February 2012

Vol. 156 No.
2 February 2012

Time for an I&C Upgrade?
Power in Brazil
Colstrip Tames Mercury
Calculate Condenser Vacuum
Sympathetic Valve Vibration
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February 2012
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POWER www.powermag.com 1
ON THE COVER
Does this issues cover image look familiar, or like an archival photo? Considering the
complexity of power plant operations and the number of devices, processes, and gauges
that need to be monitored, its high time the industry took full advantage of the benefits
of digital controls. Photo courtesy iStockphoto/Kenneth C. Zirkel
COVER STORY: INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL
24 Power Generation: Automation Today and Tomorrow
Todays automation technology allows plant operators to perform real-time and
predictive simulation studies to optimize plant operations and maintenance
functions. If you havent upgraded your plant controls, youre probably leaving
money on the table.
26 Comprehensive Asset Management for Nuclear Plants
Getting a grip on the complexities of asset management for nuclear plants requires
taking a holistic view that includes everything from condition monitoring to perfor-
mance monitoring and ranges from plant level concerns to industry standards.
32 Enhanced Load Dispatch Rate and Furnace Protection Through Model
Predictive Control
A case study of a Maryland coal-fired plant demonstrates how control improvements
can widen the load range of fast dispatch operation while protecting boiler tubes
from excessive thermal-induced stress, thereby promoting long boiler tube life.
38 Monitoring Control Loop Performance
Control loop performance-monitoring software acts as a virtual 24/7 inspector.
It can not only monitor loop performance but also potentially identify several
aspects of poor control and generate a prioritized list of problem loops, with
diagnoses of the individual problems so they can be corrected.
42 Specifying Nuclear DCS Power Supplies
Nuclear plants have special requirements in just about every aspect of their design
and operation. Conversions from analog to digital control systems are no different.
Heres what you need to consider in the area of power supplies.
SPECIAL REPORT: POWER IN BRAZIL
45 Abundant Clean Energy Fuels Brazils Growth
You might think that with over 80% of its power coming from hydro resourc-
es that Brazil would have it made in the current energy planning environment.
However, with economic growth rates far exceeding those of developed nations,
and a need to prevent another power crisis caused by drought, Brazil must add
capacity quickly and wisely. Our partners at Global Business Reports take a
comprehensive look at Brazils generation resources today and how the country
plans to increase competition and supply diversity.
Established 1882 Vol. 156 No. 2 February 2012
24
45
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February 2012 2
FEATURES
MERCURY REMOVAL TECHNOLOGIES
74 Colstrips Cure for Mercury
Late last year, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency issued the long-antici-
pated Utility MACT Rule. Its no surprise that plant owners across the U.S. are
now looking carefully at all their mercury-reduction options. A case study of a
large Montana coal-fired plant makes a compelling case for the use of Alstoms
Mer-Cure technology to reduce mercury emissions and minimize flue gas addi-
tive costs.
PLANT DESIGN
77 Condenser Backpressure High? Check Vacuum System Sizing
Before designing the right-sized vacuum system, you must first understand pub-
lished design standards for air-venting equipment and the vacuum system sizing
methodology used by equipment suppliers.
CONTROL VALVE DESIGN
80 Avoiding Flow-Induced Sympathetic Vibration in Control Valves
Learn what can cause vibration in valves, how to use computational fluid dynam-
ics to analyze the fluid flow in valves, and strategies to help prevent vibration and
resulting performance problems.
DEPARTMENTS
SPEAKING OF POWER
6 Battle of the Bulb
GLOBAL MONITOR
8 European Firms Complete Wind-to-Hydrogen Power Plant
8 Cost-Cutting Nanoparticle Electrode for Batteries
10 Novel Floating Wind Turbine Deployed in the Atlantic
12 THE BIG PICTURE: DOE Loan Guarantees
14 One Step Forward, Two Steps Back for CCS Projects
16 Indonesia Inaugurates Three Coal Plants
16 POWER Digest
FOCUS ON O&M
18 Industry Shift in Gas Line Cleaning Practice
18 Virtual Co-Driver to Improve Truck Safety
21 Data Centers Standby Power System Is Money in the Bank
LEGAL & REGULATORY
22 Debate Heats Up over New Mercury and Air Toxics Rule
By Angela Neville, JD
84 NEW PRODUCTS
COMMENTARY
88 Clean Air, Jobs, and Power Reliability
By Patrick J. Larkin, Environmental Industry Team leader, Strasburger & Price LLP
74
77
10
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February 2012 4
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February 2012 6
SPEAKING OF POWER
Battle of the Bulb
W
hen then-President George W.
Bush signed the Energy Inde-
pendence and Security Act of
2007, he noted that, New technologies
will help usher in a better quality of life
for our citizens. One provision of the act
required an increase in the efficiency of
newly manufactured lightbulbs, starting
with 100-watt incandescent bulbs in 2012.
Additional requirements affect 75-watt
incandescent bulbs in 2013 and 60- and
40-watt incandescent bulbs in 2014. The
law did not ban the use of incandescent
lights, as commonly believed, but it does
prohibit the production or importation of
bulbs that fail to meet the new efficiency
standards after the cut-off date.
That law became effective January 1;
however, the budget bill passed by Con-
gress late last year does not allow the
Department of Energy to enforce the
lightbulb provision until September 30.
The legislation that won overwhelming
approval in 2007 has evolved into a cause
clbre this election year. The focus of our
ire should be directed at the future cost
of disposal of these new bulbs, not the
efficiency standard.
Political Passions
The electioneering on lightbulbs has be-
come intense. U.S. Rep. Joe Barton (R-
Texas) is the most vocal opponent of the
bulb provision of the law, believing it is
just another example of a government that
is overstepping its authority by regulating
citizens freedom of choice. However, there
was no such controversy when the original
language for the rule was drafted. In fact,
the language was cosponsored by Rep. Fred
Upton, R-Mich. and Rep. Dennis Hastert, R-
Ill. The amendment to the act passed easily
through the House Energy and Commerce
Committee, chaired by Upton; was passed
by the Senate in a vote of 86-8; passed by
the House by a vote of 314-100; and was
signed into law by President Bush.
You may recall that after Republicans
won the House in the 2010 election cycle,
Barton decided to take on Upton for chair-
manship of the powerful House Energy
and Commerce Committee. When Barton
researched Uptons past for evidence of a
too-moderate voting record to justify leav-
ing him in leadership, Uptons support of
the lightbulb efficiency standard was sin-
gled out. Barton thereafter launched the
Save the Light Bulb campaign, which
went viral among conservatives hungry
for a wedge issue. Bartons chairmanship
bid soon died, but the lightbulb non-issue
continued to prosper.
Unreasonable Expectations
Ironically, the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) finalized the Mercury and Air
Toxics Standards (MATS) for power plants in
late December at about the same time as the
enforcement date of the lightbulb standard
was delayed by Congress. Both rules seek to
reduce mercury releases into our environ-
ment, yet my research found, much to my
surprise, that both emissionsfrom stack
gas or broken compact fluorescent lighbulbs
(CFL)produce about the same magnitude
of mercury release. The EPA says that the
average CFL has 4 to 5 milligrams (mg) of
mercuryenough to cover the tip of a ball-
point pen. The agency estimates that over
the useful life of a CFL (about 8,000 hours),
the amount of mercury released into the at-
mosphere by a coal-fired plant to produce the
electricity to run the CFL is about 4.3 mg.
Overlooked during the ongoing lightbulb
wars is that CFLs are sure to increase con-
sumers cost of lightbulb disposal. What
happens to the millions of used CFLs that are
tossed out in the trash each year? Chances
are a large percentage are broken by users
at home or are broken when compressed in
the trash truck or compacted in a landfill.
Regardless, the mercury contained in the
bulbs is released to the environment.
Over the years, Ive broken a number of
CFLs at home. The bulb usually breaks off
at the base when I am unscrewing the bulb
from a frozen socket. I sweep up the bro-
ken pieces and residue, empty them into a
trash cash, wash my hands, and return to
my bulb replacement chore. Recently, I ran
across an EPA-sponsored website dedicat-
ed to proper disposal techniques for CFLs.
Should you break a CFL, here are a few of
the EPAs recommendations:
Dont touch the CFL contents without
protective gloves.
Escort all children, pregnant women,
and pets out of the room. Next, open
doors and windows for 5-10 minutes to
air out the room. Turn off the heating
or AC system and leave off, if possible,
for several hours.
Collect the residue using stiff paper,
sticky tape, and damp towels. Seal all
in a glass jar with metal lid or in a seal-
able plastic bag. Do not vacuum up the
residue, as it may spread the mercury-
containing powder into the air.
Clothes you are wearing should not be
washed, but double-bagged for disposal.
Store the broken pieces and residue in
an outdoor trash container until the
materials can be disposed of properly.

According to the EPA, the only proper
method of disposal for broken CFLs is to
take them to a hazardous waste facility.
Following the EPAs advice, the out-of-
pocket costs of breaking a single CFL could
easily exceed the energy savings realized
from using CFLs accumulated over many
years and put a dent in your wardrobe at
the same time.
What should I do if I break multiple CFLs on
my carpet in a fit of pique after writing this
editorial? The EPA suggests I call a hazardous
waste cleanup firm. What would you do?
Dr. Robert Peltier, PE is POWERs
editor-in-chief.
The EPA says that the average CFL has 4 to
5 milligrams of mercuryenough to cover
the tip of a ballpoint pen.
Power Magazine
8.125 x 11
www.etaproefficiency.com
e-mail: etapro@gpworldwide.com
800.803.6737 716.799.1080
Of f i ces i n: Nor t h Amer i ca Lat i n Amer i ca Eur ope Asi a
The Harrison Power Station, operated by a subsidiary of FirstEnergy Corp., evaluated
EtaPRO APR and its unique localized modeling approach on ten critical pieces of
equipment being monitored by their legacy system. In late March 2011, EtaPRO
APR initiated an alarm, while no alarm was initiated by the legacy system. After
investigation, Harrison staff found a control system fault in a hydrogen cooler bypass
valve. Had this problem continued undetected, Harrison would have been forced to
shut down for repairs.

GPA-001707EtaPRO_APR_PowerMag_8.125x11.indd 1 1/6/12 10:12 AM

Power Magazine
8.125 x 11

P E O P L E P R O C E S S E S T E C H N O L O G Y
e-mail: etapro@gpworldwide.com
800.803.6737 716.799.1080
Plant Reliability: EtaPRO APR
Of f i ces i n: Nor t h Amer i ca Lat i n Amer i ca Eur ope Asi a

The Harrison Power Station, operated by a subsidiary of FirstEnergy Corp., evaluated
EtaPRO APR and its unique localized modeling approach on ten critical pieces of
equipment being monitored by their legacy system. In late March 2011, EtaPRO
APR initiated an alarm, while no alarm was initiated by the legacy system. After
investigation, Harrison staff found a control system fault in a hydrogen cooler bypass
valve. Had this problem continued undetected, Harrison would have been forced to
shut down for repairs.

