Composting Solid Manure

Reviewed: December 2008 Composting is a biological process that involves the aerobic decomposition of organic matter to produce a humus-like product called compost. During the composting process, heat, various gases and water vapour are released, greatly reducing the volume and mass of the pile. Benefits of composting Drawbacks of composting Destroys weed seeds and pathogens. Emissions of ammonia, carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide, especially in Decreases bulk of raw inputs the early stages. (estimated volume reduction of 50 - 70 per cent). Run-off from the compost piles must be controlled to prevent movement of Finished compost has a consistent nutrients into ground or surface waters. soil-like quality that makes it easier to Aeration and moisture must be managed handle and apply. throughout the composting process. Stabilizes nutrients as organic compounds. Time, equipment and land are required.

Stable organic nutrients release more slowly, providing plants with a more sustained source of nutrients for growth. Results in an odourless, potentially marketable product.

Some additional fertilizer may be needed to meet crop requirements.

The Composting Process

Table 1: Recommended conditions for rapid composting of solid manure* Condition Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio (C:N) Moisture content (%) Oxygen concentrations (%) Particle size (diameter - centimetres) pH Temperature ( C) *Source: On-Farm Composting Handbook, 1992 Reasonable Range 20:1 - 40:1 45-65 >5 0.5 - 5.0 5.5 - 8.0 43 - 66 Preferred Range 25:1 - 30:1 50-60 >5 0.5 - 2.5 5.5 - 8.0 54 - 60

Composting is the aerobic (meaning it requires oxygen) decomposition of organic matter that begins with a diverse mixture of organic material. During the composting process, micro-organisms convert raw organic materials into a stable, humus-like product called compost. Finished compost generally varies from dark brown to black in colour, and has a pleasant, earthy odour. The particles are relatively uniform and soil-like in texture. The proportion of humus (relatively stable, carbon-rich residue) increases, and the C:N ratio decreases. The pH (a measure of acidity or alkalinity) is close to neutral and the cation exchange capacity (measure of the nutrient-holding capacity) increases. Composting generally results in a 50 to 70 per cent reduction in volume, and a weight loss in the order of 40 to 80 per cent. Some of the shrinkage and weight loss is due to the transformation of loose, bulky material into finely textured compost and the loss of CO2 and water to the atmosphere. During the process, nitrogen is lost to the atmosphere as ammonia (NH3). In addition, the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) are emitted. Despite some losses, composting does retain most of the nutrients provided by the raw material, and stores them as stable organic compounds. While this results in fewer nutrients being immediately available for crop growth, composts real agronomic value lies in the gradual release of nutrients that are slowly converted from stable organic compounds into available inorganic nutrients, and in its properties as a soil amendment. Animal Manures as Compost Material Not all animal manures are created equal. Differences in animal type, age, diet, bedding and management will all affect the characteristics of the manure. An appropriate C:N ratio and moisture content are essential for successful composting. Most of the research literature reports manure characteristics as excreted, without allowing for bedding, as there is a lot of variability in the type and quantity of bedding. Producers should have their manure and bedding mixtures analyzed prior to composting to ensure that the mixtures meet the criteria for good composting. Assuming that bedding is present, cattle manure is a good composting material, as it usually has sufficient carbon and moisture content. Odour is not usually significant if carbon is sufficient and the pile is managed properly. Cattle manure makes good compost Poultry manure usually has a higher nitrogen content than other animal manures, and is moderately moist. Low C:N ratios may be an issue, so it is important to have a laboratory check these ratios. If carbon must be added, chopped straw, sawdust and wood shavings are good sources. Nitrogen loss and odour associated with ammonia are sometimes problems when composting poultry manure, due to the high nitrogen content and high pH. Amendments may be needed to lower the pH. On the other hand, poultry manure decomposes quickly, and the high nitrogen content can result in excellent compost with high nutrient value. Swine manure from solid-based systems usually contains straw and is nitrogen-rich and relatively moist. Insufficient bedding and a low C:N ratio will result in odour, so it is important to ensure that the mixture meets the criteria for good composting. Straw being added to a pig barn Horse manure is also a good composting material, and tends to be relatively dry with a high C:N ratio due to the amount of bedding. It will compost well and could be added to a wetter manure, like cattle manure, if needed. Composting Challenges Time and Recipe Composting is a biological process that takes time. How much time will depend on a number of factors, including the C:N ratio, moisture content, weather, type of operation, management and the types of waste being composted. The unprocessed manure consists of livestock waste (feces and urine), bedding material, water and feed waste. The C:N ratio of manure depends largely on the amount and type of bedding material in the manure. Straw and wood shavings are usually rich in carbon and low in nitrogen, compared to urine and feces. Producers should have the manure and bedding analyzed for C:N ratio, density and moisture content. Preferred ranges are summarized in Table 1. In the event that the C:N ratio needs to be adjusted, a recipe (proportion of raw materials) can be calculated with the help of a composting manual. In general in the prairie climate, well-managed windrows or static piles take an average of four months to compost. More

sophisticated in-vessel systems (closed or open) may take as little as one to four weeks to complete the composting operation. With these systems, there is usually a one- to two-month curing period that follows. Factors that slow composting include a lack of moisture, high C:N ratio, low temperatures, insufficient aeration, large particles and too many components that are too resistant to decomposition. The ultimate end-use of the compost will also determine the length of the composting process. If, for instance, the compost is going to be land-applied, it can be effectively finished and cured in the field following application. If the compost needs to be very dry or stable to suit a particular market, the composting period may have to be increased. Temperature Temperature is an indicator of the level of microbial activity in the compost, and should be monitored daily, if possible. Temperature probes can be purchased, and should be long enough to penetrate one-third of the way to the centre of the pile. The compost pile starts out at ambient air temperature, but, as micro-organisms start to multiply, the temperature of the pile rises rapidly. The composting process is divided into three phases: psychrophillic, where temperatures are less than 10C; mesophillic, where temperatures are between 10C and 40C; and thermophillic, where temperatures exceed 60C. Compost should be turned if the temperature in the pile drops below 30C, which indicates that there is little microbial activity, or if the temperature rises above 60C, which may result in the death of composting bacteria. A sustained temperature of 55C for 14 days will result in the destruction of most pathogens and weed seeds (laboratory confirmation is recommended). However, failure to achieve sustained high temperatures can result in fly and odour problems. Compost temperatures This pile is at an optimum will generally decline if moisture or oxygen is insufficient or if the carbon source is exhausted. Some temperature of 146F (63C) average frequencies for turning are given in Table 2, but the best approach is to monitor the piles frequently to determine activity. Table 2: Typical Composting Times Method Composting Time Windrow Typically four months Turnings Turn if: 1) the temperature rises above 60C or 2) the temperature drops to near 30C. Rule of thumb: Once per week for the first month, once every two weeks for the next three months, once a month for the fourth and fifth months, then let cure. Not usually applicable Varies with type of vessel and turning unit. Continuous automated turners are common with this system. Curing Time One to three months. Pile is ready to cure when the temperature remains at a constant ambient temperature, even after turning. One to two months One to two months

Aerated Static pile In-vessel

Typically four weeks seven to 30 days

Moisture Moisture is essential to nourish the composting bacteria. Mixtures that are too dry will stop the composting process. Piles that are too dense and wet can quickly become smelly and fly-ridden. Experience has shown that the composting process slows when the moisture content drops below 40 per cent. Moisture levels above 65 per cent result in water displacing much of the air in the pore spaces in the compost pile. This condition limits air movement and results in an anaerobic (lacking oxygen) pile. Maintaining adequate moisture in the preferred 50 to 60 per cent moisture range can be a challenge. The high temperatures associated with the mesophillic stage of composting often result in significant moisture loss, and it may be necessary to add water to the piles in order to maintain adequate moisture. Alternatively, piles that are too wet may require the addition of a dry amendment like straw or wood shavings. Moisture levels can also change throughout the composting process as water is added in the form of rain or snow, or evaporates from the pile. Generally, the moisture content of the pile decreases during composting, since more water evaporates from the pile than is added. The pile should be kept thoroughly damp without being waterlogged. A hand test is perhaps the simplest method of determining moisture. The material is too wet if water can be squeezed out of a handful, and too dry if the material does not feel moist to the touch. Ideally, a handful of the material should be able to be squeezed into a ball that will stick together yet break apart easily. Note: If using this method, the compost should be removed from the pile mechanically, or with a shovel, as the compost pile can be extremely hot. Moisture probes are also available. Oxygen and Aeration Composting is an aerobic process, meaning it requires air (a minimum of five per cent oxygen is necessary). When oxygen falls

below this level, the pile will become anaerobic. Anaerobic processes use different bacteria, are slower than aerobic processes and produce compounds that will cause odours. Odour is a good indicator that it is time to turn or aerate a compost pile. Turning or remixing the pile will add oxygen. In more sophisticated systems, such as aerated static piles or concrete in-vessel systems, air is forced or sucked through the compost mixture by a blower. Particle Size, Porosity, Structure and Texture Particle size, shape and consistency will affect the composting process by influencing aeration. Essentially, composting will proceed A hay moisture probe with a long stem works well to more quickly if you have larger, relatively uniform particles to ensure measure the relative moisture of a compost pile. This pile is at the correct moisture level of about 45 per cent. that there are air spaces throughout the pile. Usually, mixtures of manure and straw are sufficiently bulky to compost successfully. In some cases where the compost materials are very dense, a bulking agent or amendment might be required to ensure that there is enough oxygen for proper composting. Depending on the type of bulking agent, it may have to be mixed or ground to the appropriate size before being added to the compost pile. The structure of the compost pile is important: good structure prevents the loss of porosity (air space) in the pile. As the amount of surface area increases with the decrease in particle size, the rate of aerobic digestion also increases and decomposition proceeds more quickly. However, if particles are too small or lack structure, the process can be slowed. Particle sizes of between 0.5 to 5.0 centimetres are usually adequate for good composting. A pile that heats successfully continues to compost after turning, and is not overly smelly. This is usually indicative of adequate food and oxygen for microbial activity. Curing In addition to the time required for composting, the amount of time required for curing and storage must also be considered. The pile is ready for curing when turning no longer results in an increase in temperature. Curing is the cool part of the process, where fungi digest the carbons not degraded during composting and further stabilize the nutrients. This process takes time (one to two months), so the piles should not be disturbed during that period. Compost is considered finished based on a number of characteristics that are related to its use and handling. These characteristics are summarized in Table 7. Once cured, the compost can be screened, if necessary, to remove any non-degradable compounds, and should then be analyzed to determine nutrient value. The compost may need to be stored for a period of time, so storage space should be considered when calculating the amount of land required for a composting site. Composting Methods Manure is generally composted in machine-turned windrows, in aerated windrows (called static piles) or in in-vessel systems. The finished compost is usually cured outdoors in windrows. Regardless of the process, composting requires space. Some of the more common methods for composting are: Machine-Turned Windrow: This method involves the arrangement of the compost mixture in long, narrow piles or windrows that are periodically turned to maintain aerobic conditions. The size and shape of the windrow will depend on the type of machinery used for turning and on the characteristics of the pile. Typically, manure windrows are one to two metres high, three to six metres wide. In winter, larger piles will tend to lose less heat, as they are better insulated. Aerated Windrow or Static Piles: Aeration can be either passive or active. In passively aerated static piles, the material is usually aerated by a system of perforated pipes placed in the windrow. In actively aerated windrows, the material is stacked on perforated plastic pipe or tubing through which air is drawn. Actively aerated windrows will compost more quickly. Although no turning of the material is required in either system, occasional turning is still recommended to redistribute moisture and expose fresh material to microbial activity. In-vessel: This process involves confining materials in a building (often long concrete channels), container or closed vessel. There is a variety of in-vessel composting methods, most of which rely on forced air and mechanical turning. Although fast, this method can be quite costly, but when a high quality of compost is required for a particular market, the automated system allows for the greatest control over the composting process.

Selecting a Composting Method Selecting a composting method involves determining what method will fit best with your particular operation and needs. Consideration must be given to the level of management that can be applied, the availability of equipment and labour, the space requirements for the material and access, the quality of the compost required, and potential issues due to climate and the cost. Table 3: Advantages and Disadvantages of Three Composting Methods Method Windrow Advantages Able to handle large volumes. Low capital investment. Rapid drying with high temperatures. High degree of pathogen and weed seed kill. Drier product, resulting in easier handling of material. Good product stabilization. Able to handle large volumes. Low capital costs. Relatively space-efficient. High degree of pathogen and weed seed kill. Good odour control. Good product stabilization. Disadvantages Not space-efficient. Equipment (varies greatly in price) and labour is required for turning and monitoring. Vulnerable to climate changes (rain, snow, drought). Odours released with turning. Bulking agents might be required. Not space-efficient. Operation and maintenance costs for blowers and fans. Loading and unloading equipment required. Placement of aeration system may present operational difficulties. Vulnerable to climate changes (rain, snow, drought, cold). High capital cost for sophisticated units with automated turners, forced air and monitoring systems. Careful management required. Less flexibility in operation than with other methods.

Aerated Windrow or Static Pile

In-Vessel

Space-efficient. Good control of composting process with confinement and automation. Predictable, uniform product. High degree of pathogen and weed seed kill. Potentially good odour control. Protection from climate. Potentially not visible. Can be designed as a continuous process rather than a batch process.

Specialized windrow turner

In-Vessel Composting

Side arm windrow turner

Windrow method of composting

Can You Sort-of Compost Manure? Composting, as a process, is a science, and compost is the result of the complete process. Simply placing manure in a pile does not result in the conditions necessary for active aerobic composting. Passive composting is sometimes confused with stockpiling, but it is generally used for materials like leaves that have high porosity (air space). Proper passive composting can be done with piles or windrows, and involves occasional turning to increase aeration. The process is very slow and may produce odours due to poor aeration between turnings. There is, however, an option for the producer who simply wants to do something within his existing manure management system to reduce manure volume and have a more consistent product for field application. If the manure is in the pen, simply scraping and mounding it in the pen will aerate the manure and result in some decomposition. The end result will be less volume and a more consistent product, especially if this activity is repeated a few times before cleanout. Turning a stockpile with a front-end loader a couple of times before spreading will have a similar effec

Comparing Compost to Manure As a rule of thumb, composting may result in a volume reduction of 50 per cent due to water loss and particle size reduction. Also, nitrogen will be lost during composting, but a similar amount of dry matter will be lost, so the compost will still have a similar concentration of nitrogen as when you started. Unlike nitrogen, phosphorus is not lost during the composting process, and increases in concentration.

Predicting the final nutrient content of composted manure is difficult. Many factors-including the type of livestock, the amount and type of bedding, the diet and age of animals and the composting process-will influence the nutrient content of the compost. Accurate nutrient values should be obtained with a laboratory analysis. This is important information for calculating compost application rates. Tables 4 and 5 and the accompanying diagram 6 are examples that illustrate the difference between compost and unprocessed manure. Note the reduction in volume, the concentration of nutrients and the differences in transporting manure versus compost. Table 4 4: Differences between a tonne of manure and a tonne of compost Fresh Manure Compost Total weight 1000 kg 1000kg Water (weight) 600 kg 400 kg Dry Matter (weight) 400 kg 600 kg Nitrogen 6.8 kg/tonne (based on 1.7% N) 10.2 kg/tonne (based on 1.7% N) Phosphorus 1.3 kg/tonne (based on 0.33% P) 3 kg/tonne (based on 0.5% P) Essentially, composting will reduce the number of truckloads required to move a tonne of manure. Transporting manure versus compost: Fresh Manure Compost Volume = 30 m3 Volume = 100 m3 Number of truckloads = 8.3 Number of truckloads = 2.5

Table 5: A truckload of manure versus a truckload of compost (Truck volume = 12 m3) Fresh Manure Wet Bulk Density Load weight Wet weight Dry matter weight *Nitrogen *Phosphorus Site Selection Good site selection is very important for the success of a composting site. Producers will need to consider soil type, topography, location of water sources, access for handling and hauling, distance from neighbours, wind direction and aesthetics. Some sites may be suitable for composting with only minimal development, whereas other sites may require more engineering. Operators of facilities that require year-round pen cleaning and stockpiling have to ensure that the stockpile is contained or covered, if necessary. To minimize handling, the composting facility should be located close to the manure source. Even well-managed compost sites generate odour, at least initially, so wind direction and proximity to neighbours should be considered when locating the compost site. Topography is also important. Avoid locating compost sites on slopes where run-off may be a problem or in depressions where the compost may become saturated with run-off. Generally speaking, the composting and curing sites should be located on clay or till subsurface soils. The compost site should be slightly sloped to allow drainage. Run-off should remain on the property naturally or retention berms can be constructed. In areas with high rainfall, composting facilities may need to be covered in order to prevent excessive run-off or leaching. Proper siting and design will minimize any impact from runoff or leachate on ground and surface waters. Producers should contact the appropriate government ministry to determine the requirements for developing a compost site as part of a manure management plan. The type of composting method chosen will influence the amount of space required. The windrow method requires the most land; aerated windrows or static piles would follow, with in-vessel systems requiring the least amount of space. The pile dimensions will also affect the land requirement. Large piles with low surface-area-to-volume ratios require less land but are more difficult to manage, and will potentially require larger and more specialized equipment. Allow space for stockpiles, berms, runoff containment structures, curing and storage. Curing areas will generally require half as much space as composting areas. Storage requirements will depend on the length of time that the compost will remain at the site. When designing the site, remember to leave enough room to operate equipment in and around the piles. Allow for additional space if a buffer is desired for trees or some other visual barrier. Determining the Required Area and Layout of the Composting Pad Composting Pad: The area required for the composting pad depends on the volume of material handled, pile/windrow shape and length, and the space needed to maneuver equipment. Curing and Storage: The space requirement for curing and storage is based upon the amount of organic material composted, the pile height and spacing, and the length of time the compost is cured and stored. The volume of compost produced is generally about half the original material being composted. When calculating the area required for curing, allow for the movement and loading of vehicles. How much space do you need for composting and curing? Table 6 gives some estimates of the area required for composting and curing manure from various animal species. The estimates assume the following: 500 kg/m 6 tonne 6000 kg 2400 kg 40 kg/truckload 8 kg/truckload
3

Compost 650 kg/m3 7.8 tonne 7800 kg 4860 kg 80 kg/truckload 24 kg/truckload

windrows are six ft. (1.8 m) high and 12 ft. (3.7 m) wide; windrows are grouped in pairs side by side with two ft. (0.6 m) between them; pairs of windrows are spaced 20 ft. (six m) apart; 10 ft. (three m) is allowed to maneuver around the piles; the curing area occupies of the space of the composting area; and a front-end loader turns and moves the compost.

Table 6: Estimated area for composting and curing Species Number Area (acres) Area (metres) Manure Production (months) Cow / calf 100 55 x 55 6 Feeder cattle 1 000 3 110 x 110 8 Broilers 100 000 45 x 45 4 Feeder hogs 1 000 1 70 x 70 4 The diagram below illustrates this scenario for a 100-head cow/calf operation. Typical layout for Windrow Composting Manure Volume (L or ft3/day/animal) 63 litres or 2.22 ft3 25 litres or 0.9 ft3 0.07 litres or 0.0024 ft3 18 litres or 0.63 ft3

These tables and diagram are examples. The actual area required will depend on the volume of manure, frequency of clean-out, frequency of aeration, height and width of windrows, spacing of windrows, type of equipment, height of the curing pile and layout of composting and curing areas. Composting Regulations In Canada, three organizations are responsible for the development of regulations, guidelines and standards for compost: the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA), the provincial and territorial governments and the Standards Council of Canada (SCC). The CFIA regulates compost under the authority of the Fertilizers Act and Regulations. All compost that is sold in or imported to Canada must comply with the requirements of the Act, which includes provisions for product safety, benefit claims and labeling. The provinces and territories are responsible for regulating the disposal and use of waste, including compost. In Saskatchewan, municipal composting would come under the water management jurisdiction of Saskatchewan Environment (SE). If a municipal waste management facility were using manure as one of the compost components, this would be identified in the permit application to SE. There is no requirement for a permit through SE for on-farm composting of manure. However, Saskatchewan Agriculture requires Manure Storage and Manure Management Plans for intensive livestock operations. If composting is to be part of this plan, then an approval may be required under The Agricultural Operations Act. Compost Quality Compost quality can be determined through laboratory tests. Good compost is characterized by a low moisture content, black to dark brown colour, earthy odour, high tilth (due to texture and particle size), and consistent and stable nutrient concentrations. Age, storage conditions and raw materials will also affect the final quality of the product. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, the provincial and territorial governments with the assistance of the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME) and the Bureau de Normalization du Quebec on behalf of the Standards Council of Canada-have developed a set of compost quality standards. The standards are based on four criteria: product safety and quality, maturity, foreign matter, and trace elements and pathogens. There is little variation between standards, and they all adhere to the same standard for product safety. Saskatchewan follows the CCME guidelines as outlined in Table 7.

Table 7: Classification of Compost. Compost Quality Criteria Category A Compost Category B Compost Restrictions to compost application. Can be used for all types of applications: Restricted use: may be controlled under agricultural land, residential gardens, the provincial or territorial regulations. nurseries, and horticulture operations. Trace Elements Arsenic, As 13 Arsenic, As 75 mg/kg (ppm) air dried mass Cadmium, Cd 3 Cadmium, Cd 20 (Maximum allowable concentrations) Cobalt, Co 34 Cobalt, Co 150 Chromium, Cr 210 Chromium, Cr not stated Copper, Cu not stated Copper, Cu 100 Mercury, Hg 5 Mercury, Hg 0.8 Molybdenum, Mo 5 Molybdenum, Mo 20 Nickel, Ni 62 Nickel, Ni 180 Lead, Pb 150 Lead, Pb 500 Selenium, Se 2 Selenium, Se 14 Zinc, Zn 500 Zinc, Zn 1850 Category A and B Compost Maturity Compost is deemed mature if it meets two of the following: the C:N ratio is 25:1 oxygen uptake rate is 150 mg O2/kg volatile solids/hr germination of cress and radish seeds is > 90% of germination rate of control sample. The manure must be cured for 21 days, and must not reheat upon standing to >20 C above ambient temperature. Foreign Matter Compost must not contain any sharp foreign matter >3mm in any dimension that may cause damage or injury to humans, animals and plants during or resulting from its use. Pathogens The quantity of fecal coliforms must be <1000 MPN/g (Most Probable Number per gram) of total solids on a dry weight basis. No salmonellae present (<3 MPN/4 g total solids). Marketing Your Compost In order to sell compost, either bagged or in bulk, The Fertilizers Act and Regulations require that several things be done:

The compost should be analyzed, by batch, for nutrient content, organic matter content, etc. The compost can then be packaged and labelled according to product claims. The compost must be classified based on product quality, safety and aesthetics. The Regulations and Guidelines of Impact to the Marketing of Compost in Ontario is a helpful resource, with a complete description of the standards for each classification of compost. The compost must then be classified under The Fertilizers Act as a fertilizer (contains nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium or other plant foods) or a supplement (not a fertilizer but sold for the purpose of soil improvement). While compost does not have to be registered under the Act, it still must conform to the Acts requirements and standards for fertilizers or supplements. Names and standards of fertilizers and supplements can be found in Fertilizers Act, Schedule II. The compost must be labelled (directly on the bag or on a separate document with a bulk shipment) in accordance with the claims made for the product. The label for a compost with no nutrient claims must include the brand, name, net weight, lot number (if applicable), expiry date, directions for use, guaranteed analysis, the minimum amount of organic matter, maximum amount of moisture, any cautionary statements and the name and address of the registrant or responsible packager. The label for compost with nutrients must also contain the grade of the compost as well as the percentage of nutrients.

For more detailed information on composting, consult a composting handbook and record-keeping guide such as the On Farm Composting Handbook, available from Olds College, 4500 - 50th Street, Olds, Alberta, Canada. T4H 1R6. For more information, call Saskatchewan Agriculture , Inspection and regulatory Management Branch, at 306-787-4680. Resources Composting Council of Canada . 1999. Setting the Standard: A Summary of Compost Standards in Canada . Located at www. compost.org/standard.html Canadian Organic Growers Inc. 1992. Manure Management and Composting : COG Organic Field Crop Handbook . Ecological Agriculture Projects , McGill University (Macdonald Campus), Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC, H9X 3V9, Canada. Located at http:// eap.mcgill.ca/MagRack/COG/COGHandbook/COGHandbook_1_4.htm Fonstad, T.A, Leonard, Dr. J. 2001. Evaluation and Demonstration of Deads Composting as an Option for Dead Animal Management in Saskatchewan . Department of Agricultural and Bioresource Engineering, University of Saskatchewan , Saskatoon , Canada . Larney, F.J., Freeze, B.S., Olson, A.F. and Heigh, J.T. 1999. Transporting nutrients in manure and compost. Abstract in

Growing with Compost Conference, Olds College , Olds, AB. April 7-9, 1999 . Larney, F.J., Yanke, L. Jay, Miller, James J. and McAllister, Tim A. Fate of Coliform Bacteria in Composted Beef Cattle Feedlot Manure in Journal of Environmental Quality: 32:1508-1515 (2003). Krider, James N. (editor). 1992. Agricultural Waste Management Field Handbook. U.S. Soil Conservation Service. Washington , D.C. Paul, Dr. J. 1996. Composting Agricultural Waste. Proceedings Manure Management Symposium, Winnipeg , Manitoba . Rynk, R.(editor). 1992. On-Farm Composting Handbook. NRAS-54. Northeast Regional Agricultural Engineering Service. 152 Riley-Robb Hall, Cooperative Extension, Ithaca , NY . 14853-5701 Saskatchewan Agriculture and Food. 1997. Guidelines for Establishing and Managing Livestock Operations. Tompkins, D. K., Chaw, D., and Abiola, A.T. 1998. Effect of windrow composting on weed seed germination and viability in Compost Science and Utilization, Winter, Vol. 6, No. 1, pp 30-34.