Hull - A Digital City: A Study Into The Adoption of Social Media and Web Technologies in Organisations and Communities

Hull A Digital City
A study into the adoption of social media and web technologies in organisations and communities.
By
Delia Pembrey MacNamara

BSc Information Systems, University of New South Wales, Australia
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Business Administration
Business School, University of Hull
Supervised by: Professor Gerald Midgley, Department of Systems Thinking A dissertation presented on the 12 September 2011 Word Count: 16493
th
University of Hull Business School
Hull A Digital City?
Abstract
The purpose of this research is to investigate barriers to adopting and implementing new technologies (such as web 2.0, social media, cloud computing) in organisations and communities, with a focus on Kingston-upon-Hull, United Kingdom. It is aimed to be a precursor to further research into collective intelligence, open innovation and organisational change using systems thinking approaches. The findings dispel the myth of the Generation Y dominance on social media, and reveal that the barriers to adoption include individual perceptions and boundaries toward new technologies, incorrect assumptions of prior learning and the need to change leadership styles when utilising social media. Learning from the successes and failures of the Hull Digital City agenda from 20002011 and the organisations within this communitys boundaries it was found that individual boundary judgments are a key a factor in web 2.0 implementation failure. of the research and its longitudinal nature make the study original. Keywords: Social media, web 2.0., connected communities, Gov 2.0, eThe scope
government, Small to medium-sized enterprises, boundaries. Paper type: Research paper (MBA Dissertation)
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Table of Contents
ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................................2 TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................................3 LIST OF TABLES ...........................................................................................................................6 LIST OF FIGURES .........................................................................................................................7 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................................8 PREFACE .....................................................................................................................................9 CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 12 1.1 A NETWORKED SOCIETY ......................................................................................................... 12
CHAPTER 2 : CONTEXT HULL: A DIGITAL CITY? ....................................................................... 15 2.1 2.2 KINGSTON-UPON-HULL, UNITED KINGDOM: THE END OF THE LINE ............................................. 15 HULL A DIGITAL CITY: THE DREAM..................................................................................... 16
CHAPTER 3 : AIMS AND OBJECTIVES ......................................................................................... 19 3.1 3.2 3.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................................... 19 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ................................................................................................... 19 THE PROBLEM SITUATION AND SYSTEMS THINKING ....................................................................... 20
CHAPTER 4 : LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................ 24 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 WEB 2.0 AND SOCIAL MEDIA? TERMINOLOGY UNTANGLED ...................................................... 24 THE DIGITAL DIVIDE AND THE UK ECONOMY .............................................................................. 26 SOCIAL MEDIA THE WAY TO DO BUSINESS? .............................................................................. 27 THE ORGANISATIONAL AND MANAGERIAL CHALLENGES ................................................................. 29 GENERATION Y THE DIGITAL NATIVES..................................................................................... 31
CHAPTER 5 : METHODOLOGY AND METHODS .......................................................................... 32 5.1 5.2 RATIONALE AND APPROACH .................................................................................................... 32 RESEARCH METHODS ............................................................................................................. 33 The Interview and selection of interviewees .......................................................... 33 The Survey .............................................................................................................. 35
5.2.1 5.2.2 5.3 5.4
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY..................................................................................................... 36 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ...................................................................................................... 37
CHAPTER 6 : FINDINGS AND RESULTS ....................................................................................... 38
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University of Hull Business SchoolHull A Digital City
6.1
INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................... 38 Summary of Findings .............................................................................................. 38 The organisations metaphorically speaking ........................................................ 39 General Perceptions of social media in the business world .................................... 41 External social media use ....................................................................................... 42 Internal communications and web 2.0 ................................................................... 44
6.1.1 6.1.2 6.1.3 6.1.4 6.1.5 6.2
MAIN ISSUES OF IMPLEMENTING SOCIAL MEDIA AND WEB 2.0 TECHNOLOGIES .................................. 46 The IT Department.................................................................................................. 46 Individuals usage and perceptions of social media ................................................ 47 No training due to an assumed level of knowledge and skills ................................ 52 Becoming human or less professional .................................................................. 55 No Policy, no guidance; No strategy, no measurement ......................................... 55 Leadership .............................................................................................................. 56 Company Culture .................................................................................................... 57
6.2.1 6.2.2 6.2.3 6.2.4 6.2.5 6.2.6 6.2.7 6.3 6.4 6.5
HARNESSING THE HUMAN CAPITAL IN ORGANISATIONS ................................................................. 59 THE NET GENERATION IS NOT JUST GENERATION Y .................................................................... 61 KEY STAKEHOLDERS REFLECTIONS ON HULL AND MOVING FORWARD ............................................... 62
CHAPTER 7 : DISCUSSION ......................................................................................................... 65 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................... 65 BOUNDARIES........................................................................................................................ 65 IT IMPLEMENTATION AND CHANGE MANAGEMENT ...................................................................... 68 LEADERSHIP, MANAGEMENT AND CULTURE ................................................................................ 72 THE LEARNING ORGANISATION ................................................................................................ 75 A SYSTEMS APPROACH ........................................................................................................... 78 HULL A SMARTER CITY ........................................................................................................ 79 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................................... 81
CHAPTER 8 : REFLECTION AND EVALUATION ............................................................................ 83 8.1 LIMITATIONS ........................................................................................................................ 83
CHAPTER 9 : RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................................................... 84 9.1 9.2 9.3 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................... 84 FOR ORGANISATIONS............................................................................................................. 84 FOR HULL ............................................................................................................................ 85
CHAPTER 10 : CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................... 87 10.1 10.2 TOWARDS SMARTER ORGANISATIONS AND SMARTER CITIES ...................................................... 87 FURTHER RESEARCH .......................................................................................................... 88
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APPENDIX A: APPENDIX B: APPENDIX C:
ETHICS PROFORMA ....................................................................................... 90 INTERVIEWEE SELECTION AND PROFILES ...................................................... 91 INTERVIEW PROFORMA ................................................................................ 94
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 96
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List of Tables
Table 1: Yorkshire and Humber website ownership ............................................. 17 Table 2: Research Objectives and Research Questions ........................................ 19 Table 3: List of Interviewees ................................................................................. 35 Table 4: Mobile phone ownership and when they are used ............................... 48 Table 5: Learning contextual constructs for implementation of groupware. ...... 76
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List of Figures
Figure 1: Systems within systems ......................................................................... 21 Figure 2: Illustrating the organisation as the metaphor of an open system ... 22 Figure 3: Perception of main Hull community groups .......................................... 22 Figure 4: Google Analytics of popularity of terms searched on 7th July 2011. ..... 25 Figure 5: Only some of the internet's impacts on the UK Economy are captured by GDP ................................................................................................................... 27 Figure 6: Silo mentalities and conflict when implementing social media ............ 30 Figure 7: Interviewee selection and relationship to Hull ...................................... 34 Figure 8: Organisations - metaphorically speaking ............................................... 40 Figure 9: What is your main concern when using social media? .......................... 52 Figure 10: How did you first learn how to use social media? ............................... 53 Figure 11: How have you updated your social media knowledge? ...................... 54 Figure 12: I will attend a course to update my social media knowledge by age .. 54 Figure 13: Social Media in the work place: Social Media Strategy and Policy...... 56 Figure 14: Company performance ........................................................................ 59 Figure 15: Job satisfaction..................................................................................... 59 Figure 16: Actively seek responsibility .................................................................. 60 Figure 17: Web 2.0 intranet potential impact ...................................................... 60 Figure 18: Attitudes towards social media ........................................................... 61 Figure 19: Confidence in using online technologies ............................................. 62 Figure 20: Boundary Critique of the inner self: Conflict arising from work and personal values ................................................................................................... 67 Figure 21: Investing in Companys internal capabilities ....................................... 71 Figure 22: The 'open' system revisited ................................................................. 74 Figure 23: Collaborative learning cycle based on Kolbs (1984) experiential learning cycle ........................................................................................................ 77 Figure 24: The Learning Organisation: From data to innovation.......................... 78 Figure 25: Systems within systems revisited ..................................................... 81
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Acknowledgments
I wish to express sincere appreciation to my supervisor, Professor Gerald Midgley, for his guidance in the preparation of this manuscript; for questioning my logic, beliefs and ideas and reshaping my own personal mental boundaries; and for encouraging me to explore and engage with systems thinking. Thanks
also to Ms. Bella Anand, Admissions Manager at the University of Hull Business School. Her advice and support encouraged me to undertake the Masters of Business Administration program in 2010 which provided me with a much broader business perspective on my topic and how it impacted other functional areas. I would also like to thank Steve Fleming, Benjamin Welby and Helen Philpot for providing me with source documents and research on the Hull Digital City Agenda, Gov 2.0 and the situation in Hull as of 2010, and on innovation. A massive thank you to my husband, Tim MacNamara, who has been an absolute Star, supporting me throughout my studies (especially during the long periods of my being in the zone ... or was it Planet D?). By being my sounding board, my proof reader and generally letting me know when I start to speak gobbledegook, his help has been invaluable in ensuring that I write in a straightforward and uncomplicated way. Thank you also for being my chauffeur for the 2.5 months when I was housebound with torn tendons whilst conducting the researching for this dissertation. And finally, my deep-felt gratitude to all who participated in the interviews and survey for this research. Without their valuable input, patience and support this dissertation would not have been possible. Thank you.
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Preface
The terms social media, web 2.0, cloud computing, ICT, ecommerce are relatively synonymous with one another. In 1991, I graduated with a Bachelor degree in Information Systems, a newly created degree based on the IBM graduate degree, Business Information Technology (BIT). It focussed on
bringing together computer programmers and business people, identifying not only information flows and the development of the technology that could support these processes, but also how to change manage the transition from an analogue world to a computerised one. At the time, I already believed that everyone was using computers and had access to the internet perhaps I was also of the first Y Generation having been using technology since I was seven years of age (however basic it may be considered today).? Whilst working for the Royal Australian Navy, I had the opportunity to use and help develop information systems to reduce paperwork and increase efficiency in the administrative and training areas. This experience and exposure continued when I moved to the United Kingdom in 1996 working for large multinationals in the financial and technology sectors in London, Paris and Brussels. The
adoption of computers, followed by the internet, then mobile phones in my time working as a technologist have always encountered the same issues the way people use the technology. How do they use it? What is the etiquette? How do they learn to use the technology? Invariably, there will always be risks to
using new technology, but the benefits have often proven to outweigh the risks and the etiquette rules emerge from trial and error. In 2005, whilst working at the BBC for Nations and Regions New Services Development, on their Open Buses and Centres project, I was given the opportunity to work at BBC Radio Humberside, the BBCs flagship Open Centre, for four months. During this time I learnt that Hull had been named as one of the ten finalists for the bid to become a Digital City and was working with local telecommunications company Kingston Communications on an innovative digital
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interactive digital TV project. I found Hull to be a vibrant, entrepreneurial place filled with creative people and ideas. The BBC worked with local organisations to help bridge the Digital Divide by going into communities and getting people online using creative means such as uploading a picture, sending an email and doing online shopping with the majority being young people and those aged over 65, the silver surfers. Work with schools consisted of teaching young
people how to film and edit video and create audio pieces using digital software. The talent of those young people inspired me, recognising that they had skills that would be essential to organisations in the future the ability to create and communicate using online media. The issue was that there were no jobs for these young people as local organisations did not understand, nor appreciate, this new digital medium and way of communication at this time. Hull needs to recognise, keep and develop this talent pool for its future success. In 2006, I set up a digital consultancy, Imagine dpm, seeing the opportunity for small to medium sized businesses to adopt these new technologies could potentially put them on a level playing field as the large organisations. At the same time, there was an aspiration for those businesses to provide opportunities for the young people of Hull as work experience, then potentially a job. It was a basic systemic way of thinking before I was introduced to the concepts of systems thinking. time was achievable. I soon discovered that Hull is a multi-faceted city which has a strong community, but was divided internally and lacked co-ordination. There were several areas where digital projects were happening successfully but the collaborative effort sometimes gave way to personal agendas which would see the delaying process of two steps forward, one step back. I also found that businesses did not know what web 2.0 or social media was about let alone the benefits that they could bring to their business and wider community. In 2006, I developed the first module for a series of course ware, Explore your business with digital which was accredited as a University
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It was an ambitious goal which I thought at the
Foundation Award by the University of Hull Centre for Lifelong Learning. The module introduced students, normally sole traders, to web 2.0 technologies using practical creative means. By the end of the module, students would have created their website, added photos to Flickr, videos to Youtube, had profiles on LinkedIn, Twitter and Facebook, and learnt the basics of search engine optimisation. These people are still in business today despite a harsh economic downturn in a city that was already described as deprived. Social media is now a well known phrase, yet locally, there is still reluctance and caution to use these technologies (although there is growing acceptance that businesses and organisations need to do it). I hope that you will find this dissertation an interesting read and provoke reflection that will lead to action. It is my firm belief, and the motivation behind this research, that Hull has untapped potential which, if it could co-ordinate its efforts, develop and deliver a collaborative working practice across the city, could propel the citys economic and community success to become the Digital City it aspired to be in 2000 and more so, a Smarter City.