GPA-001707EtaPRO_APR_PowerMag_8.125x11.indd 1 1/6/12 10:12 AM

|
February 2012 8
European Firms Complete Wind-to-
Hydrogen Power Plant
A consortium of European developers, with funding from the
German federal government, have completed a power plant in
Prenzlau, near Berlin, Germany, that uses excess wind energy to
convert water into oxygen and hydrogen in a process called hy-
drolysis, and then uses hydrogen and biogas to generate power
and heat. The project is part of a trend in the research and de-
velopment of converting renewable energy into hydrogen gas for
energy storage.
The 6-MW hybrid Prenzlau plant was completed in October,
two years after construction began, by the Performing Energy Al-
liance for Hydrogen from Wind. That initiative was spearheaded
by Swedish power utility Vattenfall and includes energy supplier
Enertrag, French oil and gas company Total, Siemens Energy, and
German state-funded research institutions and environmental or-
ganizations.
The plant consists of a biogas unit, three 2-MW wind turbines,
two combined heat and power plants, and a hydrolysis unit (Fig-
ure 1). Hydrogen is extracted in times of strong winds and low
energy demand and then used on windless days, together with
biogas, to generate electricity and heat. According to Vattenfall,
hydrogen can also be used in its pure form in cars with fuel
cells.
Beyond some technical challenges, before the technology used
by the project can be widely accepted, it must overcome cost is-
sues, the German government noted in December. The plant cost
21 million ($27.3 million), and at an estimated 3.5 million/
MW ($4.6 million/MW), the plant is significantly more expensive
than a conventional gas or coal power station, which delivers
power at between 1 million and 1.5 million/MW ($1.3 million
to $1.95 million/MW). Continuous technological development is
therefore needed to significantly reduce these costs, it said.
Despite cost challenges, Vattenfall and its partners now plan
to expand their pilot activities to store wind power by generat-
ing hydrogen in several major projects, including one in the Ger-
man state of Brandenburg. There is currently no system designed
to compensate for the differences between supply and demand
within the sector of renewable energy. But this project allows
us to find a balance in the system and its also good business,
Oliver Weinmann, head of Vattenfall Innovation in Germany, told
POWER in December.
The Prenzlau project joins several development efforts to pro-
duce and store hydrogen using surplus power generated by re-
newables. Similar measures have been taken since 2008 at Gas
Natural Fenosas $2.2 million Sotavento Experimental Wind Farm
in Spain. That process uses an electrolyzer of 60 normal cubic
meters per hour, which works on power produced from wind
turbines. The electrolyzer produces hydrogen of a low pressure,
which is compressed, stored, and later converted to power using
a 60-kW generator.
The U.S. National Renewable Energy Laboratory and Minne-
sota-based utility Xcel Energy in 2007 launched a wind-to-hy-
drogen (Wind2H2) demonstration project at the National Wind
Technology Center in Boulder, Colo. The Wind2H2 project links
wind turbines to electrolyzers, which, like the Prenzlau project,
pass wind-generated power (using 100-kW and 10-kW turbines)
through water to split it into hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen
can then be stored and used later to generate electricity from an
internal combustion engine or a fuel cell.
Meanwhile, other researchers are taking development a step
further, producing methane from hydrogen and carbon dioxide
with the help of a catalyst. Prominent in this field are the Center
for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden-Wrttemberg in
Stuttgart, Germany, and the Fraunhofer Institute for Wind Energy
and Energy System Technology in Kassel, Germany. Those enti-
ties have teamed up with Austrian energy company Solar Fuel
Technology to build a pilot facility in which hydrogen is metha-
nized with an efficiency of around 80%. The researchers say that
as soon as this methanization process can be reproduced on an
industrial scale, producers can begin pumping the resulting syn-
thetic natural gas into storage facilities in Germany.
Cost-Cutting Nanoparticle Electrode for
Batteries
Using nanoparticles of a copper compound to develop an inex-
pensive and durable high-powered battery electrode could be the
breakthrough solution to the problem of sharp drop-offs in the
output of wind and solar systems, scientists at Stanford Univer-
sity say.
Grid storage projects for renewable generation are getting big-
ger and more widespread, and many rely on lithium-ion battery
technology. In late October, for example, AES Wind Generation
and AES Energy Storage put into commercial operation AES Laurel
Mountain, a wind generation plant in West Virginia comprising 98
MW of wind generation (from 61 GE 1.6-MW turbines) and 32 MW
of A123 Systems energy storage devices (Figure 2).
Most batteries fail because of accumulated damage to an
electrodes crystal structure, the Stanford researchers say. In
laboratory tests, they found that a new electrode that employs
crystalline nanoparticles of a copper compound survived 40,000
cycles of charging and discharging, after which it could still be
charged to more than 80% of its original charge capacity. For
comparison, the average lithium-ion battery can handle about
400 charge/discharge cycles before it deteriorates too much to
be of practical use.
The electrodes durability derives from the atomic structure
of the crystalline copper hexacyanoferrate used to make it. The
crystals have an open framework that allows ionselectrically
charged particles whose movements en masse either charge or
1. A gas guzzler. Backed by the German government, the Perform-
ing Energy Alliance for Hydrogen from Windan initiative that includes
energy companies and research and environmental organizations
completed a plant near Berlin that converts water into oxygen and
hydrogen, using excess wind energy, in a process called hydrolysis.
Courtesy: Enertrag
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February 2012 10
discharge a batteryto easily go in and out without damaging
the electrode.
To maximize the benefit of the open structure, the researchers
needed to use the right size ions. Too big, and the ions would
tend to get stuck and could damage the crystal structure when
they moved in and out of the electrode. Too small, and they might
end up sticking to one side of the open spaces between atoms,
instead of easily passing through. The right-sized ion turned out
to be hydrated potassium, a much better fit than other hydrated
ions such as sodium and lithium. The speed of the electrode
is further enhanced because the particles of electrode material
that the researchers synthesized are tiny even by nanoparticle
standardsa mere 100 atoms across.
At a rate of several cycles per day, this electrode would have
a good 30 years of useful life on the electrical grid, said Colin
Wessells, a graduate student in materials science and engineer-
ing, who is the lead author of a paper describing the research,
published in November in Nature Communications.
The research seeks to overcome cost concerns associated with
grid energy storage as opposed to energy density. We decided
we needed to develop a new chemistry if we were going to make
low-cost batteries and battery electrodes for the power grid,
Wessells said. The researchers chose to use a water-based elec-
trolyte, which Wessells described as basically free compared to
the cost of an organic electrolyte such as is used in lithium-ion
batteries. They made the battery electric materials from readily
available precursors such as iron, copper, carbon, and nitrogen
all of which are extremely inexpensive compared with lithium.
The only major obstacle to finessing the new electrode is that
its chemical properties cause it to be usable only as a high-
voltage electrode, the researchers say. Every battery needs two
electrodesa high-voltage cathode and a low-voltage anodein
order to create the voltage difference that produces electricity.
Efforts to find another material to use for the anode, which will
be necessary before researchers can build an actual battery, are
under way, and they have already uncovered some promising
candidates.
Novel Floating Wind Turbine Deployed in
the Atlantic
A semi-submersible structure supporting a 2-MW wind turbine
was towed nearly 350 kilometers (217.5 miles) to water depths
of about 35 meters (114.8 feet) into open Atlantic waters and
deployed off the coast of Aguadoura, Portugal, last November
(Figure 3). Though the WindFloat project joins a handful of simi-
lar projects under development, because it offers novel possi-
bilities for offshore wind projects in regions with large and deep
coastlines, it has been shoring up interest in the budding float-
ing offshore wind sector.
The WindFloat was developed by partners of the WindPlus Joint
Venture, consisting of Seattle-based Principle Power, Energias de
Portugal (EDP), A. Silva Matos, Vestas Wind Systems, InovCapital,
and Fundo de Apoio Inovao. More than 60 European vendors
reportedly helped assemble, install, and precommission the sys-
tem integrating a Vestas V80-2.0 MW wind turbine on land at the
Lisnave facility, near Setubal, Portugal.
The system was then towedwithout the use of any heavy
lift equipment offshore, as Principle Power noted217.5 miles
in Atlantic waters. As of January, developers were commissioning,
testing, and starting up the WindFloat, activities that include con-
ducting trial operations and a phased ramp-up to full capacity.
The project isnt the first floating wind turbine, nor the larg-
est: In June 2009, Siemens Energy and Norways Statoil towed a
2.3-MW wind turbine 12 km (7.4 miles) to a water depth of about
722 feet at a North Sea location (for more information on this
POWER Top Plant, see our December 2009 issue). That project
continues to operate, and Statoil recently applied for a lease
with the U.S. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management to test a pilot
Hywind floating project in the Gulf of Maine.
What sets the WindFloat apart from Hywind and other floating
wind projects is that, unlike the Hywind, which is essentially like
a buoy (a spar moored on three lines) on which a turbine has
been built, the WindFloat is a semi-submersible structure moored
by four to six lines that almost acts like a tripod. The WindFloat
is also distinct in that it can be towed out to sea fully commis-
2. Cost breakthrough. Stanford researchers have used nanopar-
ticles of a copper compound to develop a high-power battery electrode
that is reportedly so inexpensive to make that it could be used to build
batteries big enough for economical large-scale energy storage on the
grid. The development could result in a breakthrough for large-scale
battery storage projects like AES Energy Storages newly built AES
Laurel Mountain, a wind generation plant in West Virginia composed
of 98 MW of wind generation and 32 MW of integrated battery-based
energy storage. Courtesy: AES Energy Storage
3. Floating an idea. Partners of the WindPlus Joint Venture
including Seattle-based Principle Power, Portuguese utility Energias de
Portugal, and Danish wind firm Vestashave towed and deployed a
2-MW floating wind turbine roughly 217 miles into open Atlantic wa-
ters. Courtesy: Energias de Portugal
its in more places and comes with more proven safety-accessories than any other brand
takes a turbine apart and puts it back together in half the time no matter which way you are doing it
stretches bolts cold to the Desired Load within + 5%, FREE of side load, torsion and measurement
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Tool Series as Stretch-to-Load Tool
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its in more places and comes with more proven safety-accessories than any other brand
takes a turbine apart and puts it back together in half the time no matter which way you are doing it
stretches bolts cold to the Desired Load within + 5%, FREE of side load, torsion and measurement
assures the highest Safety Standard with hands-free remote bolting, even inverted
eliminates crane-time, slugging wrenches, bolt heating, tensioners, backup tools and reaction arms
simpliies bolting to assure quality workmanship at all times
has the highest ROI of any bolting method in the market- Period!
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February 2012 12
THE BIG PICTURE: DOE Loan Guarantees
Of the $35.9 billion in loan guarantees awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) since 2009, roughly $26.5 billion have fi-
nanced nuclear and renewable power projects across the nation through the Section 1703 and 1705 loan guarantee programs.
Section 1703 of the 2005 Energy Policy Acts (EPActs) Title XVII is meant to support clean energy technologies (including nuclear,
advanced fossil energy coal, carbon sequestration, and projects promoting industrial energy efficiency) that are unable to obtain
conventional private financing due to high technology risks. The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 amended the Loan
Guarantee Programs by adding Section 1705 to EPAct. That programwhich ended Sept. 30, 2011authorized loan guarantees for
renewable energy and transmission projects. (A third program, Section 136 of the 2007 Energy Independence and Security Act, es-
tablished the Advanced Technology Vehicles Manufacturing Loan Program, which consists of direct loans to support the development
of advanced technology vehicles and associated technologies.)
Heres a look at how these loan guarantee programs have been rainmakers for nuclear and solar generation in particular. (Data
source: DOE Loan Programs Office.)
Sonal Patel is POWERs senior writer.
$10b
$20b
Solar, $13.25 billion (1705)
Photovoltaic: $6.14 billion
Concentrated solar power: $5.83 billion
Solar manufacturing: $1.29 billion
Nuclear, $10.33 billion (1703)
Front-end nuclear: $2 billion
Nuclear generation: $8.33 billion
Wind, $1.69 billion (1705)
Other renewables, $1.2 billion (1705)
Geothermal: $545 million
Biomass: $247 million
Transmission: $343 million
Flywheel technology: $43 million
Battery storage: $17.1 million
$26.47 billion
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February 2012 14
sioned and can also operate in shallower waters between 30 m
(98 feet) and 50 m (164 feet).
The WindFloat is fitted with patented water entrapment plates
at the base of each column, which dampens water turbulence
effects. It also features a closed-loop hull trim system that miti-
gates wind-induced thrust forcesa system that provides the
added benefit of better energy conversion efficiency in the event
of a change in wind velocity and direction. The system is moored
with conventional components, including chain and polyester
lines, and pre-laid drag-embedded anchors. Challenges that could
encumber development of the design include roller-coasting steel
prices and grid connectivity issues.
Nevertheless, the simple, economic design could reinforce the
worlds offshore wind industry, the structures developers say.
The (deep) ocean is the next big energy frontier, said Antnio
Vidigal, CEO of EDP Inovao, the Portuguese firm that has called
WindFloat one of its more promising technologies. Deep off-
shore wind technology, in particular the WindFloat, will allow us
to harness stronger and more stable winds, and in the medium
term deliver sustainable energy into our electrical system. Now is
the time for extensive testing and validation, moving forward in
the development of this promising technology.
One Step Forward, Two Steps Back for
CCS Projects
Last December, as Spains national carbon capture and storage
(CCS) research laboratory Fundacin Ciudad de la Energa (CIUDEN)
began a much-watched testing phase of oxycombustion in its 30-
MWth circulating fluidized bed (CFB) boiler in Cubillos del Sil,
Vattenfall scrapped the 1.5 billion ($2 billion) Jnschwalde CCS
demonstration project that it had planned to build and begin oper-
ating by 2015 in the German federal state of Brandenburg.
CIUDENs two-month-long project at its Technology Develop-
ment Centre for CO2 Capture (es.CO2) first began using gas in its
Foster Wheelerprovided CFB boiler and later, indigenous, low-
reactivity anthracite coal. The operation has now switched to
oxy-combustionusing oxygen rather than air (Figure 4). The
process, which the center says could reach CO
2
concentrations
in flue gas [of] around 60% instead of 15% as in conventional
combustion, is expected to be complete within the first half of
2012, which would be marked by startup of the CO
2
purification
and compression system. As part of the next phase, the center
will finalize integration of the set of units involved in CO
2
cap-
ture and prepare them for CO
2
transport and storage.
CIUDEN CCS developers said their project is a world first for
a carbon capture plant that uses oxy-combustion, burning coal
in a CFB at such a scale, and with the main aim of obtaining
the design parameters of commercial power generation facilities
at a larger size.
Spains government efforts to develop CCS technologies also
include development of a CO
2
Geological Storage Plant currently
under construction in Hontomn, in the Burgos region, which is
expected to be operational in 2013.
Support for CCS seems flat across much of the remainder of
the European Union (EU), where members are scrambling to
meet ambitious targets to slash greenhouse gas emissions 20%
by 2020 and 80% to 95% below 1990 levels by 2050. Recent
European Commission and International Energy Agency reports
project increased coal consumptionwhich they say is necessary
for energy securityand have urged more state support for CCS.
Meanwhile, Vattenfall said it was forced to cancel the Jn-
schwalde demonstration plant and blamed insufficient will in
German federal politics. The company cited lack of progress on a
CCS draft bill by Germanys lower house, saying that a clear legal
framework is needed and that the existing draft for the CCS law
is, without substantial improvement, insufficient for multi-billion
investments in further development of this technology.
The Jnschwalde project would have investigated both oxy-
fuel and postcombustion carbon capture technologies, outfit-
ting two 250-MW boilers at the existing lignite-fired 3,000-MWe
Jnschwalde power plant with a 250-MW oxyfuel boiler and a
postcombustion capture unit. The demonstration was expected
to capture 1.7 million metric tons per year of CO
2
at a rate of well
over 90%. The effort was slated to be a scale-up of Vattenfalls
30-MWth pilot plant at Schwarze Pumpethe worlds first oxy-
fuel pilot plantand had received 180 million ($235 million)
from the EUs European Energy Program of Recovery.
The company is expected to continue development of CCS at
the UKs largest CCS pilot plant at Ferrybridge Power Station in
West Yorkshire, which opened on Nov. 30, however. Vattenfall will
also continue test operation of the CCS pilot plant at Schwarze
Pumpe in Germany and work for the development of a European
CO
2
storage infrastructure.
The high-profile Jnschwalde project was one of several can-
celled in 2011. Earlier in the year, as Basin Electric announced
that the cost and timing of a proposed CCS project at its Ante-
lope Valley Station in North Dakota had caused the plants direc-
tors to table the project indefinitely, German utility RWE halted
work on an integrated gasification combined cycle plant with CCS
in Hrth, citing a lack of an adequate legal basis and promotion
of acceptance of the CCS technology by policy makers.
In October, the UK pulled funding for a postcombustion CCS
project being built at the 2,400-MW Longannet power station
in Fife, Scotland, by ScottishPower, UK grid operator National
Grid, and oil company Shell. And in July, American Electric Power
shelved its $668 million CCS project at its 1,300-MW Mountaineer
Plant in New Haven, W.Va.a project that had just complet-
ed validationciting uncertain U.S. climate policy and a weak
economy. Even the U.S. Department of Energys FutureGen 2.0
oxy-combustion project now hangs in limbo after Ameren Energy
Resources in November pulled out of the venture spearheaded by
the FutureGen Alliance. The alliance is negotiating an option to
4. A commercial demonstration. The Compostilla OXY-
CFB300 Project, one of six similar projects funded by the European
Unions European Energy Programme for Recovery, is a carbon capture
and storage commercial demonstration project at ENDESAs Compos-
tilla Power Station in northwest Spain. The circulating fluidized bed
supercritical oxy-combustion plant will be scaled up to demonstration
size at 300 MW if initial phases are successful. Courtesy: CIUDEN
Over 100 years experience,
and still looking to the future.
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Copyright 2011 Tyco Flow Control. All rights reserved.
When you have been creating the highest quality boiler system products for over a
century, you could be forgiven for resting on your laurels - but not Yarway. Far from
focusing on past glories, were already looking ahead and thinking about how we
can continue providing the most efficient solutions. Our Welbond valve is a perfect
example. Designed specifically for use in the power generation industry, this high-
pressure globe valve has been developed to ensure maximum service life and
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Tyco US Yarway 216x280.indd 1 07/12/2011 21:35
Yarway. Over 100 years experience,
and still looking to the future.
www.tyco.com/yarway
Copyright 2011 Tyco Flow Control. All rights reserved.
When you have been creating the highest quality boiler system products for over a
century, you could be forgiven for resting on your laurels - but not Yarway. Far from
focusing on past glories, were already looking ahead and thinking about how we
can continue providing the most efficient solutions. Our Welbond valve is a perfect
example. Designed specifically for use in the power generation industry, this high-
pressure globe valve has been developed to ensure maximum service life and
minimum maintenance saving you three times as much over five years compared
with a ball valve. Trust Yarway to be even better equipped to face the future.
Tyco US Yarway 216x280.indd 1 07/12/2011 21:35
|
February 2012 16
buy portions of Amerens Meredosia Energy Center in Illinois to
continue development of that project.
Indonesia Inaugurates Three Coal Plants
Indonesian state-owned utility Perusahaan Listrik Negara (PLN)
formally launched operations at three new coal-fired power plants
on Dec. 28. The 625-MW Banten 1 plant in Suralaya, Banten, a
$478 million project built by the China National Technical Import
and Export Corp. and Indonesias state-owned Rekayasa Industri,
is expected to consume 2.9 million metric tons of coal annually,
with supplies coming from Kalimantan and Sumatra on a 20-year
contract. The project was completed in 54.5 months.
The $808.4 million Banten 3 project in Lontar, Banten, has a ca-
pacity of 3 x 315 MW and was built by a consortium that included
Chinese power equipment giant Dongfang Electric Corp. and Dalle
Energy. The two Banten plants are expected to be supported by the
completion of a transmission network connecting Labuan, Saketi,
and Rangkas Bitung, three cities in Banten province.
In central Java, the government also started up two new 662-
MW units at the existing 1,320-MW Tanjung Jati B coal-fired
power plant (Figure 5). The $2.06 billion expansion project was
built by Japanese firm Sumitomo Corp., Wasa Mitra Engineering,
and Bangladeshi power firm Summit Power Development Ltd. for
Sumitomo subsidiary Central Java Power. Toshiba Corp. and Toshi-
ba Plant Systems & Services supplied the turbine and generators,
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries supplied the coal-fired boiler, Black
and Veatch supplied auxiliary facilities for the boiler, and Mitsui
Engineering and Shipbuilding Co. executed civil works. PLN has
leased that plant from Central Java Power for 20 years.
The plants official inauguration follows the Nov. 3 opening of
China Shenhua Energy Co.s PT.GH EMM INDONESIA Unit 2, a 150-MW
unit built adjacent to an existing twin unit at the facility. The new
plants are part of the first phase of power shortagestricken Indone-
sias ambitious plan to fast-track 10,000 MW of new capacity.
Poised for skyrocketing economic growth, Indonesia is seeing
a power demand surge of about 9% annually. The countrys power
capacity stands at about 30 GW, but in order to avoid rolling black-
outs that plagued the country two years ago and secure a 35%
reserve margin, Indonesia has planned to add 10,000 MW of new
capacity by 2014, most located on the main island of Java. Most
new plants in the short term are coal-fired, though several expen-
sive diesel units have been deployed to meet immediate power
needs. But analysts have tempered enthusiasm for the countrys
ambitious plans because they say several issues could delay plans
to add capacity, including land acquisition problems.
Meanwhile, as part of its effort to boost capacity, in late No-
vember, the countrys National Nuclear Energy Agency approved
plans for construction of the countrys first nuclear power plant
in the Tanjung Ular Muntok Cape region, West Bangk, by 2016.
The controversial proposal for a nuclear power plant in the quake-
prone country had been delayed after the Fukushima accident in
Japan in March 2011.
POWER Digest
ANDRITZ to Rebuild Oldest Egyptian Nile Dam. Austrian firm
ANDRITZ HYDRO on Dec. 22 won a $138.4 million contract from
the Egyptian Ministries of Energy and Water Resources for the
supply and installation of four bulb turbines, generators, and
the electrical and hydro-mechanical equipment to rebuild the As-
siut barragethe oldest dam in the Egyptian section of the Nile
River. The rebuild is expected to improve conditions for irrigation
and shipping as well as produce up to 32 MW when completed by
2017. ANDRITZ said the Assiut project uses Kaplan runners with
only three blades, perfectly suiting the low design head and its
variation margin from 3 to 6.5 meters (9.8 to 21.3 feet).
CapX2020 345-kV Line Completed in Minnesota. Minneap-
olis-based Xcel Energy in late December said a 345-kV, 28-mile-
long segment of the CapX2020 transmission project between the
new Quarry Substation near St. Cloud and the existing Monticello
Substation in Minnesota was placed into service. The project is
double-circuit capable, which allows for future capacity expan-
sion on existing structures. CapX2020, a $2 billion joint initia-
tive of 11 investor-owned, cooperative, and municipal utilities
in Minnesota seeks to expand the grid over a distance of more
than 700 miles. In addition to the newly completed line, projects
in the first group include two other 345-kV lines: between Alex-
andria and St. Cloud (construction to begin in early 2012) and
between Brookings County and Hampton (to begin April 2012).
Construction of a 230-kV line from Bemidji to Grand Rapids is
under way and expected to be complete in late 2012.
Wrtsil to Build Its Biggest Power Plant, in Dominican Re-
public. The Dominican Republics largest power generation company,
Empresa Generadora de Electricidad Haina, granted a $194 million
turnkey contract to Wrtsil on Dec. 27 for a complete dual-fuel
power plant that uses Wrtsils proprietary Flexicycle technology. In
the Flexicycle concept, the unique dynamic features of combustion
engines are maintained as the combined cycle can be shut on and
off individually for each generating set. The Quisqueya II power plant
will feature 12 Wrtsil 50DF generating sets in combined cycle mode
running primarily on natural gas, but with the capability to switch to
heavy fuel oil, as needed, when fully operational during the second
half of 2013. The project is to be built as an identical plant, on the
same site as the Quisqueya I plant, which was ordered by Barrick Gold
in September 2011. Though the plants will have separate owners,
they will be operated from one control room. The 430-MW complex
will be the biggest power plant in the world, delivered by Wrtsil,
the Finnish company said.
GE Refurbishes Spanish Cogen Plant. GE completed a major
repowering upgrade of its LM2500-PE gas turbine at Cogen Es-
paas Tortosa Energa cogeneration plant in Tarragona, Spain. The
project that spanned five weeksone-third of the time expected
entailed converting the existing natural gasfueled GE LM2500-PE
gas turbine to the more efficient, cleaner, and more powerful GE
LM2500+ DLE model. GE helped increase power output from 26 MW
to 29 MW at 37% efficiency in simple cycle mode/61% efficiency
in cogeneration mode. The plants control system was updated,
5. Javanese giant. Two new 662-MW units were inaugurated in
December at Central Java Powers existing 1,320-MW Tanjung Jati B
coal-fired power plant in Jepara, a coastal village a three-hour drive from
Semarang on the Indonesian island of Java. Courtesy: Sumitomo Corp.
February 2012
|
but there were no changes to main struc-
tural items, and the existing foundations
were reused. The $12.5 million project,
known as a repowering-in-place, is a first
for Spain and enables Tortosa Energia to
qualify for 10 years of cogeneration feed-
in tariff while complying with the latest
environmental requirements. It took place
under Spains Plan Renove plant rejuvena-
tion program, which incentivizes efficiency
upgrades on existing cogeneration plants.
MHI to Build 1,600-MW GTCC Plant
for Thai Firm. Mitsubishi Heavy Indus-
tries on Dec. 13 said it received a full turn-
key order to build a 1,600-MW gas turbine
combined cycle (GTCC) power generation
plant from Gulf JP NS Co. (GNS) in Thai-
land, a wholly owned subsidiary of Gulf JP
Co., which is 90% owned by a local sub-
sidiary of Japans Electric Power Devel-
opment Co. (J-POWER) and 10% owned
by Gulf Holding Co., a major local power
development company. The plant, which
GNS is to build and operate in Nong Saeng
district, Saraburi Province, will consist of
two 800-MW power trains. The large-scale
project is aimed at responding to increas-
ing power demand associated with the
countrys robust economic growth. The two
units are slated to go online in June 2014.
Rolls-Royce to Modernize I&C Sys-
tems for EDF Nuclear Fleet. Rolls-Royce
on Dec. 19 announced it had won a $323.4
million contract with AREVA to supply
safety instrumentation and control (I&C)
technologies and systems for the French
nuclear reactor modernization program. The
systems will be installed in the 20-strong
French fleet of 1,300-MW nuclear reactors
operated by Electricit de France (EDF).
The project will ensure that the reactor fleet
continues to meet safety and licensing re-
quirements through the deployment of the
latest I&C technologies, systems, and com-
ponents provided by Rolls-Royce. This I&C
project is being carried out by AREVA as
part of the third round of 10-yearly planned
reactor outages managed by EDF.
Alstom to Build 728-MW Gas Plant for
Iraq. The Iraqi Ministry of Electricity on Dec.
11 granted Alstom a $517.4 million con-
tract to build the 728-MW Al Mansuriya gas-
fired power plant in the Diyala Governorate,
northeast of Baghdad. The plant will consist
of four units, based on Alstoms GT13E2 gas
turbine and will be constructed under a turn-
key contract, covering delivery of equipment
and civil works. The plant will generate power
for the entire Diyala Governorate and a part
of Baghdad, located 80 km (50 miles) away
from the plant. The first unit of the plant is
scheduled to be operational in early 2013.
Sonal Patel is POWERs senior writer.
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February 2012 18
Industry Shift in Gas Line Cleaning Practice
In our September 2011 issue, Fluor Corp.s Best Practices for
Natural Gas Line Cleaning were presented for the startup of
natural gasfired combined cycle plants. Since publication of
that article, the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) has
issued a new standard for gas line cleaning in response to the
urgent recommendations prepared by the U.S. Chemical Safety
Board (CSB). The new NFPA standard now takes precedence over
all other cleaning techniques.
The new standard, NFPA 56PS: Standard for Fire and Explosion
Prevention During Cleaning and Purging of Flammable Gas Pip-
ing Systems, was released on Sept. 27, 2011. According to the
NFPA, The new standard was developed in the wake of the 2010
explosion at the under-construction Kleen Energy Power Plant in
Middletown, Conn. that killed six workers and injured nearly 50
others and a subsequent investigation by the CSB. (See Natural
Gas Piping: Its Time for Better Risk Control in our May 2010
issue, available in the POWER archives at www.powermag.com.)
As part of the commissioning process for the Connecticut facility,
highly pressurized flammable gas (natural gas) was used to clean
debris from the piping and was then discharged without controls
into the atmosphere, causing the explosion (Figure 1).
When the CSB completed its investigation of the incident, it issued
recommendations to various parties, including the NFPA. The NFPA
acted promptly, forming a new technical committee and charging
it with the responsibility to develop a new standard. NFPA 56PS ad-
dresses not only the cleaning practice known as gas blows but also
a broad range of gas process activities, such as pipe cleaning, repair,
replacement, and removal procedures conducted at power plants and
industrial, institutional, and commercial applications.
Generally, the new NFPA 56PS:
Prohibits use of flammable gas for internal cleaning of piping
systems.
Covers activities including cleaning new or repaired piping
systems, placing piping systems into service, and removing
piping systems from service.
Requires development of written procedures and a safety vali-
dation of procedures by competent persons.
Provides examples of purge procedure based on requirements
in the standard.
Prior to the release of NFPA 56PS, Fluor Corp. revised its standard
practice to require the use of nonflammable gas as the media used
to clean natural gas piping in power generation facilities. Though
this change was driven by safety considerations, Fluor Power has
determined through its own plant commissioning experience that
use of nonflammable gas is as effective as natural gas and is an
inherently safer alternative to natural gas blows.
The use of nonflammable gas eliminates the inherent potential
combustion hazards associated with natural gas blows but is not
without other safety risks that warrant precautions and significant
consideration during the planning phase of the gas line cleaning
process. Compressed gases as used in line cleaning, by their very
nature, present hazards due to the energy contained in pressurized
lines. Furthermore, inert gases such as nitrogen, if not properly
vented, can create environments that are oxygen deficient and
that can cause asphyxiation. Line-cleaning plans and procedures
developed by a project designer and contractor should address all
hazards associated with the selected cleaning media to ensure the
safety of personnel performing the cleaning activity.
NFPA 56PS 2012 Edition is available at www.nfpa.org.
Contributed by James H. Brown, PE, PMP (james.brown@
fluor.com), senior director of engineering and Charles D. Lyda,
senior director of commissioning, for Fluor Corp.s Power Group.
Virtual Co-Driver to Improve Truck Safety
In the January 2012 issue of POWER, the Construction Industry
Institute (CII) presented a portion of its groundbreaking work
on job site safety in Real-time Proactive Safety in Construc-
tion. That article explained how real-time tracking of worker
and construction equipment locations can be used to efficiently
notify workers on foot and those operating moving equipment of
each others location, thereby avoiding collisions, injuries, and,
sometimes, fatalities. Not included in that CII study were over-
the-road trucks that most large construction projects rely on for
delivery of time-critical equipment and parts.
POWER recently talked with Erika Jakobsson, a project manager
at Volvo Technology in Gothenburg, Sweden, who is responsible
for developing intelligent trucks in response to European Union
(EU) directives. According to Jakobsson, the truck of the future
will have a digital co-driver on board, a virtual guardian angel that
assists the driver or even takes over if the driver loses control. We
quite simply attach eyes to the truck, says Jakobsson.
Causes of Truck Accidents
Weekends, accidents, bad weather, and road construction are some
of the reasons for traffic snarls, but they all have one thing in
common: Where there are traffic delays, there is also a risk of ac-
cidents. A survey by the European Truck Accident Causation Study
shows that 47% of all truck accidents take place in monotonous
situations such as traffic queues, with vehicles traveling in the
same direction, or in stressful situations such as at crossroads and
road construction. Now technology is being developed to help en-
sure that this type of accident becomes less frequent (Figure 2).
Right now, the EUs Highly Automated Vehicles for Intelligent
Transport (HAVEit) project is focusing heavily on next-genera-
tion intelligent vehicles that can save lives and the environment
through the development of advanced driver-assistance systems.
The HAVEit project is developing a virtual co-driver that responds
to the current traffic situation and the drivers needs. One of
1. Connecticut calamity. Workers at the Kleen Energy Systems
plant in Middletown, Conn., attempted to clean debris in the plants
fuel gas line with 650 psi natural gas. The gas purge, vented inside
the plant building, found an ignition source and exploded. Six workers
were fatally injured and more than 50 workers were injured. The finan-
cial cost of the explosion has been estimated at up to a billion dollars.
Courtesy: Chemical Safety Board
www.siemens.com/energy/otherOEM
When it comes to I&C, only one global supplier
provides the total package: Siemens. With from
the ground up power plant know-how and the
industrys broadest product offering backed
by 24/7 technical support, trust Siemens for
high-value, low-risk total solutions. Whether its
diagnostics, automation controls, process optimization
or electrical solutions, contact Siemens today, and
together we will build the I&C package that best
maximizes your plants performance.
Trust Siemens for I&C products that provide low risk, high value,
custom solutions, local presence and 24/7 technical support.
B
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February 2012 20
the challenges is how the vehicle should communicate with the
driver, what sort of displays, voice functions, and so on it should
have. We all have different temperaments, so the system must
recognize when the driver is feeling irritated or calm, says Rein-
er Hoeger, project coordinator for HAVEit.
Sensors Add to Driver Awareness
The automotive industry has been building and conducting re-
search into automated vehicles for some time now, and many new
features have already made it into production. Tomorrows ve-
hicles, however, are being optimized to assist the driver not just
by helping the driver but by actually taking over certain tasks
when necessary. This technology relies on a number of sensors on
the outside of the vehicle that respond to the traffic environment
and scan lane markings, road signs, the current traffic situation,
and road conditions. These observations are then combined with
an internal system that monitors the driver and interprets the
drivers needs. What is more, the truck is enhanced so that it can
be controlled electronically. The same technology will also help
make the vehicles more economical and help the driver drive in a
more environmentally favorable way.
We are not trying to make the driver superfluous; we want the
driver to always have some form of control. We do this through
continuous dialogue between driver and system, where the ve-
hicle becomes more or less automated depending on the current
circumstances, explains Hoeger.
All told, 20 organizations are involved in the project that started
in 2008from vehicle manufacturers (including Volvo) to univer-
sities. The project will demonstrate the new technology in seven
vehicles, three of them heavy commercial vehicles from Volvo. Two
trucks are currently undergoing a digital transformation at Volvo
Technology in Gothenburg, Sweden. One truck focuses more on
safety, the other on environmental aspects (Figure 3).
The safety truck will spotlight the development of systems
and automation designed to assist the driver in repetitive traffic
tailback situations characterized by monotonous low-speed prog-
ress. The queue support system for trucks that is in production
today works down to 30 kilometers per hour [km/h]. This is still a
relatively high speed. We are working on queue support down to
0 km/h. What is more, the truck should automatically stop if the
vehicle in front stops, and start moving again without the driver
pressing the accelerator, says Jakobsson.
Stay in the Right Lane
The other part of the automated queue support system that
Jakobsson and her colleagues are working on is dedicated to
keeping the truck in the correct lane. Todays lane support
system issues an audible warning which requires that the driver
responds. Now we are examining an entirely automated process
so that the truck always drives in the middle of its lane without
the driver having to do anything, says Jakobsson.
This degree of automation is achieved through nine sensors
installed on the safety truck: a lane and object camera above the
windshield, a camera in the cab to monitor the drivers status,
two short-range radars (one on either side of the truck), and
three lasers. In addition, the truck is fitted with vehicle-to-vehi-
cle (V2V) communication and the E-Horizon system.
E-Horizon is a collective term for systems that are linked to
map databases. With the help of GPS and highly detailed maps,
the truck receives a continuous flow of information about gra-
dients, curves, and crossings farther down the road, adjusting
the driveline and tailoring progress so that it is as efficient and
economical as possible.
V2V communication is a similar system that exchanges infor-
mation with other vehicles in the vicinity. For instance, if the
driver is in a traffic queue and a vehicle ahead slams on its
brakes, the driver immediately receives a warning. In a traffic
tailback, this means that the driver gets the necessary informa-
tion several seconds before the vehicle immediately ahead hits
the brakes.
This sensor-based technology also figures prominently in the
other truck being developed as part of the project. It must be
able to handle the use of a hybrid engine by optimizing the use
of the combustion engine, electric motor, and correct gear ratio.
Advance information from the sensors is a smart way of con-
trolling the hybrid driveline, since we have two sources from
which to obtain the power. We can also coach the driver in good
driving habits that reduce fuel consumptiona sort of built-in
driver training, says Jakobsson.
Contributed by Marie Vassiliadis (marie.vassiliadis@volvo
.com), Volvo Trucks.
2. Smart trucks under development. Volvo Trucks is devel-
oping over-the-road trucks with enhanced safety equipment that can
automatically adjust to traffic flow and employ a temporary autopilot.
Courtesy: Volvo Trucks
3. Adding a smart co-driver. The Safespot EU project devel-
ops technology that in the future could help prevent accidents in traffic
snarls, construction zones, and crossroads. Courtesy: Volvo Trucks
February 2012
|
Data Centers Standby Power System Is
Money in the Bank
Synovus is a financial services company that includes 30 south-
eastern banking divisions, trust brokerages and mortgage compa-
nies, plus a credit/debit card processing company. The divisions
of Synovus provide banking, investment, and mortgage services
to customers in Georgia, Alabama, South Carolina, Florida, and
Tennessee. The company recently constructed a new mission-crit-
ical data center in Columbus, Ga., to handle its e-banking, tele-
com, and ATM transactions. Synovus relies on emergency standby
generator sets to prevent any loss of services or data in the event
of a utility outage.
While Synovus has other off-site facilities for data storage
and disaster recovery, the Columbus facility is the main data cen-
ter for all our banking activities, says Charley Whipkey, facil-
ity maintenance coordinator for Synovus. Whenever a Synovus
customer makes a purchase with one of our bank cards, uses one
of our ATMs, or conducts business at any of our several hundred
branches, that data is handled by this 50,000-square-foot facil-
ity. The Network Operation Center is manned 24 hours a day,
and there is constant data communication with our network to
transact business.
Redundancy a Key Design Factor
As in most mission-critical facilities, the Synovus data center
uses layers of redundancies to prevent loss of services or data.
Starting at the server cabinets, Whipkey explains, every cabinet
has two power supplies. These, in turn, are backed up by dual
utility feeds and uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems.
The last line of defense is the emergency standby power system,
consisting of two 2,250-kW MTU Onsite Energy diesel generator
sets that operate independently (Figure 4).
We have a fairly unique backup system at Synovus. The criti-
cal power system is a redundant configuration using static UPS
systems with flywheels instead of chemical batteries. We want-
ed to get away from a battery-backed UPS system because of
ecological concerns regarding acid containment. There also are
maintenance issues with wet cells that we wanted to avoid, said
Whipkey. The flywheels give us about 25 seconds of full load
facility power after a utility outage, so we needed emergency
standby generators that could start and accept load in 8 seconds
or less. One of the reasons we chose MTU Onsite Energy was
because these generators can start and assume full load in just
7.5 seconds.
The system was designed by the projects electrical consultant,
Barnett Consulting Engineers (BCE), and allows for redundancy in
all critical components. The design is a modular, expandable, tri-
redundant system providing N+2 reliability to all critical loads,
says John Barnett, PE of BCE.
To make this system a reality, Synovus looked to its electrical
contractor, Alexander Electric Co., to ensure that its new genera-
tor sets were properly coordinated, installed, and tested with all
other critical equipment.
Currently, the facilitys total electrical load is only a small por-
tion of the combined capacity of the two standby generator sets.
This means that even if the electrical load grows over time, the
facility would still have one fully redundant generator set that
could supply sufficient power if the other unit didnt start. If
the facilitys load grows beyond that level, Whipkey says there is
already a third electrical room and space for a third generator set
and transfer switch, thanks to the centers long-range planning.
When the Power Goes Out
In the event of a utility outage, the facilitys control system is
designed to first try switching to the alternate utility feed. If
the second utility feed is also down, the UPS system picks up
the buildings critical loads, with the exception of the air condi-
tioning chillers. Within 1 second of the outage, a signal goes to
the generator sets to start; the emergency generators accept the
critical loads within 8 seconds. A few seconds later, the chillers
are picked up by the generator sets. The generator sets also have
dual, full-size starting systems as part of the redundant design.
To date, the units have not had a single failure-to-start event in
over two years of operation.
Once power is restored, Synovus is cautious about returning
the load to utility power. Because of the centers criticality,
says Whipkey, we dont let the system automatically transfer
back to the utility when normal power is restored. When the
utility comes back on, we choose to manually transfer the power
back because we want to make sure that everything is working
normally. The operator has to physically check the building, the
generator sets, and the breaker positions, and also make sure the
flywheels have recharged, before we hit the transfer button.
Maintenance Is a Big Factor in Reliability
Power system reliability starts with good design and good equip-
ment, but Synovus recognizes that ongoing maintenance also
plays a vital part. Regular maintenance and exercise of generator
sets, breakers, and transfer switches are essential, and Whipkey
has a precise schedule that he follows. Every Monday, the gen-
erators are exercised for about 30 minuteslong enough to get
them to operating temperature. Then, once a month, both gen-
erators are started and run for an hour with the full building load,
completely off the grid. The switchgear is a closed-transition sys-
tem that allows a nice, smooth transition from the utility to the
generator sets and back.
With electronic financial transactions, such as e-banking and
ATM and bank card use, increasing almost daily, Synovus will be
relying on its central data centerand on reliable electric power.
Whipkey says that the companys Columbus data center will be
able to accommodate the anticipated growth for the next 10 to
15 years before the facility reaches capacity.
Contributed by MTU Onsite Energy, a subsidiary of Tognum
America Inc.
4. Eight-second ride. Two MTU Onsite Energy 2,250-kW gen-
erator sets back up the main data center for Synovus Financial. The
generator sets can start and assume full load in less than 8 seconds in
the event of a major power disruption. Courtesy: MTU Onsite Energy
|
February 2012 22
Debate Heats Up over New
Mercury and Air Toxics Rule
T
he U.S. Environmental Protection Agencys (EPAs) new Mer-
cury and Air Toxics Standards (MATS) rule for power plants
has critics tempers flaring. Not surprisingly, a number of
electric power representatives, industry groups, and elected of-
ficials oppose the rule, which was released on Dec. 21, 2011.
The MATS rule, also known as the Utility Maximum Achiev-
able Control Technology (MACT) Rule, applies to electric gener-
ating facilities that burn coal or oil and are larger than 25 MW.
All existing sources will have at least three years to attain the
standards, and state permitting authorities could grant sources
an additional year (which the EPA expects states typically will
grant), as needed for technology installation.
The new rule contains a number of major provisions. For ex-
ample, it sets numerical emission limits for mercury, filterable
particulate matter (as a surrogate for toxic nonmercury metals),
and hydrochloric acid (as a surrogate for all toxic acid gases).
The regulation also implements several important changes, such
as setting work practice standards during startup and shutdown
that require units to minimize toxic emissions during these times
by burning clean fuels.
Opponents Open Fire on MATSs Financial Impact
As far as the new regulations economic ramifications go, the
EPA predicts that it could cost the electric power industry $9.6
billion annually and raise U.S. electricity prices by an average of
3.1% in 2015.
However, the EPA also emphasizes the financial benefits of the
new rule. The agency issued a statement in December in which it
declared that the new standards ensure public health and eco-
nomic benefits that far outweigh costs of implementation. The
agency estimates that for every dollar spent to reduce pollution
from power plants, the American public will see up to $9 in health
benefits. The EPA projects that the total health and economic ben-
efits of the MATS rule will be as much as $90 billion annually.
In contrast, many critics of the new rule argue that it is too
expensive and will trigger the premature closure of a large num-
ber of coal-fired power plants.
Scott H. Segal, an attorney and director of the Electric Reli-
ability Coordinating Council, commented in December about the
new rule. The bottom line: this rule is the most expensive air
rule that EPA has ever proposed in terms of direct costs, he
said. It is certainly the most extensive intervention into the
power market and job market that EPA has ever attempted to
implement.
Likewise, Steve Miller, CEO of the American Coalition for Clean
Coal Electricity (ACCCE), complained about the rules impact on
U.S. jobs. The EPA is out of touch with the hard reality facing
American families and businesses, he commented. This latest
rule will destroy jobs, raise the cost of energy, and could even
make electricity less reliable.
An analysis prepared for ACCCE by National Economic Research
Associates (NERA) found that the proposed MATS rule and other
pending EPA regulations would destroy an average of 183,000
jobs every year from 2012 through 2020 and increase electricity
and other energy prices by $170 billion. The NERA analysis also
found that the average American household would have $270 less
to spend each year because of new EPA regulations.
Facing an Uncertain Future
The regulation of mercury emissions from power plants has been
on a rollercoaster ride in recent years. For example, in February
2008, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit overturned
the EPAs Bush-era Clean Air Mercury Rule (CAMR), which was
enacted in 2005. After the appeals courts ruling went into ef-
fect, the 2000 Clinton-era EPA determination, which mandated
that utility emissions of mercury and other hazardous air pollut-
ants be regulated under the more-stringent MACT standard, was
reinstated pending the EPA developing a new MACT standard. In
February 2009, the U.S. Supreme Court declined to consider the
appeal brought by the Bush EPA to overturn the U.S. Court of
Appeals 2008 ruling that vacated CAMR.
The proposed MATS rule is scheduled to become effective 60
days after the date of its publication in the Federal Register.
Based on the recent heated comments from critics, it looks as
if the new rule might be headed for a bumpy ride reminiscent
of CAMRs experience. It could be challenged both in court
and in Congress.
For example, Sen. James Inhofe (R-Okla.), ranking member
of the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works, an-
nounced in December his intention to block the new regulation
by filing a joint resolution of disapproval of the new rule under
the Congressional Review Act.
Sadly, this rule isnt about public health, Inhofe said. It is
a thinly veiled electricity tax that continues the Obama admin-
istrations war on affordable energy and is the latest in an un-
precedented barrage of regulations that make up EPAs job-killing
regulatory agenda.
In the past, a number of power companies planning to build
new coal-fired power plants had to put their projects on hold wait-
ing for certainty in the mercury standards. As it stands now, with
all the controversy surrounding the new MATS rule, the electric
power sector may have to wait a while longer until a sensible air
quality policy is implemented that successfully balances economic
and reliability demands with the protection of human health.
Angela Neville, JD, is POWERs senior editor.
Many critics of the new rule ar-
gue that it is too expensive and
will trigger the premature clo-
sure of coal-fired power plants.
There are only two dates
you need to remember once a year
Your anniversary and calibration of your dissolved oxygen analyzers
The Hach Orbisphere K1100 and 3100 dissolved oxygen analyzers are virtually maintenance free.
Unlike other oxygen analyzers, the K1100 and 3100 only require one calibration
and two minutes of maintenance per year.
866-450-4248 www.hach.com/Power
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Hach Orbisphere K1100 Hach Orbisphere 3100
7.875x10.75 PowerMag K1100.qxp:7.875x10.75 PowerMag K1100.qxp 1/10/12 12:03 PM Page 1
There are only two dates
you need to remember once a year
Your anniversary and calibration of your dissolved oxygen analyzers
The Hach Orbisphere K1100 and 3100 dissolved oxygen analyzers are virtually maintenance free.
Unlike other oxygen analyzers, the K1100 and 3100 only require one calibration
and two minutes of maintenance per year.
866-450-4248 www.hach.com/Power
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Hach Orbisphere K1100 Hach Orbisphere 3100
7.875x10.75 PowerMag K1100.qxp:7.875x10.75 PowerMag K1100.qxp 1/10/12 12:03 PM Page 1
|
February 2012 24
INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL
Power Generation:
Automation Today and Tomorrow
Handheld smart devices providing custom applications and Internet access at
the touch of a virtual button are common today. Hidden beneath their
touchscreens is a global network of digital technologies that respond to
each command. Will these familiar commercial technologies and apps
make their way to industrial digital control systems?
By Dr. Robert Peltier, PE
T
he smartphone, tablet computers, 4G
networks, and cloud computing have put
digital technology into the hands of mil-
lions of users. Valuable data, photos, and music
no longer reside on a single device but are avail-
able on demand, independent of the device du
jour. The system works because the technology
is hidden beneath an exquisite user interface so
intuitive that kindergarteners can update their
Facebook status on their way to school. The
common denominator among these commercial
digital products is an intuitive human-machine
interface (HMI), software that can be custom-
ized to the users unique tastes.
Similarly, Internet access today doesnt re-
quire a degree in computer science. My eight-
year-old granddaughter recently figured out
how to access Netflix through her Wii gaming
console, much to the chagrin of her parents.
Even the military is guiding a generation of
gamers into occupations where high levels
of eye-hand coordination are beneficial.
Industrial Tech Trails Commercial Tech
Industrial computers preceded commercial
products but have since matured more slowly.
The first generation of plant digital controls
that appeared about 30 years ago consisted of
merely a single-loop controller without an HMI.
Applications at the time were few, although the
advantages and potential installation cost sav-
ings in reduced wiring compared to an analog
system were clear. The IBM personal computer
(PC) was first introduced in 1981; a 10 MB hard
drive was added in 1983. In 1985, Windows 1.0
with its elementary graphical interface was in-
troduced. Like the PC, the complete digital con-
trol system (DCS) began to evolve with faster
controllers and increased hard drive capacity,
although most of the designs at the time relied
on proprietary protocols.
The second-generation DCS appeared in the
early 1990s using standard communication in-
terfaces, a single monitor, and proprietary HMI
that allowed operators to keep tabs on plant con-
trol loops, sequencing logics, and plant alarms;
it even had a saved operations history log. Win-
dows quickly became the favored HMI overlay,
mainly because of the relatively low cost of off-
the-shelf PCs that were then available and the
relative ease of programming.
The current, third-generation DCS design
continues to use the latest PC technology with
the added attraction of open communication
technologies (such as Fieldbus) that have
been applied throughout the plant. Smart sen-
sors combined with a speedy digital bus are a
potent and cost-effective combination. Mod-
ern digital designs also rely on Wi-Fi, where
practical, for noncritical systems.
The speed of todays computers allows
users to perform real-time and predictive
simulation studies to optimize plant opera-
tions and maintenance functions. For a typi-
cal 500-MW unit, up to 20,000 inputs and
perhaps up to 10,000 outputs can now be
found in a digital plant, with up to 10 op-
Source: iStockphoto/Kenneth C. Zirkel
February 2012
|
erator work stations and up to a dozen large
video screens. However, it isnt the number
of screens that is importantits the data that
can be displayed. Today, each screen can dis-
play selected plant data, trend data of inter-
est, perform system diagnostics, watch plant
startup sequencing, and provide any number
of graphical and mimic displays with alarms
identified and sequence of events captured in
one of the several plant logs. Whats more,
advanced predictive software can now iden-
tify impending equipment failures before
they occur, saving plant owners millions of
dollars. In sum, the third-generation DCS
gives plant owners the ability to operate re-
liably and optimize the economic return of
their assets.
Custom Software Apps Expected
Software solutions have also advanced apace
with the digital hardware because its the soft-
ware that actually manages the plant. A number
of software options are available to the power
plant operator, such as Yokogawas Vigilant-
Plant, Alstom Powers ALSPA Series 6, Siemens
SPPA-T3000, and Honeywells TDC 3000, to
name a few. However, much as with commercial
smart devices, the software is often associated
with specific hardware, and vice versa.
What should we expect in the next wave of
DCS designs? If commercial electronics are
a predictor, then perhaps we should expect an
application much like the iPhones new intel-
ligent personal assistant, Siri. For example, ask
Siri to Open the pod bay doors (a reference to
the Hal 9000 in 2001: A Space Odyssey), and
Siri would answer, We intelligent agents will
never live that down, apparently.
On second thought, perhaps a talking DCS
with a sense of humor in the control room
isnt such a great idea.
Dr. Robert Peltier, PE is POWERs
editor-in-chief.
Mark It on Your Calendar
The 55th Annual ISA Power Industry Divi-
sion (POWID) Conference and 21st Annual
Joint International Society of Automation
(ISA) POWID/EPRI Controls and Instru-
mentation Conference will take place at
the Renaissance Austin Hotel, in Austin,
Texas, June 38, 2012. This years confer-
ence theme is Power Generation: Automa-
tion Today and Tomorrow.
This event provides power generation
industry leaders with information on the
latest innovations in controls, instru-
mentation, cybersecurity, smart grid,
regulatory issues, and variable energy
technologies that impact power gen-
eration delivery systems. The organizers
expect more than 70 technical papers
and presentations to be given during
the conference.
ISA POWID is an organization of those
interested in the development and applica-
tion of instrumentation and controls in the
power generation industry. This event will
provide power generation industry leaders
with information on the latest innovations
in instrumentation, automation, security,
and business systems technologies in the
largest single event of its type. ISA POWID
joined with the Electric Power Research
Institute (EPRI) in 1991 to sponsor what
is commonly known as the POWID/EPRI
Controls and Instrumentation Conference.
More information is available at www.isa.
org/~powid/powid_2011_%20main.htm.
With the 2012 UDI Whos Who
Directory, you can:
Connect with key power
plant personnel at more
than 4,225 power plant sites
across North America
Pinpoint the locations of
your peers, customers and
prospects
Make connections to
increase the efciency of
your business operations
To purchase, visit www.udidata.platts.com
Explore information from the energy industrys most trusted data source in an
easy-to-navigate collection of nearly 250 highly interactive geospatial PDF pages.
These pages can be customized to show the features that interest to you providing
a signicantly deeper level of insight of the North American power generation,
transmission and retail service territories.
Power plant design characteristics
Nearly 8,500 plant management and support contact names, titles, and primary job functions
Basic plant operating statistics for more than 1,500 power stations, including:
- Generation (MWh) - Availability (%)
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Choose the delivery option that best suits your needs:
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Platts 2012 UDI Whos Who at Electric Power Plants Directory
|
February 2012 26
Comprehensive Asset
Management for Nuclear Plants
Asset management means different things to different people. But it boils down
to converting raw data and observations about equipment and compo-
nents into information and knowledge that is then used, propagated, and
shared by workers and digital components to manage performance. Nu-
clear plants have special asset management needs, given the level of their
safety, reliability, and regulatory requirements.
By Jason Makansi, Pearl Street Inc. and Timothy Hurst, Hurst Technologies Inc.
D
ue to the demanding nature of
nuclear power plants operations,
their asset management strategies
are inherently complicated. For example,
a person at a nuclear plant who is respon-
sible for the performance of a pump might
refer to the online condition-monitoring
system, together with the operator rounds
of data collected regularly, periodically,
or intermittently, as asset management.
Indeed, asset management, as described in
basic engineering technical specifications
for a new nuclear plant, may only cover
the plant-level definition (Table 1). Yet it
is so much more than that.
At the owner/operator executive level,
the asset management system is probably
thought of more in terms of the business
management systems (such as those sup-
plied by SAP, IBM, and Oracle), which
specifically link to the power plant data
and digital systems. The distinction often
made here is between the corporate infor-
mation technology (IT) system and the
operations technology system. But it is
not just that either.
In between the plant workers and the
executive suite are several other critical el-
ements of asset management, including
the off-line or periodic condition-testing
data, other monitored process and super-
visory variables, and predictive analytics
software, all of which can be combined
with work processes and procedures to
form the reliability centered maintenance
(RCM) system.
Any or all of the elements just de-
scribed have logical interfaces with the
computerized maintenance management
system, stores and inventory management
systems, central or corporate engineer-
ing department, centralized or multi-asset
portfolio performance-monitoring facility,
outage planning and scheduling processes,
and so on.
Asset Management Starts at the
Design Phase
One of the greatest challenges today in new
plant design, engineering, and construction
is to ensure that the asset management sys-
tem is compatible with the owner/operators
existing business and plant-level systems. For
the most part, the asset management system
is fragmented among different pieces of soft-
ware, often found in various functional silos
such as operations; maintenance; environ-
mental, health, and safety; instrumentation
Operations & performance monitoring
Safety Nonsafety
Distributed control system/Control and automation systems
Data historian
Predictive analytics Thermal performance
Process optimization Emissions monitoring
Water and solid waste discharge monitoring
Radiation monitoring Alarm management
Regulatory compliance reporting
Maintenance management
Safety Nonsafety
Reliability-centered maintenance Predictive analytics
Planned maintenance Preventative maintenance
Computerized maintenance management software Spares inventory
Outage planning and scheduling Condition monitoring
Safety and compliance management Supply chain management
Reliability-centered maintenance
Failure modes and effects analysis
Root cause analysis Hazard and risk analysis
Critical equipment analysis Corrective actions
Task analysis
Condition monitoring
Safety Nonsafety
Operating hours Vibration monitoring Motor current
Motor hot spots Acoustic emissions Ultrasonics
Oil analysis Infrared thermography
Table 1. Not so simple. Asset management at the plant level might be synonymous
with a condition-monitoring system and analogous to other plant functions, such as operations
and performance monitoring, maintenance management, and reliability-centered maintenance.
Source: Pearl Street Inc.
ENGINEERING
FABRICATION
CONSTRUCTION
REPAIR
MAINTENANCE
OUR BUSINESS IS PROVIDING
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February 2012 28
and control; and regulatory. To make things
more complicated, a variety of programs are
available for RCM and enterprise manage-
ment systems that include asset management
components.
The software and hardware elements of
asset management (Table 2) are often at the
bleeding edge of technology and therefore
are constantly being updated and improved.
The design of an asset management sys-
tem must include how to accommodate the
evolving digital technology that will sup-
port it. Rather than simply buying software
loaded onto computers and servers that will
come with the plant from the automation
supplier, there should be an intelligent de-
sign and rationalization of all the software
and digital elements with an ongoing life-
cycle perspective.
Because the components of asset manage-
ment software supplied by various vendors
overlap to a great extent, it should be the re-
sponsibility of the owner/operator to rational-
ize supply. You dont want to buy what you
dont need or wont use. Potentially millions
of dollars can be saved in software licensing
fees. A well-thought-out asset management
strategy can help rationalize redundancy,
spares, and excess capacity against the most
advanced means of monitoring and manag-
ing operational risks. One example: a variety
of soft sensor technologies could replace
traditional hard-wired sensing.
Identify Critical Systems
An early step in all asset management pro-
grams is to identify and classify all plant
equipment based on how critical it is to the
continued and/or safe operation of the plant.
This exercise is similar to determining the
level of monitoring and protection given to
any particular component and is based on
such factors as effect on production, expense,
complexity of repairs, environmental health
and safety risk, operator presence, and loca-
tion. For nuclear plants, the critical vs. non-
critical determination is complicated by the
safety vs. nonsafety system designation that
affects everything nuclear with respect to
regulatory compliance.
Some of the criteria that will determine
the importance of individual equipment in a
nuclear plant include: safe shutdown, safety-
related equipment, components essential to
power operation, events that trigger mainte-
nance-rule functional failures, environmental
qualification, station blackout, fire protec-
tion, anticipated transient without SCRAM,
and pressurized thermal shock.
Propagating Data
One monitored data point from a plant
component will be distributed, propagat-
ed, and used by multiple human experts as
well as by various software systems. Some
monitored points may be critical from the
standpoint of asset management and there-
fore the quality of the sensor purchased,
redundancy, and other issues may need to
be reassessed. Remember: The automation
system vendor is specifying and purchas-
ing sensors and control elements to meet
the control strategy, typically not the asset
management strategy.
Some software systems, especially in the
thermal performance and predictive analyt-
ics and condition-monitoring areas, will have
their performance and usefulness optimized
only if the data input requirements to the
software are properly thought through. In
other words, there are key measurements in
the plant that can optimize the asset manage-
ment suite, and some of these measurements/
monitored points may not be the same as
the ones for the automation system. Power-
ful predictive analytics programs can often
avoid the need for certain sensors and moni-
tored points.
Objectives of the asset management sys-
tem design and specification might include
the following:
Failure analysis of critical components
shall be integrated electronically/digitally
into computerized maintenance system.
Asset performance data for critical equip-
ment shall be collected automatically in
real time.
The system shall support continuous
improvement teams for condition-based
and reliability-centered maintenance
activities.
Monitored data from the actual equip-
mentas opposed to generic equipment
modelsshall be used to build models
that automate work functions such as
workflows, parts ordering, and inventory.
Regulatory Requirements
Title 10 of the Code of Federal Regulations
(CFR) Part 52 requires reliability assurance
programs (RAP) for nuclear safetyrelated
equipment. Additionally, the U.S. Nuclear
Regulatory Commission (NRC) distinguish-
es between the design basis RAP (D-RAP)
and the operations basis RAP (O-RAP). The
reliability achieved must also support the
probabilistic risk assessment (PRA) of spe-
cific components. In other words, specific
safety-related equipment must achieve a reli-
ability factor sufficient to support the PRA,
which is part of the certified reactor designs.
No consensus exists, however, regarding
what, exactly is required to directly fulfill the
RAP intent.
The RAP is, in effect, a scheduled main-
tenance plan. Scheduled maintenance has
to be integrated into the RCM program to
maximize safety and minimize cost. Li-
censing new designs includes certifying
a complete RAP. A prospective licensees
inspections, tests, and analyses acceptance
criteria (ITAACs) verify final conformance
to specifications that ensure safe opera-
tions. Completing the ITAACs allows the
Online monitoring of components Plant software
Vibration monitoring Plant data historian
Corrosion and/or wear monitoring Computerized maintenance management or work management software
Motor current Reliability, predictive, preventive, and proactive maintenance programs
Acoustic emissions Thermal performance monitoring software
Temperature Alarm management software
Wear (erosion, corrosion, and aging) Visualization and performance dashboard platforms
Radiation monitoring and exposure Security movement and access
Motor hot spots, infrared thermogra-
phy
Configuration management
Ultrasonic measurement Change management
Oil analysis and tribology Human factors engineering
Local, control room, and remote/cen-
tralized monitoring
Predictive analytics software
Process optimization software
2-D or 3-D visualization software
Inventory, supply chain, and outage management software
Project management and scheduling software
Table 2. Elements of a comprehensive asset management system. In ad-
dition to typical operator rounds and operators collecting data from handheld devices, data is
collected by instrumentation and other software applications. Source: Pearl Street Inc.
February 2012
|
finished certified, licensed plant to oper-
ate. One ITAAC addresses a key part of
design: the RAP. Although various NRC
requirements and industry practices ad-
dress reliability issues of specific parts of
the plant piecemeal, there is no integrated
program that addresses plant reliability
holistically and comprehensively.
Today, the nuclear plant vendor provides
the master equipment list to meet combined
operating license requirements for the RAP.
However, this should only be considered
the bare minimum. Even something like the
maintenance rule 10 CFR 50.65, which is
triggered when the D-RAP transitions into
the O-RAP, should not be considered an ad-
equate RAP.
The RAP should answer the question,
What activities make this piece of equip-
ment reliable? We could extend this by
saying the RAP should include everything
working together and integrated that makes a
piece of equipment reliable, including:
Online sensors and monitoring devices
with which the component is equipped.
Periodic and regular condition-based data
taken on that equipment, such as operator
rounds and handheld instrument data.
Predictive analytics and monitoring
methods and software governing the
equipment.
The availability of spares and consum-
ables required by that equipment.
The visibility of the data and information
about that equipment to decision-makers
through the maintenance management
software or 3-D virtualization software.
Automation of work orders and tasks re-
quired by the equipment.
The ease with which data and informa-
tion about the equipment is accessed by
the appropriate people and organized and
presented to make it most useful.
The critical nature of that equipment with
respect to the availability and safety of the
plant.
Similarity, familiarity, and uniformity of
the processes and procedures with other
nuclear plant assets under the responsibil-
ity of the owner/operator.
Therefore, even if a comprehensive
system governing the knowledge around
the asset isnt a practical goal during the
design phase, then a comprehensive RAP
should be.
The asset management system also
may need to comply with, or at least con-
sider, various existing or pending industry
standards, including the Institute of Nucle-
ar Power Operations (INPO) AP913; the
Nuclear Energy Institutes (NEIs) Stan-
dard Nuclear Performance Model, PAS 55;
probabilistic safety assessment (PSA) mod-
els; the Electric Power Research Institutes
(EPRI) planned maintenance (PM) tem-
plates; the Communities of Practice guide-
lines, the Department of Energy/EPRI aging
management programs; and/or the Inter-
national Atomic Energy Agency Technical
Document 1305 or some version of a RAP
as described previously (Table 3).
Nuclear plants could also draw on the
experience of fossil-fueled plants, where
staff engineers often receive performance
and operations and maintenancerelated
data and information on their smart phones
or handheld devices. One power plant to-
day may have several thousand process
and sensor points. A fleet of large coal-
fired supercritical units may have as part
of its asset management system more than
300,000 tags, process data points that
represent monitored data points, calcula-
tions, or information points. These pro-
cess sensors and data points become the
raw material of the owner/operators asset
management program.
Oil and gas facilities also are beginning
to deploy advanced technologies, includ-
ing 3-D visualization technology, so that
all the asset management data and infor-
mation is organized around actual 3-D rep-
resentations (developed by laser scanning
the actual plant) of the as-built (and ever-
changing) plant.
Relevant Industry Models
Because the next generation of U.S. nuclear
unit projects are only now moving forward
into the design and project management
stage (from generic design and NRC ap-
proval stages), the concept of designing a
suitable asset management system is only
now being considered. Here are some im-
portant industry standards that staff should
factor into the asset management strategy.
INPO AP 913, Equipment Reliability
Standard. This standard is undoubtedly
familiar to U.S. nuclear owner/operators.
Although it certainly could be considered
the foundation for a nuclear asset manage-
ment program, today it is likely only a
piece of a more sophisticated approach. Of
critical note, though, is AP913, Appendix
G, Considerations for Building Equip-
ment Reliability. At a minimum, the de-
sign of the asset management systemthe
hardware, software, and digital elements
should be shaped to meet these require-
ments, to automate those aspects that are
repetitive (such as acceptance checks), and
to include new technologies for condition
monitoring and other functions.
Standard Nuclear Performance
Model. The Standard Nuclear Perfor-
mance Model latest revision 2007 (de-
veloped by the INPO, NEI, and EUCG),
identifies core processes, such as plant op-
eration, work management, supply chain,
Corporate/Owner-operator
Corporate engineering (or remote specialists)
Centralized performance-monitoring center
Plant A Plant B Plant C
Regulatory
Combined operating license
MEL D-RAP O-RAP
Quality assurance program
Inspections, tests, and analyses acceptance criteria (ITAACS)
Industry asset management standards
INPO AP913
PAS 55
EPRI PM templates
EPIX functions
NEI Standard Nuclear Performance Models
IAEA TECDOC 1305
Probabilistic safety assessments models
Communities of practice
Notes: EPIX = equipment performance information exchange, MEL = master equipment list.
Table 3. Levels of compliance for a nuclear asset management system.
Source: Pearl Street Inc.
|
February 2012 30
equipment reliability, and configuration
management, and then enabling process-
es, information technology, information
management, human resources, business
services/asset management, training, loss
prevention, and support services.
PAS 55 Asset Management Stan-
dard. This relatively recent standard has
been developed and promoted by UK com-
panies (with compliance by utility compa-
nies mandatory). It appears to be gaining
some traction in Europe, but theres less
awareness of it in the U.S. Asset manage-
ment is defined in this standard as sys-
tematic and coordinated activities and
practices through which an organization
optimally manages its assets and its as-
set systems, their associated performance,
risks and expenditures over their life cy-
cles, for the purposes of achieving its or-
ganizational strategic plan. Interestingly,
this standard recommends creating a chief
asset officer in the company executive
suite (see sidebar).
IAEA-TECDOC-1305, Life Cycle Man-
agement. Though this document address-
es many of the issues embodied by asset
management systems, it appears to be too
general and too old (issued in 2002, al-
though there may be revisions) to be of use
for todays nuclear plants.
Putting It All Together
Although at the plant level, a condition-
monitoring system might be considered
asset management, a comprehensive
strategy has to go further and deeper. An
asset management strategy should also
go beyond the plant boundaries. Owner/
operators with large fleets of power plant
assets have moved to a centralized fleet
monitoring facility, where engineering and
technical expertise is shared among many
assets. The asset management strategy
needs to consider which functions will be
distributed at the plants and which will be
handled centrally.
This article is based on a technical paper
presented at the 2011 ISA Power Industry
Symposium and is available at the POWID
website (http://tinyurl.com/8xzk7xj ).
Jason Makansi (jmakansi@pearlstreetinc
.com) is president of Pearl Street Inc. Timo-
thy Hurst (timh@hursttech.com) is president
of Hurst Technologies Inc.
The Chief Asset Intelligence Officer
Pearl Street Inc. and others have gone as
far as to suggest that the power industry
needs to think in terms of a digital asset
intelligence system that would be the re-
sponsibility of the chief asset intelligence
officer (CAIO) or the chief asset intelli-
gence owners engineer, for the project or
the company. In the case of a new proj-
ect, the CAIOwho should be separate
and distinct from the architect-engineer;
the engineering, procurement, and con-
struction contractor; and the automation
system suppliershould have his or her
own team of asset intelligence specialists.
Others have advocated the development
of hybrid digital experts who are trained
in software and communications as well
as mechanical and electrical theory and
the creation of digital groups and work
practice areas.
Wind
Solar
Bioenergy
ocean
geothermal
WaSte to energy
hydro
octoBer 17-19, 2012
OMNI SHOREHAM | WASHINGTON D.C.
www.retech2012.com Hosted by: Organized by:
IS YOUR PLANT OR
SMART GRID PROJECT
A WINNER?
2011 MARMADUKE
AWARD:
CFEs CTG
Universidad Unit 2
2011 PLANT OF THE YEAR:
Kansas City
Power & Lights
Iatan 2
Nominate it for a
Award today!
The Plant of the Year award will be presented to a plant that
leads our industry in the successful deployment of advanced
technologymaximizing e ciency while minimizing
environmental impact. In short, the Power Plant of the Year, featured
in the August issue of POWER, is the best of class over the past year.
If you know of a power plant or upstream smart grid
project thats worth bragging about, nominate it for
one of POWER magazines annual awards. Projects
anywhere in the world are eligible.
For award criteria details, see the online nomination forms. Award
nalists and winners will be selected by the editors of POWER
based on nominations submitted by you and your industry
peerssuppliers, designers, constructors, and operators of power
plants and smart grid projects.
The Marmaduke Award, named after the legendary plant
troubleshooter whose exploits have been chronicled in POWER
since 1948, recognizes operations and maintenance excellence
at existing power plants. The Marmaduke Award winner will also
be proled in the August issue.
Top Plants Awards recognize the best in class over the past year
in each of four generation categories: gas (September), coal-red
(October), nuclear (November), and renewable (December).
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the end user. The winning project will be proled in the August issue.
NOMINATIONS ARE DUE MAY 21, 2012.
Read about all the 2011 winners and
download entry forms from www.powermag.com
(under Also from POWER Magazine).
|
February 2012 32
Enhanced Load Dispatch Rate and
Furnace Protection Through Model
Predictive Control
The enhanced plant performance achieved at the 1,477-MW Morgantown Gen-
erating Station shows the value of model predictive control in conjunction
with intelligent distributed control algorithms. This project update looks at
how the project team moved from ramp rate improvements to reducing
tube metal temperatures to improved component life.
By Don Andrasik and John McNulty, GenOn Morgantown and Don Labbe, Invensys Operations Management
M
organtown Generating Station is
on the Potomac River in Charles
County, Maryland. Each unit con-
sists of a single tandem-compound turbine
generator (one Westinghouse and the other
General Electric) and a single pulverized
coalfired once-through controlled circu-
lation supercritical boiler utilizing a sin-
gle reheat-regenerative cycle. Each has a
nameplate rating of 572.5 MW with throt-
tle steam conditions of 3,500 psig, 1,000F
and reheat steam temperature of 1,000F
and seven stages of feedwater heating. The
units are capable of generating 625 MW
each and were placed into service in 1970
and 1971.
The Combustion Engineering steam
generators are a balance draft divided
furnace type, consisting of a tangentially
fired, center wall furnace with economizer,
and superheater and reheater surfaces.
The split furnace design with dual se-
lective catalytic reduction (SCR) systems
poses unique challenges to balancing steam
temperatures and limiting peak metal tem-
peratures in the various boiler circuits.
Because high peak metal temperatures are
often a precursor to premature tube failure,
control enhancements that decrease peak
temperatures offer substantial payback to
GenOn, the plants owner.
Through the expansion of the model
predictive control within the dynamic ni-
trogen oxide/heat rate optimization system
and additional distributed control system
(DCS)based process control algorithms,
the objectives of improved steam tempera-
ture balance in the boiler circuits and lower
peak metal temperatures were achieved.
These control improvements widened
the load range of fast dispatch operation
while protecting boiler tubes from exces-
sive thermal-induced stress, promoting
long boiler tube life. After instrumentation
failures, boiler tube leaks cause more unit
forced outages than any other component
failure in the typical steam plant.
The experiences on Unit 2 are described
in this article. The methodologies were
then applied to Unit 1, and results were
essentially similar, if not better. Earlier
Morgantown control upgrades were de-
scribed in Increasing Generation Ramp
Rate at Morgantown Generating Stations
Coal-Fired Units in the February 2011 is-
sue, also found in the POWER archives at
www.powermag.com.
SCR Impact on Boiler Component
Water/Steam Temperatures
Morgantowns units experienced increas-
ing temperature excursions on the platen
superheater outlet temperatures at both
the lower ramp rates and the newer, higher
ramp rates. Previously, the original temper-
ature override on the waterwall outlet trim
would suffice to protect the component
tubes in the rare case of high temperatures.
After the SCR startup, the temperature ex-
cursion increased both in severity (peak
temperature) and in frequency. This was
especially true at minimum generation
points and during generation load ramp in-
creases from lower generation points.
The SCR catalyst requires a minimum
temperature to ensure burn-off of any con-
taminate formation (ammonia bisulfate).
To maintain the SCR catalyst temperature
in each furnace in the split furnace de-
sign, an economizer bypass system takes
heat from the gas path flow through the
economizer and diverts it to the SCR in-
let to maintain the minimum temperature
requirement. This greatly decreases the
water side fluid temperature out of the
economizer. The waterwall temperature
control then moves to increase the furnace
firing rate to make up this loss and main-
tain the waterwall outlet temperature. As
a result of the furnace gas flow redistri-
bution, significant increases in platen su-
perheater outlet temperatures threaten the
tube materials thermal limits.
Late-night testing at the lower genera-
tion points illustrated the effect of SCR
temperature control (economizer bypass
dampers with backpressure dampers on
each individual furnace) on platen tem-
peratures. Manipulation of the economizer
bypass provided only marginal changes on
platen outlet temperatures.
Another test revealed that the burner
tilts had a greater influence in lowering
platen temperature at a minimum genera-
tion point. However, there was an increas-
ing difference between the individual
split furnace steam temperature outlets as
detected by the boiler throttle (BT) links
feeding the platen superheater. Because
of the split furnace design, one side may
be relatively cooler than the other, but the
main steam sprays will produce the desired
outlet temperature. One side sprays exces-
sively, while the other sprays with little to
no flow.
The side that is spraying has a high plat-
en outlet temperature, pushing undesirable
thermal limits of the component tubes. So
this temperature difference control now
becomes a key objective, as it is desirable
to keep both sides near balanced, thereby
lowering peak temperature on the high-
temperature side.
The difference between the furnaces
is attributed to the established SCR tem-
perature requirement and the economizer
damper arrangement that was placed into
service. There also can be imbalances of
fuel/air distribution at the furnace input
February 2012
|
such as windbox and coal mill pipe distri-
bution and an influence from sootblowing,
or lack thereof, from side to side. Some of
these can be controlled by operation; oth-
ers may take a longer-term approach to
rectify. The overriding plant requirements,
however, are to eliminate or significantly
reduce the temperature excursions as
quickly as possible.
Sootblowing is set up on an intelligent
model-based program that could help, but
it shuts off below a mid-generation point.
When generation is above this point, how-
ever, sootblowing can augment the con-
trol, decreasing the temperature difference
between the waterwall furnace outlets in
addition to maintaining furnace specific
main steam temperatures and reheat tem-
peratures.
As an intermediate step, the setpoint
was decreased on the desuperheater inlet
override for the waterwall temperature
control. This provided some improvement,
yet not to the extent desired for protecting
the component tubes of the platen super-
heater; therefore, additional enhancement
was needed.
Unit Front-End Slowdown
To protect the unit precipitators and the
scrubber, which provides flue gas desulfu-
rization (FGD), a DCS function has been
implemented to slow down the unit ramp
rate. This helps if opacity to the FGD (out-
let of the precipitators) becomes too high.
The opacity occurs as a result of precipi-
tators experiencing unacceptable levels of
furnace ash loading. The opacity also re-
sults from the high ash content loading to
the FGD.
The algorithm employs mechanisms to
ensure signal quality by a software type
deadman function. This function is pro-
grammed without the use of an external
signal from the monitoring instrument, as
none is available. This program ensures
signal health and validity. If high opac-
ity is detected from the precipitator to the
SCR equipment, the unit front end control
will slow down the units ramp rate pro-
portionally in relation to the value of the
opacity level.
MPC Model Development
At higher generation loads, the burner tilts
and the waterwall outlet temperatures as
measured by the BT valve links exhibited
a significant consistent relationship in the
modeling tools. In essence, the model pre-
dictive control (MPC) model identified
the influence of tilts on the distribution of
furnace heat input between the furnace ra-
diation area and the convection pass at the
higher load points.
Integrating the model into the predictive
control produced noteworthy results. The
burner tilts went under the management of
the MPC with major weight given to main-
taining the two furnace sides waterwall
outlet temperatures and less weight given
to the reheat temperature control. The re-
heat spray control within the DCS proces-
sor was revamped to ensure control of the
reheat temperature should the new model
control cause higher-than-desired tem-
peratures. The reheat sprays functioned
to control this temperature and have not
become excessive. This change minimized
any heat rate penalty, as the MPC does not
allow the tilts to generate excessive reheat
temperature.
The MPC is utilized in conjunction with
previously implemented furnace-to-furnace
bias model control. The MPC manipulates
the secondary air bias between the furnaces
based upon the desuperheater temperatures
of each furnace side, along with carbon mon-
oxide delta between each furnace side.
The furnace-to-furnace model bias con-
trol offsets the influence of the gas flow
imbalances, functioning as designed.
However, there is a limitation at lower
generation. To maintain cooling air on the
secondary air registers requires a mini-
mum opening. As the steam generator load
point is decreased and the secondary air
registers reach this minimum flow limit,
the furnace-to-furnace bias is reduced in a
proportional fashion to the point where it
reaches zero and can no longer influence
furnace-to-furnace distribution.
Additional predictive control utilizing
the desuperheater inlet temperature as a
modeled constraint on the manipulation of
the waterwall temperature setpoint is set
in place. This lowers the effect of firing
in reducing both furnaces platen tempera-
tures and thereby significantly reduces the
platen outlet peak temperatures. In other
words, the predictive control rounds-out
the platen superheater temperature increase
before reaching undesirable values.
During the performance analysis of the
furnace, further furnace modeling needs
became apparent. The unit exhibited a
1,000
900
800
700
600
500
400
550
450
350
250
150
50
50
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Load (MW)
E
n
e
r
g
y

c
h
a
n
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e

(
B
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u
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l
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r
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o
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a
l
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n

(
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Economizer heat gain
slight increase at low load
Waterwall outlet
temperature constant
over load range
Waterwall heat gain
moderate increase at
low loads
Enthalpy gain across economizer Enthalpy difference due to waterwall recirculation
Enthalpy gain center wall Enthalpy gain side wall
Enthalpy gain platen superheater Enthalpy gain waterwalls
Total economizer indesuperheater in Waterwall out average temp. (F)
1. Pre-SCR boiler heat balance. Before installation of the selective catalytic reduction
(SCR) system, heat absorption in the economizer was fairly constant throughout the load range.
Courtesy: GenOn Energy
|
February 2012 34
changing characteristic of radiation domi-
nant to the convection dominant with re-
spect to load. The effect of the burner tilts
on temperature distribution changed as a
function of load. That is, lowering the re-
heat tilts produced different results at high
loads versus low loads. At lower loads, de-
creasing the tilt position assisted in low-
ering platen superheater temperatures; at
higher loads the opposite is true. Addition-
ally, there was a significant change in wa-
terwall temperature control in regards to
the boiler recirculation as the pump recir-
culation loop check valve opened at lower
loads. Both of these issues necessitated
different model usage based upon load.
SCR Impact on Boiler
Heat Absorption
Historical boiler temperature data was
used to determine the root cause of the ex-
cessive platen superheater outlet tempera-
tures. Before the SCR installation, there
were virtually no instances of excessive
platen superheater outlet temperatures at
lower unit loads. After the SCR installa-
tion, most of the instances of excessive
platen superheater outlet temperatures oc-
curred at low loads. The average econo-
mizer outlet temperature at minimum unit
load had decreased by approximately 65F.
The boiler controls still maintained the
same waterwall outlet temperature set-
point. This resulted in increased firing rate
at low loads to pick up the additional 65F
in the boiler waterwall circuits.
Heat absorption in the various boiler
sections was calculated before and after
SCR installation. Enthalpy of the process
fluid was determined for each point where
temperature and pressure process data is
available. The gain in enthalpy across each
boiler section is used to determine the ef-
fective heat absorption. Figures 1 and 2 il-
lustrate the heat absorption in the various
boiler sections based on this analysis.
Pre-SCR installation, heat absorption
in the economizer was fairly constant
throughout the load range. Post-SCR,
economizer heat absorption fell off sig-
nificantly at reduced loads. The waterwall
outlet temperature setpoint was steady
across the load range, so the waterwall
outlet temperature is held steady in both
cases by the firing rate control. The
heat absorption in the waterwall circuit
changes in the opposite direction from
the economizer heat absorption pre-SCR
installation and post-SCR installation. In
fact, at the minimum load point, the heat
absorption values for the economizer and
waterwall circuits have effectively re-
versed. This means that the total heat ab-
sorption from the economizer inlet to the
waterwall outlet has been maintained, but
the contribution from the individual sec-
tions has changed considerably.
Finally, the total heat absorption at low
load has increased. This is due to the add-
1,000
900
800
700
600
500
400
550
450
350
250
150
50
50
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Load (MW)
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a
l
p
y

g
a
i
n

(
B
t
u
/
l
b
)
Enthalpy gain across economizer Enthalpy difference due to waterwall recirculation
Enthalpy gain center wall Enthalpy gain side wall
Enthalpy gain platen superheater Enthalpy gain waterwalls
Total economizer indesuperheater in Waterwall out average temp. (F)
Waterwall out temp.
constant over load range
Total heat gain increased due to
higher platen out temp., result of
maintainging waterwall out temp.
Waterwall heat gain
increased at low
loads to compensate
for economizer
Economizer heat
gain reduced at low
loads due to bypass
2. Post-SCR boiler heat balance. After installation of the SCR system, the economizer
heat absorption fell off significantly at reduced loads. Courtesy: GenOn Energy
3. Temperature challenges prior to MPC upgrade. This chart represents the Unit
2 water/steam temperature profile prior to incorporating model predictive controlbased control
upgrades. The combination of higher firing rate (to offset the lower economizer heating) and the
north/south temperature maldistribution results in excessive desuperheater inlet steam tem-
peratures on the north side, particularly at low loads. Courtesy: GenOn Energy
concentrations in lue gas cause concerns from both an environmental and
corrosion standpoint. Uncontrolled injection of control reagents wastes money. With the MCS03,
real time control of your acid problem is a reality. Thanks to specially adapted IR spectral ranges
and the hot/extractive system, effective control can be achieved.
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09_PWR_120112_IC_LoadDisp.indd 35 1/13/12 11:08:46 AM
|
February 2012 36
ed heat absorbed by the platen superheater
as a result of increased firing rate to main-
tain waterwall outlet temperature. The
waterwall circuit cannot absorb all of the
additional heat input, so some is absorbed
by the platen superheater. The waterwall
outlet temperature was maintained, so this
added heat is not needed in the platen su-
perheater and leads to elevated tempera-
tures. Notice the platen superheater gain at
low load in Figure 2. The superheat sprays
function to limit the effect on the final su-
perheater inlet/outlet temperatures, but the
platen superheater has no similar control
element available.
Intermediate Boiler Temperatures
Prior to MPC Upgrade
The boiler supercritical water/steam tempera-
ture profile provides insight into the challeng-
es of maintaining intermediate temperatures
within acceptable limits during both steady
and dispatch operation. Figure 3 represents
the Unit 2 temperature profile prior to incor-
porating model-based control upgrades.
Figure 3 presents the unit load, the four
desuperheater inlet steam temperatures
(North 1/2 and South 1/2), the economizer
inlet and outlet water temperatures, the six
waterwall steam temperatures (including the
four outlet temperatures: BT Link North 1/2
and South 1/2 ), and the two center wall inter-
mediate steam temperatures.
The trends depicted in Figure 3 illustrate
several issues. First, as load decreases, the
economizer outlet temperature drops at a
steeper rate than the economizer inlet tem-
perature. This is a change from the original
design and is caused by the gas bypass around
the economizer to satisfy SCR minimum gas
inlet temperature requirements. Because the
final steam temperature setpoint at low load
remains at the pre-SCR value, the interme-
diate boiler sections must absorb more heat,
as illustrated by the higher center wall steam
temperatures and desuperheater inlet steam
temperatures at low load.
The second issue is the north/south tem-
perature maldistribution. It begins with a
split between the north and south waterwall
outlet temperatures (BT links) and ampli-
fies to the north and south desupheater
inlet temperatures. The split exists at all
loads but is greater at lower loads.
For example, the 17F split between
north/south waterwalls jumps to a 67F split
between north/south desuperheater inlet
temperatures. The combination of higher
firing rate (to offset the lower economizer
heating) and the north/south temperature
maldistribution results in excessive desu-
perheater inlet steam temperatures on the
north side, particularly at low loads.
Intermediate Boiler Temperatures
Following MPC Upgrade
Following the expansion of the MPC system
to include north/south steam temperature dis-
tribution, the boiler supercritical north/south
steam temperature profile became more bal-
anced, as shown in Figure 4, particularly at
intermediate and higher loads. However, at
lower loads the allowable range of air dis-
tribution and other variables was restricted,
compromising the ability to impact north/
south temperatures.
The north/south split is nearly eliminat-
ed at intermediate and high loads but ex-
ists at lower loads. The mean north/south
waterwall split decreased to a 7F split,
and the desuperheater split was lowered
to 31F, with nearly balanced conditions at
intermediate and high loads. The benefit
is fewer incidences of high desuperheater
inlet temperature and a lower average tem-
perature, promoting longer tube life.
Using Control Technology to
Enhance Plant Performance
The value of control technology is signifi-
cant when it provides continuous improve-
ment in approaching the theoretical best that
the mechanical limitations allow. It ensures
improved economics in utilizing what is cur-
rently available and helps meet performance
and component protection goals, while cor-
rective mechanical changes can proceed as
economics and circumstances allow.
In this case, significant value was gained at
the Morgantown plant by the major improve-
ment in balancing the desuperheater tempera-
tures for waterwall control on both units at
intermediate and high loads. This, along with
the other enhancements, resulted in higher ramp
rates over an expanded generation range.
The authors wish to acknowledge the
assistance of the following people in the
drafting of this article: Tom Turk, Morgan-
town Generating Station plant manager;
Jurgen Brat, Morgantown Generating Sta-
tion engineering manager; and John Gay
with PowerMax Consulting.
Donald Andrasik (don.andrasik@genon
.com) is a senior DCS engineer for GenOn
Energy, assigned to Morgantown Generat-
ing Station. John McNulty (john.mcnulty@
genon.com) is a senior DCS engineer for
GenOn Energy at Morgantown Generating
Station. Don Labbe (donald.labbe@
invensys.com) is a consulting control en-
gineer for Invensys Operations Manage-
ment, based in Foxboro, Mass. He is an
ISA fellow and director for ISA POWID.
4. Striking a better balance after MPC upgrade. This chart represents the
Unit 2 water/steam temperature profile after incorporating model predictive controlbased
control upgrades. The boiler supercritical north/south steam temperature profile became
more balanced, particularly at intermediate and higher loads. The benefit is fewer incidenc-
es of high desuperheater inlet temperature and a lower average temperature, promoting
longer tube life. Courtesy: GenOn Energy
Significant value was gained in balancing
the desuperheater temperatures at interme-
diate and high loads.
690
09_PWR_120112_IC_LoadDisp.indd 37 1/13/12 11:09:28 AM
|
February 2012 38
Monitoring Control Loop
Performance
Control loop performance-monitoring software can help to improve loop per-
formance at electric power plants by automatically collecting data, as-
sessing several aspects of loop performance, and providing the results in
reports and user interfaces.
By Jacques F. Smuts, OptiControls Inc.; John N. Sorge, Dale Evely, and Mark Faurot, Southern Company; and Aaron Hussey,
Electric Power Research Institute
P
ower plant control systems must
perform well to obtain maximum ef-
ficiency, reliability, regulatory com-
pliance, and safety from a plant. Poorly
performing controls can cause operational
difficulties such as boiler oscillations, in-
creased heat rate, accelerated equipment
wear, increased emissions, slower load
ramp rates, reduced generation capacity,
steam temperature excursions, and unit
trips following upsets.
To maintain optimum plant performance,
control loop performance should always be
tuned for maximum performance. This can
be achieved only by monitoring loop perfor-
mance and taking the appropriate corrective
actions when poor performance is detected.
However, the diagnosis and resolution of
control loop problems are difficult, particu-
larly in large and complex process facilities
such as power plants.
Several control loop performance-mon-
itoring (CLPM) software products have be-
come commercially available over the past
decade. These products automatically moni-
tor the performance of control loops. They
potentially identify several aspects of poor
control and can generate a prioritized list of
problem loops with diagnoses of the individ-
ual problems so that these can be corrected.
CLPM Software
Control loop monitoring solutions are avail-
able from distributed control system (DCS)
vendors and third-party software companies,
including ABB, AspenTech, Capstone Tech-
nology, Control Arts, ControlSoft, Control
Station, Emerson, ExperTune, Honeywell/
Matrikon, PAS, and RoviSys. The products
vary in the range of analyses they perform,
presentation of results, reporting features,
and data collection methods, but they all aim
to identify and report on poorly performing
control loops. One such software product,
PAS PSS Loop Analysis, was tested by the
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)
and Southern Company on Alabama Powers
Plant Gaston Unit 3.
Although there are differences in the fea-
tures and presentation methods from one
CLPM product to another, most provide the
following core functions:
Automatically collect process data for
analysis.
Assess the dynamic performance of con-
trol loops.
Diagnose loop performance problems.
Represent loop performance with a set
of metrics.
Aggregate loop performance metrics
into high-level key performance indica-
tors (KPIs).
Present loop performance in user inter-
faces and/or reports.
The first requirement for monitoring the
performance of control loops is access to un-
compressed process data sampled sufficient-
ly fast to capture the loop dynamics (Figure
1). A good way of collecting process data for
loop monitoring is through object linking and
embedding for process control (OPC) with
real-time data access (DA) because it is sup-
ported by all modern control systems, and it
gives the loop-monitoring software the most
control over sampling rate and data resolu-
tion. Careful consideration should be given
to the rate at which loop performance assess-
ment software acquires data from the data
server to avoid overloading it.
To improve network security, most plants
segregate process control computer systems
and regular users into individual networks
separated by firewalls. Process data has to
flow from the process control network to
the application servers, and client computers
must have access to connect to these software
applications. Software vendors provide vari-
ous data connectivity solutions to get process
data to their application servers and applica-
tion data to their users.
Because CLPM software will likely have
multiple users, a client-server architecture
is essential. The server is responsible for
collecting data, running the analyses, his-
1. Keeping things under control. The basic steps in control loop performance moni-
toring are shown. Courtesy: OptiControls Inc.
Collect data
Assess loop
performance and
calculate metrics
Diagnose
performance
problems
Calculate
high-level KPLs
Report results
|
February 2012 40
toricizing the results, sending out sched-
uled reports, and delivering performance
results on request from client applications.
The client applications can be used by
engineers, technicians, and managers dis-
tributed throughout the enterprise. Some
plants require web browser access for
viewing plant data and reports to minimize
the need for software installations and up-
grades on client machines.
Analyzing Loop Performance
Loop performance should be assessed
from various perspectives. For example, a
control loop has to run in automatic con-
trol mode, be stable and responsive, and
reduce process variability. Each aspect of
loop performance can be expressed as a
metric. The metrics can be compared to
thresholds for proper loop performance. If
one or more metric exceeds its threshold,
the loop can be flagged as having poor
performance and the offending metric(s)
can indicate the reason. Maintenance or
engineering staff can then attend to the
problem. Some loop performance metrics
are based on simple statistical calcula-
tions; others require complex algorithms
based on time-series and frequency-do-
main analysis.
The following metrics are essential for as-
sessing the performance of the control loop,
but CLPM packages provide many more:
Percentage of time the controller is not in
its correct mode (or in manual)
Controller responsiveness to setpoint
changes and disturbances
Tendency of loop to oscillate
Percentage of time the controller output is
at its limits
Standard deviation in error
Measurement noise
Maximum deviation from setpoint
Once the various individual metrics of
control loop performance have been calcu-
lated, they should be combined into a sin-
gle number representing the overall control
loop health. In this way the performance of
all loops can be compared, and the loops
can be ranked in order of performance so
that loops requiring attention are easy to
find. An important part of control loop per-
formance monitoring is providing a diag-
nosis when poor performance is detected.
Process control engineers and technicians
can use the diagnosis to decide on the ap-
propriate type of corrective action such as
tuning or mechanical maintenance.
Power plants use advanced regulatory
control strategies much more than other
large industries. These include cascade,
feedforward, override, ratio control, gain
scheduling, and linearization. It would be
helpful if loop performance-monitoring ap-
plications also evaluated the design of these
control strategies and provided a more tar-
geted corrective action. However, not all
CLPM software packages assess the perfor-
mance of advanced control strategies.
Thermal power plants may cycle
through daily load changes and have dif-
ferent burners in service and burn coal of
varying quality. Loops may respond differ-
ently under different operating conditions.
For example, steam temperature control
may be stable at full load but oscillate at
low load. CLPM software should have the
ability to detect different operating condi-
tions and associate them with the periodic
performance assessments. Furthermore,
power plants typically have equipment in
standby mode, such as boiler feedwater
pumps and mills or equipment used for in-
termittent operation, such as sootblowers.
Loop assessment software must be able to
detect the equipment state and assess the
loop only if the equipment is operating.
Diagnosis of control problems is an
important feature but has the potential for
confusion. If a control loop has an issue
for which the severity is at the threshold
of detection, the software can report this
problem intermittently as operating condi-
tions change from one assessment period
to the next. If a loop has more than one is-
sue like this, its performance history could
sometimes indicate one problem, other
times another, and sometimes none. This
can be confusing to a user who is looking
for a single, unambiguous path to resolv-
ing the problem.
It is often difficult to find the root cause
of process oscillations on highly interac-
tive processes. There is a two-phased ap-
proach to addressing this problem: First,
all the loops affected by the oscillation
must be identified, and then the foremost
leading loop must be identified. Some
CLPM software packages have multivari-
ant interaction analysis that can potential-
ly help to identify all the loops affected
by a common oscillation and pinpoint the
cause. Although the software might be use-
ful for this purpose, the evaluation teams
experience was that plant knowledge and
human analysis were also required to pin-
point the cause.
For monitoring control loop performance
in the long term, it is useful to have aggre-
gated loop performance metrics such as the
number of loops in manual or the average
performance index of all control loops. KPIs
can be used for this. For control perfor-
mance, KPIs can be a unit- or plant-level ag-
gregation of the performance of individual
control loops.
User Interface
The actual loop performance analyses
are very complex, and it is important that
CLPM software hides this complexity
from the user. Loop performance results
should be presented in a clear and intuitive
2. The tree of knowledge. The tree
map depicts individual loops with control
performance indicated by color and loop im-
portance indicated by block size. Courtesy:
Control Loop Performance Management
screenshots used with permission from Plant
Automation Services Inc.
3. Tracking down trouble. The CLPM
software organizes loop performance metrics
and displays them in a grid that can be filtered
and sorted to narrow down and detect specific
problems. Courtesy: Control Loop Performance
Management screenshots used with permis-
sion from Plant Automation Services Inc.
4. Performance review. The CLPM soft-
ware displays the actual data and associated
metrics used for assessing a loops perfor-
mance. Courtesy: Control Loop Performance
Management screenshots used with permis-
sion from Plant Automation Services Inc.
February 2012
|
way, with easy-to-use navigation and drill-
down capabilities. Several task-oriented
user interfaces with easy navigation be-
tween them and drill-down is ideal (Fig-
ures 2, 3, and 4), for example:
A tree map with colored rectangles for
displaying the loop performance (in color)
and loop importance (in size) in a hierar-
chical structure.
A grid for displaying all the performance
metrics of all the loops and providing sort-
ing and filtering capabilities.
A window to display the data that was
used for an individual loops perfor-
mance assessment, as well as statistics
and metrics.
A historical plot of loop performance and
metrics over time.
Interactive use of loop-monitoring soft-
ware is essential for mining information
through ad-hoc navigation, drill-down,
data sorting, and custom filtering. But for
a periodic overview of loop performance,
targeted reports are far more efficient. Ide-
ally, performance-monitoring software
should have prepackaged reports; however,
it should allow customization of these re-
ports and the creation of new ones. Reports
or links to reports should be transmitted to
users via email.
Installation and Configuration
Multi-component software should come
with an option-based installation program
that allows the user to install different com-
ponents of the CLPM system onto different
machines and networks. After installation,
communication must be established among
all the distributed components. Both of
these activities are quite specialized, and it
is recommended that the software vendor
or an authorized agent install the software
and establish communications.
Once the software has been installed, a
list of control loops in the DCS must be
obtained and loaded into the softwares
own database. In addition to a list of
loops, the data connection points (OPC
addresses) for the loops setpoint, process
variable, controller output, mode, and
proportional/integral/derivative settings
are needed. Additional information such
as the desired settling time, control ob-
jective, control strategy, type of process,
and the like may also be needed. This in-
formation can potentially be loaded into
the software by configuring a spreadsheet
with all the loops and importing it into the
CLPM software.
Another option is that the software can
import the loop list directly from the DCS
configuration files or database. If the con-
trol system does not have an automated
way of generating a list of control loops
and data addresses, manual configuration
of these databases can be very time-con-
suming and prone to error.
Because control loops have differ-
ent objectives and operating constraints,
CLPM software should provide adjustable
parameters to cater to the function and
process environment of a loop. Initially,
the CLPM software might come with de-
fault settings. Using these can result in
the software falsely reporting problems,
or missing poor performance. To improve
the accuracy of loop assessments, the ad-
justable parameters should be set in accor-
dance with each loops control objectives
and operating constraints. A person with a
high level of technical expertise in control
loops, the process being controlled, and
the monitoring software is required to per-
form this calibration.
Once the loop assessment software has
been calibrated, an instrumentation and
control technician should be able to use
the tree map to find problem loops, drill
down to obtain the diagnoses and correc-
tive actions, and use a tuning application
to solve tuning problems, or submit a work
order for other maintenance.
Benefits of Loop Performance
Assessment Software
Although it might be difficult to establish
a dollar value for the return on invest-
ment, many benefits are associated with
the information, analysis, and diagnoses
provided by control loop performance-
monitoring software.
For example, as older, experienced
workers retire, they are inevitably replaced
by younger workers who have less experi-
ence. CLPM software can be useful to less-
experienced process control engineers and
technicians by helping them differentiate
between good and poor loop performance
and helping them diagnose the causes of
poor loop performance.
There are several additional ways in
which loop performance assessment soft-
ware can improve work processes, raise
efficiency, and save time. These are de-
scribed in more detail below.
Assessing Loop Performance Au-
tomatically. A typical coal-fired power
plant has several hundred control loops.
CLPM software assesses the performance
of hundreds or thousands of control loops
without the need for human intervention.
The software can identify poorly perform-
ing control loops so that these can be at-
tended to.
Prioritizing Bad Actors. A loop may
be performing poorly, but if it is not an
important control loop, it should not be
worked on if more important loops are
also performing poorly. Loops that are im-
portant and also performing poorly should
be worked on first. When CLPM software
considers both the performance and the
importance of control loops, it can pro-
vide a prioritized list of poorly perform-
ing loops.
Diagnosing Control Problems.
CLPM software not only indicates which
loops have poor performance, but it also
attempts to give a diagnosis of why the
performance is poor.
Providing Guidance on Problem
Resolution. CLPM software can provide
steps for validating the diagnosis and re-
solving the problem. This is vital informa-
tion for the non-expert.
Maintaining Performance and Tun-
ing History. CLPM software can maintain
history related to several aspects of con-
trol loop performance and controller tun-
ing settings. These settings can be trended
over time to see the effect of tuning chang-
es on loop performance. It is helpful to see
at what point in time the tuning settings
were changed, what the old values were,
what they were changed to, and what ef-
fect the changes had on loop performance,
loop stability, and standard deviation in
error.
An Aid in Boosting Loop
Performance
CLPM software can be tricky to install,
connect, and configure, so obtaining sup-
port from the vendor or an agent is advis-
able. The tweaking of loop assessment
criteria is required to take into account
the specific objectives and operating con-
straints of each loop.
Once the system has been properly con-
figured, however, it can draw attention to
poorly performing loops to help support a
loop optimization program.
Pilot installation of the software is valu-
able in that it helps to identify potential
value and problems, thus enabling more
informed decisions before broader deploy-
ment.
Jacques F. Smuts (jsmuts@
opticontrols.com) is the founder of
OptiControls Inc., in League City, Texas.
John N. Sorge (jnsorge@southernco
.com), Dale P. Evely (dpevely@
southernco.com), and Mark Faurot work
for Southern Company, Birmingham,
Ala. Aaron Hussey (ahussey@epri.com)
works for the Electric Power Research
Institute, in Charlotte, N.C.
|
February 2012 42
Specifying Nuclear DCS
Power Supplies
The consideration of power supplies has become critical to the success of con-
verting analog instrumentation and control systems to digital control sys-
tems (DCSs). Careful planning is particularly necessary for nuclear power
plants, where instrumentation systems are required for safely shutting
down a reactor, mitigating the consequences of an accident, and perform-
ing post-accident analysis.
By Paul E. Stanley, PE; Darrell W. Cooksey, PE; and Tom H. Crawford III, PE, Hurst Technologies Corp.
W
ith the conversion of existing an-
alog instrumentation and control
(I&C) systems to digital control
systems (DCSs), careful consideration and
planning of power supply systems has be-
come critical. This article addresses the
most important issues that must be consid-
ered in the design, operation, and mainte-
nance of power supply systems for nuclear
facilities, specifically: power quality, re-
dundancy and diversity of supply, good
planning prior to installation, and mainte-
nance of the equipment over its lifespan.
Pursue Power Quality
Most DCSs are provided with power con-
ditioning; however, the equipment selected
to provide power for these systems should
meet an established set of minimum re-
quirements for voltage regulation and
noise suppression to ensure that the output
of the uninterruptible power supply (UPS)
meets the manufacturers requirements for
the DCS.
According to the Electric Power Re-
search Institutes (EPRI) Report TR-
1016731, the most commonly reported
causes of failure for nonsafety-related
DCSs are electromagnetic interference
(EMI)-induced disturbances and power
supply transients and failures. Power sup-
ply transients can include supply voltage
surges or spikes, frequency deviations, and
noise induced by harmonic content.
Voltage and Frequency Stability. Re-
sults of testing documented in the EPRI
Report TR-1001072 reveal that program-
mable logic controllers (PLCs) are most
susceptible to the depth, duration, and
likelihood of voltage sags. Disturbances
to the power system voltage and frequency
can result from lighting, short circuits, and
switching of loads such as capacitor banks.
All of these disturbances can cause tran-
sient voltage surges and spikes.
The duration of a voltage sag affects
PLC performance and can result in prema-
ture system shutdown in some cases. Even
momentary voltage surges can result in
malfunction of input and output circuits,
especially if the PLC power supply is also
used to provide sensing voltage for the
inputs. For example, a UPS inverter pro-
duced a square wave output that was in-
compatible with three of five PLCs tested.
In contrast, a UPS inverter that produced a
true sine wave output effectively mitigated
voltage sags.
Regulation, Monitoring. The addition
of a constant voltage transformer to the
PLCs power supply was found to be very
effective in improving the ability of the
PLC to ride through such voltage surges
and transients. UPS systems that supply
equipment that includes a DCS should be
designed to produce a true sine wave out-
put to reduce the impact of harmonics.
Battery chargers are not designed to
operate as a stand-alone rectifier for an
inverter and, therefore, must be always
connected in parallel with a set of batteries
for the UPS inverter to properly compen-
sate for any transients.
Electromagnetic Interference. EMI and
power surges can affect the performance of
safety-related equipment in nuclear power
plants. This is especially true for DCSs,
where noise from EMI can be misinterpreted
as legitimate logic signals. The U.S. Nuclear
Regulatory Commissions Regulatory Guide
(RG) 1.180 addresses this issue. DCS equip-
ment must be tested in accordance with the
standards recommended in this guideline.
UPS equipment should meet the minimum
standards for radiated and conducted emis-
sions to ensure electromagnetic compatibility
with the control systems to which they sup-
ply power.
EPRI TR-102323 provides guidelines
for data collection, testing, and practices
to ensure electromagnetic compatibil-
ity in DCSs in nuclear power plants and
also to meet the requirements specified in
RG 1.180. In addition, surge suppression
should be installed on all power and con-
trol circuits surrounding these systems to
eliminate unwanted disturbances or noise.
Consider Redundancy and Diversity
All DCSs should have more than one power
supply, at least one of which will allow for
an orderly shutdown in the event of a loss
of offsite power. All DCSs should be fed
from an AC power source that allows or-
derly shutdown and data retention during
the loss of normal AC power. DCSs that
provide redundant design functions should
be set up such that failure of a single power
supply will not result in multiple failures
and/or a loss of more than one system.
The need for UPS-backed power is pri-
marily dependent on the criticality of the
control system and the availability of suf-
ficient emergency power until normal AC
power can be restored. Control systems
with a single AC power feeder should
always be powered from a UPS-backed
source. Those with multiple redundant
power supplies should be powered from at
least one UPS-backed AC power source.
Consider supplying the UPS for criti-
cal control systems from a diesel gener-
atorbacked source, especially for those
systems needed for safe shutdown and
subsequent monitoring following a loss of
normal AC power.
Power supplies to multi-train systems
should be powered from at least one UPS-
backed power supply. Where operation is
needed during a loss of normal AC pow-
ersuch as in shutdown systems, data
loggers, and vital computers and alarm
systemsconsider a second UPS-backed
source to maximize reliability and elimi-
nate single-point failure.
February 2012
|
In addition, the power feeders to multi-
ple control systems that provide redundant
functions should be designed so that the
failure of a single feeder does not result in
multiple failures and/or a loss of more than
one system. Redundant trains or systems
should not be powered from the same UPS
or normal AC power source such that loss
of a single source would result in a loss of
both control systems.
Planning Required
Prior to DCS upgrades, planning should
address the total amount of power needed
and shutdown load requirements needed
to ensure reliable operation. The sizing of
batteries for the new control system and
auxiliary systems should include adequate
allowance for future load expansion plus a
design margin that includes the effects of
temperature and aging. If the addition of
the new control system results in low or
inadequate margin for expansion, consider
replacing the existing UPS system and bat-
teries or install a separate one.
Older UPS systems often have irregular
wave forms and high-frequency harmonics
that are detrimental to a digital system. The
condition and age of existing equipment,
especially batteries, will dictate whether
or not it is more cost-effective to install a
new system or use the existing one.
Finally, think about the space available
for installing a new UPS, including sepa-
rate battery cabinets or racks. This con-
straint will also affect battery selection,
which is discussed later in this article.
Proper UPS Selection
There are two principal UPS configura-
tions. In the single unit float configura-
tion, an inverter is connected to a battery
and charger (Figure 1). As long as normal
AC power is present, the charger maintains
the charge on the battery system and sup-
plies DC power to the inverter, which then
supplies the load. This is usually accom-
plished though a static switch that transfers
the load from the inverter to an alternate
AC source in the event of a problem with
the inverter. The system may or may not
be provided with a manual or maintenance
bypass switch, which can be used to tem-
porarily feed the load during maintenance
activities on the batteries, charger, inverter,
or the static switch. One advantage of this
configuration is that the battery acts as a
buffer to remove excess DC ripple current
from the charger, which could otherwise
overheat the inverter.
The single unit rectifier configuration
(Figure 2) is commonly used in both nu-
clear and fossil-fueled power plants for
critical AC systems. Here a separate rec-
tifier supplies power to the inverter. It, in
turn, supplies power to the load. Note the
addition of a blocking diode between the
output of the rectifier and the battery char-
ger output. This prevents the rectifier from
attempting to also charge the batteries and
any other DC loads that are connected to
the same battery or the DC bus. The recti-
fier for the inverter is specifically designed
to supply power to the inverter and is usu-
ally rated much smaller than the charger
connected to the batteries and the rest of
the DC system. The rectifier in this type of
UPS is usually designed to supply power
to the inverter without being connected to
a battery; however, a better input filter is
required to eliminate excess ripple as the
tank capacity (electrolyte volume) of the
battery to smooth out ripple is lost.
The type of UPS system used, as op-
posed to its configuration, depends, among
other factors, on power quality require-
ments and tolerance of the existing power
supply system to harmonic currents creat-
ed by some UPS equipment. The two UPS
systems usually considered for plant DCS
systems are described here.
Standby Ferro-Resonant UPS. The
output of this system is connected to a
ferro-resonant transformer with two power
connections, one from the transfer switch
and one from the inverter. The inverter is
normally unloaded, as the normal AC sup-
plies the load via a transfer switch between
the power supply and the ferro-resonant
transformer. In the event of a loss of nor-
mal AC, the transfer switch opens and the
inverter supplies the load. The ferro-reso-
nant transformer has additional windings
that are connected to capacitors and induc-
tors, which effectively tune the trans-
former and enable it to perform voltage
regulation and wave-shaping, including
isolation from AC power transients.
Double-Conversion Online UPS. In
a double-conversion online UPS, the AC
source supplies both the charger and a
separate rectifier that supplies DC power
to the inverter. The inverter continuously
supplies power to the load. If normal AC
power is lost, the batteries supply DC to
the inverter; hence, no interruption of AC
power to the load occurs. This type of UPS
Battery
charger
Inverter Static switch
Manual
bypass switch
UPS unit
AC input
Load
Alternate source
Battery
1. Two options. In the single unit float configuration, an inverter is connected to a battery
and charger. A single unit float configuration may or may not include the single unit maintenance
or manual bypass switch. Source: Hurst Technologies Corp.
2. A versatile configuration. A single unit rectifier configuration is commonly used in
both nuclear and fossil-fueled plants. Source: Hurst Technologies Corp.
Rectifier Inverter Static switch
Manual
bypass switch
UPS unit
AC input
Load
Alternate source
Battery
Battery
charger
Blocking
diode
DC load
|
February 2012 44
system is commonly used for vital AC
power to the I&C systems.
Most nuclear plant UPS systems use either
a ferro-resonant or a phase-width modulation
(PWM) type of inverter. In PWM technology,
switching of multiple stages of either SCR
bridges or insulated gate bipolar transistors
are used to generate a stepped waveform
that approximates a sine wave. Output is
controlled by varying the repetition rate and
width of the pulses in each stage, which also
enables the inverter to perform both wave
shaping and voltage regulation. At the input
to the inverter is either a power factor cor-
rection circuit or voltage source converter to
boost the input voltage.
This feature also results in lower total
harmonic distortion (THD) at the AC input
to the rectifier, which, in turn, minimizes
the impact on the AC power distribution
system. The output of these UPS systems
has a lower THD (<4%). They are also
more efficient than older systems because
they eliminate losses in the ferro-resonant
transformer at the output.
Suitable UPS Sizing
Two main factors should be considered in de-
termining load requirements when specifying
a UPS: equipment power supplies and con-
trol system power supplies.
Equipment Power Supplies. The maxi-
mum ratings of the power supplies for proces-
sors, modules, and interface hardware should
be used in estimating the system power re-
quirements, in addition to AC power required
for all workstations, servers, network equip-
ment, and displays requiring UPS power. If
applicable, the efficiency ratings of these
power supplies should be obtained from the
manufacturers specifications and accounted
for in the estimated load.
Control System Power Supplies. Most
DCSs are provided with redundant low-volt-
age DC power supplies to prevent system fail-
ure in the event of the loss of a single power
supply. The output of these power supplies is
usually connected to an auctioneering circuit
(Figure 3). The normal and backup AC power
feeders should each be designed to carry the
full load of a single power supply.
Best Battery Selection
The term battery in this context refers to
a bank or rack of battery cells connected in
series. In some systems, the cells may also be
connected in parallel to provide the required
amperage. The type of batteries used in any
UPS system depends on the application,
power requirements, ambient environment
(especially the temperature), and the desired
level of maintenance.
Three basic types of battery systems
are vented lead-acid stationary batteries,
valve-regulated lead acid (VRLA) bat-
teries, and nickel cadmium batteries. In
general, the following issues should be
considered.
Space. VRLA batteries have fewer lim-
itations on cell orientation, which allows
them to be stacked and used in areas that
are not equipped with features to control
electrolyte spillage.
Ventilation. Both conventional vented
lead acid batteries and absorbed glass mat
VRLA batteries should be installed in lo-
cations with adequate ventilation to avoid
buildup of hydrogen in an enclosed area.
Temperature Sensitivity. The capacity
of both vented lead-acid battery cells and
VRLA cells decreases with temperature.
VRLA batteries are much less tolerant
of the effects of temperature than vented
lead acid batteries. Although both exhibit a
loss of capacity as temperature decreases,
VRLA batteries also exhibit a loss of life
as temperature increases. VRLA batteries
are also less tolerant of overcharge, float
voltage variation, and discharge than vent-
ed lead acid battery cells. Therefore, the
cells of these batteries should be installed
in a temperature-controlled environment.
Cost. Nickel-cadmium batteries are less
temperature sensitive, have a reputation for
long life, and pose fewer problems. None-
theless, cost usually precludes their use in
power plants.
Maintenance. Vented lead-acid batter-
ies require regular monitoring of electrolyte
levels and cell conditions. Likewise, VRLA
batteries should be checked for evidence of
swelling or damage. In addition, both types
of batteries should be monitored for control
of hydrogen concentration.
Minimum backup time requirements for
the UPS system should be determined by
the minimum time the system is required
to operate during a loss of power, safe
shutdown requirements, and requirements
for monitoring of system parameters,
alarms, and data storage. An allowance
for diesel-backed power may be made as
well; however, some systems critical for
safe shutdown may be required to function
even upon the failure of the diesel gener-
atorbacked power until normal power is
restored. A typical backup time for these
systems is four hours; however, critical
systems may require a minimum backup
time of eight hours or more.
Paul E. Stanley, PE (pauls@hursttech
.com); Darrell W. Cooksey, PE (dar-
rellc@hursttech.com); and Tom H.
Crawford III, PE (tomc@hursttech.com)
work for Hurst Technologies Corp.
3. Providing power backup. An auctioneering circuit is typical for redundant low-voltage
DC power suppliers. Source: Hurst Technologies Corp.
L N G
Normal power supply
+
L N G
Normal power supply
+
+
To AC power supply #1 To AC power supply #2
To processors, modules, field devices, etc.
Most nuclear plant UPS systems use either a
ferro-resonant or a phase-width modulation
type of inverter.
POWER IN BRAZIL
Renewables
Rule in Brazil
A special report from Global Business
Reports and POWER
Energy demand in Brazil, the fifth-largest
country by area, is expected to grow nearly
4% per year. Developers see opportunities for growth in
wind and solar as well as the countrys traditional hydro re-
sources. Courtesy: GE
February 2012
|
|
February 2012 46
POWER IN BRAZIL
Abundant Clean Energy Fuels
Brazils Growth
Brazils power industry has long been dominated by its vast hydro resources,
which historically have accounted for over 80% of the countrys genera-
tion capacity. With engineering marvels like the massive Itaip dam and the
proposed Belo Monte project, the country is a leader in the development
and use of hydroelectricity on a grand scale. But as the 2001 energy crisis
proved, dependence on a single source leaves the country vulnerable to
severe shortages. Thanks to government programs designed to take advan-
tage of the countrys favorable climate, Brazil is committed to diversifying
its energy mix while continuing to maintain a renewable energy focus.
By Clotilde Bonetto Gandolfi, Angela Harmantas, and Ovidio Soler-Leonarte, Global Business Reports
F
rom an investment perspective, Brazil
is an enticing market. The country, with
a population of close to 200 million
people, is experiencing rapid growth. As the
decade unfolds, Brazil will be the focus of
the worlds attention during the 2014 World
Cup and the 2016 Olympic Games in Rio de
Janeiro. Thanks to the dynamic economy and
a growing middle class, energy demand is set
to grow by nearly 4% per year.
Brazil is a fast-growing market; the quality
of life has to grow, and therefore power genera-
tion will be a very important business over the
next 20 years, said Jos Antunes Sobrinho,
president and CEO of Desenvix, a renewables-
focused project developer. What happens if you
cannot build large-scale hydro projects on the
Amazon River, or if you have trouble with the
environment? You must shift to renewables.
Brazils energy portfolio is dominated by
hydropower, with natural gas a distant sec-
ond, accounting for less than 10%, despite the
countrys large gas reserves. The strongest
growth is expected to come from wind proj-
ects, which in 2011 received a record amount
of funding from the Brazilian national devel-
opment bank, BNDES.
Mauricio Tolmasquim is president of Em-
presa de Pesquisa Energtica (EPE), Brazils
energy research companyan entity under
the Ministry of Mines and Energy that aims to
provide studies and research to support energy
sector planning. According to Tolmasquim, a
noted figure in the energy community, Brazils
generation portfolio will consist of 90% re-
newable sources in the future, compared with
18% globally. In 2020 hydroelectric capac-
ity will be at 67%, and alternative sources of
energy will increase to 16%, which is nearly
double todays figure, he explained. We will
see a reduction in hydro and an increase in
renewables, with the remainder comprised of
thermal power plants.
The massive 14-GW Itaip dam is second
only to Chinas Three Gorges in installed ca-
pacity and supplies nearly 20% of the coun-
trys electricity. Three new dams are scheduled
to come on stream over the next five years:
Santo Antonio, with 3,150 MW; Jirau, with
3,300 MW; and Belo Monte, which is slated
to begin construction in early 2012 if environ-
mental conditions are met (Figure 1).
However, this dependence on hydropower
leaves the country increasingly reliant on a
potentially volatile resource. In 2001, a few
years of low rainfall left reservoirs with only
enough capacity to supply power for a few
months, and with limited thermal generation
capabilities, the country faced power supply
shortages. The government quickly formed a
committee of ministers and industry experts
who were tasked to develop immediate solu-
tions to the growing challenge.
The committee decided that each house-
hold would have to reduce consumption by
20%, based on the levels of usage from previous
years, said Mario Veiga Pereira, CEO of con-
sultancy company PSR and himself a member
of the committee. This applied to people across
the board, from government downwards; we
took care not to show favoritism.
The system of quotas also allowed bonus-
es for consumption well below average levels
and helped the government to avoid rolling
blackouts. It also provided the opportunity
for large consumers to trade their credits on a
secondary market.
Interestingly, after the rationing, loads nev-
er returned to pre-crisis levels; people learned
the delights of having an energy efficient sys-
tem, continued PSRs Pereira. Overnight,
1. Awaiting final approval. Belo Monte powerhouse overview, as designed by Engevix,
a Brazilian company that is responsible for basic and executive design of the project. Cour-
tesy: Engevix
|
February 2012 48
POWER IN BRAZIL
we went from having a shortage to having
excess capacity. The population realized that
they were wasting a lot of energy.
As a result, within Brazils power industry,
there is a growing push both from the public
and private sector to diversify the countrys
energy sources. Blessed with good winds and
an abundance of sunlight, conditions are ripe
for wind, biomass, and solar projects.
The renewable potential in Brazil is
very high, not only for wind but also for
other sources, said Joo Carlos de Oliveira
Mello, CEO of Andrade & Canellas, a lead-
ing Brazilian energy consultancy. If those
nonconventional sources have not been more
developed, it is because in Brazil we have an
immense capacity of hydro generation.
The country also has largely untouched
gas reserves that, once developed, could en-
sure a reliable supply. The production of gas
in Brazil in the next 10 years will increase
exponentially, and prices should come down
as supply becomes higher than demand, de
Oliveira Mello explained. We expect gas-
fired generation to gradually become more
and more competitive and progressively de-
velop within the next decade.
Meeting the energy needs of a booming
population and robust economy will be a
key challenge for Brazils power sector, from
generation and transmission and distribution
companies to the engineering and contract
players in the market.
Brazil needs nearly 5,000 extra mega-
watts per year to support our GDP growth
over the coming years, so it is a good coun-
try to be working in at the moment, said
Eduardo Karrer, CEO of MPX, an integrated
resources company that, in addition to devel-
oping the countrys first solar plant, operates
a number of thermal plants.
Brazil is a country of renewables, said
Desenvixs Antunes. As more people move
into the middle class, the power market is a
motor behind everything in society.
Jose Antunes Sobrinho, President
and CEO, Desenvix
Skanska is one of the worlds
largest development and
construction companies
present in Europe, the United
States and Latin America.
www.skanska.com
Skanska is one of the worlds
largest development and
construction companies
present in Europe, the United
States and Latin America.
www.skanska.com
|
February 2012 50
POWER IN BRAZIL
Eletrobras President Sees a Future Full of Opportunities
Eletrobras President Jos da Costa Carvalho
Neto spoke with Global Business Reports in
September. The interview has been edited for
length.
Eletrobras is a semi-public company,
partially open to private shareholders but
controlled by the Brazilian federal authori-
ties. What are the pros and cons of being a
public company?
Lets start by clarifying terminology. Eletro-
bras is a public company whose shares are
traded on the Brazilian stock market. The com-
pany is also listed at Latibex (Bolsa de Madrid)
and the New York Stock Exchange (ADRs level
2). The major and controlling shareholder is
the Brazilian State.
Considering the extension of the Brazilian
interconnected electricity grid and the as-
sociated challenges, we have the advantage
of being a preferred partner of the Brazilian
Government. Our central role in the Brazilian
market is recognized by other players as they
manage to build partnerships with Eletrobras
in new projects.
On the other hand, as a state-owned com-
pany, we still have institutional and legal
constraints that somewhat undermine our
competitiveness. We have, however, been very
successful in negotiating the removal of some
of them in the last years, like the restriction on
the internationalization of our operations.
Eletrobras generation portfolio is based
on hydroelectricity, thermoelectricity, and
thermonuclear. What is its stance on the de-
velopment of nonconventional renewables?
Our Strategic Plan for 20102020 states as
our vision to become by 2020 the largest global
clean energy company. One of our five strategic
business objectives is to maximize the produc-
tion of clean energy, including new sources.
We have been building a strong position in the
new wind energy market in Brazil with more
than 600 MW in wind parks to be put in opera-
tion by 2014 and are starting an experimental
project with photovoltaic generation.
Since rationing during the 2001 en-
ergy crisis, many aspects of Brazils energy
framework have changed. Is the Brazilian
energy model now finally polished, and
what issues are still to be addressed?
When one observes the huge development
of the energy industry worldwide in the last
years and the new challenges regarding energy
security, accessibility of energy supply, and
environmental impact mitigation, one could
hardly say that any countrys energy model is
finally polished. The Brazilian energy model
and regulatory framework have three pillars:
security of supply, access of electric energy
services to the whole population, and a mod-
erate energy cost for the end consumer. It
involves, however, constant evolution, adjust-
ing to emerging issues like nonconventional
renewables, the integration of electric systems
in South America, environmental restrictions
on large dam hydroelectric plants, and so on.
The possibility of renewing 20% of gen-
eration contracts and close to 80% of trans-
mission assets in 2015 has brought much
uncertainty to the Brazilian energy indus-
try. What is Eletrobras position on this?
Our position is to work to keep the five pil-
lars of the current model of the Brazilian elec-
tricity industry: reliability, quality, low tariffs,
sustainability, and universality of the energy
produced and transmitted in the country. So
we are, corporately, in favor of the renewal of
all the concessions of generation and transmis-
sion assets. Eletrobras is prepared, however,
for a contrary decision by continuing to invest
in business efficiency to compete in existing
assets and those of system expansion.
The steady increase in Brazilian energy
demand has attracted many companies.
How has increased competition affected
Eletrobras operations?
As the undisputed leader of a thriving elec-
tric energy market, Eletrobras welcomes the
incoming players as potential new partners,
since the expansion of the Brazilian power
grid requires a huge amount of investment.
The increased competition obviously requires
Eletrobras to be more cautious regarding new
projects evaluation as well as operation and
maintenance costs. I would say that there is
place for everybody in such a complex market.
Nonetheless, the biggest and more challenging
projects remain our strategic target.
Because of its generation capacity and ex-
ponentially growing demand, Brazil is an en-
ergy colossus. What will be the role of Brazil
in the South American energy network?
The Brazilian electricity sector has a strong
feature in terms of energy optimization, not
only by the great diversity of generating
sources and interconnections, but also by the
complementary aspect of the primary sources
of generation. In the context of the goals of
UNASUL (which stands for energy integration
for the complete, sustainable and supportive
use of resources in the region), Eletrobras is
reporting the experience of Brazilian energy
optimization and encouraging other countries
to conduct internal studies and participate in
forums in regional bodies to develop further
studies that will lead to the evaluation of ex-
isting potential.
Studies are being developed to implement
robust transmission systems that may contrib-
ute to this strategy and provide more facilities
for interconnection with other countries, like
the existing energy exchanges between Brazil
and Argentina, Paraguay, and Venezuela.
In 2008, Eletrobras became involved in
an ambitious process of internationaliza-
tion. What are its prospects in that area?
Eletrobras, since the creation of its interna-
tional area, has been seeking opportunities to
work in other countries in the generation and
transmission segment.
The initial strategy was grounded in a
strong performance in the Americas, like the
hydraulic [hydro] generation projects currently
under study in Peru, Colombia, Chile, Argen-
tina, Guyana, Suriname, Costa Rica, Nicaragua,
and Honduras, and wind farms in the United
States and Uruguay. Eletrobras has also sought
investments on other continents, as in the
case of Mozambique and Portugal.
The performance in the international market
should also take into perspective the creation
of new investment opportunities in other
countries and creating of new markets, bring-
ing new opportunities for Brazilian suppliers of
goods and services.
You have been at the head of Eletrobras
for a year. What have been the main chal-
lenges, and what are your mid- to long-term
objectives for Eletrobras?
It has been a very exciting year. The move
from the private sector to a huge public com-
pany like Eletrobras requires some adjustments
in your mindset, but I was helped by a very
supportive team.
Our main challenge in 2011 was to go
ahead with our strategic plan for the decade,
unfolding it in a mid-term business plan (still
in progress) able to address properly our dif-
ferent business axes and to integrate more and
more our affiliate companies. With the impor-
tant guideline completed in the beginning of
2012, we will be prepared to face successfully
the new energy auctions in the Amazon region
and to build up a new management paradigm
for the Eletrobras system.
February 2012
|
POWER IN BRAZIL
Regulatory Framework and Challenges at a Glance
The Brazilian energy sector is organized around five main institu-
tions: the Ministry of Mines and Energy (MME); the Conselho Na-
cional de Politica Energtica (CNPE); the regulatory agency Agncia
Nacional de Energia Eltrica (ANEEL); the national transmission
grid operator Operador Nacional do Sistema Eltrico (ONS); and
the Cmara de Comercializao da Energia Eltrica (CCEE), which
manages the wholesale power market. Alongside those federal insti-
tutions are many bodies charged with management and regulation at
a state level.
The MME has responsibility for policy setting in the energy
sector, receiving consistent support and expertise from the CNPE.
ANEEL, created in 1996 by Law 9427 and linked to the MME, al-
though mainly independent from it, regulates and controls the gen-
eration, transmission, and distribution of power in compliance with
existing legislation and directives and policies dictated by the central
government. ONS is a private entity created in 1998 and monitored
by ANEEL that is responsible for the control and coordination of
transmission and generation facilities linked to the National Intercon-
nected System (SIN).
In addition, there is a dense network of associations represent-
ing different players in the Brazilian energy sector: Associao
Brasileira de Gerao de Energia Limpa (ABRAGEL), Associao
Brasileira das Grandes Empresas de Transmisso de Energia Eltrica
(ABRATE), and Associao Brasileira de Distribuidores de Energia
Eltrica (ABRADEE) gathering respectively generators, transmitters,
and distributors, as well as Associao Brasileira de Concessionrias
de Energia Eltrica (ABCE) for concessionaires and the Association
of Independent Electrical Energy Producers (APINE) for indepen-
dent power producers.
These associations play a crucial role as active interlocutors be-
tween energy companies and the authorities. Nelson Fonseca Leite,
president of ABRADEE, explained the kind of support associations
provide: ABRADEE helps its members to understand the regulatory
environment in Brazil, as the distribution sector is highly regulated,
so we must interact all the time with regulators to discuss regulation
modifications in order for our members to be updated.
An intricate question within the Brazilian energy market is the fix-
ing of energy prices. The regulated energy tariff is determined every
five years in each concession area by ANEEL and is revised annu-
ally on the basis of a computational model. Energy tariffs are thus
geographically differentiated, taking into account the specific gen-
eration, transmission, and market attributes of each concession area.
Moreover, in accordance with Law 8.987/1995 approved in 1995, the
energy tariff established by ANEEL has to guarantee the economic
and financial balance in each concession area. With the approval of
Law 10.848/2004, the cost of energy bought by distribution compa-
nies from generators is determined through public auctions, thus pro-
viding increased transparency as well as improved competition.
Charles Lenzi, president of ABRAGEL, the Brazilian association
for small hydro (which recently changed its name to Association for
Green Energy Generators to comprise other types of renewable proj-
ects), pointed out another variable affecting energy prices: In Brazil,
tax burdens on the electric sector are high; Brazil has some the lowest
electrical production costs in the world but some of the highest tariffs
on consumers.
On this matter, Jos Simes Neto, president of ABCE, added:
Brazil has a long road ahead in order to have a better-resolved tax
relation. We have much inefficiency in our tax structure, and this is
penalizing the electric power industry.
One of the main specificities of the Brazilian power sector is that
energy auctions are how distribution companies acquire energy to
serve their captive consumers. The current auctions model has been
|
February 2012 52
POWER IN BRAZIL
effective since 2004, when Law 10.848/2004
and Decree 5.081/2004 were enacted. The
auctions scheme aims to secure the constant
and centrally organized expansion of power
facilities while ensuring a fair balance be-
tween universal service access and return
on investment together with the provision
of progressive tariff adjustments. One of
the most notorious effects of this particular
model is increased competition within the
Brazilian power sector, which introduces
downward pressure on energy prices, which
benefits end users.
Renewal of the Concessions. Today
one of the concerns in the Brazilian energy
sector is the controversy over the renewal of
concessions in 2015. An impressive number
of concession contracts were extended for
a 20-year period in 1995 and are thus set to
expire in 2015. This includes 112 generation
units representing 28% of total generation ca-
pacity; 37 distribution contracts correspond-
ing to 40% of the regulated market; and nine
transmission contracts amounting for 73,000
kilometers (km) of transmission lines, equiv-
alent to 82% of the total grid. According to
Law 10.848/2004 for generation concessions
and Law 9.074 for distribution and transmis-
sion, legislation currently in force does not
provide for a second renewal of the conces-
sions; on the contrary, it envisages a return
of the concessions to the federal state for a
prospective reattribution.
If the actual legislation remains un-
touched, the government will have to trans-
fer the expiring concessions to other players
or implement a bidding process in which
companies will compete for new contracts.
This possibility is supported by consumers
and industrial associations, which forecast
that the convocation of new auctions will
considerably reduce energy tariffs. Many
private investors also back this possibility,
as they expect it will bring new investment
opportunities.
The alternative would be modifying the
legislation in order to let current contract
holders extend their contracts for a third con-
cession term. This option is backed by those
companies concerned by the renewal, among
them, the Brazilian energy giant Eletrobras
as well as other relevant players including
Companhia Energtica de So Paulo (CESP);
Companhia Energtica de Minas Gerais
(CEMIG), the energy company of the State
of Minas Gerais; Companhia Paranaense de
Energia (COPEL), the energy company of
the State of Paran; and the privately owned
transmission company ISA-CTEEP.
De Oliveira Mello of Andrade & Canellas
justified support for a renewal of concessions
this way: Today the Brazilian energy sector
is in the middle of a large expansion stage,
and without the assets from the old conces-
sions, companies wont be able to support
their development plans.
Between these contending positions is a
middle option that would involve renovat-
ing the concessions contracts and lowering
energy tariffs in a way that would take into
account the individual features of each con-
ceded facility. This would satisfy consumers
demands without jeopardizing the position of
current concession operators.
The debate is as intense as the interests at
stake, but there is a point on which every par-
ty agrees: Whichever solution is preferred,
federal authorities have to make public their
final decision as soon as possible if they want
to reduce the harmful effects derived from
uncertainty.
Luiz Fernando Vianna, president of AP-
INE, illustrated the damaging effects result-
ing from such uncertainty: A few years ago,
when the government of So Paulo decided
to sell CESP, most of CESPs concessions
were close to an end; this discouraged poten-
tial buyers, and the government of So Paulo
decided not to sell. Now, the states govern-
ment has to wait for the final decision on the
concessions before being able to decide on
the future of the company. These uncertain-
ties are making the market increasingly ner-
vous. Last year was an election year, and the
government did not want to deal with the is-
sue, but this year a decision must come.
Environmental Licenses. Another hot
subject concerns the delivery of environmen-
tal licenses. This does not constitute an in-
substantial issue in a country known for, and
proud of, its biodiversity and its opulence in
natural resources. However, in a country that
must increase its generation capacity by an
average of 5 GW to 6 GW per year, impedi-
ments imposed by the granting of environ-
mental licenses are often seen as a threat to
the energy industry.
Environmental licenses are delivered by
state agencies, if the project is geographi-
cally limited to a single state, or by IBAMA
(the Brazilian Institute of Environment and
Renewable Natural Resources), the federal
institution, when it is an interstate venture.
PSRs Veiga explained that his company of-
fers services that help investors with environ-
mental regulations: PSR is also working on
the design of hydro plants, and doing more
work in environmental consulting. We have
done three river basin assessments in Brazil
to determine which are the best combinations
of hydro plants. PSR is also involved in envi-
ronmental auditing; when a transmission line
is constructed, we are hired by the investors
to ensure that they meet the environmental re-
quirements. We are working on the economi-
cal-environmental plan for the state of Bahia,
and have helped to plan the water supply for
So Paulo State. As the engineering arm of
PSR keeps growing, we are contemplating
the possibility of creating a spin-off to focus
exclusively on environmental engineering.
The question of environmental licenses
especially affects the development of new
transmission lines and hydroelectric projects.
ABRAGELs Lenzi pointed out a paradox in
the constraints posed by the delivery of envi-
ronmental licenses: It is not always under-
stood that hydro is generally a clean source,
and it is today easier to get approval for a
thermal power plant than for a hydroelectric
facility.
Indeed, belated issuance of environmen-
tal licenses or negative answers often imply
turf wars pitting IBAMA and the Ministerio
Publico against those bodies working for the
development of the Brazilian energy infra-
structure: the MME, ANEEL, and EPE.
Many industry players see a need to clarify
the prerequisites for acquiring environmental
licenses and to simplify and hasten proce-
dures associated with their delivery. Many
energy associations, like ABCE, are work-
ing with the authorities to make the licensing
process more predictable. We are aiming to
end the uncertainty generated by the opaque-
ness of environmental licenses delivery pro-
cedures, ABCEs Neto said.
Overall, despite some complexities related
to the setting of energy tariffs, the delivery
of environmental licenses, and the conces-
sions renewal, the Brazilian energy regula-
tory framework has improved significantly,
especially with the reforms accomplished af-
ter the energy crisis and approval of the new
regulatory framework for the electric market
in 2004. Today, Brazil is a secure haven for
investment, as contracts are respected and
regulatory risks are reduced.
Brazils Generation Mix:
Renewables Rule
The increasing demand for energy in Bra-
zil offers opportunity for power generators
to expand their capacity. Coupled with the
countrys gross domestic product (GDP)
growth, this reduces many of the risks found
in the power markets of other emerging
economies.
There are two key issues in Brazils gen-
eration sector, explained Antunes Sobrinho,
CEO of Desenvix, a power generation com-
pany that, in addition to operating large hydro
plants like the 74-MW UHE Monjolinho,
also has a variety of small hydro and wind
projects in its portfolio. First, the risk of
deficit is very low. There are not many other
countries in the world that keep the risk of
not supplying power at 5% or less. Second,
distribution companies must keep supplying
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Engevix is a 46 years Brazilian Group, active on a broad range of
engineering services: from feasibility studies, engineering consulting
and project management to fully-integrated solutions mainly for
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February 2012 54
POWER IN BRAZIL
power, so it is a business that will experience
continuous growth. If you consider Brazils
GDP growth, the elasticity of power over the
GDP is 1%, which means that it is a continu-
ous market that will grow by 6,000 MW per
year, keeping the risk level very low.
These factors have helped build a market
of impressive diversity, which is essential for
a growing economy such as Brazils. Although
hydroelectricity remains the dominant genera-
tion option, Brazil has many sources of energy:
natural gas, wind, small hydro, solar, biomass,
and nuclear power. Eletrobras alone, the feder-
ally owned energy generator and biggest elec-
tric utility company in Latin America, has 36
hydroelectric plants, 126 thermoelectric plants,
and two nuclear plants.
Eletrobras accounts for 37% of Brazils
generation capacity, although other state
players have been able to make their mark.
Much of the countrys capacity is in the hands
of state-owned companies such as COPEL in
Parana, CEMIG in Minas Gerais, and CESP
in So Paulo. The primary objective of these
companies is to guarantee the energy neces-
sary for the economic growth of the states
they serve. According to Lindolfo Zimmer,
president of COPEL, COPEL is thoroughly
planning the development of new projects
based not only on hydroelectric and thermal
generation but also on the development of
nonconventional renewable sources like wind
energy. COPEL cannot miss the opportunity
to develop the potential of the wind industry,
and we are strongly investing in the develop-
ment of new wind parks in Brazil.
Private companies, the largest being Tract-
ebel Enegia and AES Corp., account for near-
ly 30% of generation assets. According to the
World Bank, this number is set to increase to
nearly 45% in the near term.
Hydro. Brazil is at the forefront of hy-
droelectricity generation. The single largest
supplier of electricity in the country is the
Itaip dam (Figure 2), which sits on the bor-
der between Brazil and Paraguay in the city
of Foz de Iguazu. Other mega-projects are
in the works: Construction has begun on the
Madeira River hydroelectric complex, which
will consist of the 3,300-MW Jirau and
3,150-MW Santo Antonio dams, as well as
two smaller projects in the planning phase.
Despite the integral role of these mega-
projects, much of the potential for future hydro
development lies in smaller dams. It is very
difficult to build big hydro plants now, said
ABRAGELs Lenzi. [Small hydro dams] are
more decentralized and easier to control, and it
is much easier on the electrical grid to distribute
the sources of generation than having one big
plant in one region.
One of the main benefits of small hydro is
minimal environmental impact compared with
larger dams. Any energy project will have
some impact, but the idea of small hydro is to
minimize it, said Lenzi. Furthermore, local
communities can participate in small hydro
projects because they are built close to them.
For many companies, the emphasis on
small hydro has led to a shift in focus. In
Desenvixs portfolio, the majority of projects
are small hydro, said Antunes Sobrinho.
We have medium-sized hydro, sugarcane
bagasse, and wind projects as well. We want
to expand our portfolio from 400 MW to
1,000 MW within the next five years, but we
do not want to damage the internal rate of re-
turn in our projects, and [power purchase agree-
ments, PPAs] are going down in auctions.
However, high tariffs remain a significant
challenge to the development of further small
hydro potential. At the moment, the price per
megawatt-hour (MWh) makes these projects
much less competitive than other sources
such as wind.
EPE, the Brazilian governments energy
research company, which is responsible for
the long-term strategic planning of Brazils
electricity sector, remains optimistic about
the future of smaller hydro plants, accord-
ing to its president, Tolmasquim. When you
build a hydropower plant without [a] reser-
voir, you lose economically and in terms of
energy, but you win in reduction of load go-
ing back into the biodiversity and local popu-
lation, he said. The trend is to continue to
build plants that fulfill these conditions.
Natural Gas. Currently, gas-fired thermal
plants account for nearly 8.6% of Brazils
energy supply. With new reserves identified
that will decrease the countrys reliance on
Bolivian imports, that number is forecast to
increase. In a move designed to lower energy
costs, Brazils biggest gas provider, Petro-
bras, recently reduced natural gas prices in
order to curb worries about inflation.
The biggest advantage of natural gas for Bra-
zils electricity supply is its reliability, especially
when compared with more potentially volatile
renewable sources. Brazil will need many ther-
mal power plants to face the reduction created
by the hydroelectric generation, said Carlos de
Carvalho Afonso, chief financial officer at UTE
Norte Fluminense, a special purpose company
controlled by Frances EDF with the goal of
supplying power to the state of Rio de Janeiro.
In the future, we will need thermals to support
the wind plants when we run out of wind.
Natural gass reliability is important for a
country like Brazil, which learned significant
lessons from the 2001 energy crisis, which re-
sulted from a lack of energy diversity. The only
way we can keep the system safe, especially
with different seasons, is with more oil and
natural gas, said Robson Campos, managing
director of Wrtsil Brasil. We must avoid a re-
peat of the problems of 2001 when the economy
suffered in the dry season from no back-up en-
ergy sources.
Many companies are optimistic about the
growth of gas in the near term. Those willing
to take calculated risks will have good growth
over the next 10 years, according to Jorge Al-
caide, regional director for power plants for
Wrtsil Brasil. For power plants we provide
everything, which no competitor has done or
is willing to do, he said. The second fastest
growth behind the wind sector is going to be for
thermal, especially gas. The volume of gas that
will be available soon is huge, and its best use is
in power plants.
Gas may not be renewable, but it is the
cleanest fuel for thermal generation, said Edu-
ardo Prado, CEO of Diferencial Energia, a Bra-
zilian company headquartered in Rio de Janeiro
that began as an energy trading firm but recently
shifted focus to project development, including a
200-MW thermal plant. Brazil will continue to
develop as much hydro as possible but will need
different sources of energy to complement the
system. Since there will not be sufficient reser-
voir capacity, we will need reliable generation.
EPEs president Tolmasquim emphasized
2. Massive powerhouse. Eletrobrass Itaip Hydroelectric Power Plant is one of the larg-
est in the world. Courtesy: Caio Coronel, Itaip
February 2012
|
POWER IN BRAZIL
the growing importance of gas for Brazils future. And even Wrtsils
Campos concluded: We have no doubt that there will be a growth in gas
for Decembers auctions. The limitations posed by EPE of dispatch and
labor cost make our products much more competitive.
Finnish corporation Wrtsil brings new technologies to the market:
We have the biggest gas engine on the market, at 18.7 megawatts, for
which we have a flat cycle solution. It is a really interesting and efficient
technology, specifically for stand-by power plants used for only three
months per year in the Brazilian dry season. We have to demystify gas en-
gines in combined cycles and prove that they are the best solution for the
Brazilian market. It is not easy to demonstrate this to customers without
subjecting the raw figures to feasibility analysis, explained Alcaide.
Nuclear. Nuclear energy accounts for nearly 4% of Brazils gen-
eration and is the sole responsibility of Eletronuclear, a subsidiary of
federally owned Eletrobras.
In a country that mostly uses unpredictable hydropower, nuclear
power provides reliability, said Paulo da Costa Carneiro, advisor of
Eletronuclear. We can operate at 80% or above, and our production
increases when thermal production has to go up because we can pro-
vide the cheapest fuel costs.
Eletronuclear currently operates two plants: Angra 1 (Figure 3), with
a capacity of 640 MW, and Angra 2, with 1,350 MW. Plans for a third
plant, aptly titled Angra 3, have been shelved due to environmental con-
cerns. However, Carneiro still advocates for the role of nuclear energy
in Brazils power sector. Capacity is not the only important factor;
with most hydropower plants distant from the consumption centers, it
helps a lot to have 2,000 MW located in this region, just 200 km from
So Paolo and Rio de Janeiro, he said.
Wind. The wind sector has seen remarkable growth over the past
few years, thanks to decreasing prices and advancing technology.
The official potential of the wind industry is 143,000 MW, or 10
times the potential of Itaip, said EPEs Tolmasquim. That potential
was measured with towers of 50 meters (m) high; nowadays, we have
3. One of two. This aerial view shows Eletronuclears 640-MW
Angra 1 in the state of Rio de Janeiro. Though a third nuclear plant was
planned, environmental concerns have put that unit on indefinite hold.
Courtesy: Electronuclear
|
February 2012 56
POWER IN BRAZIL
wind equipment that is 100 m high. Specialists say that the potential
could be almost twice the official measurement.
However, as the industry continues to grow, there has been some cause
for concern that the prices per MWh, which fell below 100 Brazilian reais
(R$/US$54) at the 2011 auctions, could be unsustainable; manufacturers
are facing increased pressure to deliver at such low costs.
These worries are even more justified considering that our rivals pos-
sess key advantages, said Jos Luis Menghini, executive vice president
of IMPSAs Brazilian operations. On the one hand, European compa-
nies have strong support from their national governments, with subsidies
that increase their competitiveness. On the other hand, we have to beat
Chinese and Indian producers that count with much lower labor costs. As
such, both categories benefit from an artificially reduced capital expendi-
ture, and this is an unstable equilibrium that goes against our interests.
While I do not expect subsidies, I do think that local producers
need better protection.
A related challenge to the industry can be attributed to the strength
of the Brazilian real versus the dollar, according to Lauro Fiuza Jr.,
president and founder of Servtec. When we signed PROINFA [Pro-
grama de Incentivo s Fontes Alternativas de Energia Eltrica], the
exchange rate was four reais to the dollar; today it is 1.7 reais, caus-
ing the price to drop, he explained.
According to Ricardo Delneri, cofounder and CEO at Renova, a
wind-focused operator (Figure 4), such low prices also serve the purpose
of separating well-managed wind projects from those that are not. In
order to assess this sustainability, it is necessary to analyze each proj-
ect individually, as differences between projects are enormous, he said.
4. Onward and upward. Construction operations at a Renova
Energy wind farm in the Brazilian state of Bahia. Courtesy: Renova
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POWER IN BRAZIL
With todays price of wind energy under 100
reais per MWh, only those projects that are re-
ally profitable and excellently managed will be
sustainable in the long term. This consideration
applies especially for those projects developed
by private companies. As for public ones, sus-
tainability is guaranteed given that they can
work with lower rates of profitability.
The continued development of what re-
mains a relatively young industry, and full
exploitation of its potential, will require fur-
ther regulation geared specifically toward the
wind sector.
According to Marcelo Hutschinski, sales
director at Vestass Brazil operations: We
need to move towards establishing a more
regulated market in order to encourage con-
tinued investment into factories and the in-
dustry as a whole.
Biomass. Brazils focus on renewables ex-
tends to the development of various biomass
projects, which flourish in the country thanks
to its favorable climate and vast areas of ar-
able land. An established core of local com-
panies and international players has taken an
increased interest in the countrys efforts to
include biomass in the generation mix.
Andr Luis Salgado, managing director of
Areva-Koblitz, multinational Arevas merger
and acquisition with the local Koblitz, ex-
plained that the companys Brazilian op-
erations account for 60% of Arevas global
biomass business (Figure 5). Our most im-
portant contribution is that we have the know-
how to integrate all the necessary equipment
that allows us to deliver our projects on a
turnkey basis, he explained. This expertise
has made Areva a well-established leader of
the Brazilian bioenergy market. In the past
decade, Areva diversified its operations, be-
coming a supplier of energy generation and
cogeneration for many different industries.
As Brazil is the leading producer of ethanol
worldwide, many companies are examining
biomass projects in order to complement the
system as a whole. The weather conditions in
Brazil are very good for biomass production; we
have good soil, plenty of sun, and lots of wa-
terall of which are important to having huge
productivity, said Felipe Barroso, CEO of Bio
Energias, a biomass-focused project developer.
Land usage, often a target for criticism from
those who claim biomass cultivation pushes up
food prices, is relatively uncontroversial in a
country as large as Brazil. Roughly 8.5 million
acres of farmland are used for ethanol produc-
tion, compared to just under 500 million acres
used for cattle ranching. In Brazil we can grow
the bioenergy business without jeopardizing the
food market; growth can be sustained through
an increase in productivity, said Arevas Salda-
go. Moreover, land availability in Brazil means
that, unlike in Europe, there is not a tradeoff
between harvesting for food or energy; we can
grow bioenergy without compromising food
production or affecting the environment.
The use of sugarcane to produce ethanol also
makes more efficient use of land than some
other alternatives. Sugarcane ethanol is the
best renewable fuel compared to other crops
such as corn or wheat; for each unit of energy
consumed in the production process, you get
9.3 units output in terms of energy, compared
to three units with other methods, said Marcelo
Mancini Stella, executive director for commer-
cial, logistics, and supplies at ETH Bioenergia, a
bioenergy company within the Odebrecht group
aiming to produce 3 billion liters (0.79 billion
gallons) of ethanol and 2,700 GWh by 2013
5. Bioenergy. Areva Koblitzs 33-MW Ibitiuva biomass power plant is located in Pitangueiras,
So Paulo state. Courtesy: Areva Koblitz
6. Triple duty. ETH Bioenergias Eldorado
plant in Rio Brilhante, Mato Grosso, was acquired
in 2008. The Odebrecht Group, ETH Bioenergias
parent company, decided to enter the sugarcane
and ethanol market by acquiring the Alcidia and
Eldorado mills. Both produce ethanol, sugar, and
electricity. Courtesy: Bio Energias
|
February 2012 58
POWER IN BRAZIL
(Figure 6). Sugarcane ethanol also reduces car-
bon emissions by 60% when compared to other
sources. Sugarcane is the best crop to produce
fuel, and Brazil is the most competitive coun-
try producing the crop. Over the last 40 years,
Brazil has developed an expertise in sugarcane.
In Brazil we have huge areas without irrigation
with high levels of productivity. On average,
you reach 90 tons per hectare [2.5 acres], but in
Brazil there are areas where you can reach 140
tons per hectare.
Despite this privileged position, Bra-
zilian bioenergy companies are nonethe-
less exploring the potential of other crop
sources in order to generate energy. We
have been developing a project to use
eucalyptus-based biomass potential, said
Diferencial Energias Prado, whose com-
pany also develops gas-fired plants. The
conditions in Brazil allow eucalyptus to
grow very fast, so it makes sense to de-
velop generation based out of the crop.
Diferencial has 400 MW in development
of biomass that we are planning on putting
in the auction, he said. Eucalyptus is dif-
ferent from sugarcane because it can be
easily controlled; it is a flexible fuel with
good reliability.
Bio Energias has been examining the
potential of elephant grass, which can be
burned to produce energy with a very high
rate of efficiency. Thanks to the grasss
zero sugar content, it can be boiled to pro-
duce electricity. We are studying methods
of planting elephant grass to use the bio-
mass to burn in the middle of the harvest,
while the sugarcane is growing, in order to
make the plants more efficient, said the
companys CEO, Barroso.
However, like wind, in order to aid in de-
veloping the biomass sector in Brazil, Man-
cini of ETH Bioenergia believes that separate
auctions and more specific regulations are
needed. When you put wind, thermal, and
biomass together to compete for prices, you
are not comparing the same things, he said.
In Brazil, there should be a specific legis-
lation for biomass energy; it should go to
auctions with different characteristics. This
would permit biomass energy to continue
to grow in Brazil. More than 20% of mills
cogenerate to sell to the grid; if all the mills
were cogenerating energy from sugarcane
biomass by 2017, there would be an amount
of energy similar to the capacity of Itaip.
There must be conditions for small mills that
do not cogenerate to invest in new boilers and
new generators to produce electricity to sell
to the grid.
Solar. Most renewable-focused compa-
nies agree that some of the biggest poten-
tial for development lies in solar energy.
The sun in Brazil is from January to Janu-
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February 2012 60
POWER IN BRAZIL
ary, so the efficiency of the plant is much
better than those in North America and
Europe, said Helcio Camarinha, president
of Braxenergy, a project developer with a
significant focus on solar energy whose
philosophy in Brazil is to work exclusively
with renewable energy to provide socio-
economic sustainability. The cost of the
installation is less and the equipment pric-
es are much more competitive here than
the ones built in the U.S. and Europe.
Integrated energy company MPX recently
inaugurated Brazils first solar plant, MPX
Taua, in the Inhamuns region (Figure 7), which
will supply more than 1,500 homes: MPX
have a very active R&D group in the company
looking to diversify our generation matrix and
predict future power trends; given the countrys
characteristics, we never understood why Brazil
did not go more aggressively into the solar busi-
ness, said Eduardo Karrer, the companys CEO.
Although we will have the chance to move into
the wind industry in the future, the short-term
opportunity was the Taua solar plant. We are
currently at 1 MW, with authorization to go up
to 5 MW, which we hope we can achieve.
Renova, a wind-focused operator, is also
examining the viability of a solar plant in
Brazil. We believe that it is still too early for
the development of the solar industry, but we
keep on studying and seriously considering
this opportunity, said Delneri, the compa-
nys CEO. Our R&D department is study-
ing to collaborate with our partner CEMIG to
build a pilot solar plant in order to assess its
real potential.
International interest has been piqued by
Brazils potential, with the above-mentioned
Braxenergy recently signing an agreement
with U.S.-based parabolic trough maker Sky-
Fuel to cooperate in building concentrated
solar power (CSP) plants in the northeast of
the country. The Northeast region is grow-
ing at a rate of 7.5% annually, more than the
rest of the country, said Camarinha. CSPs
role is to provide the need for distributed
generation in the most remote areas, where
the community really needs options.
We want to be the leaders in solar energy
in Brazil, specifically in CSP, said Braxener-
gys chief procurement officer, Fred Jordan.
We love the fact that there is nothing in the
Brazilian market yet, so it is wide open for
us. We already have experience in Peru, in
the province of Moquegua, where Clemisis
private community and Braxenergy made a
trade-off from 1,000 hectares to develop a
solar plant combined with greenhouse proj-
ects. Today, Braxenergy is the first company
to have the official permissions and environ-
mental licenses to build a [concentrating so-
lar power] plant in Brazil; it is currently in
the phase of financial structuring.
However, current prices, which average
around R$450 ($242) per MWh, make solar
projects less competitive with other sources of
energy such as wind and pose a huge challenge
to an industry in its infancy.
Subsidies exist everywhere; if Brazil wants
to have an even cleaner energy matrix, they have
to incentivize this renewable energy, said Anto-
nio Merino Ciudad, general manager of Aben-
goa Brazil. This was done before with wind
power, with the creation of PROINFA, and the
same could have been done with solar energy.
Abengoa wants to develop this sector, but for
that it needs subsidies.
The Brazilian government through its pro-
gram Luz Para Todos (Light for All) aims
to provide every community with electricity,
no matter how isolated. Guascor, recently
acquired by Dresser-Rand, is a company
specializing in providing isolated commu-
nities with a reliable electricity source. As
James Mattos, Guascors commercial direc-
tor explained: Since the late 90s, Guascor
has been providing isolated communities in
different points of Brazil with its own-made
motors, and now we also deliver and develop
generation facilities based on renewable en-
ergies, providing these isolated communities
with enhanced self-sufficiency. Apart from
its work with isolated communities, Guas-
cor also provides commercial facilities with
complementary renewable energy sources.
Referring to the acquisition of Guascor
(Figure 8) by Dresser-Rand, an international
company offering a wide range of turboma-
chinery and steam and reciprocating products,
Mattos noted: We believe that there are many
complementarities between Guascors and
Dresser-Rands activities: while Dresser-Rand
has experience with large turbines, Guascor
can bring its knowledge in small plants. Guas-
cors know-how on wind and solar can also be
complementary with Dresser-Rands experi-
ence with turbines. Another area we think we
will have a very good synergy with Dresser
Rand is services, as Dresser-Rand has in
Campinas a large structure and technology to
provide a comprehensive range of services.
Future Outlook. Brazils vast energy sec-
tor faces two significant challenges over the
next 10 years. First, the need to develop alter-
nate generation sources to complement hydro
is a key priority. Second, as the country enters
a period of renewed growth and international
prominence, Brazils energy planners must
ensure that supply keeps pace with demand.
Despite these challenges, according to the
countrys energy research company president,
8. Local power. Guascor owns and operates 59 power plants (including gas, biodiesel,
and small hydro facilities) that benefit remote areas. This Novo Airo solar plant is part of the
Projecto Amazonas Energia. Courtesy: Guascor
7. First solar project. MPX Taua is the
first solar park in Brazil. Its 4,680 photovoltaic
panels cover 12,000 square meters (3 acres).
Courtesy: MPX
GE develops turbines that turn
wind into clean energy.
Imagine a world thats
powered by wind.
|
February 2012 62
POWER IN BRAZIL
Brazil can rest assured that the energy shortage
that threw the country into crisis in 2001 will
not be repeated in the near term. Substantial
efforts are already being made to overcome
the challenges posed by the countrys expo-
nential growth. We have bought, through the
auctions, 70% of our power needs over the
next 10 years, assured Tolmasquim. In the
next four years, the plants that are finishing
construction will enable us to have a surplus of
500 MW. We have a surplus that can guarantee
Brazil almost two years of demand. With this
surplus, the Brazilian economy could grow
nearly 7% by 2014, so there is no problem in
terms of security of supply.
Focus on Wind: The Future Is Now
in Brazil
In early September 2011, the focus of the
global wind industry was centered on a large
conference hall in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,
where Brazil Windpower 2011 was being
held. Joining the few hundred exhibitors
were developers and operators from as far
away as China, India, Germany, and Canada.
Brazil Windpower is an event of growing in-
ternational relevance organized by the Global
Wind Energy Conference, the Brazilian Wind
Energy Association (ABEEolica), and local
press group Canal Energia, which provides
daily updates to Brazils power and energy
leaders. Throughout the exhibition and in
numerous conferences, key industry players
were discussing the palpable excitement sur-
rounding Brazils burgeoning wind sector.
This excitement has grown in recent years
as the cost of wind energy in Brazil has fallen.
Improvements in technology and government
incentives such as PROINFA, the renewable
energy program developed in 2002, mean that
prices per MWh are now below R$100. The
program (roughly translated as the Program
of Incentives for Alternative Energy Sources)
provided grants and other fiscal initiatives to
bolster the amount of renewable energy pro-
duction over the long term.
This is a very exciting moment in Brazil
for wind, said ABRAGELs Lenzi. Wind
farms, thanks to tax incentives, have reduced
their costs and are now more efficient than
small hydro. The growth in this sector in the
last three years has been amazing, and huge
potential remains.
Armando Abreu, founder of Braselcoa
company that specializes in providing services
in projecting, engineering, consulting, and tech-
nical assistance in the area of renewable ener-
gies, especially windsaid that when he began
the company in 1997, he was one of the pio-
neers in developing the wind industry: There
was no wind sector in Brazil at the time, so I had
to create a new market. I tried to convince the
various institutions in Brazil that wind, biomass,
solar, and small hydro were a good complement
to hydropower in Brazils energy sector. Now,
wind energy is a reality in Brazil; the first wind
program was PROINFA in 2002, from which
the federal government bought 1,400 MW of
wind energy, and Braselco developed about 500
MW of that program.
The sectors growth in recent years has
been bolstered by macroeconomic trends,
said Pedro Perrelli, executive director of
ABEEolica. In Brazil, we are experiencing
a favorable conjunction of different factors,
he said. The real is strong; there is a very
high confidence in the countrys economy.
The majority of Brazils wind farms and
projects in development are concentrated
along the northeast coast, in the states of Ba-
hia, Rio Grande do Norten, and Ceara, whose
capital Fortaleza has become the de facto
capital of Brazils wind industry.
In the Northeast, the wind blows in the
same direction throughout the year, the range
of variation is very small, and the velocity
range is very shortno more than 15 meters
February 2012
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POWER IN BRAZIL
per second, said Lauro Fiuza Jr., founder and owner of Bons Ven-
tos, a wind energy developer that is part of the integrated energy
company Servtec Group.
Dante Aguiar Bonorandi, president & CEO of Mercurius, a con-
struction and engineering company that has been involved in the
building of a number of wind parks since the start of the wind sec-
tor in Brazil, agreed: We have excellent wind conditions along the
northeast coast. The country has a wind capacity factor of over 40%,
which is far above that of European countries.
Notable Players and Projects. The number of wind farms in
operation has been steadily rising since creation of PROINFA. More
than 50 parks are in operation or development, amounting to about 1
GW in installed capacity, up from 587 MW at the end of 2009.
In 2009, at the first auction ever specifically organized for wind pow-
er in Brazil, Renova was the most successful player by winning 294 MW
of energy, or 17% of the total amount of energy available in the auction,
said Ricardo Delneri, cofounder and CEO of Renova. In the second
auction held in August 2010, Renova was again the dominant player by
acquiring 18% of the total energy auctioned, amounting to 162 MW. At
the last auction in 2011, Renova was awarded contracts reaching a total
of 212 MW, an impressive 25.3% of the total energy auctioned by the
CCEE. With its success at the recent auctions, Renova has nearly 2.8
GW of wind projects either in operation or development.
Bons Ventos, another big winner in the latest auctions, is spread-
ing its project pipeline into four different regions in Brazil, with
the potential to develop 800 MW in both Rio Grande do Norte and
Bahia (Figure 9). By the end of the year Bons Ventos will have
close to 2 GW of wind projects; our goal is to add another 1 GW per
year, said Fiuza.
The sector also offers opportunities for new players to develop
targeted projects. Odebrecht Energia, the recently formed subsidiary
of the Odebrecht Group (best known in Brazil as a leader in large-
scale engineering and construction projects), was created to invest
in power generation, primarily from renewable sources (Figure 10).
The company has accumulated in its portfolio more than 1,000 MW
of installed power in projects based on renewable sources, which
now account for all of its investments.
Last year the company won the governments August energy auc-
tion with four wind farms in Corredor Senandes, located in the Rio
www.renovaenergia.com.br
9. Capturing ocean breezes. The Bons Ventos Aracati Park is 150
kilometers from Fortaleza in the north of Brazil. Its 67 Suzlon wind tur-
bines have an installed capacity of 138.5 MW. Courtesy: Bons Ventos
10. Hydro heft. The 3,150-MW Santo Antonio hydro plant in Porto
Velho is one of Odebrecht Energys investments. Courtesy: Ode-
brecht Group
|
February 2012 64
POWER IN BRAZIL
Grande do Sul state in southern Brazil. The
total capacity of these parks is 116 MW. The
environmental permits are under way to start
construction in June 2012 and expected gen-
eration for 2014. In the same complex, the
company has in stock over three projects
with a generation capacity of approximately
50 MW, said Henrique Valladares, president
of Odebrecht Energia. Odebrecht Energia
has 400 MW of wind projects, with an op-
tion to purchase an additional 100 MW. The
company will also participate in the gov-
ernments next energy auction to be held in
December 2011. In the quest to better serve
our customers, we decided to increase our
scope of work, offering comprehensive and
integrated solutions such as construction and
investments in generation.
Energimp, a subsidiary of Argentine wind
developer IMPSA, is developing nearly 300
MW of wind energy in the southern state of
Santa Catarina. Energimp was founded in
2005 with the goal of developing wind parks in
Brazil, said Energimps CEO, Alvaro Nelson
Assis Araujo. Since then, it has sold 830 MW
of energy through auction, making us the larg-
est wind energy company in Brazil in regards to
energy already sold. These parks are being built
and will be delivered until September 2013.
With seven years of experience in the wind
sector under its belt, Energimp has already de-
veloped the successful Ceara 1 project, consist-
ing of five wind farms, which was sold to state
company Cemig in 2008. Energimp is working
on a business plan that intends to include up to
an additional 200 MW per year, which is our
goal with wind energy, explained Araujo.
In addition to wind-focused players, many
power companies previously focused on
hydro or thermal power are taking advantage
of the enthusiasm surrounding Brazils wind
sector. Desenvix, which has a portfolio of
162 MW of renewable energy in operation,
plans to develop wind farms in the near term.
By the end of 2011, Desenvix will put 90
MW of wind farms in operation in Bahia,
said CEO Antunes Sobrinho.
Brazils Manufacturing Excellence: Inter-
national Attention, Local Talent. Brazil has
been a hotbed of attention for major internation-
al wind manufacturers, which are all clamoring
to either gain or expand their footprint in the
country. We held our first wind auction right
around the time of the global economic crisis,
so the global manufacturers were looking for
new markets outside of the United States and
Europe, explained Pirelli of ABEEolica.
Industry leaders such as Suzlon, General
Electric (Figure 11), Vestas, and Wobben
have all taken measures to increase their
presence in Brazil in order to serve the de-
mand for their products and expertise.
When Wobben first started to install
the first wind farms, people saw the huge
potential and today, everybody knows that
wind can contribute a reasonable percentage
of the Brazilian energy matrix, said Pedro
Angel Vial, CEO of Wobben Windpower, the
Brazilian subsidiary of the German turbine
manufacturer Enercon.
Brazil is undoubtedly IMPSAs biggest
market, having even outstripped the Argentin-
ean one, said Jos Luis Menghini, executive
vice-president of IMPSA, which own two pro-
duction plants in the country. By installing its
production plants in Brazil, IMPSA got closer
to its Brazilian clients and gained in competi-
tiveness as compared to those rivals that kept
on importing their equipment from abroad.
Brazil is one of the top five markets on
which Vestas is focusing worldwide, said
Hutschinski. We see how important and ag-
gressive the Brazilian wind market is, and Ves-
tas is a worldwide leader, so we want to be the
market leader in Brazil in the coming years.
The potential of the wind industry has
also provided opportunities for local players,
many of whom have been involved in projects
since the birth of the sector over a decade ago.
We saw a niche with the developing wind
industry that was very interesting. It is new,
and few companies in Brazil have the know-
how to build these farms, said Bonarandi of
Mercurius, which began its involvement in
the wind industry 10 years ago.
Bruno Vilela Cuna, CEO of Aeris, a startup
wind blade manufacturer that recently installed
a factory in Ceara, believes his companys lo-
gistic advantage would allow its customers to
compete in the Brazilian market. There is no
way for all of the wind turbine manufacturers to
install a manufacturing base in Brazil, so I think
we will see a consolidation of the market, he
explained. Blades are the most important com-
ponent of the turbine, and you must expend a lot
of effort into creating the best possible product,
which is what Aeris will do.
As the industry continues to evolve, mak-
ing room for a variety of international and
local players, the future remains bright for
Brazils wind sector.
Distribution and Transmission
The Brazilian distribution industry provides
energy to 67 million customers, and every year
it adds another 2 million new clients. As in ev-
ery industry, such constant growth demands
steady investment. Until 1995 the distribution
sector was mainly in the hands of the govern-
ment. Nevertheless, the system did not provide
the necessary resources to execute the required
modernization and expansion. This led the Bra-
zilian government to implement a partial priva-
tization of the distribution sector. Today private
companies distribute to 70% of the market, and
the rest is supplied by state-owned companies
such as CEMIG and COPEL.
11. Perfect conditions. GE Energy wind turbines at work in Brazils northeast. Cour-
tesy: GE Energy
February 2012
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POWER IN BRAZIL
The arrival of these private players in the
Brazilian distribution sector has allowed for
an average yearly investment of R$8 billion,
expected to rise to R$11 billion by 2015 in
order to maintain growth levels and to secure
energy supply during the coming World Cup
and Olympic Games.
A prime example of how privatization of
the distribution sector allowed for the ar-
rival of new players is AES. As AES Presi-
dent Britaldo Soares affirmed: AES arrived
to Brazil in 1997 and took advantage of the
process of privatization of the energy distri-
bution sector. Through its successful strategy
of acquisitions, AES provides energy to 25
million Brazilians and is the biggest private
energy distributor in Latin America.
Despite partial privatization, the distribu-
tion sector is still a regulated market. Ricardo
Perez Botelho, president of Energisa, claimed
that private distributors growth ambitions
are constricted: There are very few opportu-
nities to grow in the distribution sector at the
moment, and the government tends to be very
restrictive. Discussions with the government
on changing the rules applied for energy tar-
iffs have been very difficult; it continues to
impose very unrealistic conditions on returns
on investment, and it is reluctant to orches-
trate further privatizations.
In Brazil, distribution is a system of geo-
graphic monopoly, and as such there is no real
competition between distribution companies;
each one is confined to a limited area. Indeed,
only customers with demand over 3 MW can
choose their supplier; the rest are bound to the
distributor operating in their area. Energy tar-
iffs are divided into a portion for energy itself
and a fraction equivalent to the transmission of
that energy. According to Fonseca Leite, presi-
dent of ABRADEE, the Brazilian Association
of Energy Distributors, this implies that com-
panies do not make money on energy but on
the delivery of the energy.
On the question of energy tariffs, Leite
also pointed out a recurrent problem related
to distribution tariffs: 45% percent of the
bill paid by final consumers corresponds to
taxes; consequently, energy prices are very
high, and this constitutes a considerable day-
to-day concern for many Brazilians.
An issue especially promising for the distri-
bution industry is the prospective development
in Brazil of the so-called smart grid. In the
words of Welson Regis Jacometti, president of
CAS Tecnologia: The market is now describ-
ing the regulatory marks that create the ideal
scenario for utilities to evolve towards smart
metering. Indeed, today the immediateness of
smart grid is a reality.
Intelligent energy meters, by providing
distribution companies with accurate and im-
mediate information on different variables of
electricity consumption, could considerably
mitigate and even potentially suppress non-
technical energy losses (such as theft) in the
transmission of distributed energy. Moreover,
the smart grid will constitute a revolution in
the relationship between distribution compa-
nies and their customers, providing for the
adoption of different tariff schemes tailored
to consumers needs while maximizing the
grids overall efficiency.
Notwithstanding these advantages,
ABRADEEs Leite warns about some of the
difficulties that must be overcome before
effectively introducing a smart grid: Right
now we are discussing the implementa-
tion of smart grids in Brazil and working
on trying to establish public policies for
smart grids; but this is a very complex task,
as we have to take into account the diver-
sity amongst power distribution companies
across the country in order to grant tailored
solutions for each region.
Marcelo Prado, marketing director of Gen-
eral Electric (GE) Energy for Latin America, of-
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February 2012 66
POWER IN BRAZIL
fered his companys insight on the future of the
smart grid in Brazil: Today distribution compa-
nies have many losses, and developing the smart
grid would greatly reduce those losses. ANEEL
is clearly positioned in favor of the development
of the smart grid, and we expect that in three
years time there will be an exponential invest-
ment growth aiming to develop the smart grid
in the country. Through our extensive offer of
transformers, substations, measuring devices,
and specialized software, we want to participate
in the future of the smart grid, and we are al-
ready involved in pilot projects that have shown
to be successful.
Contrasting with the panorama of the distri-
bution sector, the transmission business is still
largely controlled by public companies, both
federal (Eletrobras companies Furnas, Eletro-
sul, Chesf, and Eletronorte, representing 57% of
Brazilian transmission lines) and state (CEMIG
in Minas Gerais and COPEL in Paran). Though
some private actors like Abengoa, Alstom, and
CTEEP have a stake in transmission activities
and are developing new lines, their part in the
business remains modest.
Unlike other national systems, where the
transmission system is segmented into indepen-
dent regional power grids, Brazils electricity
runs through a huge interconnected network
formed by more than 40,000 miles of transmis-
sion lines. Originally, the Brazilian electricity
system was structured in an integrated fashion
through regional coordinating groups. But in
1998, the government, headed by Fernando Hen-
rique Cardoso, established the National Operat-
ing System (ONS), a federal body responsible
for operation of the National Interconnected
System, commonly known as SIN. This new-
ly created institution prompted development of
new transmission lines connecting the different
Brazilian regions, leading to todays intercon-
nected national grid.
In a country with predominantly hydro-
power, the national interconnectivity of the
transmission system performs an essen-
tial role: It counters the effects of seasonal
droughts on hydro capacities by enabling
power to be transmitted from areas where
water is abundant toward areas where gen-
eration capacities have been reduced. Indeed,
the rationing imposed during 2001 and 2002
could have been prevented if there had been
at the time sufficient transmission capacity.
However, interconnectivity has a disad-
vantage: The downing of a single transmis-
sion line can create a cascading effect on the
transmission system, threatening to collapse
vast segments of the SIN. The November
2009 blackout is a clear example of this vul-
nerability. The knockout of two transmission
lines by a storm in So Paulo induced a dom-
ino effect that crippled roughly 15 transmis-
sion lines, provoking automatic shutdown of
the Itaip dam and a blackout that cut off 17
GW of power affecting 10 Brazilian states.
(See Brazil: Latin Americas Beacon in the
January 2010 issue of POWER.)
The dominance of hydropower means that
the distance between generation facilities and
end-user markets can be vast. As a consequence,
power losses in the transmission system are
high, amounting to an average of 16% of gen-
erated power. Investments in grid efficiency are
needed to reduce such energy losses. Despite
this need, Csar Augusto Ramirez, president of
ISA-CTEEP, pointed out that, in the next years,
the most pressing investments will be devoted
to extending the power grid: On average in the
next decade Brazil will need to auction around
3,500 km to 4,000 km of transmission lines per
year, representing a 30% total increase.
CTEEP, which is one of the main private
transmission companies in Brazil, was acquired
by Colombian ISA in 2006. Today, ISA-CTEEP
owns and operates 12,300 km of transmission
lines and plans to soon inaugurate the 2,350-km
Araquara line, which will be one of the longest
February 2012
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POWER IN BRAZIL
transmission lines in the world, interconnect-
ing the generation capacities of the Rio Ma-
deira with the So Paulo region.
Many of those new lines will be devoted to
connecting new major hydro facilities in de-
velopment in the north with the southeastern
region, which consumes 60% of all power pro-
duced. Abengoa Brasils Ciudad recalled that
those huge transmission projects are not with-
out difficulties: Abengoa is now developing
a 2,375-km transmission line linking a 6,450-
MW hydroelectric complex in the Amazon to
the national grid. These are very complex proj-
ects, and it is hard not to affect the environment
with the construction.
However, the enormous hydroelectric proj-
ects wont be the only ones requiring new
transmission lines. Ramirez said: Because
of their geographical dispersion, connecting
wind farms to the interconnected transmission
system will represent an important challenge
for transmission companies. Moreover, there
is also a need to further integrate the Brazil-
ian power network with the ones of its Latin
American neighbors.
The Free Market
The dynamism of Brazils power sector ex-
tends to a robust group of energy traders, who
buy and sell energy on the free market to feed a
consumer demand that exceeds 3 MW. About
25% of the electricity market is freely negoti-
ated between agents. As electricity needs can
constitute the majority of production costs for
energy-intensive industries, companies are en-
ticed to source alternative means of procuring
energy to lower their costs.
Since 2004, when President Lula da Silvas
government introduced a series of regulatory
changes designed to avoid any discrepancy be-
tween supply and demand, independent trad-
ing companies began competing on a more
significant level with the trading arms of large
generation companies such as CPFL Energia
and Grupo Light.
Brazil is a new market, less than 10 years
old, explained Gustavo Machado, a partner
at Nova Energia Commercializadora, who,
as a member of the CCEE, helped to design
the rules of the free market. Until 2004, the
free market was very small, with only four or
five consumers. President Lulas government
instituted major changes in the model and gave
consumers more peace of mind to invest in the
free market. Today we have 1,200 free con-
sumers, and we expect very large growth, with
some estimates at nearly 4,000 consumers.
This growing market has led to an increased
number of energy traders who buy and sell en-
ergy for their clients from both conventional
and renewable sources. The increasing impor-
tance of the free market has introduced brand
new players within this booming business sec-
tor. One of the advantages of the newcomers
is that they often are formed by experienced
professionals who have been working in the
energy and trading sector for decades, allow-
ing them to be fully competitive and guarantee
the satisfaction of their clients.
Ricardo Junqueira, owner of Atico, the
majority shareholder of Bolt Energias, gives a
sound explanation of how its subsidiary, Bolt
Energias, has been able to blossom during its
first year of activities: Our company, Bolt En-
ergias, even if young, is totally ready to oper-
ate not only in the Brazilian market but also
internationally. Bolt Energias has successfully
managed to marry the trading business with
the participation in generation activities. Now
we are looking forward to increase our genera-
tion assets as well as our trading business. For
that we are open to work with new partners in
Brazil but also in the surrounding countries
such as Uruguay, Chile, and Peru. Indeed, our
strategy within the generation business is to
grow through the creation of partnerships: We
intend to have a diversified generation portfo-
lio through acquiring minority shares in dif-
ferent generation facilities; thus, we avoid an
excessive risk while ensuring the provision of
energy for our clients.
Erico Evaristo, CEO of Bolt Comercializa-
dora, the trading arm of Bolt Energias, expects
a bright future for the energy trading business
in Brazil: The trading market is very competi-
tive; it has grown very quickly and today rep-
resents 26% of the power market in Brazil. We
hope that in the midterm this share will evolve
steadily, eventually reaching 40% of the whole
energy market.
The Energy Trading Sector: Providing
Opportunities for Growth. Many large
power generators use this free market to sell
excess energy. The advantages of a commer-
cialization arm include higher profit margins
and strategic significance.
Light Esco is the commercialization division
of Grupo Light, an integrated energy company,
and represented 3% of the groups revenue in
2010. This percentage will increase in 2013
due to the expiration of existing contracts,
said Marco Donatelli, superintendent of Light
Esco. Light Esco will sell two-thirds of the
energy generated by Light Group, leading to
increased revenues as well as benefits, because
the margins are broad and investments are al-
ready covered.
Many integrated energy companies with en-
ergy trading arms derive a significant portion
of their revenues from their trading activities.
Such is the case with Bio Energias Comercial-
izadora, which has built a strong position in the
free market. Bio Energias Comercializadora
will sell nearly R$350 million of energy in
2011, which accounts for 90% of our revenue,
said Felipe Barroso, the companys president.
|
February 2012 68
We are the third-biggest trading company in
the renewable energy market and the seventh
biggest of all trading companies.
Capitale Energia was founded by two young
traders, Rafael Villano Mathias and Daniel Au-
gusto Rossi, and has experienced significant
growth since its inception roughly two years
ago. In 2010, our revenue reached 70 million
reais, said Augusto Rossi. This year we expect
that we could sell 200 million reais, equivalent
to 300 MWh, an important growth compared to
the preceding year, added Villano Mathias.
Capitale Energias long-term plan in-
cludes a focus on a diversified business
platform. The principal objective will be
trading, said Augusto Rossi. We would
also hope to participate in some generation
projects, perhaps through a partnership. In
the future we plan to go beyond energy
trading, expanding to other commodi-
ties like ethanol, sugar, and natural gas.
The energy and the natural gas market are
linked, and we are structuring our capital
to capture this opportunity.
Often, independent power traders begin
electricity generation in order to help guar-
antee supply for their customers. Safira
Energia, a trading company that has been
involved in the market since 2008, recently
invested in wind generation. The trading
company remains at the forefront, but we
are trying to open our minds and expand
our portfolio with the generation and asset
projects, explained Mikio Kawai, CEO of
Safira.
Companies involved in energy trading
usually offer other services, such as con-
sulting or asset management. Eduardo Pra-
do, CEO of Diferencial Energia, which also
develops thermal power plants and other
energy generation projects, explained the
mutually beneficial relationship between
the two core businesses: The trading side
is very important for project development;
when you are too involved in the develop-
ment aspect, you tend to assume that the
market has to come to your price structure
and technologies. The advantage that the
trading brings to our projects in develop-
ment is that we understand the importance
of having a well-structured project so that
it can find its market. We use a lot of the
insights gained in trading to structure the
projects, and not many companies are able
to do that. It is a good mix for the company,
even though it is two different mindsets.
The success of many new traders can be
attributed to internal policies. According to
Evaristo of Bolt Energias, well-defined in-
ternal management strategies are essential
when trading a volatile commodity such as
energy. The company has imposed upon
ourselves a strict risk protocol that estab-
POWER IN BRAZIL
February 2012
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POWER IN BRAZIL
lishes the boundaries of our activities, and
we make sure not to act outside of these
limits. This policy has allowed us to quick-
ly become a robust player, as we are ready
to face any potential crisis.
Brazils Energy Market: Key Challeng-
es. The main challenge facing Brazils free
market is that it still suffers from a closed
system that does not allow for competition,
which keeps energy prices high.
The trading industrys voice is ABRA-
CEEL, which advocates for a more open
energy market. According to Reginaldo
Almeida de Medeiros, president of ABRA-
CEEL, a more competitive market leads to
a more efficient allocation of resources in
the economy, thus reducing energy prices.
In Brazil, the free market is open to con-
sumers over 3 MW and special consumers
who have a load between 500 kW and 3 MW.
Special consumers pay only 50% of trans-
mission and distribution costs. The goal is
to reduce the limit to 1 MW or 2 MW. The
market is 75% captive and 25% free; we need
to change this, explained Luis Fernando Vi-
anna, president of APINE, the association for
independent power producers. APINE advo-
cates a free energy market; we believe that
the country needs this free market in order to
be competitive.
APINE is working on a manifesto with
consulting firm Andrade & Canellas advo-
cating the need for a more open energy mar-
ket in Brazil. Andrade & Canellas strongly
believes in the future of the free market and
is pushing for a legislative agenda providing
for its extension, said the consultancys de
Oliveira Mello. Such a broadening of the
free market will bring many benefits to the
Brazilian energy industry, beginning with
enhanced competitiveness within the market
itself as consumers, and especially industrial
ones, will be empowered and able to negoti-
ate prices.
However, the regulated market protects
not only distribution companies but also
many consumers. Free consumers en-
joy the security of the regulated market,
which protects them against the potential
volatility of Brazils energy supply. Ac-
cording to Pedro Seraphim, partner at law
firm Tozzini Freire and head of the groups
energy division: If companies decide not
to renew a contract with a distribution
company and enter the free market, and
then return to the regulated market, they
must give a five-year notice. The way the
market is structured, it is difficult to find
a generator willing to sign a contract for
five years. So it is not a legal problem but a
structural one. We are always on the verge
of a rationing here in Brazil; if we have a
bad year in terms of rain, we would be in
serious trouble. This means that companies
are unwilling to sign longer-term contracts
because it is not so easy to predict energy
prices in the future.
For the traders themselves, most of whom
are members of ABRACEEL, a more open
market is essential to the growth and devel-
opment of the energy sector. Our aim is to
demonstrate that by using the free market
we can grow and provide many advantages
to Brazilian society, said Kawai of Safira
Energia, an ABRACEEL member.
We consider that the market should be
absolutely free, said Gabriel Rosa, trading
manager at Delta Energia, one of the first
companies involved in the trading sector in
Brazil. If players buy their energy in the
free market instead of buying it in the cap-
tive one, it is because it is less expensive.
If you limit the economic agents capac-
ity to access the free market, you are also
reducing their competitiveness. The free
market could easily be extended to new
commercial clients.
Small changes to the structure of the en-
ergy market can lead to increased growth
by including major power consumers who
currently buy energy from the captive mar-
ket. We estimate that the free market in
Brazil can grow by 10,000 MW, or 20%,
just by including the industrial sector,
said Felipe Barroso at Bio Energias. This
growth can be achieved by changes in reg-
ulation, but the political incentive to have
a free market is missing. To build a proj-
ect, you need to have a PPA for 15 to 20
years, and the free market does not provide
those long-term contracts. Most industries
only draft five-year business plans and do
not want to commit to longer projects. We
are discussing how to finance the sector
without having to give 20-year contracts.
As the energy trading market is still
quite young, legislation governing the in-
dustry is still in the development phase,
and traders themselves are having difficul-
ty navigating the regulatory waters. With
so many changes, the model is getting
more difficult to understand, said Macha-
do of Nova Energia Commercializadora.
Because the market is so new, all of the
rules and regulations are constantly chang-
ing. Keeping up with these regulatory evo-
lutions is one of the key challenges of the
industry itself.
Some energy traders take an optimistic
view, believing that the free market needs
more time to reach stability. The market
is still young, and it will progressively ma-
ture with the expansion of the free market
towards new consumers, said Augusto
Rossi of Capitale Energia. It is a market
that is naturally becoming more competi-
tive and profitable, but to facilitate this
process we need regulatory reforms.
While energy traders continue to push
for a more open and competitive market,
the future for the industry looks bright,
thanks to an increasing number of free
consumers entering the marketplace.
We expect that the trading volumes in
Brazil will increase and the market will
become more competitive, said Prado of
Diferencial Energia. There will be more
liquidity, more players, and more oppor-
tunity, so we want to grow as the market
does. The market will become more so-
phisticated, which is good for us because
we have the tools and the mindset to be-
come more sophisticated.
We think that liberation will deepen,
but to reach the residential customers we
will need more time, as we would need
to change all electricity meters to adapt
to the free market system, said Donatelli
at Light Esco. The free market could be
easily opened for the middle market cus-
tomers, perhaps in two years. Competition
will always benefit the client.
The Service Sector
The steady growth experienced by the Bra-
zilian energy sector during the past decade
and optimistic predictions for its future ex-
pansion have fed the development of many
actors that base their activities partially or
integrally around the energy industry. In
particular, this has been the case for service
providers, equipment manufacturers, and en-
gineering companies. In a reciprocal manner,
the enhanced maturity of these players pro-
vides the necessary conditions for expanding
energy sector activities and projects.
E&C: Building Brazils Energy Future.
The engineering and construction (E&C)
sector in Brazil is dominated by Brazil-
ian firms, as local engineering companies
are exceptionally consolidated. This local
strength is spread over various fields, in-
cluding the energy sector, and in the past,
Brazilian engineering companies have had
a dominant role in the development of the
countrys energy facilities and infrastruc-
ture, being involved in the construction of
such complex and significant projects as
the Itaip and Tucuru dams.
During the past 15 years, national com-
panies such as Andrade Gutierrez, Camargo
Correa, and Odebrecht have become even
stronger. They have built a strong local pres-
ence and have the capacity to expand inter-
nationally, especially across Latin America,
Africa, and Asia. This international aptitude
was exemplified through Brazilian participa-
tion in the development and construction of
the Three Throats dam in China.
|
February 2012 70
POWER IN BRAZIL
However, within the Brazilian engi-
neering panorama there is also space for
more modest engineering groups that have
shown their strength and capability by
thriving in such a competitive and chal-
lenging environment. Engevix, with 46
years of experience, has ensured its place
in the market. As Antunes Sobrinho, presi-
dent and CEO of Desenvix, the owner of
Engevix, stated: Engevix is active on a
broad range of engineering services: from
feasibility studies, engineering consulting,
and project management to fully integrated
solutions mainly for power (generation and
transmission), industry (oil and gas, steel,
fertilizers, biomass, and pulp and paper),
and infrastructure (water and sanitation,
transport, and urban planning) sectors.
Added to the important expertise accu-
mulated in the development of convention-
al energy facilities, such as hydroelectric
dams or thermal generation facilities, today
Brazilian E&C firms are gaining important
experience through the development of
nonconventional renewablesexperience
that has been boosted in recent years by
the blossoming of the wind energy sector.
Ricardo Cortez, president of Cortez En-
genharia, underlined the rising importance
of nonconventional renewables for E&C
firms: Cortez Engenharia is very focused
on wind energy; we specialize in renew-
able energies. Within the renewables we
have also solar energy, and we are respon-
sible for the civil construction of the first
Brazilian solar park developed by MPX.
Energy-related infrastructure represents
an important part of the portfolio of Brazilian
E&C companies, and the remarkable dyna-
mism of the energy market suggests that its
importance is destined to increase. As Cortez
stressed: While the country has an expecta-
tion to grow 5% per year, the energy sector
could even attain a 10% growth annually.
The vitality of the energy sector is dem-
onstrated by some construction companies
taking their commitment to it a step further.
Some E&C companies have decided to en-
gage the sector directly by creating their own
energy companies. This practice is exempli-
fied by Odebrecht, a well-known Brazilian
E&C company that has decided to invest in
the energy market through Odebrecht Ener-
gia, its recently created energy branch. Val-
ladares, president of Odebrecht, explained
the move: Energy is a very strong market in
Brazil, so it is almost natural that Odebrecht
became more heavily involved. With the San-
to Antonio project, we decided to enter into
the market ourselves.
A main factor inducing E&C companies
to invest in the energy market is the syner-
gy derived from combining both activities.
As Valladares explained: Our initial mo-
tivation was to open the construction mar-
ket; if we were investors, then it would be
easy for us to construct the plant. Through
this, we saw that we can generate value for
our shareholders if we really act in the en-
ergy market, so we decided to invest in the
long-term market.
In a country proud and thoughtful of its
natural resources, one of the main concerns
around E&C activities is environmental sus-
tainability. Within the energy sector, concerns
of environmental impact affect hydroelectric
and transmission projects in particular. Due
to their location and characteristics, they have
the greatest impact on the environment. E&C
companies operating in Brazil are very con-
scious of the importance of minimizing the
environmental impact of their projects. Nel-
son Branco Marchetti, president of Skanska
Brazil, exemplified how E&C companies are
coping with this sensitive matter: In all our
projects we comply with the local rules and
regulations. In many of our projects we even
go further than the required environmental
standards, reaching the lowest possible con-
sumption of water and energy, and CO
2
gen-
eration. Skanska Brazil seriously addresses
those environmental concerns, and today we
are projecting new programs to foster envi-
ronmental sustainability.
The rising awareness of environmental is-
sues, as well as the complexity of the environ-
mental regulatory framework, has led to the
development of environmental engineering
services. Habtec, for example, is the Brazilian
pioneer in providing environment consulting
studies for the engineering area. Operations
Director Ricardo Tavares explained the role
his company plays in ensuring that environ-
mental requirements are fulfilled: Habtec is
the oldest company offering consulting in en-
vironmental engineering. Concerning the en-
vironmental side of energy projects, we do all
the licensing processes, all necessary studies,
and we implement every necessary action to
comply with the environmental standards
first during the construction phase and later
during the operation of the facility.
The aforementioned strength displayed by
local engineering companies implies that it is
exceptionally difficult for foreign E&C firms
to thrive on their own. However, competition
is far from the only challenge confronted by
foreign engineering companies aiming to
prosper within the Brazilian energy indus-
try. Joaquim Manuel Canhoto, partner of
EFACEC do Brasil, a Portuguese E&C and
service provider operating in Brazil, claimed:
In Brazil, technical norms are not an im-
pediment for the establishment of foreign
E&C companies, as they are in consonance
with the international standards. What con-
stitutes a first-order barrier are Brazils fis-
cal and work regulatory frameworks that are
extremely complex and definitely need to be
modernized.
The characteristics of the Brazilian en-
ergy sector alone constitute quite a chal-
lenge for newcomers. Hydroelectricity is
the core of the nations power infrastruc-
ture, and being involved in the E&C of
such projects demands not only huge in-
vestments but also long-term commitment,
as the development phase of a hydro proj-
ect can stretch over a decade. Moreover,
hydroelectric projects are often located far
from inhabited zones and, in a huge coun-
try like Brazil, operating in such isolated
places requires impressive logistics that
are often out of neophytes sight. As Andr
Glogowsky, president of Hochtief Brazil,
explained: The local component is very
important. If you want to overcome all the
obstacles related to the complexity of the
regulatory and administrative system, you
need to be local and behave accordingly.
Nevertheless, complex does not mean im-
possible. With the proper strategy and plan-
ning, and appropriate local partners, it is
possible for E&C companies to thrive in Bra-
zil. Skanska Brazil is a very good example.
As Marchetti asserted: In Brazil, Skanskas
DNA is energy. We work on hydro and gas-
fired power plants. We are able to develop
our projects in a consortium base or alone.
Our projects are spread all over the country,
from north to south, and we have already
developed 500 MW of energy generation ca-
pacity and are planning to triple this amount
within the next years.
Making Things Work: Services and
Equipment for the Energy Sector. Ser-
vices devoted to the improvement of energy
efficiency are flourishing in Brazil. As energy
demand is expected to grow exponentially
during the next decade, the country will re-
Nelson Branco Marchetti, President,
Skanska Brazil
February 2012
|
POWER IN BRAZIL
quire an impressive increase of generation
capacity. In conjunction with this, energy ef-
ficiency looks set to play an important role.
Tania Cosentino, president of Schneider Elec-
tric in Brazil, believes that The best energy is
the one that is not generated. As a matter of
fact, according to Cosentino, The potential
for energy savings in the next 10 years is the
equivalent of the generation capacity of Rio
Madeira, and the key to fulfill this potential
resides in investing in energy efficiency.
Specific services not only reduce energy
waste rates but also, by lowering energy con-
sumption levels, can reduce average energy
costs, thus improving overall business per-
formance. Energy-efficiency services, there-
fore, are an ideal answer to the challenges of
increased energy demand.
Finnish corporation Wrtsil brings new
technologies to the gas market: We have
the biggest gas engine on the market, at 18.7
MW, for which we have a flat cycle solution.
It is a really interesting and efficient technol-
ogy, specifically for stand-by power plants
used for only three months per year in the
Brazilian dry season. We have to demystify
gas engines in combined cycles and prove
that they are the best solution for the Brazil-
ian market. It is not easy to demonstrate this
to customers without subjecting the raw fig-
ures to feasibility analysis, explained Jorge
Alcaide of Wrtsil Brasil.
The Brazilian energy sector faces another
dilemma related to increased demand: Energy
generation is going to increase dramatically
during the next decade while there is a need
to reduce CO
2
emissions. This conflict has
pushed some companies to offer CO
2
emis-
sions reduction services. Although general
consciousness in Brazil of the importance of
these services remains behind that of Europe
or the U.S., things are evolving quickly.
The potential of this market is vast, with
customers awareness of efficiency increas-
ing due to two essential factors: the high cost
of energy impacting overall production costs
and companies desire to pursue an image of
sustainability. Cosentino promotes a strategy
that embodies the growing awareness around
the need to reduce CO
2
emissions: Schneider
Electric is investing a lot in this field. We are
already performing very well in energy man-
agement, and we are now linking our energy
management services to services related to
the reduction of CO
2
emissions.
Emissions reduction is not the only service
that is growing around carbon emissions.
Some companies, such as Brennand Energia
and Voltalia do Brasil, have developed car-
bon credits trading services. Nevertheless,
in Brazil these kinds of services are still in
an embryonic phase. As Robert Klein, presi-
dent of Voltalia do Brasil, explained: There
is a tremendous potential for carbon credits
trading within the Brazilian energy market;
however, there are many uncertainties on
the evolution of carbon credit prices, so it
is difficult to forecast revenues, and this has
restrained the development of carbon credits
trading in the country.
Together with services focused on reduc-
ing energy consumption and CO
2
emissions,
many consulting companies specialized
in the energy sector have thrived in Brazil.
These consultancies provide services to the
whole energy value chain, from generation to
distribution, and to all sources of energy. De
Oliveira Mello of Andrade & Canellas em-
phasized the value that offering integrative
solutions has for consultancy firms: This
holistic approach allows Andrade & Canel-
las to be well known in the Brazilian energy
business as a one-stop shop.
The expertise of Brazilian energy con-
sultancy firms is spread over many dif-
ferent fields, among them environmental,
engineering, accountancy, regulatory, and
operational. Mario Veiga, president of PSR in
Brazil, explained how PSR, an international
consultancy firm, developed its activities in
Brazil, extending its services over a wide
variety of domains: PSR started providing
consultancy services to investors throughout
the privatization of generation and distribu-
tion companies, and today PSR works in
several different areas, including strategic
valuation, price forecasting, risk assessment,
regulation, and environment. Due to our ex-
perience in organizing Brazils power sector
model, we became advisors on institutional
arrangements for electricity markets. Today
our engineering division is growing steadily,
and we want to develop our arm committed
to environmental engineering services.
Other firms have a much more focused
scope of activity, as is the case with Ativo
Energia, a Brazilian company chaired by
Joo Batista de Carvalho, that specializes in
asset management and physical inventory for
energy companies.
Acknowledging the wide variety of actors
as well as the contending interests within the
Brazilian energy market, Jos Said de Brito,
president of Excelncia Energtica, a Brazil-
ian consultancy specializing in the energy
regulatory framework, pointed out: For con-
sultancies, it is essential to avoid any conflict
of interest. Our company is structured and
works to guarantee neutrality and indepen-
dence, as those together with expertise are
the foundations of our business.
In addition to those providing services
to the energy sector, companies along the
entire supply chainfrom cables to trans-
formers and electrical equipmentare
experiencing increased growth in order
to serve the needs of the energy industry.
Many equipment providers have reinforced
their presence in Brazil to satisfy increas-
ing demand for their products. Indeed, the
importance of the Brazilian market has
pushed equipment and component provid-
ers to adapt their products to fulfill the spe-
cific needs of the Brazilian market.
As noted by Douglas Rodriguez Buzo,
president of Vulkan do Brazil, a German
components and services company present
in the worldwide market since 1889 and es-
tablished in Brazil for 36 years: Vulkan has
a product engineering department in Brazil
very demanded by our clients within the en-
ergy sector and exclusively devoted to pro-
vide our clients with tailored products that
fit their most detailed requirements. We have
also recently established Vulkan Seacom, our
arm providing distance monitoring services
to different activities ranging from mining to
wind power plants and hydroelectric facili-
ties. Besides that, our VULKAN Drive Tech
divisionfocused on couplings and brakes
productionhas local manufacturing in Bra-
zil and it is ready to attend the local energy
market. Our brakes line for wind turbines,
for example, is already certified by GL-Ger-
manischer Lloyd Industrial Services GmbH
Renewables Certification, and it is also ap-
proved by BNDES FINAME Brazilian bank
for credit lines. Our Drivetech division was
delocalized from Germany to Brazil, and the
majority of our products are fully manufac-
tured in Brazil.
Competition in the countrys energy
equipment industry is very aggressive. Bra-
zil is in the eye of the hurricane, and the
economic crisis in Europe and the U.S. has
pushed many companies to enter the Brazil-
ian market.
Simultaneously, due to currency levels
and high Brazilian labor costs, many Bra-
Brazil is in the eye of the hurricane, and
the economic crisis in Europe and the U.S.
has pushed many companies to enter the
Brazilian market.
|
February 2012 72
POWER IN BRAZIL
zilian companies have to confront harsh
competition coming from Asian newcom-
ers. A clear reflection of how international
energy equipment producers have pledged
their commitment to the Brazilian market
is that, despite Brazil not being renowned
for industrial competitiveness, many equip-
ment producers are opening new production
plants in Brazil or expanding existing ones.
This is the case for IMPSA, an interna-
tional energy equipment company that re-
cently enlarged its Brazilian aerogenerator
(wind turbine) production plant in Suape.
IMPSA Executive Vice-President Jos Luis
Menghini clarified the benefits brought by
his companys establishment in the country:
By installing our production plants in Bra-
zil, IMPSA got closer to its Brazilian clients,
being able to satisfy the growing demand
for its aerogenerators and hydroelectric
equipment. Besides, the local character of
our R&D has resulted in capital advantages
to our competitiveness. Unlike our competi-
tors, IMPSAs aerogenerators are perfectly
conceived for the specific wind conditions
of the Brazilian coast.
One of the most senior foreign compa-
nies present in the heavy equipment sector
is General Electric, which arrived in Brazil
92 years ago and offers a wide range of
equipment for generation, distribution, and
transmission companies. Marcelo Prado,
marketing director of GE Energy for Latin
America underlined how GEs equipment
fits the Brazilian market: GE provides, for
example, flexible turbines adapted to the
specific conditions of the Brazilian energy
market; depending on the level of hydro-
electric reservoirs, those gas turbines can be
turned on and off without reducing perfor-
mance or damaging equipment.
GE also provides its clients with inte-
grated services aiming to ensure the perfect
performance and operation of its equip-
ment. As Prado stated: General Electric
services are offered on a service contract
or service as-needed basis and range from
operation and maintenance activities to
upgrading services and emissions control
services. Services contracts are especially
indicated for those clients who acquire our
heavy equipment such as substations, trans-
formers, electric motors, and generators.
Balancing Development and
Sustainability: Brazils Environ-
mental and Social Challenge
Brazils famed natural beauty is a significant
point of pride and a major driver of the tourism
sector. The challenge for energy companies is
to maintain the balance between conservation
and the need for further development to power
a rapidly growing economy.
In a country like Brazil, it is difficult to
discuss energy generation without discuss-
ing the sustainable use of environmental
assets, said Izabella Teixeira, Brazils min-
ister of environment. We are working hard
in our ministries to develop a new environ-
mental agenda that takes into consideration
the challenges for our sustainable develop-
ment over the next 20 years.
The environmental question is very
important; we need to create a national
consensus on how to minimize costs and
how clean we want our energy to be, said
Charles Lenzi, president of the Brazilian
Association of Clean Energy Producers.
A major dilemma for power companies
is that much of the countrys unexploited
hydro potential lies along the Amazon
River, which is populated by a number of
endangered species and many indigenous
peoples. There has been international out-
cry over planned development of large-scale
hydroelectric dams, highlighted by the Belo
Monte controversy.
The Belo Monte dam, which is to be-
come the countrys second-largest hydro-
electric dam in installed capacity at almost
11,200 MW, has been in development since
the late 1970s but has continuously been
halted due to environmental concerns re-
garding the depletion of fisheries and the
resulting effect on the livelihood of the lo-
cal people, who rely on fishing for their in-
come. The construction phase was slated to
commence in late 2011, but in September
2011, a judge barred any activity related to
building a port, using explosives, installing
dikes, building canals and any other infra-
structure work that would interfere with the
natural flow of the Xingu river, thereby af-
fecting local fish stocks.
Though the project is supported by the
Brazilian government, it remains to be seen
whether or not the dam will go forward as
planned.
The fault does not lie with the regulatory
system or the companies themselves, accord-
ing to Juan Piazza, CEO of environmental
consultancy JGP Consultoria, which devel-
ops environmental assessments and biodi-
versity surveys for the energy industry. The
environmental permitting system for hydro-
power projects in Brazil is adequate, and the
quality of environmental assessments has
improved significantly. Hydropower project
developers need to invest up front on project
engineering and environmental assessments.
Once preliminary permits are obtained, proj-
ects are opened to bidding through auction
and all front-end costs, previously audited by
the regulatory agency, are passed on to the
winning bidder. Hence, it is in the interest of
the front-end developer to produce a high-
February 2012
|
POWER IN BRAZIL
quality assessment, ensuring that a permit will
be obtained.
However, there is room for improvement,
particularly with respect to the assessment of
social impacts. JGPs Piazza noted: In Bra-
zil the social aspects of impact assessments
are frequently downplayed.
Thus, it falls upon companies themselves
to prioritize corporate social responsibility.
As a part of the environmental impact as-
sessments that Habtec does for different sec-
tors, we have to propose a social project to
attend to the needs of the community, said
Guaraci Sathler, the companys executive
director. According to Sathler, Habtec dedi-
cates a specialized, in-house team to attend
to the social impact assessments as part of its
environmental work.
Wind engineering firm Mercurius, an
award winner for its community work, be-
lieves that it is essential that companies take
into consideration the effect that develop-
ment will have on local communities. Ac-
cording to Bonorandi, the companys CEO,
It is important to help the community in
simple ways; for example, when we use con-
crete for the bases, we can also build a play
area for children or help a church to rebuild.
As a construction company, we are the first to
get in and the last to get out. Two years ago,
Mercurius won recognition for our help with
the locals. We try to see what we can do for
the community at no extra cost. The commu-
nity is very happy with this partnership, and
happy to see that Mercurius is not just there
to build and get out. Of course we have to do
good work and have competitive pricing, but
we believe that if you have this philosophy,
then it is much better for us as the company
and for our clients.
Odebrecht Energias Valladares highlight-
ed his companys commitment to community
development, as one of the largest construc-
tors of large-scale hydroelectric projects:
The social and economic join the environ-
mental challenge. The commitment to the
development of areas in which Odebrecht
operates and the efforts for the interaction of
Odebrecht in these communities are part of
our culture and integrated into the companys
business.
Odebrechts Programa Acreditar (Aspire
Program) trains professionals to work in
the construction industry and promotes the
inclusion of local communities in the labor
market. Initially developed for the large-
scale Santo Antonio project, the program
is now replicated throughout Odebrechts
projects in Brazil and abroad. Today, more
than 104,000 people subscribe from 17 states
across the country. Valladares said: The
program was the result of a R$25 million
investment, and it emerged from a survey in
Porto Velho which underlined the low avail-
ability of skilled manpower to meet the great
demand that the construction of the Santo
Antonio hydroelectric plant would generate.
To prevent a flow of migrants and its poten-
tial social impact, Odebrecht developed the
project in February 2008. Today, 80% of the
approximately 17,000 workers employed are
residents of Rondonia, and in addition, about
10% are women.
Ricardo Botelho, CEO of Energisa, one of
the largest electricity distributors in the de-
veloping northeast region, believes that his
company has a role to play in the economic
growth of the area. Energisa is involved in
many different areas; for example, if some-
one wants to set up industry in our areas, we
are quick to provide the infrastructure. We
help the state in promoting areas, and have
activities in social responsibility. We are at
almost 100% already in rural electrification.
We have a strong presence in culture and
believe that it can move economics. In a dry
area of the northeast, people were stealing
energy to provide water, so Energisa went
beyond our charter to set up a new irrigation
system to save them money.
As Brazilian energy companies work to-
wards the development of environmentally
and socially sustainable projects in more
remote regions, the need to preserve Bra-
zils natural resources and habitats is be-
coming increasingly apparent. According
to Piazza of JGP, the regulations regard-
ing environmental and social impact as-
sessments are becoming more demanding.
Some people believe regulation swings
like a pendulum, he said. My view is that
it is a linear process, where everything is
getting more rigorous and professional. I
do not see requirements in Brazil being re-
laxed, only increased. The environmental
and social aspects of projects are coming
to be seen as strategically important, and
project developers are becoming increas-
ingly competent in dealing with them.
The responsible development of Brazils
energy industry lies with both the govern-
ment and the private sector. As the country
continues to experience rapid growth and
urbanization, public and private participa-
tion remains essential for Brazil to provide
sustainable power to meet the demands of its
flourishing economy.
Written and researched by Clotilde
Bonetto Gandolfi, Angela Harmantas, and
Ovidio Soler-Leonarte of Global Business
Reports (info@gbreports.com).
|
February 2012 74
Colstrips Cure for Mercury
In January 2012 a new mercury control system at the Colstrip power plant in
Montana reached its first major milestone: two years of operation with
mercury emissions below the state regulatory limit. The plant uses Als-
toms unique Mer-Cure technology to capture up to 90% of the mercury
leaving the stack.
By John J. Iovino and Richard LaFlesh, Alstom Power
L
ike many power plants in the U.S.,
the Colstrip power station in Mon-
tanaowned by PPL Montana LLC
(a subsidiary of PPL Generation LLC),
Puget Sound Energy Inc., Portland Gen-
eral Electric Co., Avista Corp., PacifiCorp,
and NorthWestern Energy LLChas had
to comply with new legislation that sets
limits for mercury (Hg) emissions. When
the state adopted the Montana Mercury
Rule in 2006, annual mercury emissions
were limited to no more than 0.9 pounds of
mercury per trillion Btu (lb/TBtu) of heat
input for units firing subbituminous coal.
Faced with having to capture up to 90%
of mercury in the coal, the plant owners
contracted Alstom Power to test and install
its Mer-Cure technology on all four of the
stations units.
As of January 2012, the new system
achieved a significant milestone: two
years of operation with rolling 12-month
average mercury emissions below the state
regulatory limit.
Varying Amounts of Mercury
The Colstrip power plant, located east of
Billings, is the second-largest coal-fired
project west of the Mississippi. It compris-
es four coal-fired generating units capable
of producing close to 2,100 MW. Units 1
and 2 began commercial operation in 1975
and 1976; Units 3 and 4 started in 1984
and 1986. Units 1 and 2 both have about
310 MW generating capacity. Units 3 and
4 have about 740 MWe net of generating
capacity each (Figure 1).
The plant sits next to the Western En-
ergy Co. Rosebud mine, a 25,000-acre sur-
face mine complex in the northern Powder
River Basin (PRB) near Colstrip, Mont.,
and the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reser-
vation. Rosebud is a large operation with
three active pits; it supplies almost all of
its current production to Colstrip.
Although coal chemical composition is
generally consistent from this expansive mine,
coal mercury content varies substantially. Units
3 and 4 can go from 5 to 10 lb/TBtu Hg.
Mercury Control Methods
A variety of methods for mercury capture
and control in coal-fired power plants are
being developed and demonstrated to meet
current and impending mercury emission
regulations. These technologies include
powdered activated carbon (PAC) injec-
tion, and coal and flue gas additives with
subsequent capture in backend equipment.
PAC injection has been evaluated exten-
sively over the past several years and is one
of the methods required by several state
regulators to meet mercury regulations
for retrofits to existing coal-fired power
plants as well as new coal-fired units. PAC
injection will also be a technology option
for utility compliance with the U.S. Envi-
ronmental Protection Agencys Maximum
Available Control Technology rules.
Alstom Power has developed several tech-
nologies for mercury control in coal-fired
boilers, including its patented Mer-Cure
enhanced sorbent injection system. The
Mer-Cure technology (Figure 2) has been de-
veloped based on a fundamental mechanistic
understanding of mercury oxidation and cap-
ture. The technology has progressed through
well-controlled laboratory-scale testing,
1. High plains plant. The Colstrip plant
is the second-largest coal-fired facility west of
the Mississippi. It burns one rail cars worth of
coal every five minutes. Courtesy: PPL Corp.
2. Mer-Cure system technology. Mer-Cure uniformly injects online processed sorbent
upstream of the air preheater. Source: Alstom Power
Hg
Coal
Preheated air
Air heater
Sorbent processor
Sorbent
Mer-Cure
Sorbent
storage
silo
Gravimetric
feeder
Pressurized
air
Particulate
collection
device
Hg Air
February 2012
|
pilot-scale testing, Department of Energy/
National Energy Technology Laboratory
sponsored full-scale test programs, and fi-
nally through commercial demonstrations in
pulverized coal-fired boilers.
The Mer-Cure system has several unique
features to enhance its mercury control per-
formance. First, it can utilize both treated and
untreated activated carbon-based sorbents de-
signed to accelerate mercury oxidation and/
or to adsorb oxidized mercury. The design
has the flexibility to accommodate a broad
range of commercially available sorbents, as
demonstrated by several commercial-scale
demonstration test programs. This feature
provides utilities a range of choice in select-
ing sorbent suppliers.
Second, the system employs a unique
injection methodology designed to de-
crease any limitations of mercury vapor
to sorbent mass transfer. This is accom-
plished by deagglomerating the sorbent
into individual particles and uniformly
distributing them at an altered size distri-
bution to the flue gas flow based on local
flow conditions. A sorbent processor has
been integrated into the Mer-Cure equip-
ment to achieve this desired effect.
Field data has shown that the Mer-Cure
processing attribute can reduce PAC con-
sumption by about 50%, compared with
more conventional PAC injection systems.
Figure 3 illustrates a comparison in sorbent
feed rates required to achieve similar Hg
capture levels. When the Mer-Cure processor
was bypassed, 450 lb/hr of sorbent was re-
quired. When the Mer-Cure system was op-
erated with the processor in service, the PAC
consumption rate was reduced to 250 lb/hr
for the same Hg reduction. The resultant 40%
reduction in PAC consumption can substan-
tially reduce system operating cost.
The third distinct feature of Mer-Cure is
that the sorbent is injected into an ideal
temperature location, which allows early
contact with the elemental mercury. Unlike
more conventional PAC injection systems,
the Mer-Cure system injects the sorbent
into the duct upstream of the air heaters.
This enables maximum utilization of the
entire effective temperature range for oxi-
dation with the added sorbent.
When applied to coal-fired power gen-
eration, Mer-Cure is a cost-effective mer-
cury control technology for the entire
range of bituminous and subbituminous
coals, as well as more challenging coals
such as PRB and lignite. It has low capi-
tal costs ($5/kW to $10/kW) and requires
a very small amount of sorbent for treat-
ment, which results in low operating costs
and minimal balance-of-plant impact.
As the technology is based on the oxi-
dation and adsorption of mercury, it is also
applicable to all air pollution control config-
urations, including scrubbers, spray dryers,
electrostatic precipitators, and fabric filters.
The retrofit of the Mer-Cure system at
Colstrip included pre-installation testing
with a portable mobile Mer-Cure system
(Figure 4). This allowed the utility to ob-
serve system operation, assess mercury
reduction performance, and compare the
performance of commercially available
sorbents before installation of a commer-
cial Mer-Cure system.
Demonstration tests were conducted on
both Units 2 and 3 in 2007 and 2008. The
goal of this test campaign was to demon-
strate that a particular combination of pre-
combustion oxidizer and/or PAC would
result in stack mercury levels below 0.9
lb/TBtu, which equated to a performance
requirement of up to 90% mercury capture
based on measured mercury levels. Test
data confirmed that Mer-Cure and a pre-
combustion oxidizer could meet Montana
regulatory requirements.
Short-Term Parametric Testing
Application of a higher concentration of pre-
combustion oxidizer results in a substantial
reduction in measured stack total gaseous
3. Feed rate. This chart shows mercury reduction vs. sorbent injection rate with and without
the Mer-Cure processor. The processor delivers the same performance with 40% reduction in
sorbent flow. Source: Alstom Power
I
n
c
r
e
a
s
i
n
g

m
e
r
c
u
r
y

c
a
p
t
u
r
e
Sorbent feed rate (lb/MMacf at AH outlet conditions)
Sorbent feed rate (lb/hr)
0
0
2 4 6 8 10 12
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Economizer outlet CMM to stack CMM
= 40%
Process or
bypass
4. Mercury falling. Pre-installation testing showed that there was enhanced utilization
of sorbent with Mer-Cure technology, using high-temperature injection before the air heater.
Source: Alstom Power
T
o
t
a
l

H
g

(
g
/
m
3
)
9:00
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00
Baseline Start 100 lb/hr 150
lb/hr
Change
30
lb/hr
15
lb/hr
60 lb/hr 150
lb/hr
Hg(T)-ESP out
Hg(T)-ESP in
Capture in the ESP
Capture across
the air heater
Hg(T)-AH in
Time
|
February 2012 76
mercury levels. Mercury compliance levels
can be met by varying PAC injection rate
and/or pre-combustion oxidizer application
rate. This approach is useful to optimize per-
formance with variations in raw coal Hg con-
tent occurring on a daily basis.
Unit size also has an effect on Hg capture,
so a field test prior to contract execution is
recommended for identifying unit-specific
requirements for system design and PAC
and/or pre-oxidizer consumption rates in or-
der to ensure compliance with environmental
regulations.
Results show that, regardless of unit size, in-
creasing the application rate of pre-combustion
oxidizer and/or PAC reduces stack Hg emis-
sions and offers plant operators additional tun-
ing knobs to improve the cost-effectiveness of
the Hg reduction process or to account for varia-
tion in raw coal mercury content. All the tested
conditions resulted in Hg emissions well below
the 0.9 lb/TBtu level (Figure 5).
Testing on Unit 1 demonstrated how daily
changes in coal quality can dramatically af-
fect the amount of pre-combustion oxidizer
and/or PAC required to meet stack mercury
compliance levels (Figure 6). With all boiler
operation and coal sources remaining con-
stant, a considerable drop in raw coal Hg
content allowed for substantially reduced
usage of the additive materials. Variations in
raw coal Hg content frequently occur. PAC
injection rate is adjusted automatically by
the control system to maintain the stack Hg
emissions within compliance.
A brief parametric test was also con-
ducted on Unit 1 to assess the value of us-
ing the Mer-Cure processor (Figure 7). In
this test, the Mer-Cure system was oper-
ated normally with the processor in ser-
vice. This resulted in a stack total mercury
emission level of 0.60 lb/TBtu at the PAC
usage rate of 30 lb/hr. The processor was
then taken out of service (bypassed), and a
substantial increase in stack Hg level was
noted. The PAC rate was then increased to
obtain a comparable 0.60 lb/TBtu level.
The difference in PAC rate required to
achieve the same stack Hg level would in-
dicate that use of the Mer-Cure processor
allows the plant to use 50% less PAC than
would be required if a conventional PAC
system were used.
The entire Colstrip site consumed ap-
proximately 1.2 million pounds of PAC
in the first quarter of 2010 with the com-
mercial Mer-Cure system (Figure 7). Es-
timates indicate that PAC usage would
approximately double if a nonMer-Cure
system were employed. For example, with
a PAC delivered cost of $1.00/lb, the plant
using Mer-Cure technology potentially re-
duces operation and maintenance costs of
mercury compliance by $1.2 million per
quarter, or roughly $4.8 million annually.
Long-Term Operating Experience
During the first year of operation, the
daily variations in total stack gaseous mer-
cury levels were monitored using the stack
CMM system on all four units at Colstrip.
These variations, largely attributable to
variations in raw coal mercury content, re-
quired the plant to frequently adjust PAC
and pre-combustion oxidizer feed rate(s)
in order to meet the required compliance
level of 0.9 lb/TBtu on a rolling 12-month
average basis. The reported data after two
full years of operation have confirmed that
the plant maintains compliance with the
Montana Mercury Rule adopted in 2006
and promulgated as Administrative Rule
of Montana 17.8.771.
Here are some observations from long-
term operation:
Erosion was observed on a limited number
of components initially. Upgraded materi-
als were installed and are reliable to date.
PAC and flow rate variability were ob-
served; tuning of the gravimetric feed sys-
tem is critical to stable operation.
Stack mercury CMM operation requires
considerable maintenance. The plant has
several staff dedicated to ensuring func-
tionality of the four stack CMMs.
PAC was initially observed to be contami-
nated by foreign objects (likely during
shipping), which can cause equipment
damage. Rocks were found in some of the
delivered PAC but have not been observed
since system initial startup.
Opacity average increases of approxi-
mately 0% to 2% were noted.
In combination with a pre-combustion
oxidizer, the Mer-Cure system has been
in service since January 2010 and has en-
abled Colstrip to comply with the state of
Montanas mercury limits. The field results
prove that Mer-Cure is an effective tool in
the global drive to cut mercury emissions
from coal-fired plants.
Mer-Cure technology is currently protect-
ed by several U.S. patents. The most recent,
U.S. Patent Number 8,069,797 issued by the
U.S. Patent and Trademark Office on Dec. 6,
2011, covers technology to improve the per-
formance of activated carbon injection for
control of mercury emission through injec-
tion upstream of the air heater.
John J. Iovino (john.iovina@power
.alstom.com) is product manager and
Richard LaFlesh (richard.laflesh@
power.alstom.com) is principal consult-
ing engineer for Alstom Power.
S
t
a
c
k
i
n
g

t
o
t
a
l

(
l
b
/
T
B
t
u
)
0 50 100 150 200 250
PAC injection rate (lb/hr)
300 350 400 450 500 550 600
0.90
Unit #1 (310 MWe-net)
Unit #3 (740 MWe-net)
106 ppm Br 130 ppm Br
5. Going down. Tests on units of differ-
ent sizes confirmed that increasing the ap-
plication rate of pre-combustion oxidizer and/
or PAC reduces stack Hg emissions. Source:
Alstom Power
6. Variables. A significant drop in raw coal
mercury content allowed for substantially re-
duced usage of the additive materials. Source:
Alstom Power
0 10 20 30 40 50
PAC injection rate (lb/hr)
60 70 80 90
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
S
t
a
c
k
i
n
g

t
o
t
a
l

(
l
b
/
T
B
t
u
)
Coal quality change
83 ppm Br (6.0 gph oxidizer)
0 20 40
(lb/hr)
60 80 100
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
S
t
a
c
k
i
n
g

t
o
t
a
l

(
l
b
/
T
B
t
u
)
Processed
PAC rate
Avg. Hg total
120
PAC rate required
with processor
bypassed
7. Rate gain. Without the Mer-Cure pro-
cessor, achieving the same level of mercury
reduction requires much more PAC injection.
Source: Alstom Power
February 2012
|
PLANT DESIGN
Condenser Backpressure High?
Check Vacuum System Sizing
In a power plant, the primary use of vacuum systems is to remove air and
other noncondensable gases from the shell side of the condenser in order
to maintain design heat transfer and thus design vacuum. If holding con-
denser vacuum is a persistent problem, one often-overlooked cause is an
inadequately sized vacuum system.
By S. Zaheer Akhtar, PE and Magdy Mahmoud, Power Generation Engineering and Services Co., Cairo
T
he primary application of vacuum
systems in the power generation in-
dustry is for the evacuation of air
and other noncondensable gases from the
shell side and the waterbox side of a steam
surface condenser. On the shell side, the
vacuum equipment is used for two pur-
poses: rapid evacuation of air to reduce
condenser pressure before steam turbine
start, the hogging mode, or for continu-
ous removal of air and associated water
vapor from the main condenser when the
steam turbine is in operation, the holding
mode.
The removal of air and other noncondens-
able gases from the condenser shell side is
required for proper heat transfer from steam
to cooling water in the condenser and, thus,
to maintain high vacuum in the condenser.
This, in turn, enhances the amount of energy
extracted from the steam exhausted from the
steam turbine and increases the plants en-
ergy production. Without a vacuum system,
air and other noncondensable gases would
severely reduce the heat transfer in the con-
denser, and the plant would require a con-
denser with significantly more surface area
for the same thermal load.
This article provides plant designers
with an understanding of published design
standards for air-venting equipment used
in condenser shell side applications and the
vacuum system sizing methodology used by
equipment suppliers.
Vacuum System Standards
The Heat Exchange Institutes (HEIs) Stan-
dards for Steam Surface Condensers provides
clear directions on capacity requirements for
venting equipment when operating in either
holding or hogging modes. The capacity in
the holding mode is more critical, as it has a
direct effect on megawatt generation.
The HEI recommends that the capacity of
venting equipment in the holding mode be
no less than the values shown in [HEIs] Ta-
ble 9 at the design suction pressure to ensure
adequate removal capacity under commer-
cial operating conditions. The HEI defines
the design suction pressure for electric gen-
eration service as 1.0 inch HgA or the con-
denser design pressure, whichever is lower.
In addition, the HEI states that the satura-
tion temperature of the gas vapor mixture
must be considered as the steam temperature
corresponding to the design pressure of the
venting equipment less the greater of 7.5F or
0.25 (T
sat
T
cw,inlet
). T
sat
is the saturation tem-
perature of the liquid in the condenser at the
given vacuum, and T
cw,inlet
is the temperature
of the incoming cooling water.
The values found in HEIs Table 9 cor-
respond to dry air as well as the air-vapor
mixture at design parameters of 1 inch HgA
and 71.5F, which corresponds to the 7.5F dif-
ferential (subcooling) described above. If the
subcooling is less than 7.5F, then the vacuum
pump duty increases accordingly. Note that
the design conditions selected by the HEI
are used to physically size the venting equip-
ment; actual operating conditions are not
necessarily the same. However, such sizing
conditions are stipulated in equipment pur-
chase agreements to ensure that the venting
equipment capacity is adequate under com-
mercial operating conditions where air in-
leakage can be expected and subcooling may
not be as low as 7.5F.
The methodology for selecting vent
equipment capacity from the HEIs Table
9 is explained in the HEI standards and
should be carefully followed. In general,
the standard is based on the number of
openings exhausting steam to the condens-
er and the effective steam flow through
each opening. Note that the German VGB
code is significantly different regarding
the requirement for air-venting equip-
ment (Figure 1). In fact, the VGB code
is approximately 50% less stringent than
the HEI standard requirements. Your pur-
chase specification should clearly indicate
whether the equipment should meet the
HEI standards or the VGB code.
1. Pick your standard. The Heat Exchange Institute (HEI) standards and the German
VGB code have significantly different dry-air vent requirements for vacuum equipment. Source:
Gardner Denver Nash
30
20
10
5
3
2
1
2 10 20 50 100 200 500 1,000 2,000
61.2
40.8
20.4
10.2
4.08
2.04
M
a
s
s

f
l
o
w

(
k
g
/
h
r
)
Condenser steam flow (tons/hr)
V
o
l
u
m
e

f
l
o
w

(
s
c
f
m

d
r
y
)
HEI
VGB
|
February 2012 78
PLANT DESIGN
Air-Venting Devices
The three most common vacuum-producing
devices are steam-jet air ejectors (SJAE, also
called air jet ejectors), liquid ring vacuum
pumps (LRVP), and a hybrid of ejector and
pump. The application of SJAEs requires
motive steam, so in many plants the electric
motor-driven vacuum pump is generally fa-
vored. LRVPs are simple, reliable, low-speed
devices with only one rotating part, and they
can handle condensable vapors or even slugs
of entrained liquid without damage to the
pump. The hybrid helps in reducing the size
of the vacuum pump.
The LRVP is a rotary displacement pump
using liquid as the principal element in gas
compression performed in a single stage or
two stages (Figure 2). Compression is per-
formed by the liquid ring using the relative
eccentricity between the casing and a rotating
multi-bladed impeller. A portion of the liquid
in the casing is continuously discharged with
the gas, collected in a separator vessel, and
cooled in a heat exchanger. The cooled liquid
is introduced back to the pump casing to re-
move the heat of compression. In power plant
applications, the vacuum pump seal water is
usually demineralized water from the con-
densate transfer system.
Proof that the pump is adequately sized is
based on an acceptance test conducted by the
pump vendor in the vendors shop. The accep-
tance test is performed on dry air at various
suction pressures and under ambient condi-
tions present at the test location. Atmospheric
air at normal room temperature is considered
dry air because the small weight of water va-
por present in ambient air is insignificant.
The pump performance curve generated dur-
ing the acceptance test is displayed on a perfor-
mance graph, typically displaying inlet pressure
(mbar) versus the pump capacity (m
3
/min) at
specified seal water temperatures. This pump
capacity must be adequate to meet the require-
ments of the HEIs Table 9. However, a problem
arises because the acceptance test is based on
dry air only, whereas the HEI gives values for
air-water mixture, which represents the realis-
tic conditions expected during plant operation,
given the much higher moisture content inside
the condenser than in atmospheric air used dur-
ing factory tests. Consequently, the pump test
results must be adjusted for the air-water mix-
ture case, or the HEI values have to be adjusted
for a proper comparison.
Effect of Saturated Air-Water Mixture.
The saturated air-water mixture tends to in-
crease the capacity of the pump, whereas
dry air constrains the pump capacity. This
effect is caused when the pump is handling
an air-water mixture: Some of the incoming
vapors are condensed due to the cooler seal
water, thus allowing more room in the impel-
ler bucket to handle more of the incoming
mixture. To a lesser degree, dry air becomes
instantly saturated by evaporating the sealing
water in the pumps impeller bucket space,
effectively restricting pump capacity.
Some pump vendors have published
charts indicating the capacity increase with
air-water mixtures. The amount of increased
capacity is generally related to the pump in-
let pressure, the temperature of the incoming
mixture, and the temperature of seal water.
Effect of Seal Water Temperature. Pump
capacity is decreased if the seal water tem-
perature experienced during actual operation is
higher than design or that used for pump testing.
In this case, the test capacity has to be adjusted
by the vendor-published factor for seal water
temperature variation. Another option is to ad-
just the HEI correction factors.
High seal water temperatures affect the capa-
bility of the pump, as it is no longer able to attain
low suction pressures. This is due to the increase
in vapor pressure of the hot seal water, which
begins to flash and cavitate the pump as suction
pressure decreases. Cavitation in the pump cas-
ing can cause high vibration and could lead to
damage to pump internals.
Factory Tests Versus
HEI Requirements
As an example of the differences, consider
the following test data taken during a vacuum
pump factory test:
During factory tests, the vacuum pump
capacity on dry air was 29 m
3
/min at 33.9
mbar, with seal water at 25C (the same as
that expected in actual operation).
The HEI vacuum pump capacity require-
ment (Table 9) is 15 standard cubic feet per
minute (scfm) dry air at 1 inch HgA and
71.5F, which is equivalent to 67.5 lb/hr (30.6
kg/h) of dry air and 148.5 lb/hr (67.4 kg/hr)
of water vapor at 1 inch HgA and 71.5F.
A quick review of the above data confirms
that it is not a straightforward exercise to com-
pare the pump test results with HEI require-
ments. A proper comparison requires that either
the HEI requirement for air-water mixture be
decreased (to account for condensation of part
of the water vapor inside the pump casing) and
then compared with the pump test result, or that
the pump test result be increased for handling an
air-water mixture and then compared against the
HEI requirements.
In either case, specific correction factors
from the pump vendors are required, and
these factors must be correctly used as in-
tended by the vendor. The next section will
continue this example by demonstrating how
the pump test results should be compared
with the HEI requirements.
Comparing Calculations
The methodology for comparing vacuum
pump test results with the HEI requirements
is reasonably straightforward. HEI require-
ments for vacuum pump capacity for 15 scfm
(see above) can be found using the following
calculations:
Amount of dry air = 30.6 kg/hr, equivalent
to 30.6/29 = 1.055 kg-moles/hr, where 29
is the molecular weight of dry air.
Amount of water vapor = 67.4 kg/hr, equiva-
2. Pulling a vacuum. A typical liquid ring vacuum pump with separator vessel and seal
water cooler. Courtesy: Bechtel Power Corp.
Pump
Separator
Seal water cooler
February 2012
|
PLANT DESIGN
lent to 67.4/18 = 3.744 kg-moles/hr, where
18 is the molecular weight of water vapor.
Total number of kg-moles/hr = 1.055 +
3.744 = 4.799 kg-moles/hr.
Units conversion: 4.799 kg-moles/hr x
22.4 = 107.49 standard cubic meters/hr.
Units conversion: Convert standard cubic
meters to pump test suction conditions
of 33.9 mbar pressure and 20C: 107.49 x
(1,013/33.9) x (293/273) x (1/60) = 57.455
m
3
/min. Note: 33.9 mbar = 1 inch of mer-
cury and 1 atm = 1,013 mbar.
Pump test results provide the following data:
The capacity of the vacuum pump was 29
m
3
/min at 33.9 mbar and 20C.
The seal water temperature was 25C, the
same as expected during plant operation.
It appears that the HEI requirement for air
removal is not being met, as the HEI standard
requires a pump capacity of 57.455 m
3
/min.
The test results found the pump capacity was
only 29 m
3
/min. The pump capacity, which
is unknown by most designers, must now be
adjusted by a pump-specific condensation
bonus factor, which provides added pump
capacity due to moisture condensation inside
the pump casing.
For example, if a condensation bonus factor
of 0.5 is used, then 57.455 x 0.5 = 28.7 m
3
/min,
and because this value is equal to or exceeded
by the pump test capacity of 29 m
3
/min, the HEI
requirement is considered to be met.
In other words, the pump capacity is gov-
erned by the value of the condensation bonus
correction factor that is determined by the
pump vendor. This factor is generally pro-
prietary to each vendor and difficult for the
purchaser to verify, especially if these factors
are not published. Note that the condensa-
tion bonus factor for LRVPs is applied to the
volumetric flow and not the mass flow.
Hybrid Arrangements
In the hybrid arrangement, an air jet ejector is
used as the first stage of the unit (Figure 3).
The ejector uses part of the pump discharge
air as the motive air, and the ejector discharge
is directed to the inlet of the vacuum pump.
Consequently, the first-stage ejector boosts
the pump suction pressure, thus requiring a
smaller pump with lower operating/capital
costs.
The first-stage ejector also helps to mini-
mize pump cavitation, as the pump is no lon-
ger operating at low suction pressures, which
could cause vaporization of the seal fluid
within the pump casing. Cavitation occurs
at low suction pressures and high seal water
temperatures.
In the hybrid arrangement, the air removal
capacity is governed by the mass flow capa-
bility through the ejector, and the condensa-
tion bonus discussed above is not directly
applicable to this equipment arrangement.
However, a different type of condensation
bonus is used, taking advantage of a few de-
grees of adiabatic cooling within the ejector,
which reduces the water vapor load. This, in
turn, reduces the loading on the downstream
vacuum pump. Note that the amount of adia-
batic cooling within the ejector is empirical
and can vary from vendor to vendor. The
water vapor loading is directly related to the
temperature and can be determined as (18/29)
x (P
w
/P
t
P
w
), where P
t
is the total pressure
associated with dry air plus water vapor and
P
w
is the saturation pressure of water vapor at
a reduced temperature inside the ejector.
The HEI standard requires removal of wa-
ter vapor plus dry air while the ejector-pump
system test is carried out with dry air at 33.9
mbar and room temperature. However, the
effective water vapor loading inside the ejec-
tor is reduced due to cooling while the dry air
loading remains the same. Therefore, for con-
sistent comparison of test results against the
standards, the reduced vapor loading in the
ejector is first converted to equivalent mass of
dry air (by multiplying by a ratio of air-water
molecular weights: 29/18), and the original
amount of dry air specified in the standard
is added to it. This total mass amount (kg/hr)
is then converted to standard volumetric flow
(m
3
/hr) and adjusted to pump test pressure/
temperature conditions for direct comparison
to the dry-air test results.
Closing Thoughts
The HEI standards stipulate the capacity re-
quirement for air-venting equipment for the
condenser. However, equipment provided by
the vendor is generally sized at a somewhat
lower capacity, taking into consideration the
condensation bonus. It is difficult for the end
user to verify the condensation bonus, as it is
generally proprietary and specific to the ven-
dors equipment. However, vendors should
be asked to justify, with data, their selection
of the condensation bonus for your project. If
the condensation bonus selected by the equip-
ment vendor is too optimistic, proper venting
of the condenser will not occur, and design
heat transfer rates may not be achieved.
S. Zaheer Akhtar, PE (szakhtar@
bechtel.com) is technical advisor to the
manager of engineering on assignment
from Bechtel Power Corp. to Power
Generation Engineering and Services Co.
(PGESCo). Magdy Mahmoud is manager of
engineering for PGESCo, Cairo, Egypt.
3. Best of both worlds. This schematic shows a hybrid arrangement using an air ejector
and a vacuum pump. Source: Bechtel Power Corp.
Suction from
condenser
Jet ejector
Motive air
Discharge to
atmosphere
Air-washer
separator
Pump
Seal water cooler
Seal water return to pump
For More Information
Additional information on vacuum system
design requirements is available from:
Heat Exchange Institute, Standards for
Steam Surface Condensers, 10th ed.
Heat Exchange Institute, Performance
Standard for Liquid Ring Vacuum
Pumps, 3rd ed.
Dekker Vacuum Technologies, Effect
of Saturated Air Service on Capacity of
Liquid Ring Vacuum Pumps.
Gardner Denver Nash, Vacuum Systems
Handbook, 2006.
|
February 2012 80
Avoiding Flow-Induced Sympa-
thetic Vibration in Control Valves
Compressible fluid flow through control valves will inevitably cause some
form of flow-induced vibration in the fluid system. Identifying the type
and cause of the vibration requires detective work. Determining the de-
sign changes required in the valve and fluid system to prevent the vibra-
tion from occurring requires advanced analytical techniques.
By Asher Glaun, PE, GE Energy
T
here are very good reasons for power
plant designers to specify reciprocating
control valves oriented in the flow-to-
open direction (flow tending to lift the plug)
where compressible fluids are involved. One
good reason is that this configuration allows
the use of noise-abatement trims, such as
drilled-hole cages and tortuous path stacks.
Another application advantage is to protect a
compressor from surges by allowing the flow
to lift the plug and open the valve in the event
of stem or actuator failure (Figure 1).
There can, however, be unintended, and
unwelcome, consequences. Under certain
conditions, low-pressure cells will detach
from the valve body wall, creating eddies
that are carried downstream with the flow
until they dissipate. These eddies produce
periodic pressure pulsations that can damage
the valve trim and body, leading to unplanned
and costly downtime for repairs.
Although there are many forms of vibra-
tion present in a typical power plant, this
article focuses on the cause of flow-induced
sympathetic vibration (see sidebar). In addi-
tion, it discusses the interaction of the fluid
with the valve trim, using computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) to analyze the fluid flow in
the valve under real-world conditions. Strate-
gies to help prevent vibration and resulting
performance problems are also offered.
Flow-Induced Vortex Formation
In applications incorporating an in-line globe
valve oriented in the flow-to-open direction,
the process fluid has to negotiate the turn as
it approaches the valve trim. This produces
a low-pressure region adjacent to the seat
ring (Figure 2). The severity of the decrease
in pressure depends on the valve geometry,
fluid velocity, and fluid properties.
Under certain conditionswhen the pres-
sure becomes low enough and the velocity is
high enoughthe low-pressure region will
detach from the valve body wall, enter the
free stream, and form a free eddy. These ed-
dies are continuously created, even under
steady state flow conditions, and are similar
to the von Krmn street vortices shed be-
1. Flow-to-open cutaway. Control
valves equipped with noise-abatement trim,
such as a drilled-hole cage or a tortuous path
stack, are typically oriented in the flow-to-open
direction. This orientation maximizes noise at-
tenuation by allowing the expanding gases to
exit the valve trim and continue downstream
without re-converging through the valves
seat ring, as would happen if the flow direc-
tion were reversed. Source: GE Energy
Sources of Vibration in Valves
Control valve vibration may be caused by
many factors, some generated internally by
the process stream and others generated ex-
ternally. Some of the different forms of flow-
induced vibration are explained below.
Process Stream Energy Release. A
flowing process contains considerable en-
ergy, a portion of which is released during its
journey through a valve. The released energy
takes the form of fluid turbulence, viscous
drag, generated noise flow instabilities, and
other forms of released energy. The released
energy also interacts with the valve trim and
may cause noticeable vibration.
Upstream Equipment Pulsations.
Compressors, pumps, and other upstream
equipment generate mechanical vibration
and pressure pulsations that interact with
other process equipment and piping in the
system. This vibration energy is efficiently
carried downstream by the piping system.
In addition, pipe configurations such as
elbows and tees upstream of the valve can
create swirling flows and introduce turbu-
lence, which may affect the valve.
Pipeline Resonance. Pipelines with long
runs between supports can resonate at the
first or second bending mode of the system,
vibrating up and down in a U or S shape.
Higher-order pipe natural modes (radial and
circumferential) may also be excited. These
natural modes can be excited by other vibra-
tion sources, causing vibration levels to build
up and affect process equipment and the sup-
porting structure.
Support Structure Vibration. Some form
of vibration is always present in a running
plant, but normally, it is not severe enough to
be problematic. However, if the support floor
resonates in tune with this vibration, the vi-
bration amplitude can increase to the point
where it may become destructive.
Acoustic Noise Creation. Very high
sound power levels can release enough en-
ergy to create serious valve vibration and,
in extreme cases, cause metal fatigue.
February 2012
|
hind a bluff body in a free stream.
The CFD pressure plots shown in Figure
2 and Figure 3 illustrate how these low-pres-
sure areas can be formed. Each shows natu-
ral gas flowing through a valve. Both valves
have the same mass flow and a pressure drop
ratio of approximately 2:1. The valve in Fig-
ure 2, however, is undersized, while the valve
in Figure 3 is adequately sized. In the under-
sized valve, flow velocity increases in the
valve inlet, creating a large low-pressure area
where detached vortices could form.
Identifying a potential source of eddies is
only half the battle, though; it says nothing
about the possibility of detachment or the
subsequent movement of the vortices. Flu-
ent CFD, using the detached eddy simula-
tion (DES) model illustrated in Figure 4, can
complete the analysis and help predict tran-
sient eddy detachment.
DES uses a transient (nonsteady) analysis in
combination with viscous turbulence to predict
the time-varying nature of the flow. This analy-
sis requires selecting very small time steps in
order for the CFD software to capture changes
in the fluid flow over time and show the eddies
forming and detaching. In this example, the
images showing contours of constant pressure
were taken at discrete time intervals roughly 0.4
milliseconds apart and show the low-pressure
eddies forming and then breaking away.
It is also important to note the pressure
pulsations that form inside the hollow cavity
of the valve plug. Many cage-guided valves,
such as compressor anti-surge valves and
main steam valves, have hollow plugs to re-
duce weight and balance the pressure across
the plug. The pressure pulsations create a
similar periodic forcing function inside the
hollow cavity of the valve plug.
Another unintended consequence of the
low-pressure zone, shown in Figure 2, is that
it effectively narrows the seat ring orifice, in-
creasing the pressure drop across the seat and
reducing the pressure drop across the valve
cage, thereby diminishing controllability and
reducing flow capacity. While acceptable re-
sults may be achieved through proper valve
sizing and noise calculation, these unfore-
seen phenomena must be understood to avoid
problems after installation.
In sum, the above analysis shows that vortex
shedding is generated by high-velocity flows
navigating sharp bends in valves, that vortex
shedding is periodic in nature, and that the
vortices interact with the valve trim. The next
question that must be answered is: Can vortex
shedding cause severe valve vibration?
Natural Frequency Resonance of
the Plug-Stem System
Figure 5 shows an idealized view of a soft
mass-spring systema control valve plug
at the end of a relatively slender valve stem.
The lateral modes of this assembly are not
allowed to develop, as the valve cage effec-
tively restricts the side-to-side motion of the
plug before any amplitude can build up. The
torsional first natural mode, however, is un-
constrained, as the plug rotates freely around
about the stem axis like a tetherball oscillat-
ing around the pole.
The top of the stem is held steady by the
actuator and is defined as the node of the sys-
tem, where the amplitude is zero. The bottom
of the system, at the plug, is defined as the
anti-node, where the amplitude is greatest.
Real-world valves include damping in the
form of valve stem packing friction, contact be-
tween the plug and the cage, and contact between
the stem and a guide bushing. Natural frequency
in a simple rod-mass system is inversely propor-
tional to the polar moment of inertia (plug mass
2. Undersized valve. A CFD pressure plot illustrates flow through an undersized valve
oriented in the flow-to-open direction. Note the large low-pressure zone adjacent to the valve
seat ring. Under certain conditions, this low-pressure region will detach from the valve body
wall, enter the free stream, and form a free eddy. Source: GE Energy
3. Adequately sized valve. A CFD pressure plot showing flow through an adequately
sized valve oriented in the flow-to-open direction. Note the absence of low-pressure zones.
Source: GE Energy
Flow
Low
pressure
area
Contours of static pressure (psi)
Contours of static pressure (psi)
Low
pressure
area
|
February 2012 82
at a certain radius) and directly proportional to
the square of the stem diameter.
Stem and plug systems in large control
valves generally have lower torsional mode
frequencies than do smaller valves and are,
therefore, more likely to be excited by the
valve flow. During excitation, very small dis-
placements will build up if insufficient damp-
ing is present, and once the amplitude builds,
it is very difficult to stop the motion.
It is important to note that although the
forces imparted by the pressure pulses are
very small, it is the sympathetic periodic
beating over a period of time that creates
the destructive vibration amplitude. Fric-
tional damping, such as that produced by the
control valve stem packing, can prevent the
buildup of amplitude but is not very effective
because the packing is close to the node of
the system (the top of the stem), where the
amplitude is at a minimum, and farthest away
from the plug, where motion is greatest.
As discussed earlier, the plug-stem system
can also be excited by other sources occur-
ring upstream of the valve, such as vibration
and pressure pulsations generated by com-
pressors and pumps.
The primary abatement strategies to a natu-
ral frequency response are source modifica-
tion and reducing structure sensitivity. Source
modification involves reducing the cause of
the vibration, such as fluid excitation. