as:

0 T ) 60 sin j 60 (cos T V
3
2
T V
3
2
0 T T v
7
o o
2 d 1 d o s
+ + + + =

Also, we need to satisfy the time constraint: T= T
0
+ T
1
+ T
2
+ T
7


If we let T
0
= T
7,
we can calculate all the required time intervals. If the angle between the reference
voltage and the adjacent vector (to the right of the reference voltage) equals , it can be shown that
for any sector, the time intervals T
1
and T
2
are given by:

1 s
3 1
T T v cos sin
2 3

=




2 s
T 3 T v sin =

In the above equation, v
s
is the normalized reference vector. The interval for the zero voltage vector is
given by: T
0
+ T
7
= T (T
1
+T
2
). The ratio between T
0
and T
7
essentially control the amount of
triplen harmonic components in the fundamental phase voltage.


Further readings:
PG Handley and JT Boys, Practical real-time PWM modulators: an assessment IEE Proceedings-B,
Vol 139, No. 2 March 1992

W. Leonhard, Control of electrical drives, Springer-Verlag, 1984.


1
DC DRIVES

Pri nc i ple of ope rat i on and c ons t ruc t i on a re vi e w

DC ma ch in e con s is t s of

s t a t or s t a t ion a r y wh er e t h e field flu x is pr odu ced
r ot or r ot a t in g wh er e t h e a r ma t u r e win din g is pla ced.

Field flu x is obt a in ed eit h er fr om per ma n en t ma gn et or fr om field win din g excit a t ion . Field flu x
in t er a ct s wit h cu r r en t ca r r yin g con du ct or s in a r ma t u r e t o pr odu ce t or qu e. Commu t a t or in
a r ma t u r e cir cu it will en s u r e t h a t t h e t or qu e pr odu ct ion is a lwa ys ma ximu m, r ega r dles s of r ot or
pos it ion .



Mode li ng of DC mot or

Th e t or qu e is pr odu ced a s a r es u lt of in t er a ct ion of field flu x wit h cu r r en t in a r ma t u r e
con du ct or s a n d is given by

Te = kt ia (1)

wh er e kt is a con s t a n t depen din g on mot or win din gs a n d geomet r y
is t h e flu x per pole du e t o t h e field win din g

For t h e mot or wit h wou n d field, t h e flu x ca n be va r ied t o con t r ol t h e s peed, bu t for per ma n en t
ma gn et mot or , t h e flu x is fixed a n d t h u s ca n be wr it t en a s :

Te = Kt ia

wh er e Kt depen ds on t h e per ma n en t ma gn et ma t er ia l
Th e dir ect ion of t h e t or qu e pr odu ced depen ds on t h e dir ect ion of t h e a r ma t u r e cu r r en t
Wh en t h e a r ma t u r e r ot a t es , t h e flu x lin kin g t h e a r ma t u r e win din g will va r y wit h t ime a n d
t h er efor e a ccor din g t o Fa r a da ys la w, a n emf will be in du ced a cr os s t h e win din g. Th is gen er a t ed
emf, kn own a s t h e ba ck emf, depen ds on s peed of r ot a t ion a s well a s on t h e flu x pr odu ced by
t h e field a n d is given by:

ea = kt (2)

Simila r ly, for per ma n en t ma gn et , t h is ca n be wr it t en a s :

2
ea = Kt

Th e pola r it y of t h e ba ck emf depen ds on t h e dir ect ion of t h e mot or r ot a t ion


For s epa r a t ely excit ed DC mot or , t h e a r ma t u r e cir cu it is s h own :











Ra lu mped a r ma t u r e win din g r es is t a n ce
La s elf in du ct a n ce of t h e a r ma t u r e win din g
ea a s defin ed befor e, is t h e ba ck emf of t h e mot or

Us in g KVL,

(3)

In s t ea dy s t a t e con dit ion ,

(4)


In t er ms of t or qu e a n d s peed t h e s t ea dy s t a t e equ a t ion ca n be wr it t en a s :

(5)


wh ich gives :

(6)



Th u s t h r ee met h ods ca n be u s ed t o con t r ol t h e s peed: Vt , a n d Ra

Speed con t r ol u s in g a r ma t u r e r es is t a n ce by a ddin g ext er n a l r es is t or Rext is s eldom u s ed,
es pecia lly for la r ge mot or du e t o t h e los s es a s s ocia t ed wit h Ia
2
Rext . Vt is n or ma lly con t r ol for
s peed u p t o r a t ed s peed. Beyon d r a t ed s peed, for s epa r a t ely excit ed DC mot or , t h e s peed con t r ol
is a ch ieved by flu x con t r ol, . Wh en s peed con t r ol by flu x con t r ol is u s ed, t h e ma ximu m t or qu e
ca pa bilit y of t h e mot or is r edu ced s in ce for a given ma ximu m a r ma t u r e cu r r en t , t h e flu x is les s
t h a n t h e r a t ed va lu e a n d t h u s t h e ma ximu m t or qu e pr odu ced is les s t h a n t h e ma xu mu m
t or qu e. Als o it s h ou ld be n ot ed t h a t , wit h per ma n en t ma gn et excit a t ion , s peed con t r ol u s in g
flu x wea ken in g is n ot pos s ible t h u s ma ximu m s peed of per ma n en t ma gn et mot or is limit ed.

Wh en des ign in g con t r oller s for DC mot or dr ives u s ed in s er vo or h igh per for ma n ce a pplica t ion s ,
a s ma ll s ign a l model of t h e mot or is r equ ir ed. A s epa r a t ely excit ed DC mot or wit h fixed field
excit a t ion , or a per ma n en t ma gn et DC mot or , is des cr ibed by equ a t ion s (3), (1) a n d (2). If a s ma ll
per t u r ba t ion a r ou n d a DC oper a t in g poin t is in t r odu ced, t h es e equ a t ion s ca n be wr it t en a s (7)-
(9). Th e ~ in dica t es a s ma ll per t u r ba t ion , wh ich is a dd t o t h e DC compon en t s of vt , ia, ea, Te, TL
a n d :
+

ea


a
a
a a a t
e
dt
di
L R i v + + =
+

vt


R
a
L
a
+

=
t a
t
t
k R
k
T
V
a a a t
E R I V + =
( )
a
2
t
t
t
R
k
T
k
V

=
3


(7)



(8)


(9)


Equ a t ion des cr ibin g t h e dyn a mic of t h e mech a n ica l s ys t em is given by:

(10)

wh er e Tl = TL + B

Tl is t h e loa d t or qu e compos ed of wor kin g t or qu e of t h e loa d, TL a n d t or qu e du e t o fr ict ion , B.
Th e fr ict ion a l t or qu e depen ds on t h e r ot a t ion a l s peed, wh ile TL depen ds on t h e n a t u r e of t h e
loa d bein g dr iven . Simila r ly, if a s ma ll per t u r ba t ion is in t r odu ced in Te a n d TL a n d , equ a t ion
(10) ca n be wr it t en a s :

(11)


Sepa r a t in g t h e DC a n d s ma ll per t u r ba t ion or AC compon en t s in (7)(9) a n d (11), t h e s t ea dy s t a t e
a n d s ma ll s ign a l equ a t ion s des cr ibin g t h e DC mot or ca n be obt a in ed:

















Th e t r a n s fer fu n ct ion of t h e DC mot or is obt a in ed by t a kin g t h e La pla ce t r a n s for m of t h e s ma ll
s ign a l equ a t ion s .


Vt (s ) = Ia(s )Ra + Las Ia + Ea(s ) (12)

Te(s ) = kEIa(s ) (13)

Ea(s ) = kE(s ) (14)

Te(s ) = TL(s ) + B(s ) + s J (s ) (15)


( )
) e
~
E (
dt
i
~
I d
L R ) i
~
I ( v
~
V
a a
a a
a a a a t t
+ +
+
+ + = +
) i I ( k T
~
T
a a E e e
+ = +
)
~
( k e
~
E
E e e
+ = +
dt
d
J T T
m
l e

+ =
dt
)
~
( d
J )
~
( B T
~
T T
~
T
L L e e
+
+ + + + = +
a
a
a a a t
e
~
dt
i
~
d
L R i
~
v
~
+ + =
) i
~
( k T
~
a E e
=
)
~
( k e
~
E e
=
a a a t
E R I V + =
a E e
I k T =
=
E e
k E
dt
)
~
( d
J
~
B T
~
T
~
L e

+ + =
) ( B T T
L e
+ =
AC compon en t s DC compon en t s
4

Th u s t h e block dia gr a m r epr es en t in g t h e DC mot or is s h own :

















Powe r e le c t roni c c onve rt e rs i n DC dri ve s

Th e power elect r on ic con ver t er s a r e u s ed t o obt a in a n a dju s t a ble DC volt a ge a pplied t o t h e
a r ma t u r e of a DC mot or . Th er e a r e ba s ica lly t wo t ypes of con ver t er n or ma lly employed in DC
dr ives : (i) con t r olled r ect ifier (ii) s wit ch mode con ver t er .

(i) Con t r olled r ect ifier
Con t r olled r ect ifier ca n be oper a t ed fr om a s in gle ph a s e or t h r ee ph a s e in pu t
Ou t pu t volt a ge con t a in low fr equ en cy r ipple wh ich ma y r equ ir e a la r ge in du ct or in s er t ed in
a r ma t u r e cir cu it , in or der t o r edu ce t h e a r ma t u r e cu r r en t r ipple. A la r ge a r ma t u r e cu r r en t r ipple
is u n des ir a ble s in ce it ma y be r eflect ed in s peed r es pon s e if t h e in er t ia of t h e mot or loa d is n ot
la r ge en ou gh . Con t r olled r ect ifier h a s low ba n dwidt h . Th e a ver a ge ou t pu t volt a ge r es pon s e t o a
con t r ol s ign a l, wh ich is t h e dela y a n gle, is r ela t ively s low. Th er efor e con t r olled r ect ifier is n ot
s u it a ble for dr ives r equ ir in g fa s t r es pon s e, e. g. in s er vo a pplica t ion s .
In t er ms of qu a dr a n t of oper a t ion s , a s in gle ph a s e or a t h r ee ph a s e r ect ifier is on ly ca pa ble of
oper a t in g in fir s t a n d fou r t h qu a dr a n t s wh ich is n ot s u it a ble for dr ives r equ ir in g for wa r d
br ea kin g mode. To be a ble t o oper a t e in a ll fou r qu a dr a n t s , con figu r a t ion s u s in g ba ck t o ba ck
r ect ifier s or con t a ct or s s h own below mu s t be employed.





















T
k
a a
s L R
1
+
) s ( T
l
) s ( T
e
s J B
1
+
E
k
) s ( I
a
) s ( ) s ( V
a
+
-
-
+
3-phase
supply
3-phase
supply
+

V
a

-
Converter
A

T
Converter
B
Converter
B
Converter
A
Con ver t er A
Con ver t er B
5














(ii) Swit ch mode con ver t er
Swit ch mode con ver t er s n or ma lly oper a t e a t h igh fr equ en cy. As a r es u lt of t h is , (i) t h e a ver a ge
ou t pu t volt a ge r es pon s e is s ign ifica n t ly fa s t er t h a n t h e con t r olled r ect ifier , in ot h er wor ds t h e
ba n dwidt h of a s wit ch mode r ect ifier is h igh er compa r ed t o t h e con t r olled r ect ifier , a n d (ii) t h e
a r ma t u r e cu r r en t r ipple is r ela t ively les s t h a n t h e con t r olled r ect ifier cir cu it wh en t h e s a me
a mou n t of in du ct a n ce pr es en t in t h e a r ma t u r e cir cu it . Th e s wit ch -mode con ver t er is t h er efor e
s u it a ble for a pplica t ion s r equ ir in g pos it ion con t r ol or fa s t r es pon s e, for exa mple in s er vo
a pplica t ion s , r obot ics , et c. In t er ms of qu a dr a n t of oper a t ion s , 3 pos s ible con figu r a t ion s a r e
pos s ible: s in gle qu a dr a n t , t woqu a dr a n t a n d fou r qu a dr a n t con ver t er s t h es e a r e s h own below.































Reference:
N. Mohan, Electric Drives: An integrative approach, University of Minnesota Printing services, 2000.
N. Mohan, Power Electronics: Converters, applications and design John Wiley and Sons, 1995.
Con t a ct or
Single-quadrant
Two-quadrant
Four-quadrant

T
F1 and F2
are closed

F1

F2

R1

R2

R1 and R2
are closed

R1 and R2
are closed

F1 and F2
are closed

Q1
Q1
Q2
Q2
Q3
Q3
Q4
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q4

T
T
T


+ V
a
-
3ph a s e
s u pply
+
v
a



+
v
a



+ v
a

D
C

M
O
T
O
R

D
R
I
V
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S
(
M
E
P

1
4
2
2
)
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r
.

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i
k

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1
MATLAB-BASED DESIGN EXAMPLE OF DC MOTOR DRIVE CONTROLLER

TIc following noics will dcscrilc iIc dcsign roccdurc of iIc rooriional-inicgral (PI} sccd and
currcni conirollcrs for a DC drivc sysicn using MATLAD/SIMULINK. Cascadc conirol siruciurc is
assuncd wIcrc iIc inncr loo is iIc currcni loo. TIc dcsign will siari fron iIc currcni loo
followcd ly iIc sccd loo.

Current Ioop
Parancicrs for iIc noior arc as givcn as in EDIA agc 812. Using iIc lincarizcd nodcl as
sIown in Fig. 1(a}, iIc lodc loi of ocnloo gain of iIc currcni loo is oliaincd using Lncu
Anuss fron SIMULINK and is sIown in Fig 1(l}. TIc loi in Fig. 1(l} is oliaincd wiiI l1 and
li0.

60
Vd Va
Tl
speed
T
Ia
Subsystem Step1
Step
PID
PID Control ler1
PID
PID Control ler
Output Point
Input Poi nt
0.2
1/Vt

(a}

Bode Diagram
Frequency (Hz)
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
From: Input Point To: Output Point
M
a
g
n
it
u
d
e

(
d
B
)
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
-90
-45
0
45
90
P
h
a
s
e

(
d
e
g
)

(l}

Pole-Zero Map
Real Axis
I
m
a
g
in
a
r
y

A
x
is
-350 -300 -250 -200 -150 -100 -50 0
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1

(c}

Fig. 1 Ocn-loo iransgcr funciion of currcni loo wiiIoui iIc PI conirollcr. (a} SIMULINK
llocls rcrcscniing iIc lincarizcd sysicn, (l} Dodc loi of iIc ocn-loo gain, (c} Polcs and zcro
locaiion


2
Ii is dcsircd iIai iIc landwidiI of iIc currcni loo io lc 3.3 lHz. TIc landwidiI is inicniionally
cIoscn an ordcr lowcr iIan iIc iriangular frcqucncy ai 33 lHz. Fron iIc loi of olc/zcro
locaiion in Fig. 1 (c}, iIcrc iwo arc olcs ai 37 rad/s and 348 rad/s. If iIc zcro of iIc PI is sci ai
200 rad/s, iIcn li/l 200 rad/s. If iIc valuc of l is uniiy , iIcn li 200 and iIc loi is sIown
in Fig.2 Noic iIai if li is nonzcro, iIcrc is a olc ai origin.

Bode Diagram
Frequency (Hz)
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
From: Input Point To: Output Point
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

(
d
B
)
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
-180
-135
-90
-45
0
45
90
P
h
a
s
e

(
d
e
g
)

Fig. 2 Ocn loo gain wiiI li 200 and l 1

Fron Fig. 2 ii can lc sccn iIai iIc cross ovcr frcqucncy or iIc landwidiI is ioo low. To incrcasc
iIc landwidiI, iIc valuc of l is incrcascd. Ai iIc sanc iinc, zcro of iIc conirollcr is nainiaincd
ai 200 rad/s ly iIc aroriaic valuc of li. For l of 90, iIc Dodc loi of iIc ocn-loo gain is
sIown in Fig. 3. TIc crossovcr frcqucncy is aloui 3.3lHz wiiI good Iasc nargin.

Bode Diagram
Frequency (Hz)
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
From: Input Point To: Output Point
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

(
d
B
)
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
-180
-135
-90
-45
0
45
90
P
h
a
s
e

(
d
e
g
)

Fig. 3 Torquc ocn loo gain wiiI l incrcascd io 90 in ordcr io incrcasc iIc iorquc landwidiI.

Speed Ioop
TIc landwidiI of iIc sccd loo nusi lc nadc ai lcasi an ordcr lowcr iIan iIc iorquc
landwidiI, i.c. aloui 300 Hz. Dy doing so, wc can assunc iIai iIc closcd-loo iorquc gain is

3
uniiy, wIicI will sinlify iIc dcsign of iIc sccd conirollcr. Using iIis aroinaiion, iIc
arancicrs of iIc PI sccd conirollcr arc nainly dcicrnincd ly iIc viscous friciion D and
noncni of incriia J. TIc Sinulinl llocls sIowing iIis assuniion is givcn in Fig. 4(a}. Fig. 4(l}
sIows iIc Dodc loi of iIc corrcsonding sysicns. Fron iIc figurc ii can lc sccn iIai for
frcqucncy lowcr iIan iIc landwidiI of iIc iorquc loo, iIc gain lois arc alnosi idcniical lui
iIcrc is a snall crror rcscnis in iIc Iasc lois.




1
torque-l oop
PID
speed_control l er
PID
speed control l er
PID
current control l er
60
Vd Va
Tl
speed
T
Ia
Subsystem Step1
0.2
1/Vt
In1Out1
1/(sJ +B)1
In1Out1
1/(sJ +B)




Bode Diagram
Frequency (Hz)
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
200
From: Input Point To: Output Point
M
a
g
n
i t
u
d
e
( d
B
)
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
-180
-135
-90
-45
0
P
h
a
s
e
( d
e
g
)




Fig. 4 Sccd loo dcsign. (a} Torquc loo aroinaicd ly uniiy gain, (l} iIc Dodc loi for iIc
aroinaicd uniiy gain and iIc aciual iorquc loo

TIcrc is a olc ai 0.7 rad/s. TIc zcro of iIc conirollcr can lc sci ai iIis frcqucncy, and iIc gain
is adjusicd io oliain iIc crossovcr frcqucncy of around 200 Hz. TIc Dodc loi of iIc
concnsaicd sccd loo gain is sIown in Fig.5. TIc olc ai origin iniroduccd ly iIc PI conirollcr
will cnsurc zcro sicady siaic crror.

uniiy gain
wiiI iorquc loo
(a}
(l}

4
Bode Diagram
Frequency (Hz)
-50
0
50
100
150
From: Input Point To: Output Point
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

(
d
B
)
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
-135
-90
-45
0
P
h
a
s
e

(
d
e
g
)

Fig. 5 Concnsaicd sccd loo gain (solid linc}
TIc final valucs of arancicrs for iIc conirollcrs arc sunnarizcd lclow.

l li
Torquc conirollcr. 90 18000
Sccd conirollcr. 0.2 0.14

TIcsc valucs arc uscd in iIc largc signal sinulaiion nodc. TIc SIMULINK llocls uscd io crforn
iIc largc signal sinulaiion is sIown in Fig.6 (a}. Uniolar swiicIing scIcnc for iIc convcricr is
uscd in iIc sinulaiion. A squarc wavc sccd rcfcrcncc ai 5 Hz is givcn wiiI iIc iorquc during
accclcraiion is liniicd io 1.5 Nn. TIc sccd and iorquc rcsonscs arc sIown in Fig. 6(l}.

vc_m
To Workspace4
vc
To Workspace3
vtri
To Workspace2
torque
To Workspace1
speed
To Workspace
Out1
Subsystem1
Va
Tl
speed
T
Ia
Subsystem
Step1
Si gnal
Generator
Saturati on1
Rel ay1
Rel ay
PID
PID Control l er1
PID
PID Control l er
-1
Gai n

(a}
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45
-40
-20
0
20
40
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45
-2
-1
0
1
2

(l}

Fig. 6 Largc signal sinulaiion of iIc cascadc conirol siruciurc (a} Sinulinl llols (l} Sccd and
iorquc rcsonscs
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}
Line {
SrcBlock "Sum1"
SrcPort 1
DstBlock "PID Controller"
DstPort 1
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Saturation1"
SrcPort 1
DstBlock "Sum1"
DstPort 1
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Subsystem"
SrcPort 1
Points [120, 0]
Branch {
Points [0, 295; -755, 0]
DstBlock "Sum"
DstPort 2
}
Branch {
DstBlock "To Workspace"
DstPort 1
}
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Gain"
SrcPort 1
Points [5, 0]
http://encon.fke.utm.my/courses/mep1422/dc_m2_large_torque.mdl (13 von 14) [17.05.2005 17:12:11]
Branch {
DstBlock "Sum3"
DstPort 2
}
Branch {
Points [0, 140]
DstBlock "To Workspace4"
DstPort 1
}
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Relay"
SrcPort 1
Points [35, 0]
DstBlock "Sum4"
DstPort 1
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Sum3"
SrcPort 1
DstBlock "Relay1"
DstPort 1
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Relay1"
SrcPort 1
Points [15, 0]
DstBlock "Sum4"
DstPort 2
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Sum4"
SrcPort 1
Points [50, 0; 0, -20]
DstBlock "Subsystem"
DstPort 1
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Subsystem"
SrcPort 2
Points [30, 0]
Branch {
Points [10, 0]
DstBlock "To Workspace1"
DstPort 1
}
Branch {
Points [0, 195; -475, 0]
DstBlock "Sum1"
DstPort 2
}
}
}
}
http://encon.fke.utm.my/courses/mep1422/dc_m2_large_torque.mdl (14 von 14) [17.05.2005 17:12:11]
1
PEMACU MOTOR ARUHAN

Mot or aruhan %LQDDQGDQSULQVLSRSHUDVLUHYLVLRQ
Mot or a r u h a n t er dir i da r i s t a t or da n r ot or
Pa da s t a t or t er da pa t belit a n 3 fa s a ya n g dis a mbu n g kepa da beka la n volt a n 3 fa s a (a , b, da n c)
Seca r a a m, t er da pa t du a jen is r ot or : s qu ir r el ca ge (s a n gka r t u pa i) da n wou n d (ber belit )
















Bila volt a n s in u s oida l t iga fa s a s eimba n g diken a ka n , a ka n t er ben t u k flu ks ma gn et pa da s ela
u da r a ya n g ber pu t a r den ga n kela ju a n :

f 2
p
2
s
r a d/ s (1)

s diken a li s eba ga i fr eku en s i s eger a k (s yn ch r on ou s fr equ en cy)
f ia la h fr eku en s i beka la n t iga fa s a pa da s t a t or
p ia la h bila n ga n ku t u b

Flu x s ela u da r a ber pu t a r in i a ka n men ga r u h ka n dge pa da pen ga lir r ot or . Ar u s a ka n t er h a s il
pa da pen ga lir r ot or da n a ka n ber in t er a ks i den ga n flu ks s ela u da r a ber pu t a r u n t u k
men gh a s ilka n da ya kila s ya n g a ka n memu t a r ka n r ot or . Oleh it u la ju r ot or s en t ia s a ku r a n g da r i
la ju s eger a k.

Per beza a n la ju in i diken a li s eba ga i la ju gelin cir a n (s lip s peed).

s l = s r (2)

Nis ba h la ju gelin cir a n kepa da la ju s eger a k ia la h gelin cir a n .

s
r s
s

(3)

Flu ks s ela u da r a ya n g ber pu t a r ju ga a ka n men ga r u h ka n dge pa da belit a n s t a t or ya n g diken a li
s eba ga i dge ba lika n (ba ck emf) a t a u volt a n s ela u da r a (a ir ga p volt a ge).

Volt a n s ela u da r a ya n g t er a r u h diber i oleh :

Eag = k f ag (4)

J ika Vs ia la h volt a n per -fa s a ya n g diken a ka n pa da belit a n s t a t or da n Is ia la h a r u s belit a n
s t a t or , per s a ma a n lit a r s t a t or ia la h :

a
b
b
c
c
x
x
x


2
Vs = Rs Is + j(2f)Lls + Eag (5)


d. g. e. ya n g t er a r u h pa da r ot or a da la h dis eba bka n oleh flu ks ma gn et ya n g s a ma t a pi pa da
fr eku en s i gelin cir a n da n ia boleh dit u lis s eba ga i:

Er = k s f ag = s Eag (6)

Oleh it u , per s a ma a n u n t u k lit a r r ot or ia la h :

Er = s Eag = Rr Ir + js (2f)Llr (7)

J ika kedu a -du a bela h per s a ma a n diba h a gi den ga n s ,

lr r
r
a g
L ) f 2 ( j I
s
R
E + (8)













Lit a r s et a r a per fa s a


Rs Rin t a n ga n belit a n s t a t or
Rr Rin t a n ga n pen ga lir r ot or
Lls Kea r u h a n bocor belit a n s t a t or
Llr Kea r u h a n bocor belit a n r ot or
Lm Kea r u h a n kema gn et a n
s gelin cir a n


Rot or t ida k mempu n ya i s u mber ku a s a , oleh it u ku a s a ya n g dipin da h ka n da r i lit a r s t a t or ke lit a r
r ot or diken a li s eba ga i ku a s a s ela u da r a (a ir -ga p power ) da n diber i oleh :










Ku a s a meka n ika l boleh dit u lis da la m s ebu t a n da ya kila s da n la ju r ot or s eba ga i:

Pm = Tem r

Ta pi s s = s - r r = (1-s )s
+

Vs


Rs
Lls
Llr
Rr
s
+

Eag


Is Ir
Im
Lm
Hila n g
pa da Rr Dit u ka r kepa da ku a s a meka n ika l
Pm = (1- s )Pag

[ ] s 1
s
R
I 3 R I 3
s
R
I 3 P
r 2
r r
2
r
r 2
r a g
+
3

Pag = Tem s


Oleh it u
s
r
2
r
s
a g
em
s
R I 3
P
T

J ika
( )
lr ls
r
s
s
r
X X j
s
R
R
V
I
+ + +
, da ya kila s boleh dit u lis s eba ga i:


( )
2
lr ls
2
r
s
2
s
s
r
em
X X
s
R
R
V
s
R 3
T
+ +
,
_

Ben t u k la zim cir i T- u n t u k mot or a r u h a n :
























Gelin cir a n s ema s a da ya kila s ma ks imu m diber i oleh :

( )
2
lr ls
2
s
r
m
X X R
R
s
+ +
t


Nila i da ya kila s ma ks ima (pu ll-ou t t or qu e):

( )
1
1
]
1

+ + t

2
lr ls
2
s s
2
s
s
ma x
X X R R
V
s
3
T
0 r at ed s
1 0
r
s
Tm,r at ed
Pu ll ou t
Tor qu e
Tem
4


Kawalan laju mot or aruhan

Ter da pa t beber a pa ka eda h ka wa la n la ju :

(i) Pole ch a n gin g ncnuIar IIIangan IuIuI
La ju s eger a k ber ga n t u n g kepa da bila n ga n ku t u b
Den ga n men u ka r s a mbu n ga n pa da belit a n , bila n ga n ku t u b boleh diu ba h .

(ii) Va r ia ble volt a ge, fixed fr equ en cy
Ma gn it u d volt a n dika wa l, fr eku en s i t et a p, e. g. men ggu n a ka n t r a n s for mer .
























(iii) Va r ia ble ma gn it u de va r ia ble fr equ en cy

Ma gn it u d volt a n beka la n dit u ka r ber ka da r a n den ga n fr eku en s i da n mer u pa ka n ka ea da h ya n g
pa lin g popu la r digu n a ka n da la m pema cu ka wa la n la ju mot or a r u h a n . Un t u k s ya n g kecil da n
ag ya n g t et a p, boleh dit u n ju kka n h u bu n ga n di a n t a r a da ya kila s da n la ju gelin cir a n (s lip s peed)
a da la h lin ea r

Un t u k men geka lka n flu ks s ela u da r a pa da n ila i ka da r a n , bila volt a n diu ba h , fr eku en s i ju ga
per lu diu ba h :

Eag = k f ag

Oleh u n t u k men gh a s ilka n ag ya n g ma la r pa da n ila i ka da r a n , n is ba h
f
E
a g
h a r u s la h ma la r . J ika
keja t u h a n volt a n pa da Rs da n Xls a da la h kecil diba n din gka n den ga n Vs ,

f
V
f
E
s
a g


Volt a n beka la n diu ba h s eca r a ber ka da r a n den ga n la ju a t a u fr equ en s i s eh in gga la ju ka da r a n .

TL
T
r
Lower s peed gives
h igh er s lip les s
efficien t
5
Un t u k > r at ed, ma gn it u d volt a n dit et a pka n t a pi fr eku en s i din a ikka n , oleh it u torque capability
men gu r a n g ker a n a flu ks mu la men gu r a n g



















Bila la ju kecil, keja t u h a n volt a n oleh Rs da n Xls a da la h bes a r jika diba n din gkn den ga n Vs . Oleh
it u kebia s a a n n ya Vs din a ikka n lebih bes a r s edikit (boos t ) s ema s a fr equ en s i r en da h

Cir i T- bila ma gn it u d Vs da n f diu ba h ber ka da r a n





























Ba ga ima n a ka h ma gn it u d da n fr eku en s i dika wa l s er en t a k ?
Men ggu n a ka n Pu ls e Widt h Modu la t ion (PWM) In ver t er


T
T,r at ed
TL
r
r ,r at ed
s ,r at ed
Vs
r
Vs
f
Vs , r at ed
fr at ed
6












Example 1
400 V, 50 Hz 4oIc 1370 r pm
Rs = 2 , Rr = 3 , Xls = Xlr = 3. 5

Mot or is con t r olled by a volt a ge s ou r ce in ver t er wit h con s t a n t V/ f.

Ca lcu la t e:
(a ) Speed for fr equ en cy of 30 Hz a n d 80% of fu ll loa d
(b) Fr equ en cy for a s peed of 1000 r pm a n d fu ll loa d t or qu e
(c) Tor qu e for a fr equ en cy of 40 Hz a n d s peed of 1100 r pm


(a )




















8 . 0 , s lip
r a t ed
r a t ed , s lip
r a t ed
N
T 8 . 0
N
T

Ns lip,r at ed = Ns Nr ,r at ed = 1500 1370 130 rn

r pm 104 ) 130 ( 8 . 0 N
T
T 8 . 0
N
r a t ed , s lip
r a t ed
r a t ed
8 . 0 , s lip



Pa da 30 Hz, la ju s eger a k ia la h 30 x 60 = 1800/ 2 = 900 r pm

Fixed AC.
Va r ia ble volt a ge
Va r ia ble fr eq.
IM
PWM in ver t er
ACDC
(r ect ifier )
Con t r ol
(f a n d V)
50 Hz 30 Hz
Tr at ed
0. 8 Tr at ed
1500
Ra t ed
s lip
s peed
Ns lip,0.8
7
Nr = Ns Ns lip = 900 104 = 796 r pm

(b)



















Ns = 130 + 1000 = 1130 r pm

f = 37. 67 Hz



(c)























Ns = 1200 r pm


Ns lip = 1200 1100 100 rn


50 Hz ? Hz
Tr at ed
1500
Ns lip,ra t ed
= 130
1000 Ns
Ns lip,ra t ed
= 130
r pm
1370
60 f
p
2
N
s

50 Hz 40 Hz
Tr at ed
T = ?
1500
Ns lip,ra t ed
= 130 r pm
1100
Ns
Ns lip
1370
60 f
p
2
N
s

8

T = 0. 769 Tr at ed Tr at ed = ?


Tr at ed diper oleh i da r i :




Tr at ed = 38. 06 Nm

Da ya kila s pa da 40 Hz, la ju 1100 r pm ia la h T = 0. 769 (38. 06) = 29. 267 Nm


Example 2

A 4pole, 3-phase, 50 Hz IM, 1460 rpm has a rated torque of 20 Nm. It is used
to drive a load with characteristic given by T
L
= K
2
, such that the speed
equals rated value at rated torque. If a constant V/Hz control method is used,
find the speed of motor at 0.5 rated torque.

If the starting torque of 1.1 times the rated is required, what should be the
starting frequency?

slip,r
= 1500 1460 = 40 rpm or 4.19 rad/s

a) Load torque is given by:

T
L
= K
2


1460 rpm 152.9 rad/s
20 = K(152.9)
2




100
T
130
T
r a t ed

( )
2
lr ls
2
r
s
2
s
s
r
em
X X
s
R
R
V
s
R 3
T
+ +

,
_

TL = K
2
T
L
(Nm)
(rad/s)
T
rated
Z
slip,r
Z
syn,r
Z
r,r
50 Hz
0.5 T
rated
9
K = 20/(152.9)
2






at 0.5 rated torque, the speed is 108.11 rad/s



Motor T- is obtained as follows:









Therefore at 0.5 T
rated
and speed of 108.11 rad/s





syn
= 110.2 f

= 35 Hz
































At start-up,
2
2
L
9 . 152
20
T
r s yn
e
r , r r , s yn
r a t ed
s lip
r a t ed
T
77 . 4
T T

r syn e
77 . 4 77 . 4 T
) 11 . 108 ( 77 . 4 77 . 4 10
s yn

TL = K
2
T
L
(Nm)
(rad/s)
T
rated
Z
slip,r
Z
syn,r
Z
r,r
50 Hz
1.1(T
rated
)
Z
slip
= Z
syn
19 . 4
T T 1 . 1
r a t ed
s lip
r a t ed

61 . 4 ) 1 . 1 ( 19 . 4
syn syn slip

1 0
SCALAR CONTROL OF IM

We have seen that applying balanced, sinusoidal 3-phase supply to a 3-phase
sinusoidally distributed winding produces a rotating mmf wave and hence
rotating magnetic flux. The rotating magnetic flux will induce emf on the
rotor circuit, which is shorted for squirell cage rotor. Rotor current will
flow and interact with the rotating flux, producing torque.














Per-phase steady state equivalent circuit


To ensure maximum torque capability at all time it is therefore necessary to
maintain the magnetic flux at its rated value at any frequency. From the
steady state equivalent circuit, this is equivalent to maintaining the
magnetizing current at its rated value.

The flux can be maintained constant at its rated by maintaining the ratio E
g
/f
constant. At high speed, where the induced back emf is large, the drop across
the stator leakage and resistance is negligibly small.- therefore E
g
/f is
maintained constant by maintaining V/f constant. However at low speed, the
back emf is low and the drop is significant. Thus the flux is reduced below
rated torque capability is also reduced.


Simulation results with constant V/f



The performance can be improved by:

(i) Boosting the voltage at low frequency:

s
p
e
e
d
-

r
a
d
/
s

t
o
r
q
u
e

-

N
m

Im
Rs
Rr / s
Lr l
Ls l
Lm
+

V


+

Eg


1 1



To accurately boost the voltage, stator current needs to be measured. The
voltage drop drop is calculated and added to stator voltage on-line


ii) Control the stator current such that constant magnetising current is
maintained. This is achieved by using a current-controlled voltage source
inverter.

m
r
lr
r
m lr
1
1
r
m lr
r
lr
m
I
s
R
L j
s
R
) L L ( j
I
I
s
R
) L L ( j
s
R
L j
I
+
+ +

+ +
+

Introducing
r
= rotor leakage factor, which gives, L
lr
=
r
L
m
,

, I
1 T
1
j
1 T j
I
I
s
R
L
1
j
s
R
L j
I
m
r
r
r
s lip
r s lip
1
m
r
r
r
r
r
r
1
+

,
_

,
_

Where T
r
= L
r
/R
r
and
slip
= -
r
= s
The method depends on the rotor parameters, which vary with temperature.


Open-loop V/f control
1 2

For low cost, low performance drive, open-loop constant V/f control is
normally employed. With open-loop speed control, the rotor speed will be less
than the synchronous speed by slip speed. In other words, the desired speed,
*, will differ from the actual speed by slip speed. The slip speed on the
other hand, depends on load. To improve the performance or the speed
regulation, slip speed can be estimated and added to the reference speed
slip compensation technique. Typical arrangement is shown below:




































How is the slip speed estimated?

The slip frequency is proportional to the torque, hence it can estimated by
estimating the torque. The torque is estimated from,

T
e
= P
ag
/
syn
VSI
Rectifier
3-phase
supply
IM
Pulse
Width
Modulator
V
boost

Slip speed
calculator
*
+
+
+
+
V
V
dc
I
dc
Ramp
1 3

P
ag
is

estimated by subtracting the input DC power with the inverter and stator
copper losses.



Closed-loop speed control

Speed regulation can be improved by employing closed-loop speed control system
with tachometer feedback, as shown below.







The reference and actual speed are compared. The error is fed to the speed
controller which defines the inverter frequency. The current limit is
activated only when current exceeds the maximum allowable value. The signal
generated by the current limit block will reduce the rate by which the
inverter frequency is increased. This is to avoid the frequency from reaching
the breakdown frequency.


Further readings:
Power Electronic Control of AC Motors J.M.D. Murphy and F.G. Turnbull,
Pergamon Press



1
Modelling of 3-phase Induction Machine (IM)

The steady state model of IM, which is represented by a steady state per phase equivalent
circuit introduced in the undergraduate courses, describes the steady state behaviour of
the IM. It is used when steady state analysis, such as efficiency, losses, steady state
torque, current, fluxes need to be evaluated. The model assumes input to be a balanced, 3-
phase steady state sinusoidal voltage. If the IM is fed by power electronic converters,
the steady state analysis can be performed by representing the pulse-width modulated
waveform of the inverter using Fourier series. Steady state model of IM is also used to
derive the control signals used for scalar control drives. Since the model only valid in
steady state condition, such drive normally has a poor transient performance. Applications
not requiring good transient response such as fans, blowers or compressors, normally
employ such control technique. Dynamic model on the other hand, describes the transient as
well as the steady state behaviour of the IM. Using the dynamic model, the transients of
IM, which cannot be analysed using steady state equivalent model, can be predicted and
studied. The model can be used to simulate the IM drives and evaluate their transient
performances, including that of using the scalar control technique. Dynamic model is also
essential when developing high performance control techniques for IM drives, such as
vector control or direct torque control drives. A dynamic model of IM must contain effect
of the magnetic coupling between stator phase circuits and the rotor phase circuits, as
well as coupling between phases of each circuit. This will undoubtedly result in a huge
number and complex equations, which are difficult to manage. By using space vector
equations, however, these complex equations are simplified and reduced. We will now
develop a dynamic model of an IM using mathematical equations based on space vectors or
space phasors (these terms will be defined later on).



System equations

Figure 1 shows the conceptual representation of a 3-phase, 2 poles induction machine. The
magnetic axis of each winding is represented by an inductor symbol. As usual the angles
between windings of each phase are 120
o
. The angle between rotors phase a axis and
stators phase a axis is given by
r
. The equation describing the stator and rotor
circuits can be written as:

v
abcs
= R
s
i
abcs
+ d(
abcs
)/dt (1)

v
abcr
= R
r
i
abcr
+ d(
abr
)/dt (2)


where,
(
(
(

=
(
(
(

=
(
(
(

=
cs
bs
as
abcs
cs
bs
as
abcs
cs
bs
as
abcs
i
i
i
i
v
v
v
v and
(
(
(

=
(
(
(

=
(
(
(

=
cr
br
ar
abcs
cr
br
ar
abcr
cr
br
ar
abcr
i
i
i
i
v
v
v
v

It is clear that since the displacements between various windings of all the phases are
non-quadrature, there exists magnetic coupling between them. The stator and rotor flux
linkages (
abcs
and
abcs
)of equations (1) and (2) are contributed by the stator and rotor
currents. Thus:


r , abcs s , abcs abcs
+ = (3)
s , abcr r , abcr abcr
+ = (4)






2

abcs,s
and
abcs,r
are the components of the stator flux linkage caused by stator and rotor
currents (phase a, b and c) respectively, and,
abcr,r
and
abcr,s
are the components of the
rotor flux linkage caused by rotor and stator currents (phase a, b and c) respectively
These flux linkages can be written in terms of the inductances and respective currents.


(
(
(

(
(
(

=
cs
bs
as
cs bcs acs
bcs bs abs
acs abs as
s , abcs
i
i
i
L L L
L L L
L L L
(5)

(
(
(

(
(
(

=
cr
br
ar
cr , cs br , cs ar , cs
cr , bs br , bs ar , bs
cr , as br , as ar , as
r , abcs
i
i
i
L L L
L L L
L L L
(6)


(
(
(

(
(
(

=
cr
br
ar
cr bcr acr
bcr br abr
acr abr ar
r , abcr
i
i
i
L L L
L L L
L L L
(7)


stator, b
rotor, b
rotor, a
stator, a
rotor, c
stator, c
= 0

r

Figure 1
3
(
(
(

(
(
(

=
cs
bs
as
cs , cr bs , cr as , cr
cs , br bs , br as , br
cs , ar bs , ar as , ar
s , abcr
i
i
i
L L L
L L L
L L L
(8)

In equation (5), L
as
, L
bs
and L
cs
are the self inductances of phases a, b and c
respectively. The self inductance consists of magnetising and leakage inductance.

L
as
= L
ms
+ L
ls
. L
bs
= L
ms
+ L
ls
. L
cs
= L
ms
+ L
ls
.

L
abs
, L
bcs
, L
acs
in equation (5), are the mutual inductances between stator phases.

For symmetrical winding, which is normally the case, magnetising and leakage as well as
mutual inductances for each phase are equal.

It can be shown that the magnetizing and the mutual inductances are given by:

|

\
|

|
|

\
|
=
4 g
rl
N L
2
s o ms

2
L
8 g
rl
N L L L
ms 2
s o acs bcs abs
=
|

\
|

|
|

\
|
= = = (9)


Thus equation (5) can be written as:


(
(
(

(
(
(
(
(
(

+
+
+
=
cs
bs
as
ls ms
ms ms
ms
ls ms
ms
ms ms
ls ms
s , abcs
i
i
i
L L
2
L
2
L
2
L
L L
2
L
2
L
2
L
L L
(10)


The mutual inductances between the stator and rotor windings in (6) and (8) depend on the
rotor position,
r
and it can be shown that they can be written as:


( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
(
(
(

(
(
(
(

+
=
cr
br
ar
r r r
r r r
r r r
ms
s
r
r , abcs
i
i
i
cos
3
2
cos
3
2
cos
3
2
cos cos
3
2
cos
3
2
cos
3
2
cos cos
L
N
N
(11)



( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
(
(
(

(
(
(
(

=
cs
bs
as
r r r
r r r
r r r
ms
s
r
s , abcr
i
i
i
cos
3
2
cos
3
2
cos
3
2
cos cos
3
2
cos
3
2
cos
3
2
cos cos
L
N
N
(12)



Space phasors representation of induction machine

Equations (1)-(8) give the complete description of the electrical characteristics of an
induction machine. There are six circuits that describe the 3-phase induction machine and
each of them coupled to one another. Although the determinations of the inductances are
quite straight forward, however, the number of equations involved is large. We will now
develop a model of the induction machine which is based on space phasors or space vectors
and valid under steady state and transient conditions. By doing so, the number of
equations is significantly reduced.
4
If the permeability of the core is assumed infintely large, all the mmf drops will appear
across the airgap. Therefore, the stator airgap MMF of a sinusoidally distributed winding
for phase a can be written as:
) cos( i
2
N
as
s
as
= (13)

is any angle where =0 coincide with the magnetic axis of stator winding phase a. is
the angle in which airgap mmf is maximum. i
as
is the stator phase a current. If = 0 then
equation (9) can be written as:

= cos i
2
N
as
s
as
(14)
Phases b and c are spatially separated from phase a by 120
o
. Thus airgap mmf of phase b
and c are given by:

)
3
2
cos( i
2
N
bs
s
bs

= (15)
)
3
2
cos( i
2
N
cs
s
cs

+ = (16)
The total airgap mmf
)
3
2
cos( i
2
N
)
3
2
cos( i
2
N
cos i
2
N
cs
s
bs
s
as
s
abcs

+ +

+ = (17)

Using Eulers identity and with some mathematical manupulation, it can be shown that:

( ) ( ) { }

+ + + + + =
j
cs
2
bs as
j
cs bs
2
as
s
abcs
e i a ai i e ai i a i
4
N
(18)

where a = e
j(2/3)

This can be further reduced or written as:

{ }

+ =
j *
s
j
s
s
abcs
e i e i
4
N
2
3
(19)

The term
s
i is defined as the space phasor or complex space vector of the stator current.
It is given by:

( )
cs
2
bs as s
i a ai i
3
2
i + + = (20)

The physical current can be obtained from the space phasor by separating the space phasor
into its real and imaginary part. In most cases we can assume that i
as
+ i
bs
+ i
cs
= 0.
( )
|
|

\
|
+ =
|
|

\
|
+ + =
+ + + + =
) i i (
3
1
j i
) i i (
2
3
j ) i i (
2
1
i
3
2
) 240 sin j 240 (cos i ) 120 sin j 120 (cos i i
3
2
i
cs bs as
cs bs cs bs as
cs bs as s



Thus
[ ]
s as
i Re i = (21)

Similarly it can be shown that

5
[ ]
s
2
ls
i a Fc i = and [ ]
s cs
i a Fc i = (22)


Similar definitions can be made to the stator voltage, rotor current, stator flux and
rotor flux. Equations (1) and (2) therefore can be written as:

di
d
i F v
s
s s s

+ = (23)
dt
d
i R v
r
r r r

+ = (24)

s
is composed of components caused by stator and rotor currents as given by (3). In
space phasors, (3) can be written as:

r , s s , s s
+ = (25)

s , s
is obtained by multiplying second and third rows of (5) with a and a
2
respectively.
Similarly,
r , s
can be obtained from (6). With some mathematical manipulations, it can be
shown that:

r
j '
r m s s s
e i L i L

+ = (26)

Where L
s
= L
ls
+ L
m
, L
m
= 3/2L
ms
and
r
s
r '
r
i
N
N
i =
Similarly, it can be shown that the rotor flux linkage can be written as:

r j
s m
'
r r
'
r
e i L i L

+ = (27)

Note that the rotor current in (26) (i.e.
'
r
i ) , is the space vector referred to the
rotating rotor reference frame. However, the d and q components of
r j '
r
e i

are expressed in
the stator stationary reference frame. This is illustrated in Figure 2. Therefore we can
define the rotor current referred to the stator stationary frame as

r
j '
r
s
r
e i i

= (28)

Equation (26) can be written in stationary stator reference frame as:

s
r m
s
s s
s
s
i L i L + = (29)

Where the superscript s referred to the stator reference frame.















r j '
r
'
r
e i i

=
) r r ( j '
r
s
r
e i i
+
=

r
d
r
q
r
q
s
d
s
i
s
dr
i
s
qr

r
'
r
i
Figure 2
6
Similarly the term
r j
s
e i

in (27) is the stator current referred to rotating rotor frame.
This is illustrated in Figure 3.















Re-writing equations (23),(24),(26) and (27), the space vector equations to describe the
squirrel cage IM written in stationary stator frame can be written as follows:


dt
d
i R v
s
s s
s s
s
s

+ = (30a)
s
r r
s
r s
r r
j
dt
d
i R 0

+ = (31a)
s
r m
s
s s
s
s
i L i L + = (32a)
s
s m
s
r r
s
r
i L i L + = (33a)


In a general reference frame rotating at angular speed of , these equations can be
written as:

g
s g
g
s g
s s
g
s
j
dt
d
i R v +

+ = (30b)
g
r r g
g
r g
r r
) ( j
dt
d
i R 0 +

+ = (31b)
g
r m
g
s s
g
s
i L i L + = (32b)
g
s m
g
r r
g
r
i L i L + = (33b)


Torque equation

The product of the stator voltage and conjugate stator current space vectors is given by:

( ) ( )
cs bs
2
as cs
2
bs as
*
s s
ai i a i
3
2
v a av v
3
2
i v + + + + = (34)

After some mathematical manipulations, with the three phase currents sum to zero, it can
be shown that:

[ ] ( )
cs cs bs bs as as
*
s s
i v i v i v
3
2
i v Re + + = (35)

r
d
r
q
r
q
s
d
s
i
r
ds
i
r
qs

s
s
i
s j
s s
e i i

=
) r s ( j
s
r
s
e i i

=
Figure 3
7
For a three phase induction machine without a neutral return, the power into the machine
can be written as:

[ ] ( ) [ ] ( )
*'
r
'
r
*
s s e
i v Re
2
3
i v Re
2
3
P + = (36)

Replacing the voltage vectors expressed in rotating general reference frame, it can be
shown that equation (36) can be expressed as:

[ ]
)
`

+
(

+ + + + +
(

+ + + + + =
'*
r s m
2
'
r m ls r
*
s r m
2
s m ls
2
'
r s m
2
'
r
'
lr
2
s
ls
2
'
r r
2
s s e
i i L i ) L L ( ) ( j i i L i ) L L ( j Re
2
3
i i L i
2
L
i
2
L
p
2
3
i r
2
3
i r
2
3
P
(37)

Equation (37) can be divided into three terms:

(i) Power dissipated in stator and rotor resistances
(ii) Time rate of change of stored energy
(iii) Power conversion from electrical to mechanical responsible for torque
production


[ ]
)
`

+ + + + + =
'*
r s m
2
'
r m ls r
*
s r m
2
s m ls mech
i i L i ) L L ( ) ( j i i L i ) L L ( j Re
2
3
P (38)

The first and third terms of (38) have only imaginary components. Thus,


[ ] { } [ ] { }
'*
r s m r
'*
r s m
*
s r m
'*
r s m r
*
s r m mech
i i L j i i L i i L ( j Re
2
3
i i L ) ( j i i L ( j Re
2
3
P + = + = (39)

Since the term
'*
r s m
*
s r m
i i L i i L + has no imaginary part, the mechanical power reduces to:


{ }
'*
r s m r mech
i i L j Re
2
3
P = (40)

Which can also be written as:

{ }
'*
r s m r mech
i i L Im
2
3
P = (41)

OR

[ ]
'
qr ds
'
dr qs m r mech
i i i i L
2
3
P = (42)


The mechanical power is the product of torque and speed, and the mechanical rotor speed is
related to the rotor speed as
r
= (p/2)
rm
, thus from (42)


[ ]
'
qr ds
'
dr qs m e
i i i i L
2
p
2
3
T = (43)





8
Simulation of induction machine (IM) with MATLAB/SIMULINK

For the purpose of simulation and microprocessor implementation, the space vectors
representation of the induction machine is converted to its equivalent d-q axis form.
Transforming equations (30)(33) to their equivalent d-q axis forms in stationary
reference frame (
g
= 0), and re-arranging them into matrix form, the following is
obtained:


(
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(

+
+
+
+
=
(
(
(
(
(

rq
rd
sq
sd
r r r r m m r
r r r r m r m
m s s
m s s
rq
rd
sq
sd
i
i
i
i
sL R L sL L
L sL R L sL
sL 0 sL R 0
0 sL 0 sL R
v
v
v
v
(44)


sin (44) represents the derivative operator d/dt. The space vectors equations can also
be put into state space forms with the choice of flux linkages or currents as state
variables. If the stator and rotor currents are chosen as the state variables, re-
arranging (44) the IM equation can be written as:


(

(
(
(
(

+
(
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(
(

sq
sd
m
m
r
r
s r
2
m
rq
rd
sq
sd
s r s r r m s s m r
s r r s r s m r m s
m r r m r r s
2
m r
r m r m r sq
2
m r r s
s r
2
m
rq
rd
sq
sd
v
v
L 0
0 L
L 0
0 L
L L L
1
i
i
i
i
L R L L L R L L
L L L R L L L R
L R L L L R L
L L L R i L L R
L L L
1
i
i
i
i

(45)


Equations (43),(45) along with the mechanical torque equation, can be used to simulate the
IM using SIMULINK. The SIMULINK blocks used to simulate the IM is shown in Figure 4.



q
8
Te
7
Vq
6
i rq
5
Vd
4
speed
3
i rd
2
i sq
1
i sd
Sum
Mux
Mux
1/s
Integrator
In1 Out1
IM1
-K-
Gai n2
-K-
Gai n1
Demux
Demux
Tl oad
Constant
3to2
-K-
1/J1
-K-
1/J
3
Vc
2
Vb
1
Va

Figure 4
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}
Line {
SrcBlock "1/J"
SrcPort 1
Points [0, 0; -25, 0]
Branch {
Points [0, -175]
DstBlock "Mux"
DstPort 3
}
Branch {
Points [-15, 0; 0, 75]
Branch {
Points [0, 40]
DstBlock "Gain1"
DstPort 1
}
Branch {
DstBlock "load_C"
DstPort 1
}
}
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Mux"
SrcPort 1
DstBlock "IM1"
DstPort 1
}
Line {
SrcBlock "IM1"
SrcPort 1
DstBlock "Demux"
DstPort 1
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Sum"
SrcPort 1
DstBlock "Integrator"
DstPort 1
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Integrator"
SrcPort 1
DstBlock "1/J"
DstPort 1
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Demux"
SrcPort 3
Points [30, 0; 0, 75]
DstBlock "irq"
DstPort 1
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Demux"
SrcPort 4
Points [25, 0; 0, 20]
DstBlock "ird"
DstPort 1
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Gain1"
SrcPort 1
Points [0, 0]
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DstBlock "speed"
DstPort 1
}
Line {
SrcBlock "load_C"
SrcPort 1
Points [145, 0; 0, -75]
DstBlock "Sum"
DstPort 2
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Constant"
SrcPort 1
DstBlock "Sum"
DstPort 3
}
Annotation {
Name "q"
Position [482, 87]
VerticalAlignment "top"
}
}
}
Block {
BlockType Reference
Name "Manual Switch"
Ports [2, 1]
Position [150, 232, 180, 268]
SourceBlock "simulink/Signal\nRouting/Manual Switch"
SourceType "Manual Switch"
sw "0"
action "0"
}
Block {
BlockType Mux
Name "Mux"
Ports [2, 1]
Position [660, 41, 665, 79]
ShowName off
Inputs "2"
DisplayOption "bar"
}
Block {
BlockType RateLimiter
Name "Rate Limiter"
Position [170, 115, 200, 145]
RisingSlewLimit "50"
FallingSlewLimit "-50"
}
Block {
BlockType Scope
Name "Scope"
Ports [3]
Position [735, 104, 765, 136]
Location [357, 69, 795, 439]
Open on
NumInputPorts "3"
List {
ListType AxesTitles
axes1 "%<SignalLabel>"
axes2 "%<SignalLabel>"
axes3 "%<SignalLabel>"
}
List {
ListType SelectedSignals
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axes1 ""
axes2 ""
axes3 ""
}
TimeRange "1.5"
YMin "-10~-20~-50"
YMax "80~20~50"
DataFormat "StructureWithTime"
}
Block {
BlockType Scope
Name "Scope1"
Ports [4]
Position [455, 271, 490, 364]
Location [6, 204, 444, 564]
Open on
NumInputPorts "4"
List {
ListType AxesTitles
axes1 "%<SignalLabel>"
axes2 "%<SignalLabel>"
axes3 "%<SignalLabel>"
axes4 "%<SignalLabel>"
}
List {
ListType SelectedSignals
axes1 ""
axes2 ""
axes3 ""
axes4 ""
}
TimeRange "1.5"
YMin "-400~-400~-400~-5"
YMax "400~400~400~60"
SaveName "ScopeData1"
DataFormat "StructureWithTime"
}
Block {
BlockType Reference
Name "Slider\nGain1"
Ports [1, 1]
Position [100, 115, 130, 145]
SourceBlock "simulink/Math\nOperations/Slider\nGain"
SourceType "Slider Gain"
low "0"
gain "0.07"
high "1"
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Induction Machine"
SrcPort 8
Points [55, 0; 0, -60]
DstBlock "Scope"
DstPort 2
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Induction Machine"
SrcPort 2
Points [190, 0]
DstBlock "Scope"
DstPort 3
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Slider\nGain1"
SrcPort 1
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DstBlock "Rate Limiter"
DstPort 1
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Constant"
SrcPort 1
DstBlock "Slider\nGain1"
DstPort 1
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Constant V/Hz"
SrcPort 2
Points [0, 0; 70, 0]
Branch {
DstBlock "Induction Machine"
DstPort 2
}
Branch {
Points [0, 175]
DstBlock "Scope1"
DstPort 2
}
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Constant V/Hz"
SrcPort 1
Points [55, 0; 0, -20; 35, 0]
Branch {
DstBlock "Induction Machine"
DstPort 1
}
Branch {
Points [0, 195]
DstBlock "Scope1"
DstPort 1
}
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Constant V/Hz"
SrcPort 3
Points [0, 0; 40, 0]
Branch {
Points [15, 0; 0, 20]
DstBlock "Induction Machine"
DstPort 3
}
Branch {
Points [0, 175]
DstBlock "Scope1"
DstPort 3
}
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Rate Limiter"
SrcPort 1
Points [0, 0; 10, 0]
Branch {
Points [0, 225]
DstBlock "Scope1"
DstPort 4
}
Branch {
Points [25, 0]
Branch {
Points [15, 0]
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DstBlock "Constant V/Hz"
DstPort 1
}
Branch {
Points [0, -80]
DstBlock "Gain"
DstPort 1
}
}
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Constant1"
SrcPort 1
Points [0, -30]
DstBlock "Manual Switch"
DstPort 2
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Constant2"
SrcPort 1
DstBlock "Manual Switch"
DstPort 1
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Manual Switch"
SrcPort 1
Points [70, 0]
DstBlock "Constant V/Hz"
DstPort 2
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Mux"
SrcPort 1
Points [50, 0]
DstBlock "Scope"
DstPort 1
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Induction Machine"
SrcPort 4
Points [115, 0]
DstBlock "Mux"
DstPort 2
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Gain"
SrcPort 1
DstBlock "Mux"
DstPort 1
}
}
}
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/*
* sfuntmpl.c: Template C S-function source file.
*
* -------------------------------------------------------------------------
* | See matlabroot/simulink/src/sfuntmpl.doc for a more detailed template |
* -------------------------------------------------------------------------
*
* Copyright (c) 1990-97, by The MathWorks, Inc.
* All Rights Reserved
* $Revision 1.1 $
*/
/*
* You must specify the S_FUNCTION_NAME as the name of your S-function.
*/
#define S_FUNCTION_NAME imch
/* Input Arguments */
/*
* Need to include simstruc.h for the definition of the SimStruct and
* its associated macro definitions.
*/
/* #include "tmwtypes.h" */
#include "tmwtypes.h"
#include "simstruc.h"
#define Rs ssGetArg(S,0)
#define Rr ssGetArg(S,1)
#define Ls ssGetArg(S,2)
#define Lr ssGetArg(S,3)
#define Lm ssGetArg(S,4)
#define pole ssGetArg(S,5)
/*====================*
* S-function methods *
*====================*/
/* Function: mdlInitializeSizes ===============================================
* Abstract:
*
* The sizes information is used by SIMULINK to determine the S-function
* block's characteristics (number of inputs, outputs, states, etc.).
*
*/
static void mdlInitializeSizes(SimStruct *S)
{
ssSetNumContStates( S, 4); /* number of continuous states */
ssSetNumDiscStates( S, 0); /* number of discrete states */
ssSetNumInputs( S, 3); /* number of inputs */
ssSetNumOutputs( S, 5); /* number of outputs */
ssSetDirectFeedThrough(S, 0); /* direct feedthrough flag */
ssSetNumSampleTimes( S, 1); /* number of sample times */
ssSetNumInputArgs( S, 6);
ssSetNumRWork( S, 0); /* number of real work vector elements */
ssSetNumIWork( S, 0); /* number of integer work vector elements*/
ssSetNumPWork( S, 0); /* number of pointer work vector elements*/
ssSetNumModes( S, 0); /* number of mode work vector elements */
ssSetNumNonsampledZCs( S, 0); /* number of nonsampled zero crossings */
ssSetOptions( S, 0); /* general options (SS_OPTION_xx) */
}
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/* Function: mdlInitializeSampleTimes =========================================
*/
static void mdlInitializeSampleTimes(SimStruct *S)
{
ssSetSampleTime(S, 0, CONTINUOUS_SAMPLE_TIME);
ssSetOffsetTime(S, 0, 0.0);
}
/* Function: mdlInitializeConditions ==========================================
* Abstract:
*
* In this function, you should initialize the continuous and discrete
* states for your S-function block. The initial states are placed
* in the x0 variable. You can also perform any other initialization
* activities that your S-function may require.
*/
static void mdlInitializeConditions(real_T *x0, SimStruct *S)
{
int i;
for (i=0; i<4; i++){
*x0++ = 0.0;
}
}
/* Function: mdlOutputs =======================================================
* Abstract:
*
* In this function, you compute the outputs of your S-function
* block. The outputs are placed in the y variable.
*/
static void mdlOutputs(real_T *y, const real_T *x, const real_T *u,
SimStruct *S, int_T tid)
{
double lm;
double pl;
lm = mxGetPr(Lm)[0];
pl = mxGetPr(pole)[0];
y[0]=x[0];
y[1]=x[1];
y[2]=x[2];
y[3]=x[3];
y[4]=1.5*(pl/2)*lm*((x[0]*x[3])-(x[1]*x[2]));
}
static void mdlUpdate(real_T *x, const real_T *u, SimStruct *S, int_T tid)
{
}
/* Function: mdlDerivatives ===================================================
* Abstract:
*
* In this function, you compute the S-function block's derivatives.
* The derivatives are placed in the dx variable.
*/
static void mdlDerivatives(real_T *dx, const real_T *x, const real_T *u,
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SimStruct *S, int_T
tid)
/* x0=iq x1=id x2= iqr x3= idr u0=vq u1=vd u2=w */
{
double lr,ls,rr,rs,lm,a;
lm = mxGetPr(Lm)[0];
lr = mxGetPr(Lr)[0];
ls = mxGetPr(Ls)[0];
rr = mxGetPr(Rr)[0];
rs = mxGetPr(Rs)[0];
a=1/(lm*lm-lr*ls);
dx[0]=(u[2]*lm*lm*x[1]+rs*lr*x[0]+u[2]*lr*lm*x[3]-rr*lm*x[2]-lr*u[0])*a;
dx[1]=(rs*lr*x[1]-u[2]*lm*lm*x[0]-rr*lm*x[3]-u[2]*lr*lm*x[2]-lr*u[1])*a;
dx[2]=-(u[2]*lm*ls*x[1]+rs*lm*x[0]+u[2]*lr*ls*x[3]-rr*ls*x[2]-lm*u[0])*a;
dx[3]=-(rs*lm*x[1]-u[2]*lm*ls*x[0]-rr*ls*x[3]-u[2]*lr*ls*x[2]-lm*u[1])*a;
}
/* Function: mdlTerminate =====================================================
* Abstract:
*
* In this function, you should perform any actions that are necessary
* at the termination of a simulation. For example, if memory was allocated
* in mdlInitializeConditions, this is the place to free it.
*/
static void mdlTerminate(SimStruct *S)
{
/*
* YOUR CODE GOES HERE
*/
}
/*======================================================*
* See sfuntmpl.doc for the optional S-function methods *
*======================================================*/
/*=============================*
* Required S-function trailer *
*=============================*/
#ifdef MATLAB_MEX_FILE /* Is this file being compiled as a MEX-file? */
#include "simulink.c" /* MEX-file interface mechanism */
#else
#include "cg_sfun.h" /* Code generation registration function */
#endif
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FIELD-ORIENTED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MACHINE

TIc sicady siaic nodcl of induciion nacIinc (cr Iasc cquivalcni circuii} dcscrilcs iIc sicady
siaic lcIavior of iIc nacIinc. TIis nodcl cannoi lc uscd io nodcl iIc iransicni siaic of iIc
nacIinc. TIc nodcl, wIicI can lc uscd io dcscrilc iIc dynanic or iransicni lcIavior of an IM, is
ncccssary if wc arc io dcvclo conirol siraicgics for IigI crfornancc drivc sysicn, sucI as
ficldoricnicd conirol or dircci iorquc conirol. TIc dynanic nodcl of iIc IM will lc lascd on
conlc sacc vccior or sacc Iasor cquaiions.


Space Pbasor EquatIons

TIc analysis of iIc 3Iasc synncirical induciion nacIinc is norc convcnicnily carricd oui in
icrns of conlc sacc vcciors, or sacc Iasor quaniiiics. TIc sacc Iasor is a ncans of
rcrcscniing any of iIc iIrcc Iasc variallcs (currcnis, voliagcs, nnf or flucs} ly a singlc vccior
wIicI roiaics in sacc and is valid for loiI sicady siaic and iransicni ocraiions. Oncc in sacc
Iasor forns, iIc quaniiiics can lc casily crcsscd in iIcir iwo-ais forns (d-q acs}.

In gcncral if xa, xl, and xc arc iIc iIrcc Iasc quaniiiics, iIc sacc Iasor iIc 3 Iasc sysicns is
dcfincd as.

( )
c
2
l a
a a
3
2
+ + = , wIcrc u c
2

/J
(1}

TIc cocfficicni 2/3 in (2.1} corrcsonds io iIc non-ouc nuuunt or untudc nuuunt
dcfiniiion of iIc sacc Iasor. In icrns of iis d and q acs, iIc sacc Iasor can lc convcnicnily
crcsscd as follows.

q d
j + = (2}

TIc d and q ais cononcnis arc rclaicd io iIc iIrcc Iasc quaniiiics ly scaraiing iIc
inaginary and rcal icrns of (2.1}, i.c.,

[ ] ( ) |

\
|
=
(

+ + = =
c l a c
2
l a d

2
1

2
1

3
2
a a
3
2
Fc Fc (3}

[ ] ( ) ( )
c l c
2
l a q

3
1
a a
3
2
In In =
(

+ + = = (4}




Vector rotatIon

TIc siaior currcni sacc Iasor, crcsscd in siaiionary rcfcrcncc franc is givcn ly.

( )
sc
2
sl sa s
i a ai i
3
2
i + + = (5}

TIis cquaiion can lc wriiicn in a olar forn as follows.

s
j
s s
c i i

= (6}

Sinilarly, roior currcni crcsscd in roior rcfcrcncc franc (wIicI is roiaiing ai r} can lc wriiicn
as.
( )
rc
2
rl ra r
i a ai i
3
2
i + + = (7}

And iis corrcsonding olar forn as.

r
j
r r
c i i

= (8}

TIc siaior and roior currcnis arc graIically sIown in Figurc 1. ds-qs and dr-qr arc iIc d and q
acs of iIc siaiionary siaior rcfcrcncc franc and iIc roiaiing roior rcfcrcncc franc, rcscciivcly.
















Figurc 1

Ii can sccn fron iIc figurc iIai iIc roior currcni can lc crcsscd in siaior siaiionary franc ly
sinly rcsolving ii io iIc d and q acs of iIc siaiionary franc, iIus

( ) ( ) + + + =
r r r r
s
r
sin ji cos i i

=
j j
r
s
r
e e i i
r

=
j
r
s
r
c i i (9}


Lilcwisc, iIc siaior currcni can lc crcsscd in iIc roiaiing roior franc.

( ) ( ) + =
r s r s
r
s
sin ji cos i i

=
j
s
j
s
r
s
c c i i (10}


=
j
s
r
s
c i i (11}

j
c and
j
c arc lnown as iIc uccto otutos


InductIon MacbIne EquatIons In Space Pbasor

TIc IM can lc crcsscd using sacc Iasors ly iIc following cquaiions.

g
s g
g
s g
s s
g
s
j
di
d
i F v +

+ = (12}
s
r
r
dr
qr
qs
ds
ir
is

g
r r g
g
r g
r r
} ( j
di
d
i F 0 +

+ = (13}
g
r n
g
s s
g
s
i L i L + = (14}
g
s n
g
r r
g
r
i L i L + = (15}

wIcrc ( )
sc
2
sl sa
g
s
v a v v
3
2
v + + = is iIc siaior voliagc sacc Iasor crcsscd in gcncral rcfcrcncc.
Sinilar dcfinaiions Iold for
g
r
g
r
, i and
g
s
. TIc sucrscrii 'g' siands for gcncral rcfcrcncc franc.
If iIc cquaiions arc crcsscd in iIc siaiionary siaior rcfcrcncc franc, iIcn g 0 and can lc
wriiicn as.

di
d
i F v
s
s s
s s
s
s

+ = (16}
s
r r
s
r s
r r
j
di
d
i F 0

+ = (17}
s
r n
s
s s
s
s
i L i L + = (18}
s
s n
s
r r
s
r
i L i L + = (19}

In cquaiions (16}(19}, all quaniiiics arc wriiicn in iIc siaiionary siaior rcfcrcncc franc.


FIeId OrIented ControI oI IM

TIc clccironagnciic iorquc can lc crcsscd in scvcral forns. Ii can lc sIown iIai iIai iorquc
can lc crcsscd as.

s s c
i
2

2
3
T = (20}

Dy sulsiiiuiing iIc siaior flu linlagc crcsscd in siaior and roior currcnis, iIc iorquc can lc
wriiicn as.

( )
s r n s s s s c
i i L i L
2

2
3
i
2

2
3
T + = = (21}

WIicI sinlifics io.

} i i i i ( L
2

2
3
T
sd rq sq rd n c
= (22}

TIc iorquc cquaiion can also lc wriiicn in icrns of roior flu and siaior currcnis.

s r
r
n
c
i
L
L
2

2
3
T = (23}

In d-q ais, (23} is givcn ly (24},

} i i (
L
L
2

2
3
T
sd rq sq rd
r
n
c
= (24}

Equaiion (24} rcrcscnis iorquc cquaiion crcsscd in a gcncral rcfcrcncc franc. TIis ncans iIai
iIc d-q ais of iIc roior flu and siaior currcni can lc roiaiing, ai any sccd.

In FOC wiiI roior flu oricniaiion, iIc iorquc crcssion of cquaiion (24} is uscd and iIc cIoscn
rcfcrcncc franc is sucI iIai iIc d-ais coincidcs wiiI iIc roior flu nodulus wIicI roiaics ai
syncIronous sccd (Figurc 2}. TIis ncans iIai iIc q cononcni of iIc roior flu is zcro, i.c.

r
rd r

=

0
r
rq
=

TIcrcforc (24} can lc wriiicn as.

r
sq r
r
n
c
i
L
L
2

2
3
T

= (25}














Figurc 2

TIc valucs of iIc d and q cononcnis of iIc roior flu and siaior currcnis arc consianis in iIis
roiaiing rcfcrcncc franc. TIus iIc iorquc crcssion in (25}, as sccn in iIis rcfcrcncc franc, is
sinilar io iIc iorquc cquaiion of a scaraicly cciicd DC noior (cquaiion (25(l}},

Tc,dc lifia( (25l}

In DC noior, iIc ficld is ficd and iIc iorquc is conirollcd ly conirolling iIc arnaiurc currcni in
ordcr io oliain a fasi iorquc rcsonsc. Sinilarly, in FOC, iIc flu is ficd and a fasi iorquc
rcsonsc is oliaincd ly conirolling iIc q cononcni of iIc siaior currcni.
r
sq
i

.
TIc iorquc in (25}, is crcsscd in iIc syncIronous rcfcrcncc franc. For inlcncniaiion, iIc
rcfcrcncc valucs in iIis roiaiing franc nccd io lc crcsscd in iIc siaiionary rcfcrcncc franc. To
do iIc iransfornaiion, wc nccd io lnow iIc caci osiiion of iIc roior flu. TIcrc arc iwo
iccIniqucs wIicI can lc uscd io oliain iIc roior flu osiiion, wIicI sulscqucnily classifics iIc
FOC inio iwo iycs.

(i} Indircci FOC

Fron (13},
g
r r g
g
r g
r r
} ( j
di
d
i F 0 +

+ =

Sulsiiiuiing iIc roior currcni in (15}, wc Iavc,

r

r
d

r
q

s
i
r
sd
i

r
sq
i

s
sd
i
s
sq
i
s
d
s
q
g
r r g
g
r g
s
r
r n g
r
r
r
} ( j
di
d
i
L
F L
L
F
0 +

+ = (26}

In roior flu rcfcrcncc franc (
r
rd r

= dan 0
r
rq
=

}, cquaiion (26} can lc wriiicn as.

( )
r sli
r r
sq
r
sd
r
r n
r
r
r
} ( j
di
d
ji i
L
F L
L
F
0 +

+ + =

(27}

Scaraiing iIc rcal and inaginary aris.

di
d
i
L
F L
L
F
0
r r
sd
r
r n
r
r
r

+ =

(28}

r sli
r
sq
r
r n
} ( i
L
F L
0 + =

(29}


For indircci FOC, iIc syncIronous sccd is oliaincd ly adding iIc sli sccd (oliain fron iIc
rcfcrcnccs} io iIc ncasurcd roior osiiion (ii sIould lc noicd iIai iIc roior osiiion can also lc
csiinaicd fron iIc icrninal variallcs or oiIcrwisc}. Any diffcrcnccs lciwccn iIc csiinaicd and
aciual valucs will dcgradc iIc drivc crfornanccs.

(ii} Dircci FOC

In dircci FOC drivc, iIc roior flu osiiion is oliaincd ciiIcr ly ncasurcncni or csiinaiion using
nacIinc cquaiions, lascd on iIc icrninal variallcs (i.c. currcnis and voliagcs}. TIc forncr is also
lnown as iIc flu nodcl or olscrvcr. Nowadays, Iowcvcr, wiiI iIc availaliliiy of fasi
nicroroccssors, iIc flu is nornally csiinaicd in rcal iinc using fasi digiial signal roccssors.
TIc flu can lc csiinaicd fron (26} iIis ncans iIai iIc nodcl rcquircs roior sccd and siaior
currcni as iIc inuis.

Figurc 3
Indircci FOC



Figurc 4

ReIerences

Novoiny, D.W, and Lio, T.A. (1998}. Vccior conirol and dynanics of AC drivcs" Oford Univcrsiiy
Prcss, Ncw Yorl.

Vas, P. (1990}. Vccior Conirol of AC MacIincs", Oford Univcrsiiy Prcss, Ncw Yorl.

MurIy, J. M. D. and Turnlull, F. C.(1987}. Powcr Elccironic Conirol of AC Moiors", Pcrganon
Prcss, Oford.








1
STATOR FLUX FOC

In stator flux FOC, the frame chosen is aligned to the synchronously rotating frame
such that the daxis coincide with stator flux space phasor.














Figure 1


The torque equation in general reference frame is given by:

(1)



(2)


In the chosen reference frame,
sd s
= and 0
sq
= , hence (2) reduces to:


(3)


To implement the stator flux FOC using currentcontrolled VSI, we need to

i) derive the d and q components of the stator current reference values,
ii) obtain the stator flux position in order to transform the rotating frame
to stationary frame..

From (3), given T
e
*
and
s
*
,the q component of the stator current in this reference
frame can be easily obtained. To look at the relation between i
sd
and
s
we need to
examine the IM equations.

The induction machine in general reference frame is given by equations (4)(7):

g
s g
g
s g
s s
g
s
j
di
d
i F v +

+ = (4}
g
r r g
g
r g
r r
} ( j
di
d
i F 0 +

+ = (5}
g
r n
g
s s
g
s
i L i L + = (6}
g
s n
g
r r
g
r
i L i L + = (7)

s
is
s
sd
i

s
sq
i

s
d

s
q

s
d
s
q
s s c
i
2

2
3
T =
( )
sd sq sq sd c
i i
2

2
3
T =
( )
sq s c
i
2

2
3
T =
2
Substitute (7) into (5)



(8)


The stator flux is obtained by substituting the rotor current (which in practice,
normally unavailable) from (6), into (8)

With mathematical manipulations and recognizing that in the reference frame where
only the d axis component of the stator flux exists, it can be shown that by
separating the real and imaginary terms and after substituting rotor current,
equation (8) is given by:

(9)



(10)


From (10), it can be seen that
s
is proportional to i
sd
and i
sq
. There exists a
coupling between
s
and i
sq
. Varying i
sq
to control the torque will result in
s
to
vary too hence the torque will not react immediately to i
sq
.





















Figure 2

To overcome this problem, a decoupler to compensate the effect of the i
sq

component from the output of the PI controller is can be designed [1].

[1] X. Xu, R. K. Doncker, D.W. Novotny, A stator flux oriented Induction machine
drive, IEEE-PESC, 1988.


( )
g
s n
g
r r r g
g
s n
g
r r g
r r
i L i L } ( j
di
i L i dL
i F 0 + +
+
+ =
( ) ( ) 0 i L i L 1
s s
sd s s r sli sq s r
= +

( ) ( ) 0 i L i L 1 1
s s
sq s r sli sd s r s r
= + = +

2 3


c
j

s
Trcf
rcf
flu
rcgulaior
dc-coulcr
+
+
+

is
vs
isd
s
s
|s|
siaior
flu
csiinaior
cqu (3}
isqd
isq
currcni
conirollcd
VSI
IM

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1
DIRECT TORQUE CONTROL OF IM

If a three phase VSI is connected to an IM, there can be eight possible
configurations of six switching devices within the inverter. As a result, there are
eight possible input voltage vectors to the IM. The eight voltage vectors, two of
which are zero vectors, are shown in Fig 1.
DTC utilises the eight possible stator voltage vectors, to control the stator
flux and torque to follow the reference values within the hysteresis bands. The
voltage space vector of a three-phase system is given by:

( )

= + + =
3
2
j
sC
2
sD sA 3
2
s
c a wIcrc , } i ( v a } i ( av } i ( v } i ( v (1)

v
sA
, v
sB
, and v
sC
are the instantaneous phase voltages.

For the switching VSI, it can be shown that for a DC link voltage of V
d
, the
voltage space vector is given by:

( )

= + + =
3
2
j
2
c l a d 3
2
s
c a wIcrc , a } i ( S a } i ( S } i ( S V } i ( v (2)

S
a
(t), S
b
(t) and S
c
(t) are the switching functions of each leg of the VSI, such that,

S
when upper switch is on
when lower switch is on
i
=

1
0
i a,l,c





Figure 1. Voltage vectors for 3-phase VSI


Direct Flux Control
The IM stator voltage equation is given by:

di
d
i F v
s
s s s

+ = (3)

Where v i and
s s s
, , are the stator voltage, current and stator flux space vectors
respectively. According to equation (3), if the stator resistance is small and can
be neglected, the change in stator flux,
s
, will follow the stator voltage, i.e.,

s s
v t = (4)

2
This simply means that the tip of the stator flux will follow that of the stator
voltage space vector multiplied by the small change in time. Hence if the stator
flux space vector (magnitude and angle) is known, its locus can be controlled by
selecting appropriate stator voltage vectors. In DTC the stator flux space vector
is obtained by calculation utilizing the motor terminal variables (stator voltages
and currents). The stator flux is forced to follow the reference value within a
hysteresis band by selecting the appropriate stator voltage vector using the
hysteresis comparator and selection table.


Direct Torque Control
As shown by Takahashi and Noguchi [1], under a condition of a constant mechanical
frequency and stator flux magnitude, when a step increase in the stator angular
frequency is applied at t=0, the rate of change of torque at time t=0 is
proportional to the slip frequency of the stator flux . Thus,

dT
dt
t
sl
t
=
=
0
0
(5)

where
sl
is the instantaneous angular slip frequency

If the torque and stator flux is kept within their hysteresis bands by selecting
appropriate voltage vectors, an independent control over the torque and stator flux
is accomplished. If the stator flux space vector plane is divided into six sectors
or segments (Figure 2), a set of table or rules of which voltage vector should be
chosen in a particular sector (either to increase stator flux or to reduce stator
flux and either to increase torque or to reduce torque) can be constructed; such
table is given by Table 1.





Figure 2 Six sectors of stator flux plane




3
vs,3
vs,3
vs,3
vs,2
vs,4
vs,4
vs,3
vs,2
vs,6
vs,5
vs,4
vs,1
Table 1 Voltage vectors look-up table.

Counter cIockwIse Sec I Sec II Sec III Sec IV Sec V Sec VI
Inc Flu
Inc T(01} 100 110 010 011 001 101
(0} Dcc T(00} 000 111 000 111 000 111
Dcc Fux Inc T(01} 110 010 011 001 101 100
(1} Dcc T(00} 111 000 111 000 111 000
CIockwIse Sec I Sec II Sec III Sec IV Sec V Sec VI
Inc Flu
Inc T(10} 001 101 100 110 010 011
(0} Dcc T(00} 000 111 000 111 000 111
Dcc Fux Inc T(10} 011 001 101 100 110 010
(1} Dcc T(00} 111 000 111 000 111 000

























Figure 3 Flux control within the hysteresis band

















Figure 4 Basic DTC

|1| I.TalaIasIi, T. NogucIi, A ncw quicl-rcsonsc and IigI-cfficcicncy conirol siraicgy of an induciion noior", IEEE Tuns.
Ind. A., vol IA-22, No 5 Sci/Oci 1986
Sector I
Sector II
Hstccss
Iund
Vo|tage vector
se|ector
Vo|tage
8ource
|nverter
8tator f|ux
and torque
est|mator
Tref
ref

|H


T
+ Vdc -

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Line {
SrcBlock "Cartesian to Polar"
SrcPort 1
Points [75, 0]
DstBlock "flxsv"
DstPort 1
}
Line {
SrcBlock "id"
SrcPort 1
Points [0, 20]
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DstBlock "Gain3"
DstPort 1
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Cartesian to Polar"
SrcPort 2
DstBlock "angflxsv"
DstPort 1
}
Line {
SrcBlock "vq"
SrcPort 1
DstBlock "Sum7"
DstPort 1
}
Line {
SrcBlock "iq"
SrcPort 1
Points [0, -20]
DstBlock "Gain2"
DstPort 1
}
}
}
Block {
BlockType SubSystem
Name "torquehys"
Ports [1, 1]
Position [365, 300, 395, 350]
Orientation "left"
ShowPortLabels off
TreatAsAtomicUnit off
MaskPromptString "Hyst band"
MaskStyleString "edit"
MaskTunableValueString "on"
MaskEnableString "on"
MaskVisibilityString "on"
MaskToolTipString "on"
MaskVariables "Th=@1;"
MaskIconFrame on
MaskIconOpaque on
MaskIconRotate "none"
MaskIconUnits "autoscale"
MaskValueString "2"
System {
Name "torquehys"
Location [50, 122, 340, 345]
Open off
ModelBrowserVisibility off
ModelBrowserWidth 200
ScreenColor "white"
PaperOrientation "landscape"
PaperPositionMode "auto"
PaperType "usletter"
PaperUnits "inches"
ZoomFactor "100"
Block {
BlockType Inport
Name "in_1"
Position [275, 95, 295, 115]
Orientation "left"
}
Block {
BlockType Relay
Name "Relay"
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Position [185, 58, 215, 82]
Orientation "left"
OnSwitchValue "Th/2"
OffSwitchValue "0"
}
Block {
BlockType Relay
Name "Relay1"
Position [185, 123, 215, 147]
Orientation "left"
OnSwitchValue "0"
OffSwitchValue "-Th/2"
OnOutputValue "0"
OffOutputValue "-1"
}
Block {
BlockType Sum
Name "Sum3"
Ports [2, 1]
Position [55, 105, 75, 125]
Orientation "left"
}
Block {
BlockType Outport
Name "out_1"
Position [15, 105, 35, 125]
Orientation "left"
InitialOutput "0"
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Sum3"
SrcPort 1
DstBlock "out_1"
DstPort 1
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Relay1"
SrcPort 1
Points [-75, 0]
DstBlock "Sum3"
DstPort 2
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Relay"
SrcPort 1
Points [-65, 0]
DstBlock "Sum3"
DstPort 1
}
Line {
SrcBlock "in_1"
SrcPort 1
Points [-20, 0]
Branch {
Points [0, 30]
DstBlock "Relay1"
DstPort 1
}
Branch {
Points [-5, 0]
DstBlock "Relay"
DstPort 1
}
}
}
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}
Line {
SrcBlock "Induction Machine"
SrcPort 5
Points [30, 0; 0, -100]
DstBlock "stator flux - voltage model"
DstPort 1
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Induction Machine"
SrcPort 1
Points [110, 0]
DstBlock "stator flux - voltage model"
DstPort 2
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Induction Machine"
SrcPort 2
Points [70, 0; 0, 35]
DstBlock "stator flux - voltage model"
DstPort 4
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Induction Machine"
SrcPort 7
Points [15, 0; 0, -70]
DstBlock "stator flux - voltage model"
DstPort 3
}
Line {
SrcBlock "stator flux - voltage model"
SrcPort 3
Points [40, 0; 0, 270]
DstBlock "S-Function2"
DstPort 1
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Induction Machine"
SrcPort 8
Points [20, 0; 0, 20]
Branch {
Points [0, 90; 140, 0]
Branch {
Points [165, 0]
DstBlock "Sum2"
DstPort 1
}
Branch {
Points [0, -60]
DstBlock "Scope"
DstPort 2
}
}
Branch {
DstBlock "Scope2"
DstPort 1
}
}
Line {
SrcBlock "stator flux - voltage model"
SrcPort 2
Points [65, 0; 0, 95]
Branch {
Points [0, 60]
Branch {
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Points [0, 165]
DstBlock "Sum4"
DstPort 1
}
Branch {
DstBlock "Scope"
DstPort 1
}
}
Branch {
DstBlock "Scope1"
DstPort 1
}
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Voltage-controlled\nPWM-VSI1"
SrcPort 1
Points [20, 0; 0, -25]
DstBlock "Induction Machine"
DstPort 1
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Voltage-controlled\nPWM-VSI1"
SrcPort 2
DstBlock "Induction Machine"
DstPort 2
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Voltage-controlled\nPWM-VSI1"
SrcPort 3
Points [20, 0; 0, 25]
DstBlock "Induction Machine"
DstPort 3
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Subsystem"
SrcPort 1
Points [-80, 0; 0, -195]
DstBlock "Voltage-controlled\nPWM-VSI1"
DstPort 1
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Subsystem"
SrcPort 2
Points [-70, 0; 0, -205]
DstBlock "Voltage-controlled\nPWM-VSI1"
DstPort 2
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Subsystem"
SrcPort 3
Points [-60, 0; 0, -215]
DstBlock "Voltage-controlled\nPWM-VSI1"
DstPort 3
}
Line {
SrcBlock "flux\nhysterisis"
SrcPort 1
Points [-40, 0; 0, -55]
DstBlock "Subsystem"
DstPort 2
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Sum4"
SrcPort 1
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DstBlock "flux\nhysterisis"
DstPort 1
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Step"
SrcPort 1
DstBlock "Sum4"
DstPort 2
}
Line {
SrcBlock "torquehys"
SrcPort 1
Points [-60, 0; 0, -20]
DstBlock "Subsystem"
DstPort 1
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Sum2"
SrcPort 1
DstBlock "torquehys"
DstPort 1
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Signal\nGenerator"
SrcPort 1
DstBlock "Sum2"
DstPort 2
}
Line {
SrcBlock "S-Function2"
SrcPort 1
DstBlock "Subsystem"
DstPort 3
}
Line {
SrcBlock "Induction Machine"
SrcPort 4
Points [45, 0; 0, 120]
DstBlock "Scope"
DstPort 3
}
}
}
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