Delia MacNamara
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Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1
A Networked Society
So, you think you know about social media1 or at least you have heard about it - either through mainstream media, or via a friend or colleague. You probably have an opinion on social media - whether you use it or not. And whether you agree or disagree with the previous statements is important, very important, because that is what social media is about. Social media is all about you and me, the individuals that take part in this virtual place and because of this, it has consequences not only for organisations but for communities and societies as well. The networked society is a reality as individuals connect and share information via the internet, cloud computing and social media via their personal devices at work, at home and on their person (Castells, 2002; Toffler, 1981; CrdobaPachn, 2010). With over 750 active million users, more than 250 million are accessing online social networking site, Facebook, via their mobile devices with the average Facebook user having 130 friends and sharing 90 pieces of content each month (Facebook, 2011). Facebook is just one of the social media
platforms that allow people to connect, share and collaborate without geographic, time, age or cultural boundaries. Social media such as Facebook2 and Twitter3 have been attributed with facilitating the Middle Eastern revolutions in Libya, Tunisia and Egypt, enabling activists to spread their message and co-ordinate the uprisings (Beaumont, 2011).
1
In August 2011, Twitter followers for @cleanupriots reached 70,000
Social media: Web-based and mobile technologies and media that enable user generated content and social interaction (OECD, 2007). 2 Facebook: An online social networking platform that allows people to connect and share content. 3 Twitter: An online micro blogging platform that allows people to post 140 character posts to their followers and at the same time allow people to follow those who share the same interests.
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after three days with supporters and volunteers being rallied and organised to clean-up the London riots (BBC, 2011). These social media harness the human capital we have in our society to collectively approach problems and situations. As organisations and individuals work in more flexible ways, supply chains have been deconstructed and the service industries grown (Buchanan & Huczynski, 2010; Johnson, et al, 2011; Kotler et al., 2009). It has enabled the potential for organisations to become more efficient, more effective in solving problems and more profitable in an increasingly complex world. The IBM Report, Capitalizing on Complexity (2010), reported that 49% of global CEOs felt unprepared for the expected complexity of this new economic environment which was not only structurally different but more volatile, uncertain and complex. strategies: Driving change in the organisation through embodying creative leadership. Reinventing customer relationships. Establishing operational agility by simplifying operations and integrating globally. It is believed that by exploiting social media, mobile and online technologies and adopting the above strategies, that businesses and cities can become smarter cities (Kehoe, et al., 2011). Yet the adoption of social media and web 2.0 technologies by businesses and organisations, particularly the public sector, has been slow. This dissertation investigates why the adoption and implementation of social media and web 2.04 technologies continues to be problematic and the implications for organisations and communities. The research challenges the Organisations that felt prepared follow three
Web 2.0 technologies: Online applications that enable web users to share, interact, collaborate and create as a virtual community. Examples of web 2.0 applications include social networking sites, blogs, video sharing sites, document sharing, video/image/sound sharing, and review sites. Social media and web 2.0 are currently used synonymously. Also known as collaborative technologies and social media.
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idea of silo mentalities within organisations and a generational attitudinal difference toward the workplace as being factors to successful adoption of new technologies - the cause is deeper than that. It proposes that social media is bringing out the me in the virtual cloud, whom all can see and access, touching on our own personal fears, insecurities and boundaries (Conway, 2011; Hine, 2000; Markham, 1998).
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Chapter 2: Context Hull: A Digital City?
2.1
Kingston-upon-Hull, United Kingdom: The end of the line
A City Vision: Kingston-upon-Hull is a confident, dynamic and inclusive City, where people want to live, learn, work, visit and invest. (Hull City Economy, 2004)
Kingston-upon-Hull (Hull) is a city and a unitary authority area in the East Riding of Yorkshire and is the only city in the United Kingdom (UK) to have its own independent telephone system. KC (originally Kingston Communications) was It was the
set up in 1902 as a municipal department of Hull City Council (HCC).
first telecoms company to provide ADSL to businesses and the first in the world to operate an interactive television service know as KiT (Kingston Interactive TV) in partnership with the BBC (itvt.com, 2006). Although KC was privatised in
2007, it still remains the only locally operated telephone company in the UK. During World War 2, Hull sustained heavy bombing, with 95% of its houses being destroyed or damaged, leaving 60% of the population homeless (BBC, 2007; Haywood, 2007). This was followed by a period of economic decline producing high levels of social deprivation and a poorly educated and skilled workforce. The Comprehensive Audit Commission (2004) rated Hull City Council (HCC) as poor and ranked its performance at the bottom out of the 150 league table (BBC, 2004). In 2005 the Local Education Authority (LEA) inspection judged the citys support for 14-19 education as unsatisfactory due to lack of co-ordination and planning between institutions trying to deliver a coherent citywide curriculum (Hadley & Phillips, 2005). In 2005, televised to a nation on Channel 4's The Best and Worst Places to Live, Hull was dubbed as the 'worst place to live in UK' based on crime, education, employment, environment and lifestyle statistics (BBC, 2005). In 2008, wages and employment remained below the
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national average and almost 125,000 residents live in one of UKs most deprived areas (Topping, 2008). In 2004, the partners of Hull City Economy (a sub-board of Hulls Local Strategic Partnership) agreed the following challenges were faced by Hull: Higher than national unemployment rates; Lower economic activity rates than UK; Low level of business stock; Low skills base; Low levels of employment in growth areas; High levels of deprivation in pockets around the city; One of lowest educational attainment records; Low rates of home ownership/low property prices (one of major factors in business birth rate) (Hull City Economy, 2004, p. 6).
2.2
Hull A Digital City: The Dream
"The dream is for everybody in the city to have access, not only to the internet but into programmes which we, as a city council, and all the other agencies provide. If we do that, then we have taken this council and all councils light years down the track which the government wants us to pursue. Hull City Council leader Pat Doyle, 2000, bbc.co.uk
The strategy to look at what technology could do to improve Hulls market opportunity and competitiveness was conceived in 1990. The emergence of the information age and Hulls unique position of having its own
telecommunications saw the creation of a partnership in 1995 to develop the direction for the city. The need for a more cohesive and planned approach for Hull to take up the opportunities saw the formation of task group, Hull City Economy. In 2000, the commissioned Ericsson report proposed that Hull
needed a strategy, an agreement with KC and a vehicle to make things happen (Taylor, 2000). A delivery plan with a three year programme and a five, ten and
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fifteen year perspective was developed.
From this process the aspiration to
become a world top Information Age City, branded as the Digital City Capital of Broadband Britain was envisioned (Jones & Fleming, 2006, p. 2). The future vision included a fully connected broadband city, connecting the community and transforming the economy including learning, social inclusion, health, community safety, service delivery and democracy. The BBC invested
25 million in Project Hull in 2001 to pioneer digital television and other key projects, including Broadband TV (3.8 million plus European Regional Development Fund support), the Digital Home Showcase (500,000), and 50,000 in Connecting Hull which aimed to define the broadband services requirement for Hull. But the public sector was lagging. Whilst enthusiastic, some projects worked, others did not. In 2006, the Digital Agenda was revisited, becoming more
relevant than ever but digital adoption was still low with only 61% of businesses owning a website and 24% having no plans to develop one (Table 1).
Table 1: Yorkshire and Humber website ownership Source: Guest, 2007, 24
Despite the vision, the strategy, investment and the projects, Hull still did not achieve its aspiration of becoming a Digital City. The low digital uptake from
businesses, the public sector and within schools led the scope of this research to
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incorporate the Hull Digital City Agenda.
If organisations are not adopting
digital services, let alone social media, how can Hull achieve its aspiration?
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Chapter 3: Aims and Objectives
3.1
Aims and Objectives
The main aim of this research is to investigate how social media and web 2.0 technologies are being implemented within organisations and communities. By extending the research to Hull, the research endeavours to provide practical recommendations for implementation that can be deployed within organisations and the wider community. To answer the main aim three questions will be asked with the associated research objectives being stated in Table 2.
Table 2: Research Objectives and Research Questions
3.2
Significance of the study
As the business environment becomes faster and more uncertain, the necessity for collective intelligence and a way to solve problems creatively is crucial (Toffler, 1971; IBM, 2010). Being involved with their wider community,
collaboration within organisations and with external partners will be essential. Silo mentalities within organisations causing conflict between the board, marketing, IT and legal departments is seen to be a major barrier to
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implementation of social media and web 2.0 technologies (Cisco Systems, 2010; Ashkenas et.al., 2008). This, coupled with generational differences towards
work and technology between the Baby Boomers, Generation X and Generation Y, is thought to intensify this disruption within organisations (Australian School of Business, 2011; Buchanan & Huczynski, 2010). I believe that through
understanding the human (or soft) challenges can improve business processes, information technology and the necessary leadership required.
3.3
The problem situation and systems thinking
Systems thinking is the art of simplifying complexity. It is about seeing through chaos (...). We see the world as increasingly more complex and chaotic because we use inadequate concepts to explain it. When we understand something, we no longer see it as chaotic or complex. (Gharajedaghi, 1999, p. 315)
This research began with investigating the assumption that departmental silo mentalities cause web 2.0 implementation failures in organisations. In order to explore this assumption I applied systems thinking. Although a specific systems thinking method will not be followed, a broad systems thinking approach will be used to: Explore the boundaries of the system or problem situation. Appreciate multiple perspectives and world views that a group may have that contribute to the system or problem situation. Understanding the relationships and interconnectedness within and across a system or systems. Think of the problem situation or system in terms of systems - a holistic approach where the problem cannot be analysed by looking at one part in isolation (Gregory, 2010; Fuenmayor, 1991; Cabrera, Colosi & Lobdell, 2008).
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I viewed the organisation as a system: interconnected, interrelated and complex, and separated by a boundary from the environment within which it operates. Within this boundary the structure consists of hierarchies and sub-systems, which also contain systems (Figure 1) (Jackson, 2003; Buchanan & Huczynski, 2010).
Figure 1: Systems within systems Source: Gregory, 2010
In 1950, Ludwig von Bertalanffy, a biologist, introduced the distinction of closed and open systems whereby a closed system has no exchanges with its environment and an open system interacts with its environment, taking inputs from the environment, transforming them, then releasing them back into the environment (Jackson, 2003; Crdoba-Pachn, 2010; Mora et.al., 2003). The open system is applied as a metaphor to an organisation (Figure 2) with the boundary separating the system from the environment. Within this boundary, the complex structure consists of interrelated and interconnected sub-systems, which also contain parts, arranged in a hierarchy of systems that try to maintain a steady state (homeostasis). One of the key features of an open system is the permeable boundary between the environment and the system in this case, the people - and this is key for transformation and the ability to change (Jackson, 2003; Crdoba-Pachn, 2010). In my illustration the boundary is not permeable. My Weltanschauung (a German word meaning world view) (Checkland, 1999) is that when employees
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enter the organisation, they assume the identity and culture of that organisation (or department) and behave accordingly, thus creating silos within the system.
Figure 2: Illustrating the organisation as the metaphor of an open system Source: Adapted from Jackson, 2003, p.6
The same idea can also be applied to a wider community (or city) which has boundaries (albeit geographical) and interrelated, interconnected sub-systems (organisations). sectors within Hull. Figure 3 illustrates the connections between the different
Figure 3: Perception of main Hull community groups Source: Adapted from MacNamara, 2009
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Although there were some links and connectivity, on the whole organisations were disconnected with activity happening within silos (MacNamara, 2009).
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Chapter 4: Literature Review
4.1
Web 2.0 and social media? Terminology Untangled
In the late 1990s Dale Dougherty coined the term Web 2.0, which was used to describe almost any site, service, or technology that promoted sharing and collaboration (Metz, 2007, p. 74). It was popularised by Tim OReilly at the first Web 2.0 conference in 2005 when web 2.0 was used to describe the interactive web - websites that enabled the user to interact with the company or website. These technologies included social networking sites5, photosharing sites6, video sharing sites7, personal online diaries (blogs)8, collaborative knowledge platforms called wikis9, microblogging services10, video calling over the internet11, and social bookmarking12 where you could store and share websites with people who shared the same interest. It enabled internet users to find,
create and share media such as images, sound and video with people who shared the same interests on user-friendly, cleanly designed websites enabling self-expression, communication and user interaction online (OFCOM, 2008). Internet companies, such as Google, developed several web 2.0 tools that enabled its customers to create, store and collaborate on documents and media online, and create websites without any programming knowledge. These
technologies were normally provided for free and did not require software programs downloaded onto a personal computer. Cloud computing is where the software, data and content is stored on a remote server, and accessed via an internet connection. It enables internet users to access their data and their
5 6
Social Networking sites: Examples include Facebook, MySpace and LinkedIn. Photosharing sites: Examples include Flickr, Picasa, and Photobucket. 7 Video sharing sites: Examples include Youtube and Vimeo. 8 Personal blogs: Examples include eBlogger and Wordpress. 9 Wikis: For example, Wikipedia. 10 Microblogging site: For example, Twitter. 11 Video calling: For example, Skype. 12 Social bookmarking: Examples include reddit and digg.
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connections from any device that can connect to the internet, and can be scaled up quickly and deployed with minimal management (Badger et. al., 2011). Since 2005, the growth in the use of these technologies for online communication, sharing of content (media) and social networking provided small to medium enterprises (SMEs) the opportunity to market their business for a low cost and socially, coining the term social media marketing. Social media has overtaken the term web 2.0 in the mainstream to describe the web 2.0 technologies that enable the creation and exchanging of content into a form of interactive dialogue via the internet (Figure 4) (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010).
Figure 4: Google Analytics of popularity of terms searched on 7th July 2011.
Yet there is another evolution of the web. Whilst there is no clear definition or consensus at this stage, as the web becomes more social, the development of better linked and searchable information, knowledge management services, and intelligent content due to social interaction where users can find and extend information, making logical connections between concepts and things is called web 3.0 or the semantic web (Data.gov, n.d.; Shaw, 2010; Laurent, 2010). This next stage of the development of the internet is expected to deliver real business savings and better customer experiences as suppliers and service providers will understand their customers needs in real time and take the best action (Shaw, 2010).
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4.2
The Digital Divide and the UK economy
The Digital Divide13 is an important concept in this research and could perhaps point to why social media and web 2.0 adoption is slow. The rapid growth,
development and embedding of the internet, information and communications technologies is described as the Information revolution (Toffler, 1981) with the emergence of a divide between those who participated and those who did not (Hill et. al., 2004; Castells, 2001). From studying the digital divide two groups emerged: the haves and the have nots: those that were employed and on good incomes would have access to the internet; those who were unemployed or on low incomes would not have access (Gardner & Oswald, n.d.; OECD, 2001). It created an information inequality
globally within and between countries (Foley & Alfonso, 2002; Kalapesi et.al., 2010). Government intervention in the early 2000s created funding for projects to tackle this divide, introducing IT literacy into schools and the workplace making it a core competency alongside English and Maths (Edge et.al, 2005; Pinder, 2004). As we move into an era of online networking, e-commerce, online banking and access to public services online, the digital divide is still an important issue it is strongly linked to economic well-being. The internet economy contributes an estimated 7.2% of GDP to the UK economy (estimated at 100 billion) but is actually greater because GDP does not capture activities of both consumer and business (Figure 5). This economy is predicted to grow 10% a year empowering many companies, especially SMEs. Yet there are still approximately 9 million
people (or one in five) UK adults not using the internet. These non-users typically come from lower income groups or tend to live in rural areas. While
13
The digital divide is defined as the gap between individuals, households, businesses and geographic areas at different socio-economic levels with regard both to their opportunities to access information and communication technologies (ICTs) and to their use of the Internet for a wide variety of activities (OECD, 2001).
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SMEs in London lead in internet use, Yorkshire is among the bottom, with 38% having a low-web/no-web business (Kalapesi et.al., 2010; Guest, 2007).
Figure 5: Only some of the internet's impacts on the UK Economy are captured by GDP Source: Kalapesi, Willersdorf, & Zwillenberg, 2010, p. 9
4.3
Social media the way to do business?
The advent of computers, and the internet, and internet-enabled personal devices has transformed the work place enabling businesses to communicate faster, transfer information quickly and automate administrative processes. As mobile phones, personal computers and broadband became more affordable, more people and businesses started to go online to experience the benefits of being able to connect and communicate for the cost of an internet connection, removing the limitations of geography (Negroponte, 1995). On the whole, organisations try to minimise interaction costs14, those costs that are associated with the time and cost to companies of exchanging goods, services, or ideas (Hagel III & Singer, 1999; Abfalter & Cameron, 2011; Castells,
14
Interaction costs are transaction costs plus those costs related to the exchanging of ideas and information. (Hagel III & Singer, Unbundling the corporation, 1999)
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2001). The affordability and development of mobile phones, personal devices and internet access enables a large proportion of society to be connected and communicate in different ways. This ability to interactively communicate from your mobile phone and games console is not only shifting the way people communicate, but also they way they do business and solve problems. The
advent of social media and cloud computing is seeing the world economy ... on the verge of a broad, systemic reduction in interaction costs (Hagel III & Singer, 1999, p. 148). Research into the area of the impact of information technology on organisations and people has been conducted since the 1990s when the potential for online communities and social media was emerging but not well-developed (Brown & Keller, 1973; Cohen, 1989; Hine, 2000). Now web 2.0 presents unmatched opportunities for gathering information, establishing collaborative relationships, and building relationships with customers and prospective customers, yet CEOs and decision makers continue to be wary of embracing social media in the work environment (Birkinshaw & Pass, 2008 in Buchanan & Huczynski, 2010). Companies that are using web 2.0 technologies find that the tools improve communication with their suppliers, business partners and customers and encourage collaboration within their organisation. Blogs, twitter and social networking sites are used to gain customer feedback and improve customer service. The same technologies are also being used to manage knowledge
internally and drive innovation through collaborative working (McKinsey, 2007). It is believed that this constant and immediate social interaction will increasingly drive business (Laurent, 2010). Business is becoming more social and sociable (Buchanan & Huczynski, 2010). Information is shared quickly and virally as
people post items of interest to their networks which can then be shared to their networks networks. This viral nature is based on trusted relationships It has enabled SMEs to compete with large
such as friends and colleagues.
organisations (Marks, P. et.al., 2010). The implications of a social and socialable networked society means that organisations have had to adjust their way of communicating with their customers and learning to work with them too.
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Designing the best business solution and implementing it is neither an instantaneous nor simple transformation (Cisco Systems, 2010). A web 1.0
working practise organisation will fail to maximise the benefits of web 2.0 technology (Hilberts, 2010). There may also be hidden costs that we are
currently not aware of in terms of maintaining and sustaining a productive and valuable system.
4.4
The organisational and managerial challenges
Facebook, Twitter and LinkedIn are now popular with SMEs, and some organisations are creating intranets with social networking platforms, such as Ning, which the organisation can control. Yet the majority of organisations,
especially the public sector, still have a service-oriented one-way (Web 1.0) intranet, blocking web 2.0 technologies and not allowing their staff to use these tools (Hilberts, 2010; Buchanan & Huczynski, 2010). Organisations are
challenged to not only provide open and transparent services and information, but to also ensure security and privacy. The main concerns that arise are: IT Security Diluted marketing message Reputation management Control of information Employee behaviours (online and off-line). Privacy (Buchanan & Huczynski, 2010; Livingstone & Brake, 2010;
Wigington, 2008; OFCOM, 2008; Feretic, 2010; HRMagazine, 2008).
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Figure 6: Silo mentalities and conflict when implementing social media Source: Author
Many traditional organisations have a silo approach and mentality to information which provide some security benefits but limit the potential of collaborative technologies and collective/open innovation (Cisco Systems, 2010; Ashkenas et.al., 2008). Cultural differences between different functions of an organisation, their perceived roles and the barriers between them can lead to conflict. Issues such as the IT department blocking sites due to information and infrastructure security; marketing remaining detached from its customers and wanting to control brand and corporate messages and limit reputation damage; and human resources wanting to protect staff and company from any breaches of policy have arisen (Figure 6) (Evans & Yen, 2005). As consumers move
toward emerging channels of online media, marketeers need to acquire new technologies and develop new skills to deliver campaigns and analytic support, but the two departments with the most unproductive relationships with marketing today are information technology and human resources (Kim et.al., 2006, p. 2).
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4.5
Generation Y the Digital Natives
Born between 1976 and 2000, Generation Y (or the Google Generation) entered into a world where the technological information age was established in the 1980s. Having grown up with technology such as games consoles,
computers and the internet, this generation were highly skilled in using new technologies and had a natural aptitude to learn what they could do (Jones et.al., 2010). These digital natives are perceived to need new approaches to learning, are impatient with linear thinking, have the capacity to multi-task, require fast internet access and rewards. They are seemingly confident using social media to self publish, share and collaborate; network and connect with friends online via their internet enabled devices (Jones et.al., 2010; Buchanan & Huczynski, 2010; Prensky, 2001). The generations that had to learn how to use technology became known as the digital immigrants, keeping one foot in the pre-digital era (Prensky, 2001). As Generation Y started to enter the workforce, the traditional corporate structures and rigid IT infrastructures found Generation Y lacking patience and corporate skills (Erickson, 2009). Generation Y are accustomed to building
relationships and being part of an online community where contribution, collaboration, trust and tapping into a wider knowledge network for answers or assistance is the norm - but organisations are not harnessing theses attributes (Erickson, 2009; McAfee, 2010). The different generational outlooks between the Traditionalists (born between 1922 and 1945), the Baby Boomers (1946 to 1964), Generation X (1965 to 1980) and Generation Y have caused some managers concern as they try to deal with their different work practises (Australian School of Business, 2011). This generational difference is also seen as a barrier to adoption of new technologies, as senior and more traditional executives and shareholders do not understand the business value of these new technologies (McKinsey, 2007).
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Chapter 5: Methodology and Methods
5.1
Rationale and Approach
This research is based on and motivated by my experiences in Hull over five years working with start-ups, SMEs, education, social enterprises and local government. I take an interpretive perspective on ontology (the nature of
reality) that sees reality as a social construction (Collis & Hussey, 2009, p. 61). I want to try to understand how social reality is created and develop a system or process to enable positive change (Collis & Hussey, 2009). As an axiological
idealist, there is no intention to discover a new general theory or philosophy with this research, but rather to synthesize and consolidate experiences, ideas and knowledge to produce a way forward that will add value, not only for Hull, but for organisations and communities who may be struggling with the adoption of new technologies and their value. Mingers (2001) proposes that a pluralist approach is adopted when researching information systems and Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) to provide richer and more reliable results than a purely positivist or interpretivist approach. Social media and information technology draws upon many disciplines and is more than just the technical system it concerns the general evolution of human communication (Mingers and Stowell, 1977 in Mingers, 2001, p. 240). By combining an interpretive approach where our knowledge reflects our world views ... and is always either subjective or normative (culturally shared) (Simon, Allan, & Midgley, 2011) and a more positivist approach to social media, where the social world is the same as the physical world (Collis & Hussey, 2009, p. 61) it is hoped that richer insights into the implementation issues of social media in organisations and to the wider question of Hull as a Digital City will be produced. The design of the strategy consisted of three phases:
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a. A process of induction to understand key stakeholders views and perspectives by drawing conclusions about meanings in the Hull context from interviews. b. A process of deduction via a survey to provide quantitative data with respect to how people view social media for personal and professional use. c. A process of triangulation to combine the quantitative data and qualitative findings to provide reasonable deductions as to the slow adoption of social media within organisations.
5.2
Research methods
Ethnography was used to determine the issues of social media implementation and the wider topic of Hull as a digital city, using data from interviews, observation and documents (Genzuk, 1999). The involvement of key
stakeholders, practitioners and professionals has enabled the research to draw on experiences, knowledge and opinions that reflect the key issues faced not by organisations, and by a community with Digital City aspirations. 5.2.1 The Interview and selection of interviewees
Sixteen interviewees were selected from Hull-based organisations, or have a close relationship with Hull in developing the Hull Digital agenda, and have implemented social media to some degree (Figure 7). The interviewees were either referred to me or were my contacts through Imagine dpm Ltd.
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Figure 7: Interviewee selection and relationship to Hull
Interviewees represented organisations from the public, health, education, business and regional development sectors (Appendix B) and their ages ranged from 20 to 65 years old (Table 3). The interviews were conducted in a semi-structured manner with set questions (Appendix C) with the flexibility to explore views and issues that were beyond the scope of the interview questions.
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Table 3: List of Interviewees
5.2.2
The Survey
A qualitative and descriptive survey was initially derived using questions from a survey conducted by the European Association of Communication Directors (2011) which gauged the benefits, risks and adoption issues from over 1000 global communication professionals. The intention was to compare my survey results to identify any differences between local perceptions toward social media to the global. Findings from the interviews saw further questions being incorporated into the survey, aiming to provide quantitative data to validate them.
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The survey was first created using a Google Docs form. Initial piloting found that respondents were either unable to access the survey easily or that the survey would hang15. through. It was crucial that the survey was easy to access and work
A paid service, surveygalaxy.com, which offered the additional
feature of being able to be import the figures into the statistical package, SPSS, was used. A second pilot was conducted with five Hull-based participants. The survey took 10 minutes to complete and included additional answers, I dont know and Not applicable. A website was set up using Google sites which provided background information about the survey, the research, data protection and ethics considerations, and a contact page for any queries or requests for a summary report. An initial 250 emails with links to the survey were sent to clients and colleagues of Imagine dpm. It was also requested that the survey be forwarded to friends and
colleagues with participants remaining anonymous. In addition to the emailed survey, social media sites LinkedIn, Facebook and Twitter were used to disseminate the survey. The survey was promoted and available for 22 days.
5.3
Limitations of the study
Interviewees were limited to associates or their referrals of Imagine dpm Limited and, in general, shared a positive view of the potential of a networked society which could potentially present a bias in the findings. Hull has a very strong third sector community comprising of social enterprises, not-for-profit groups, and charities that do significant work within the community. Whilst there were no third sector employees interviewed the third sector was represented by a practitioner who is working with these organisations.
15
A hang or freeze describes when a computer program, whether via the web browser or on the computer, ceases to respond to inputs and commands.
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The survey was distributed online, via email to personal networks and via social media. The nature of being an online survey means that the results excluded those who did not have access to the internet or who wanted to access the survey by mobile phone.
5.4
Ethical considerations
There was no perceived risk or harm to the participants of the interview and survey, or to the researcher. Participants were fully informed of the research being conducted, in accordance with the University of Hulls Ethical Approval Policy and the Ethical Principles for Research and Lecturers in the Hull University Business School (November 2008) (Appendix A). To protect the identity and
privacy of the participants the names and organisations will not be revealed in this dissertation.
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Chapter 6: Findings and Results
6.1
Introduction
In this chapter the findings of the interviews and key results from the survey are presented and are summarised in section 6.1.1. The survey was available for 22 days with 72 out of 113 respondents completing it, a 57% response rate. As
such, the data does not guarantee to be representative of the population, and is therefore not conclusive, but tentative insights can nevertheless be derived from it. The survey results are intended for illustrative and descriptive purposes with exact sample sizes provided on a question-by-question basis.
6.1.1
Summary of Findings
The key issues that emerged relating to implementing social media in organisations were: The IT Department and IT blocking policies. Individuals usage and perception of social media. An assumed level of knowledge and skill that results in no skills training. A lack of social media strategy aligning activity with corporate objectives No social media policy to guide employees as to how social media was to be used, and how they could help achieve strategic outcomes by using social media. Leadership when implementing social media. The culture of the organisation. Beyond the main aim of investigating how social media and web 2.0 is being implemented in organisations and communities, other findings transpired that need to be considered when implementing social media and online technologies:
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Personal identity and value judgements between work and personal. For some the distinction between these is becoming blurred, and for others it is being strengthened. The skills and abilities afforded to the Net Generation are not just limited to Generation Y but dependent on exposure to technologies. The work environment is becoming more mobile, less geographical and more virtual and, in a sense, boundary-less. There is a lot of human capital and good will from employees that is currently not being realised or utilised by organisations. The issues that emerged for organisations could also be applied to the wider question of Hull as a Digital City. More specifically, in order to move forward Digital Hull needs: Leadership Co-ordination Collaboration Less politics
6.1.2
The organisations metaphorically speaking
Interviewees were asked to think about their organisation and describe it using metaphors. In systems thinking this process can provide insight and encourage critical thinking to a problem situation as it is described in terms of symbols, images or figure of speech (Jackson, 2003; Gregory, 2010). They were also asked how their organisations viewed networking within the organisation. There was a clear distinction between the public sector and private sectors (Figure 8). The council, the education institution and schools were all described as being old school and risk averse, and whilst they did not a discourage networking, they did not actively promote [networking] ... its not the culture (Project Manager, Education Institution). Within the schools, networking was
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seen as a necessary evil to communicate across schools (Teacher, Creative and Media Diploma). Conversely, the private sector was repeatedly described as being open, innovative and responsive. The Director of the Telecommunications
Company is an advocate of networking and encourages it. Ive already seen the benefit it did happen before, social media just made it easier. The Managing Director of a Youth Marketing Consultancy describes his relaxed but professional youth organisation as Alice in Wonderland, anything can happen.
Figure 8: Organisations - metaphorically speaking
However, as with all generalisations, there are exceptions.
The NHS, which is
public sector, is described as being willing to take risks, flexible [and] visionary but it is not good at networking across functions and barriers. It could and should (Social Media Manager, NHS). And, although a quango16, Former
16
Quango is the acronym for a quasi-autonomous non-governmental organisation alternatively known as a non-departmental government body that the government has devolved power to carry out governmental functions.
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Sector Manager, RDA, described the regional development agency as innovative in their approach to everything, particularly around staff and HOW to deliver projects. Networking was encouraged with team members going on secondment in industry to work and network. In the private sector, Department Head, News Organisation, found that the organisation was paradoxical, had anomalies [and] double meanings all the time on one hand lets share and on the other hand it was forced. [There were] mixed messages.
6.1.3
General Perceptions of social media in the business world
In general, participants thought that social media were useful. Whilst social media are disruptive (Engagement Officer, HCC) they have great potential (Former Council Leader, ex-HCC) and are viewed as a definite opportunity (Former Sector Manager, RDA). This is due to the extension of word of mouth and pub conversations (Former Council Leader, ex-HCC; Former Sector Manager, RDA; Director, Telecommunications Company) where there is the ability to mobilise campaigns inexpensively and keep the momentum (Director, Telecommunications Company). Social media has changed the business world beyond measure purely because of the visuals and information travelling around the world in seconds instead of weeks. (Director, Online Marketing Consultancy) Other benefits and features included the ability to easily research a topic and find people similar to you (PR Officer, Education Institution) and the potential to turn negatives into positives by resolving issues online (Former Sector Manager, RDA).
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In winter 2010/11 HCC set up a Posterous17 feed and a Hull Winter Facebook page to innovatively inform residents of school and road closures during winter. Engagement Officer, HCC explains that: The communications team and IT didnt click well with Twitter. It took three weeks to set up Tumblr and Posterous feeds and Facebook for the official winter feed. However, I dont know how its evaluated. Senior Researcher, R&D Consultancy suggests that businesses are too clumsy. Large organisations are still not grasping that conversation. They need to step back and allow the human stuff to happen. It was felt that the impact of social media on organisations was major, visible (Social media manager, NHS) and massive (Department Head, News Organisation). All the interviewees agreed that its going to be difficult for
businesses to get away with not doing social media to some degree (Managing Director, R&D Consultancy). But this creates lots of frustrated company
owners, says the Director of a local removals company as businesses struggle to see fiscal return on their time investment.
6.1.4
External social media use All
The way that businesses are using social media varies extensively.
interviewees are using some form of social media to market their organisation 18, or their clients, and had integrated it onto their websites using either hyperlinks to the social media site or embedding the content onto their website. Attitudes toward which social media platforms should and could be used differed, dependent on the degree of perceived success that social media had achieved.
17
Posterous: A social medium that allows simple blogging and posting to other social media sites such as Twitter and Facebook. 18 As mentioned in the section 5.4, this is a bias due to the interviewees selected. Organisations currently not using social media have not been interviewed.
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All organisations had a Twitter account, whether it was the Directors own or branded, with the exception of the Creative and Media Diploma. The Director, Telecommunications Company states that Twitter is used by the organisation for information flow, customer service and customer focussed groups, aiming for the best customer experience. At the NHS, Youtube and Facebook is used for their breastfeeding and Midwife Hull campaigns. Youtube was used to post tutorials on breastfeeding and viral marketing was aimed at breaking down myths about breastfeeding. Other webbased media were utilised, such as Bluetooth and text messages, so that they were able to do a formal evaluation of how many people texted, measuring awareness levels, traffic to the site, quality of conversations and specific word mentions. This was further supported by pamphlets, posters, street teams and midwives providing stickers to patients, signposting to the Facebook pages. Twitter was not used as they were advised by the marketing consultancy that not many people in Hull use the platform. The education insitutution used Facebook, Twitter and live streaming to try and increase their audience numbers and promote their events to a wider audience. The difference in audience numbers has been neglible, but we have been able to find out why people dont come. With some events that we thought would be popular we have been able to go back into Facebook and say how come youre not coming? And people would tell us why they werent coming, which was interesting because normally you wouldnt have the opportunity to ask your audience why theyre not coming. (Project Manager, Education Institution) The Business Studies Teacher uses Google docs and Twitter in his classroom, as well as LinkedIn, to stay connected and improve engagement with local businesses and students. Every Thursday at 8pm he meets with other UK
teachers online via Twitter meet #ukedchat, where he discusses topics and share resources. He finds that social media gives him access to high level people.
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6.1.5
Internal communications and web 2.0
While the majority of organisations were using external social media sites, primarily for marketing, few organisations had extended this to their internal communications systems. Those that had implemented a social media style intranet on the whole had positive outcomes in terms of monetary savings and more collaboration. Email continues to be the main form of internal communication for all interviewees. In the public sector, higher education and the development
consultancy a newsletter would be created and distributed via email on a regular basis. Whilst some interviewees found this sufficient and felt well informed, one council employee felt that internal communications were done terribly. The schools, higher education institution and the public sector organisations (including the NHS) did not have a web 2.0 functionality website with most saying that they have a clunky intranet. The Education institution intranet
was described as being hard to use, the search function doesnt work very well [and its] tricky to find people (Project Manager, Education Institution). The council and the development consultancy had implemented social media tool Yammer19, but had limited success. People within both organisations
were slow to adopt and there was no training on how to use the tool. Hull City Councils experience of Yammer found that there is not extensive participation with only 10 people using it out of 350. One percent are creating the
conversation.... cost is a barrier ... [and there is also] a technical barrier as some departments have restricted access (Engagement Officer, HCC). The Managing Director of R&D Consultancy, mentioned that although the voluntary sector is trying, they do not have intranets with web 2.0 functionality. In both the public and voluntary sector there are network blocking policies and
19
Yammer: a secure and private enterprise closed social network that enables organisations and teams to communicate and collaborate
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there are issues around fears for reputation ... sending out the message that someones going to make a mistake. The national newspaper, on the other hand, implemented a Facebook-style intranet, which had been in place for six months at the time of interview. Being a multinational company the benefits included video calling internationally, following people in other countries, their updates and content. However, very few people took advantage of the social functionality. [The] problem was with having the time to interact with it. The senior bosses didnt interact with it not within my immediate sphere. It was a great idea but there was no launch, there was no backup. There werent people saying this is why you should be using it, it just kind of appeared. (Department Head, News Organisation) One organisation stood out in terms of their use and implementation of a web 2.0 style intranet. The telecommunications company had implemented an
intranet that is very searchable and enables employees to chat, video call, conduct video audio and web conferencing, join discussions and collaborate on documents. They use the service effectively with recorded CEO announcements and live meetings, major site updates and links via SharePoint. Projects have different accessibility to include partners working on projects: Its really powerful for product launches when you have multiple teams across the country, including external partners you can hook them into these meetings and work collaboratively. (Director, Telecommunications Company) Former Sector Manager, RDA, said of his organisations social media style intranet that communication worked well and you could choose to participate or not... the slight disadvantage is that playing with it could be a distraction. The Creative and Media Diploma set up a course intranet using social media tool, Ning, which they were able to access at the East Hull City Learning Centre,
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but it was not possible to access Ning from the school site as the IT department refused to give teachers access. The students were quite engaged with the
platform but over time this engagement declined as it changed from social to work to just work.
6.2
Main issues of implementing social media and web 2.0 technologies
6.2.1
The IT Department
People in the public sector organisations said that, although there was not a silo mentality as such, the IT department was a main obstacle to implementing social media or web 2.0 technologies. Although the NHS was described as willing to take risks, flexible [and] visionary only two people in the organisation (herself and a member of the Corporate Communications team) were able to access external social media sites, even if they were commissioning social media campaigns for their projects. IT dont like us using social media because they dont have a policy around the use of social media which they are developing ... I had to write a proposal that had to go to an IT Board for approval and they turned it down. They said the only way I could get access is to take it off another person in the team. (Social Media Manager, NHS) Within the Council, access to social media sites depended on the department and position held. For example, Children and Young Peoples Services do not have access to social media sites. The IT people have a certain view of the world. It was like a priesthood that had all the control and would stop things from happening.
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(Former Senior Manager, ex-HCC) In the schools, they would have to write a proposal and then sign a form in order to access social media sites. On the whole, the majority of teachers did not have access to social media sites that they could use within their courses.
6.2.2
Individuals usage and perceptions of social media I think this is a new fashion that somehow will pass or relax. Because if this is the way we might find the streets empty and people only connecting to each other via technology... very sad. (Survey response) [It] will be the way forward, as long as it doesn't take over from face to face communication and is used appropriately. (Survey response)
In general, the interviewees agreed that social media adoption and implementation in the workplace was due to the individual and their perceptions of social media and technology, regardless of position or age. Often problems arose because one member of a group would not be interested or did not see the value in the use of social media. There were four factors that contributed to whether there was a positive or negative view toward social media: Personal use of social media and technology Differentiation between work and personal How safe people felt about social media The value of social media
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6.2.2.1 The Blurring of work and personal the influence of the mobile phone? A relationship between phone ownership, social media use and the blurring of work and personal lives emerged. Of the 16 people interviewed, 13 currently had smart phones primarily using them to access the internet and emails. Four owned more than one phone. Two interviewees who did not currently have a smart phone had previously used a Blackberry for work emails.
Table 4: Mobile phone ownership and when they are used
Table 4 shows the breakdown of mobile phone ownership and when they are used. For interviewees owning an iPhone or Android smart phone, users took advantage of the functionality of mobile applications, document and media storage and sharing, social media interactions and time management using calendars and diaries. The iPhone owners appeared not to distinguish between personal and work boundaries, with the device becoming an integral part of their lives: Is there a difference? Its not used as a phone but as a tool to communicate in different ways. (Managing Director, R&D Consultancy) I never switch off. Im always connected. Theres no delineation between work and private. With the iPhone there is no effort to logon. (Teacher, Creative and Media Diploma)
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Similarly the Engagement Officer, HCC, an android owner, stated that the overlap of business and personal is not a problem; I use it for note taking and entertainment. Conversely, Blackberry owners had a definite boundary between business and personal, using it mainly for work emails, and often having a second phone that they would use for personal use. All the interviewees used social media for personal use, ranging from video sharing sites such as Youtube and Vimeo, blogging, video calling (Skype), social bookmarking and document sharing (Google docs, Drop box). However, iPhone and Android phone owners used social media for personal use more than those with Blackberrys or other phones. 6.2.2.2 Personal use of social media and boundaries The majority of the interviewees (13) were on Facebook for personal use to keep in touch with friends and family: I keep my Facebook friends to the people I actually know. If I met someone once and they Facebook friend me I would be like, Yeah, (laughs)... no. Thats predominantly the purpose for It them is to share information about my life with them.
influences the way I use social media at work: I wouldnt have work colleagues on as my Facebook friends and I dont have any personal friends on LinkedIn. I know how we use it for this specific role in terms of what the project does, but thats not me doing it its the project. (Project Manager, Education Institution) The Managing Director of Youth Marketing Consultancy commented that Facebook is a personal space and should be respected as such. He
implemented a policy that employees should not friend their line manager or above.
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But despite the majority of interviewees being on Facebook, several mentioned their dissatisfaction with the social networking site and said that they rarely engaged with it. The Senior Researcher at R&D Consultancy deleted her Facebook account because she felt that Facebook is not ethical. She also deleted her LinkedIn account as she found that: social media applications were pushing connecting. I am
shocked with how people didnt get back to you so I didnt see the point particularly with Facebook benefitting from the data. Fourteen of the interviewees had a profile on LinkedIn, the professional networking site, but utilised it mainly as an online contact diary. The Director of the Telecommunications Company saw an extension of LinkedIns functionality to seek business opportunities, finding key client information and potential partner contracts. Twitter was used by twelve of the interviewees for personal use, whilst the remaining four had implemented Twitter for business use. Twitter received the most favourable feedback, with people finding it useful for feedback, promoting, connecting and sharing resources with other teachers (Teacher, Business Studies). There is also a shifting demographic of younger users (Gen Y) moving to Twitter, with the Managing Director of Youth Marketing Consultancy, observing that celebrities now use Twitter. Therefore the generation below 17 years old use Twitter but the 17-24 year old generation still use Facebook. The interviewees who were active on social media mentioned that, whilst they participate and contribute, there is an element of selfcensoring. They
understand that, when they post onto social media, it is visible to many people. Where there is not this distinction or understanding of the medium, there is the potential for social media users to make mistakes.
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I post on the forum, but I dont want to offend people I need to be polite. (Teacher, Creative and Media Diploma)
6.2.2.3 The value of social media The Director, Telecommunications, found that using social media was useful for bringing in business, as well as saving money with the intranet. He found that internally the impact was massive, seeing changes in the way employees worked and thought, being more collaborative and faster. better project perspective as well as commercially focussed. Weve cut approximately 1 million in the past year by cutting down travel, hotels, conference calling significant savings actually. (Director, Telecommunications Company). Director, Removals Company Employees had a
But for most managers the Jury is still out.
comments that I want to see the direct benefit. I see the benefits of IT but have still to see the benefits of social media. There is also scepticism about social media adding value to the brand experience: It certainly makes the organisation more visible on the web and people expect to see it, even if they dont use it. So, even if they wouldnt engage with all the different bits, they are expected to be there. I think to some extent though, if it wasnt there we wouldnt be doing less of a job. Ive not really seen it done well and thought thats really added value to any experience I would have had with that business otherwise. It adds work ... the return on it doesnt justify the spend in terms of the time and thought. (Project Manager, Education Institution) 6.2.2.4 Social media and safety It's about taking risks the main problem is about safeguarding. (Teacher, Business Studies)
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Social media and safety are major concerns for both interviewees and survey participants. Out of seventy-six responses, the main concern was security (59) closely followed by privacy (58), confidentiality (55), reputation management (54) and hacking (52) (Figure 9).
Figure 9: What is your main concern when using social media? (76 responses) Source: Authors Social Media Survey 2011
6.2.3
No training due to an assumed level of knowledge and skills People not being trained on how to use social media/web 2.0, i.e. there will be an assumed high level of knowledge because people are 'computer literate'. (Survey response)
There is significant evidence to suggest that there is an assumed level of IT competency which is leading to a lack of training in organisations on new technologies, including social media. Taking a closer look at secondary education, the teachers are not using social media and web 2.0 technologies (primarily due to lack of access), and the level of knowledge of ICT and social media is quite weak (Teacher, Business Studies). But it goes further than that. explains: The Creative and Media Diploma Teacher,
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Students could use the computer, Facebook and Xbox, and had greater skills in the difficult stuff, such as editing, but didnt know the basics ... but they couldn't upload or attach files, or create folders. Of the survey respondents, seventy-one out of eighty-eight respondents said that they first learnt how to use social media by self-studying, in the sense of learning by doing (Figure 10).
Figure 10: How did you first learn how to use social media? (88 responses) Source: Authors Social Media Survey 2011
One third of respondents said that they had not updated their knowledge on social media and do not intend to in the next 12 months (Figure 11).
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Figure 11: How have you updated your social media knowledge? (88 responses) Source: Authors Social Media Survey 2011
Although most people did not understand the full benefit of social media, the majority would not attend a course to learn more. Significantly respondents aged between 55-64 said they would not attend a course (Figure 12).
Figure 12: I will attend a course to update my social media knowledge by age (88 responses) Source: Authors Social Media Survey 2011
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When the news organisation implemented their new intranet, the Department Head found that: The people who were familiar with social networking jumped on it, whereas the people who should have been on it werent, because there was no-one showing them how it should work.
6.2.4
Becoming human or less professional
Social media is also challenging how businesses communicate with their customers: There is different media for different audiences and we have to try and talk in their language. We have to un-professionalise a little bit. (Project Manager, Education Institution) Internally, the impact of social media in the workplace is that managers are finding their employees less professional through using text speak in emails. The Managing Director of Youth Marketing Consultancy found that his young employees are more informed and, yes, spelling is an issue and tone of voice, but lack of responding to a phone call or making a phone call is the main issue.
6.2.5
No Policy, no guidance; No strategy, no measurement
Organisations are implementing social media without any strategy or any social media policy to guide their employees as to its use and company expectations. The majority of organisations using social media did not have any form of strategy linking activity to organisational goals or measurement, demonstrating a lack of knowledge as to how to measure social media performance. This is
also reflected in Figure 13, where only eleven respondents out of seventy-six stated that they had a social media strategy mapped to strategic organisational and corporate goals, and just eight respondents said that they measured their social media activity against their social media strategy. Almost half of the
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respondents claimed they did not know about how social media was used in the workplace. The Director of Online Marketing Consultancy, says that organisations need to get the basics right before they start on social media. This includes a welldesigned, informative website with good content that is customer-focussed.
Figure 13: Social Media in the work place: Social Media Strategy and Policy (76 responses) Source: Authors Social Media Survey 2011
In addition, the majority of organisations did not have or were unaware of a social media policy or guidance for employees. Out of all the respondents (76), twenty-four said they were not informed of the expected code of behaviour when using social media and thirty-four said their organisations did not provide any training. The general solution was to stop access to social media sites (Figure 13).
6.2.6
Leadership
From the interviews, the adoption of collaborative technologies needs a more open style of leadership with boundaries. Managing Director, Youth Marketing Consultancy learnt that as a manager he needed to listen more ... set an
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example of best practice.
[There] needs to be clear boundaries, freedom to
explore and not to enforce or alienate. When the news organisation implemented their new intranet: Management expected to us to embrace it, but then to do it is another matter. I think it could have been backed-up with some on the ground buy-in from senior managers within each business unit. (Department Head, News Organisation) Senior management at the telecoms company did embrace the new system and benefitted from this approach: There was a change in the way of working but the senior management really embraced it very quickly ... and that spread through the organisation very quickly. So its now just a given that we use it. (Director, Telecoms Company) The Senior Researcher of R&D Consultancy suggested that management needs to change from traditional measures of performance: We need to invest in management skills. Social media is a lot about trust between managers and staff.
6.2.7
Company Culture So much of our culture is in a command and control fashion that stifles ingenuity and limits risk. It is impossible to avoid and mitigate all risk, but our fear of it means that we have been stymied as an organisation - things are changing. This is not about technology or shiny websites but about a cultural shift. (Survey response)
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The culture of an organisation is a key factor in the implementation of social media. It was found that the public sector and education organisations had
cultures that were still very traditional and closed, and social media had not impacted those organisations. The Managing Director of R&D Consultancy, said that the public sector is: hampered. There are the people who want to share, and the people who like to hide. Social media brings out the cocoons: the bigger the organisation, the bigger the barrier. The Director of Online Marketing Consultancy also found that politics continues to be a problem in organisations: People are reluctant to share knowledge and what they know because they see this as a weakness. This is across the board, a real mixture of ages and positions, even board Directors. Its a very selfish culture in businesses, people looking out for themselves, the younger generation are still politicking.... this can detract from how the business functions and performs. The social media manager of NHS believes that the barriers between different teams could be improved if they made time to see them socially or in a business sense: I think that we would understand each others roles and targets a little better and how we can support each other in a better way to achieve what we need to achieve as a business. I think it will be more cost effective and efficient. From the survey, a third of respondents (21), felt that their organisation could do better in organising social events, with 20% stating that interdepartmental co-operation and communication was done poorly (Figure 14).
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Figure 14: Company performance (72 responses) Source: Authors Social Media Survey 2011
6.3
Harnessing the human capital in organisations
The survey found that the majority of people found their jobs enjoyable and had a sense of pride in doing their work (Figure 15).
Figure 15: Job satisfaction (87 responses) Source: Authors Social Media Survey 2011
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They were responsive to taking on responsibility, with none of the respondents answering prefer not to say, not sure, never, no or not really (Figure 16).
Figure 16: Actively seek responsibility (70 responses) Source: Authors Social Media Survey 2011
There was also a positive response to the idea of implementing a social media style intranet with almost 50% saying that it would definitely improve collaboration (34), the ability to give feedback (34), cross-departmental working (34) and customer service (30) (Figure 17).
Figure 17: Web 2.0 intranet potential impact (70 responses) Source: Authors Social Media Survey 2011
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6.4
The Net Generation is not just Generation Y
Both the Engagement Officer of HCC, and the Managing Director of Youth Marketing Consultancy fall into the Generation Y age group. At 20 years old,
the Managing Director of Youth Marketing Consultancy often finds that he is seen as the expert because he is the youngest in the room, which is not necessarily warranted. Whilst both interviewees were proficient at using social media and were self-taught in the use of the software, they were not unique in their adoption and application of social media. The application of social media has come through exploration and creativity, and this was noted by all the interviewees who were advocates of social media, regardless of age. Even those who were beginning to start using social media were putting aside time to explore the different tools and how they can be used.
Figure 18: Attitudes towards social media (105 responses). Source: Authors Social Media Survey 2011
From the survey, 94% responses (99) disagreed that social media is only for the young and only nine respondents said that they did not feel confident using new technologies. None of the latter fell within the 55-74 year old age group.
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Figure 19: Confidence in using online technologies (105 responses). Source: Authors Social Media Survey 2011
Both teachers said that basic computer skills, such as uploading images and creating folders, still had to be taught to 15 year old digital natives, and that ability varied across the class.
6.5
Key Stakeholders reflections on Hull and moving forward
As for organisations, the Hull Digital City had the same issues: leadership, collaboration and understanding different agendas to achieve a common goal. Overall, interviewees viewed Hull positively and a saw it as a digitally savvy place (Engagement Officer, HCC), with KC emerging as a key organisation to lead Hull into a digital future. Hull was also described as an abused child that doesnt want to take risks and is scared (Former Council Leader, ex-HCC). At a place marketing exercise where 30 local businesses met to discuss how to promote Hull, Managing Director, Youth Marketing Consultancy, reported that the group described Hulls current persona as a traveller or an explorer that had done great things but is now a grand-dad: grey, stubborn and stuck in its ways ... a male persona and it should
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aspire to become unisex, younger, with a level of rooted confidence ... and recognize its entrepreneurial roots. But the Director of the Telecommunications Company challenged these ideas, believing that for enterprise Hull is a big opportunity - the land is cheap as are the logistics ... and there is an excellent communication network. The people of Hull are talented, have integrity, are hardworking, have desire, passion and grit (Department Head, News Organisation). Despite these positive characteristics, keywords that consistently appeared were the necessity for joined up thinking, collaboration, leadership and the right level of leadership being seen as crucial for Hull to move forward on the digital agenda. The Council came in for heavy criticism. There wasnt sufficient leadership drive. The council didnt
establish the critical mass of movement sufficiently. We fell short after the first two-to-three years ... we just lost the momentum in it. This was a city that had innovated a lot in the public sector before, but it became neurotic and frightened and not knowing where to go and couldnt deal with the vision thing. (Former Senior Manager, ex-HCC) The Director of Online Marketing Consultancy went further to say that the main challenges are people not being accountable at ineffective councils. People are not effective in their jobs mentalities20. Former Senior Manager, ex-HCC, found that he never had a problem of flogging the vision outside [the council], of engaging people. It was inside getting the ... interested parties tend to be in isolated silo
people to believe it. And that was in an environment that became unlikely to innovate.
20
The silo mentality, in this case, is between different areas of the council rather than specific functional departments such as IT, marketing, etc.
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The research found that only those parties that were involved in the Hull Digital City Agenda were aware of the vision for Hull. This was highlighted by the survey21, where twenty respondents (66%). who either lived, worked or studied in Hull had not heard of the Hull Digital City agenda and those who had did not engage because there was no mechanism to do so: I didn't! It was explained to me by the ONE HULL Partnership who suggested that I contact a particular councillor with any ideas. There was/is no formal mechanism or way to get involved. (Survey response) In order for Hull to become a Digital City there needs to be a more joined up pace and structure and collaborative working, with local strategic partners (Director, Telecommunications Company). The Former Sector Manager of RDA, reflected that the different partners representing their organisations with different ideas need to find a common goal. It really depends on a champion, buy-in, and not of fear of lip-service. The Director of Online Marketing Consultancy, emphasizes that KC have to be involved and absolutely realise they have a pivotal part to play, and at the same time the council needs to step up and be involved. They need to own up that they dont have the experts and bring in the expertise.
21
Of the seventy-six survey respondents, thirty (39.5%) stated that they lived, worked or studied
in Hull, with fifteen actually resident in Hull.
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Chapter 7: Discussion
7.1
Introduction
This chapter will discuss the findings in relation to other reports and relevant literature. The benefits of social media and web 2.0 were recognised by
participants, but the value and potential to organisations have yet to be realised. Four broad themes were derived from the research as areas that affected the implementation and adoption of web 2.0 and social media technologies: The individual: An individuals experience and personal boundaries towards work and personal influencing their perception and attitude toward social media. IT implementation and change management: The IT Department and the process of implementing social media in organisations. Leadership, management and culture: The need for a different style of leadership and organisational culture. Learning and the learning organisation: The assumption that employees are social media competent because they are IT literate or young.
7.2
Boundaries
Social media is misnamed. It should be called personal media. (Senior Researcher, R&D Consultancy).
Throughout the interviews the words barriers and boundaries surfaced, whether departmental, organisational or community. When discussing the
personal use of social media it emerged that some interviewees had a definite boundary between work and personal beliefs and values.
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The self identity is constructed from within as a result of interactions with others and experiences within the environment (both the virtual and real world) (Hall, 1996 cited in Livingstone & Brake, 2010; Livingstone & Brake, 2010), including beliefs and values. Virtual worlds22, a pre-cursor to social media,
allow the user to create a virtual being (or avatar) which can be as closely related to that users real self or not (Schau & Gilly, 2003; Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010). With social media, like Facebook, the user is recreating the real self
with the same values and beliefs virtually, thereby extending the real identity into a virtual meeting place. Some people have multiple real world identities that have different behaviours and personalities for work, family, friends and so forth, with each social group seeing the identity that the individual wants them to see (Stryker, 1968; Stryker & Burke, 2000; Burke & Reitzes, 1981). From the findings, when there was a strong delineation between the work identity and the personal identity. There appeared to be an internal conflict when discussing the use of social media and its use for business, where those that used social media only for personal purposes found the use of social media conflicting with their belief of work behaviours that being personal is not necessarily professional. This can be understood more clearly through the use of the systems theory of boundary critique. Ulrich (1996b) first introduced the term boundary critique in systems thinking literature where boundaries are social or personal constructs that define the limits of the knowledge that is to be taken as pertinent in an analysis (Cordoba & Midgley, 2003, p. 168). Prior to this, the boundaries of a system were
assumed to be given by the structure of reality. System boundaries became a question of ethics, due to the interrelationship between boundary judgements and value judgements: the values adopted define the boundaries of the knowledge that is deemed important (Ulrich, 1983).
22
Virtual worlds: A virtual world is often in the form of an online game, where players can create identities, form communities and interact with one another to achieve goals specified by the game.
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Midgley (2000) develops boundary critique further, observing the conflict that arises when two groups of people with different ethics (or values in action) come into contact with one another in relation to the same topic or issue. The theory proposes that when two ethical boundaries come into conflict, the equilibrium is achieved by shifting the status of marginal elements to either a sacred (valued) or profane (devalued) status.
Figure 20: Boundary Critique of the inner self: Conflict arising from work and personal values Source: Adapted from Midgley, 2000, 144
I argue that theory can also be applied to the inner work and personal identities. Figure 20 represents the boundary judgements that are created by the values held toward work and the personal on the issue social media adoption in the work place. The work boundary is represented by the primary (narrower) boundary and the personal boundary is represented by the secondary (wider) boundary. There exists a marginal area between the two
boundaries where the work ethics are excluding the personal, but work ethics are nevertheless accounted for in constructing the personal. Simply, when at work, the individual restricts their activities and behaviours to those that have been deemed appropriate for work as determined by their
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experience of the workplace. Any behaviours that do not fit this professional work boundary are not considered. However, with social media, it requires In the case of the
the individual to be themselves authentic and personal.
Project Manager, Education Institution, the marginal element was made profane (that is, it is less professional to be personal at work) and therefore reinforced the primary boundary (Midgley, 2000; Cordoba & Midgley, 2003; Crdoba-Pachn, 2010). We need to recognise that conflicts exist within an
individual based on internal boundary judgements of the work and personal identities. For some, particularly the iPhone users, this conflict does not exist. The work identity is the same as the personal identity. They are comfortable with the virtual world of social media as being a place where the practice of trust, authenticity and reciprocity are well understood, in more flexible, complex and ambiguous networks in which advice and support with peers is shared (Heverley, 2008 cited in Livingstone & Brake, 2010, 4). The implications for organisations is the potential for employees to be marginalised if they exhibit behaviours that are contrary to the percieved appropriate work behaviours and thereby restricting themselves from participating online. It appears to also influence the percieved value of social media where personal is not seen as professional, or providing fiscal value to the organisation.
7.3
IT implementation and change management
Social media has its pros and cons. Often people forget that with some websites that they are also a professional and several have been caught out making personal comments relating to work in their free time. It is frustrating when trying to access some websites as part of your job that our IT services forbade it. (Survey response)
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The use of social software in enterprises will continue to grow. It has the potential to develop communities, formal and informal, and support productivity but a clear understanding of the purpose for implementing the system is an important factor (Lamont, 2008). Not only does it require a new way of thinking, but it has the potential to change ways of working (Director, Telecommunications Company). Several lessons from the first wave of ICT implementation are still applicable today. According to Lyytinen and Hirschheim (1987) there are four major types of IT implementation failures: correspondence failure23, process failure24, interaction failure25, and expectation failure26. Many of these IT project failures are due to one or more of the following reasons (Krauth, 1999 in Standing et.al., 2006): insufficient awareness of organizational issues; insufficient involvement of users; inadequate training of users; and poor alignment of IT adoption to business strategy. These same issues arise in the findings of my research where organisations are not recognising organisational needs, particularly in the education and public sectors. Users are not involved in the IT process, nor trained in how to use the system once implemented. For those organisations that have implemented
23
Correspondence failure: where the system does not meet the stated objectives, requirements and specification initially determined at the start of the development. 24 Process failure: where a workable system has been developed but the development process failed in some way resulting in cost and/or time overruns. 25 Interaction failure: where the system is either rejected or not used by its target user even though the system meets the stated objectives, requirements and specifications; and 26 Expectation failure: where the development process or delivered system does not meet the expectations of the stakeholders.
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social media, this adoption has not been aligned to the business strategy, often being carried out in an ad hoc fashion, and with no measures of impact or value (Wilson et.al., 2011). IT departments need to rethink what their positions are and become more part of the business, thinking of ways to improve the organisations business functions and people collaboration rather than just maintaining the technical infrastructure, becoming Business Technology instead of Information Technology (Moore, Colony, & Coit, 2009). Telenor, a Norwegian multinational telecoms company (the 6th largest in the world), ensures that both external social media sites (such as Facebook and Twitter) and internal web 2.0 sites are part of the strategic mix. In 2010, the company had 100% of its employees on the social media intranet, with almost 50% having created their own profile page, seeing better knowledge management and collaboration and an estimated savings of Kroner 30,000,000 by using Live Meeting (Rosenberg, 2011). Yet the way of implementing social media and IT is changing and needs to change further. Web 2.0 investments will be more effective if the company
invests in its internal capabilities (Figure 21) (McKinsey, 2007). Instead of a topdown approach organisations are finding that implementing change virally, starting with a small number of people, a set of behaviours, and internal networks of influence can lead to sustainable change. This requires not only people who are willing and able to communicate effectively, but also a technical and cultural environment that allows them to do this (Edwards, 2011).
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Figure 21: Investing in Companys internal capabilities Source: McKinsey, 2007, p. 4
Organisations found the most effective web 2.0 implementation started at the grass roots level, with the role of senior management being to support, supply permission and resources and set the boundaries and then let motivated teams run with it (McKinsey, 2007, p. 13; Edwards, 2011; Gaudin, 2010). Although this approach appears informal, it is part of an overall strategy with key performance indicators and measures of impact - it is designed informality (Edwards, 2011). new ideas are key. The adoption of web 2.0 and social media does not provide any meaningful time frame of competitive advantage as competitors quickly adopt the same technologies. Instead, companies find that Web 2.0 tools encourage Monitoring and measuring interactions, conversations and
collaboration, new ways of working and innovation which lead to long term advantage (McKinsey, 2007; Toffler, 1991).
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7.4
Leadership, management and culture
Directors and managers have significant influence on social media adoption. Their ability to appreciate and understand the benefits and capabilities, whether through ignorance or fear of repercussions, impacts on the adoption of social media and web 2.0 technologies (Harindranath, Dyerson, & Barnes, 2008). Management need to develop a new way of thinking and encourage bottom-up approaches as well as top-down (King, 2008; Bradbrook & Fisher, 2004; Bernhart Walker, 2011; Edwards, 2011; Niccolai, 2008). Leaders and managers need to recognise that social media and web 2.0 are disruptive technologies. There is a revolution and an evolution of business
practises occurring. Managers need to ensure that employees feel connected, are ready to work together to achieve their personal, departmental and organisational goals, and understand the way that the organisation works to achieve these goals. Managers have to take advantage of the talent within their organisations to drive engagement that will fulfil organisation strategy (Carayannis & Sipp, 2006; Canwell et.al., 2011). It is also about collective
leadership *which+ drives business strategy (Schwartz & DiMarzio, 2011, p. 28). Although some academics argue that an organisations culture are the deeply held values and beliefs of employees, strong cultures can also be created by strong leadership and management (Buchanan & Huczynski, 2010). But as web 2.0 technologies start to shift the organisation into a boundary-less organisation this can present a challenge to the traditional manager it is a leadership challenge (Ashkenas et.al., 2008; Ron et.al., 2008). They need to
become a Level 5 leader which builds enduring greatness through a paradoxical combination of personal humility plus a professional will (Collins, 2008, p. 100). There is the necessity to lose the command and control type of management, value variety and let influencers and innovators flourish (Edwards, 2011; Day, 2011; Canwel et.al., 2011).
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Leaders and managers need to start attending to the fluffy (or soft) human aspects of leading an organisation to ensure that the organisation is healthy. Organisational health is about: adapting to the present and shaping the future faster and better than the competition. Healthy organizations dont merely learn to adjust themselves to their current context or to challenges that lie just ahead; they create a capacity to learn and keep changing over time. This is where ultimate competitive advantage lies. (Keller & Price, 2011) It means understanding personal fears at the grass roots level and appreciating the individual. It is about promoting team work and recognising that while there is no egotistical, selfish I in team, but there is an m and e (Conway, 2011). An example of where social media has been implemented in a hierarchical organisation is the United States Navy. The blurring between work and
personal lives continues to be a challenge, but the Navy implements policies that aim to strike a balance between accountability and empowerment (Bernhart Walker, 2011). The use of social media is encouraged to develop the workforce to be better communicators where a social media policy sets the boundaries not to disclose classified information ... we expect everyone to treat everyone else with dignity and respect. But you can't dictate everything your people say (Bernhart Walker, 2011). Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Gary Roughead has seen communities develop that support one another to address problems on Facebook and blogs. Roughead explains that, in the current
situation of media transparency, it would be a strategic error of the most basic nature to not do everything you can to empower your workforce to communicate on behalf of the organization (Bernhart Walker, 2011). Realistic social media policies and guidelines need to be developed and communicated to employees, partners and customers, and at the same time organisations must educate employees about online threats and their role and responsibility in keeping information and networks safe (Feretic, 2010).
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Figure 22: The 'open' system revisited. Source: Adapted from Jackson, 2003, p.6
This boundaryless27 organisation where the vertical, horizontal, external and geographic boundaries begin to dissolve, creates a permeability that can contribute to an organisations success factors of speed, flexibility, integration and innovation (Ron et.al., 2008). In general systems theory, the permeability
of the system (represented by the dashed boundary) is a key requirement for change to occur (Figure 22) (Crdoba-Pachn, 2010). Social media and web 2.0 technologies have the potential to enable a transformational cultural shift within an organisation. However, Mark Conway (2011) suggests that for successful
social media implementation start by changing the culture then employing a tool that will support and empower the change.
27
The boundaryless organisation in this sense is where the organisation is not bound by geography, internal vertical and horizontal boundaries, or external boundaries due to the virtual nature of the internet and cloud computing (Ron et. al., 2008). In reality, the organisation will always have a boundary, for without the boundary, it would cease to exist as an identity with a purpose, exchanging information within its environment.
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7.5
The Learning Organisation

"Experience by itself teaches nothing. W. Edwards Deming
The assumption of prior knowledge and skill, due to perceived computer literacy or generational adoption, is incorrect. The findings of my research suggest that although Generation Y can manipulate media and engage with social media more readily, their abilities vary, and basic skills, such as creating folders, and uploading files and images, are often missing. There is also evidence that the older generation are consuming a lot of social media, just more passively (O'Neill, 2011). It was found that teachers themselves lack the skills required to teach students. This suggests that we still have analogue teachers instructing digital students. The teachers do not know how to utilise social media for learning, collaborating and developing content and meeting new people (Edge et.al., 2005). I found that the ability for individuals to adopt and implement social media was based on their experiences, and the more positive their experience, the more likely they were to adopt. This positive experience did not necessarily have to be formal training. Bondarouk & Sikkel (2003) found in their study of the
implementation of groupware that a fundamental characterstic of learning in the work place is work socialization. Table 5 shows the learning contexts required to implement groupware, but this could also be applied to social media and web 2.0 technologies. Again, we see that the role of technology in the
organisation, user requirements, collaboration and ease of technology are key technological pre-requisites.
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Table 5: Learning contextual constructs for implementation of groupware. Source: Adapted from Bondarouk & Sikkel, 2003, p. 239
The organisation needs to develop a climate of learning, sharing knowledge and sharing understanding. Sharing understanding requires informal acceptance Bondarouk & Sikkel (2003)
and respect for diverse ideas and suggestions.
suggest using a collaborative learning cycle based on Kolbs (1984) learning cycle (Figure 23).
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Collective Acting
Mutual Adjustment
Team Reflecting
Knowledge Sharing
Sharing Understanding
Figure 23: Collaborative learning cycle based on Kolbs (1984) experiential learning cycle Source: Adapted from Bondarouk & Sikkel, 2003, p. 235
Web 2.0 technologies can provide a shared platform for knowledge sharing, but this could also be enhanced in the real world within the organisation by meeting at lunch time for social media surgeries, and sharing understanding more socially and informally at Tweet-ups or other informal gatherings. There are also several other opportunities for learning and knowledge sharing, through the use of wikis, videos, podcasts, blogs and forums (Belton, 2007). The survey findings suggest that people prefer to self-learn or to be taught by friends and colleagues. By taking a collaborative approach towards learning and
encouraging champions, this will reduce the cost of delivery and management of training, and can be deployed more rapidly and monitored. There is also a need to create room for innovation teams to explore, manoeuvre and lead by example. Make time to experiment, and do it often, learning from mistakes. Best practise companies use systematic diagnosis to allow those
organisations to build on insights, which can often lead to future successes (Australian School of Business, 2011; Day, 2011; Toffler, 1991). Technical and functional silos of expertise should continue to be developed, but the culture
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and structure of an organisation should advocate an open, collaborative and respectful environment that makes innovation every employees job (Canwell et.al., 2011). The opportunity that arises when using collaborative technologies in practical situations, and allowing users to explore and experiment, is the potential for the users to discover new, unforeseen ways of working (Bondarouk & Sikkel, 2003). In doing so, the organisation can transform data and
information to innovation (Figure 24) (Azua, 2010).
Figure 24: The Learning Organisation: From data to innovation Source: Author
7.6
A systems approach
It is important that when an organisation is considering implementing web 2.0 and social media that strategic choices are made: which technology should be used, the management goals, how the technology is going to be implemented as well as considerations for the work organisation, the psychosocial assumptions, and the value-added consequences (Buchanan & Huczynski, 2010; Johnson, Whittington, & Scholes, 2011). Successful business innovators will need to
develop a deeper understanding of the power of interactive capacity in both the industry and wider economy, the underlying change and be able to act on it (Butler, et al., 1997).
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Systemic thinking methods and methodologies are useful tools that utilise the creativity of managers and those within the organisation to explore and solve problems in a chaotic world (Checkland, 1999; Jackson, 2003). Utilising
boundary critique at an early stage will identify any boundaries that exist not only within the organisation, but also between organisations (Midgley, 2000). This can be complemented by Jacksons (2003) holistic approach to management, applying a combination of system methodologies and creative techniques, to provide the practising manager a creative and critical way of managing complex problems.
7.7
Hull A Smarter City
Its a feature of Hull, it was very council dependent ... and still is but less so. It was like a spine that needs to be there but the spine didnt last for more than 2-3 years. You had political change, individuals changed or moved, and therefore the drive was lost because it wasnt nailed into the vision of the city. (Fleming, 2011)
In 2011, Hull is seeing improvement. It is still not a digital city, but the council is now the most improved and secondary education is improving more than the national average year on year (Ofsted, 2010). KC is investing 300,000 in
developing digital and IT businesses as well as rolling out 100MB broadband to areas that have been experiencing the worst internet provision. Local interest networking groups, such as Humber Mud and Hull Digital, continue to be well attended and well connected via social media such as Twitter. Other groups,
such as the Hull and Humber Chamber of Commerce (319 members), One Hull (189 members), and the University of Hull Alumni (2633 members), are seeing representation on LinkedIn. However, there continues to be reluctance by managers and employees in the public sector to embrace the transformation. This needs to change - it is crucial, as is the support and participation by local businesses and organisations for Hull
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to become a digital city.
The OECD (2007) suggests that governments play a
major role in developing the skills necessary via secondary, tertiary and vocational training. Even though there have been many government initiatives and policies aimed at SMEs, there is still a high level of ignorance about these initiatives (Harindranath, Dyerson, & Barnes, 2008). There is still a digital divide in Hull. In a survey conducted by Hull City Council (2010) with 1,847 responses, almost one in two respondents stated ... they did not use the internet, a quarter favoured human interaction while a third group felt the internet would be unsuitable for meeting their needs (Welby, 2010). Yet the time seems right to start the Hull Digital City agenda again. It needs to
address the issues of lack of leadership, lack of co-ordination, lack of collaboration and politics. Learning from the lessons of the past 10 years, it
has the potential to be implemented correctly from the beginning and be successful by following four steps (Evans & Yen, 2005): obtain leadership at the top; engage in successful pilots; acquire employee support; and get feedback From the findings, interviewees felt that a business should lead the project, with KC (once again) being in a good position for this role. The agenda needs to have shorter time frames: it needs to have realisable goals in the short term and ensure that they are publicised on a regular basis to embed the Hull Digital City vision. It needs to be recognised that there will be people who will refuse to engage but this should not affect the momentum of the agenda (McKinsey, 2007; Edge et.al., 2005; Foley & Alfonso, 2002).
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7.8
Conclusion
I hope that the reader understands why I extended the scope of this research to the wider community. As the business world becomes more connected, there will more partnership working between organisations. The core issues that are faced within the organisation are the same issues that will be encountered by partnership working, that of leadership, collaboration and understanding the boundaries (or agendas) that the partnership is made up of. Systems thinking encourages managers to look at a situation in different ways to enable them make sense of a complex situation and to identify the issues that need to be addressed. It was through the use of systems thinking that I was
able to view the system and its sub-systems, like using a microscope zooming in and out, to investigate the benefits and issues of implementing social media and web 2.0 technologies (Figure 25).
Figure 25: Systems within systems revisited Source: Adapted from Gregory, 2010
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The findings have not produced anything radically new (although I have tried to bring further insights, through the use of systems thinking, into issues that are already known), and there is significant literature with respect to successful IT implementation, leadership and change management. This raises the question: If we have all this data, evidence and best practice, how is it that the successful implementation of social media and online technologies in organisations and communities continues to be problematic?
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Chapter 8: Reflection and Evaluation
8.1
Limitations
The scope of this research was extensive and within a limited time frame and word limit. I wanted to achieve an overview of the situation to provoke
discussion and action (which I believe has been achieved), but I also recognise there were significant areas that were excluded due to the limitations of the dissertation requirements. Given the time frame to develop and deliver the research, and my immobility due to an injury at the time, the use of social media and web technologies enabled me to not only engage in virtual face to face conversations via Skype, but also reach a wider and different audience and gain opinions through the mediums of Twitter, Facebook and LinkedIn. The survey, on the other hand, was too long and could not be completed on a smart phone. The choice to go from a free online survey provider to a paid
survey provider was made because I did not want the online survey to crash. Subsequent feedback from those who took the survey indicated that respondents experienced delays as responses were submitted due to broadband speed issues, increasing the initial pilot times of 10 minutes to 20-30 minutes. Whilst the survey completion statistic of 57% is considered above average (Hamilton, 2009) and offered some interesting results and insights, in retrospect I should have used a series of shorter surveys or polls over a longer period of time, that could be accessed via smart phones and personal devices. I would also conduct an offline survey to reach a core group of people that were excluded those who were not online. On a more promising note, however, some participants commented that the survey made them think about their knowledge and use of social media (or lack of it), and they appreciated the thorough inquiry into the topic.
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Chapter 9: Recommendations
9.1
Introduction
This chapter provides some practical recommendations for organisations and the wider community for the implementation of social media and web 2.0 technologies.
9.2
For Organisations
When implementing social media, web 2.0 or any information system, the following is recommended: Understand boundaries. Understand that individuals have internal
boundaries and values which will influence how they adopt and participate with these new technologies. Create and communicate a
social media policy that guides people in how to use these technologies, makes explicit the value of the technology to the company, and states how the organisation expects the individual to use the technology in relation to the organisational boundary. Use systems thinking. organisation. It is a valuable tool for any manager and
It can be used to explore the economic focus, the
expertise within the company, the culture of the organisation and human values (Crdoba-Pachn, 2010). By doing so, a more inclusive, defined implementation plan can be developed and instigated. Leadership is key. Managers, regardless of department, need to lead by example and support these technologies, whether it is external social media or a web 2.0 intranet. Encourage enthusiasts within the
organisation to explore and share their knowledge and expertise with colleagues. Develop managers and leaders to become less command
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and control and to realise employee potential. Maintain a boundary, but balance this with an open communication style that engenders a culture of trust, respect, value, understanding and safety. Create a learning organisation from within: An organisation that encourages its employees to participate, learn and share, both online and off. Learn from previous IT projects. Do not assume that employees have the competency, or confidence, to use new technologies because of their age or their ability to use a computer. Take advantage of the human capital within the organisation to create learning lunches, social media surgeries or Tweet-ups, to make the learning more social and informal. Ensure that there are champions within the department that can help colleagues if they need it. Encourage, incentivise and reward participation. Create a learning organisation looking out. When choosing a web 2.0 system, go to a company that has actually implemented the system and find out the issues and benefits they experienced. Ensure that you get the basics right: that the system is searchable, has good content and is easy to use.
9.3
For Hull
Recommendations for Hull are: Use systems thinking. The strategy is already in place. It is still relevant. It is now time to develop an implementation plan. Using systems thinking can help develop an inclusive, achievable and viable plan. Shorten time scales to maintain momentum. Leadership is crucial and it is recommended that the champion comes from the private sector, as the evidence suggests that the private is leading in the implementation of collaborative technologies. Ensure that
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decision makers of different sectors are part of the group. Make sure that they represent all parts of the community, especially education. Implement a web 2.0 platform that is easy to use, functional and open, to enable co-ordination, collaboration, knowledge management, communication and a two-way mechanism for the community to engage and be informed. Incorporate existing social media groups so that
people can have easy access to the groups that they have an interest in. Ensure that members know how to use the system and encourage participation. Create a learning society from within. Utilise the talent that already
exists within Hull City Council and other organisations, and learn from the research and reviews conducted by Welby (2010), Volcom (2006). and Fleming (2010). Incorporate and utilise established business and
informal networking groups to communicate and instil the Hull Digital City vision. This will not only publicise the vision, but will also open up the two-way mechanism for the community to get involved. Create a learning society looking out. Learn from other cities such as
Lincoln and Birmingham and research by IBMs Smarter Cities.
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Chapter 10: Conclusion
10.1
Towards smarter organisations and smarter cities
The scope of this research was broad, aiming to investigate how social media and web 2.0 technologies are being implemented within organisations and communities, the barriers to adoption, and how they could potentially be resolved. The research was extended to the city of Hull which aimed to be a
digital city yet the organisations within the city are slow to adopt new technologies. Through triangulating interviews, a survey and other relevant
research, the three main objectives were answered. It was found that the main issues faced by organisations when implementing social media are: the assumption that computer or digitally literate (in the case of Generation Y) equates to being social media competent; the lack of training when implementing social media or web 2.0 platforms; and the culture of the environment especially the command and control organisations who are trying to find the balance between ensuring security and privacy, and at the same time develop an open and transparent culture and leadership style that will encourage information sharing and collaboration (Edwards, 2011; Day, 2011; Canwel et.al. 2011). It was found that organisations that had implemented social media were experiencing a closer relationship with their customers as a two-way and more personal conversation is achieved. Organisations that had implemented
collaborative technologies internally also found that there was better communication and innovation within their teams, and with their external partners (Ron et.al., 2008).
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The findings suggested that the main reasons for lack of adoption of web 2.0 technologies are that organisations are still searching for the evidence that the financial value of social media, in terms of revenue generated for time and resources invested. It was also found that the individuals perceptions of social media and the boundaries between their work and personal roles and identities was a strong influence in the decision to adopt and utilise web 2.0 technologies. The same concepts of assumed digital literacy, training, leadership, a collaborative culture and boundaries can be applied to the greater community, such as Hull. Individual and organisational agendas need to be transparent to enable collaboration and co-ordination to achieve the common goal. In an idealistic and utopian world, social networking does offer the opportunity for society to understand its interconnectedness and to capitalize on it to address complex and messy problems (Castells, 2002). The human capital and their networks should be exploited within organisations within an environment (or culture) of open communication with guidelines and guidance (Bernhart Walker, 2011). Social media amplifies that there is a me in Team (Conway,
2011), and to maximise the benefits this needs to be accommodated and utilised. Through understanding boundaries that exist between and within organisations and individuals we can begin to appreciate how to manage social media implementation.
10.2
Further research
As the development of social media, the semantic web and cloud computing continues to grow and enter the maturity phase, it is envisioned that more organisations will adopt social media intranet tools to improve communication and encourage innovation. Further research would be to conduct an
intervention or a series of interventions using the recommendations above
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ideally with a multi-disciplinary team to determine the behaviours required for this to be successful.
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Appendix A:
Ethics Proforma
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Appendix B:
Interviewee Selection and profiles
Hull City Council (HCC) is central to the development of Hull as a region.
former Council Leader (5 years) and former senior manager (30 years), introduced innovative projects such as the mobile phone car parking ticketing in 2000, developing and steering the digital agenda for Hull. The Stakeholder
Engagement Officer currently works at Hull City Council with the Building Schools of the Future Project. These interviewees provide not only a historical insight into Hulls digital agenda, but also the current situation, challenges and the continued aspirations for Hull. The social media marketing manager is responsible for special projects in the NHS. She has been using Facebook and Youtube to engage with teenage mums and a new mothers campaign for breast feeding and provided insights into the success of these mediums for engagement. The lead teacher is responsible for the Creative and Media Diploma, a new qualification for 14-19 year olds introduced in 2009. The Creative and Media Diploma was originally project managed using Ning, a social network platform that can be created and managed by an organisation or group. Ning was then adopted to manage the course which had over 40 students from six schools in Hull who met twice a week to do their coursework. The Business Studies
teacher of a local high school utilises social media in his personal and professional life. These two interviewees provide a useful insight into the
current 14-19 education system, what challenges are currently being faced and what developments are happening for the future. The Project Manager, Education Institution for the local education institutions agenda to reach out and engage the local community and beyond in the institutions arts events and the press officer for the business school were interviewed providing an insight into how the education sector within Hull were adopting and using social media and the challenges involved.
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A Director of a telecommunications company, provides not only an insight into how internal web 2.0 technologies can provide benefit to an organisation but also how the company could potentially play a lead role in Hulls digital aspiration. The founder of the successful networking group, Hull Digital, and the Director of an online marketing and engagement consultancy, was interviewed not only to get his perceptions as a practitioner and service provider, but also from the digital interest group perspective. Hull Digital was started in 2009 from a perceived need to connect people who were interested in all things digital from application development, programming, web design to photography and graphic design. The initial success of Hull Digital led to the annual Hull Digital Live event which brings in international key note speakers to Hull. The Managing Director of a Youth Marketing Consultancy is 20-years old. The company was set up in 2006 as part of the Young Enterprise programme and continued to develop its marketing and communications portfolio with organisations such as the Red Cross and the NHS. He provides an insight into the Generation Y way of doing business and leadership style. The Managing Director of a removals company which serves the local area in local, national and international removals provides an insight into how these technologies were implemented into his organisation, the challenges that were overcome and developments for the future. The Department Head, News Organisation was a Hull broadcaster and the manager of Immage Studios/Seven TV in Immingham and supported Hulls digital agenda for over 5 years before she moved down to London to work for a large national news organisation. She provides an insight into the
implementation of an internal web 2.0 solution and the subsequent results. The Former Sector Manager, RDA, the Director, Research and Development Consultancy and the Senior Researcher, R&D Consultancy had strong links with Hull and its digital agenda although they came from outside of Hull.
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The Former Sector Manager, RDA was the Sector Manager, Digital and New Media at a Regional Development Agency. The Director, Research and Development Consultancy works with the public and third sectors developing skills using digital media and technologies. The Senior Researcher, R&D Consultancy is a researcher working for an education, skills and economic growth development consultancy that specialises in the creative and digital sectors. The Former Senior Manager, ex-HCC, the Director, Research and Development Consultancy and Former Sector Manager, RDA were part of a group called Digital 2020, a partnership of local employers, public services and industry, which aimed to drive an economic development plan for Yorkshire and Humber through IT (digital) enablement.
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Appendix C:
Interview Proforma
Date: Name of Interviewee: Position: Sector:
Time: Year of birth (optional). Organisation: No. Employees
A. WEB 2.0 TECHNOLOGIES 1. Do you have a smart phone and if yes, what are the main functions you use and what for (i.e. Business / personal).? 2. Does your organisation use any web 2.0 technologies internally (i.e. closed system wiki, blog, messaging).? 3. If yes, list and describe benefits/challenges. a. If no, is it being considered for the future? If no, reasons why. 4. How does your organisation communicate with employees? 5. Do you feel that your organisations communications are effective? Reasons why/why not? 6. How would you describe your organisation? (For example: open, closed, machine, nodal metaphor?). 7. How does your organisation perceive employees networking across business functions? B. EXTERNAL WEB 2.0 8. Do you use any external web 2.0 technologies (e.g. Twitter, LinkedIn, Facebook). for : a. Personal use b. Business use c. If not, what are the reasons for not using these technologies? 9. What is your perception of these technologies (i.e. Useful; not useful; need to join because everyone else is).? 10. Does your organisation use any external web 2.0 technologies (e.g. Twitter, LinkedIn, and Facebook) for business? (List the technologies, when started using the technology and reasons for use e.g. Marketing/Client relationships/Recruitment). a. If not, what are the reasons for not using these technologies?
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C. EXTERNAL WEB 2.0 USERS 11. How successful have these technologies been in achieving the purpose for using them (i.e. Increased customer interaction).? 12. What challenges have you faced by using these external web 2.0 technologies for business use? 13. Does your organisation allow employees to use social media sites at work? 14. Does your organisation have a social media policy? If yes, who was involved in developing the policy? 15. Does your organisation have a social media strategy? If so, who was involved in developing the strategy? 16. What are/were the main obstacles in implementing and using social media for business? a. If obstacles, how were these overcome? 17. Was/is any training provided to employees? D. NON-EXTERNAL WEB 2.0 USERS 18. Do you perceive any benefits/risks to using to social media for business? 19. Do you believe that your business will engage with social media in the future and if: a. Yes: the time frame and reason for engaging with social media b. No: reasons for not engaging with social media E. GENERAL 20. How do feel social media has impacted: a. Your organisation b. The business world c. Your work practices d. Your employees work practices 21. Do you feel that management practices are changing with social media and, if so, how? 22. What are your main concerns/fears moving forward? What do you feel are the opportunities in the future?
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University of Hull Business School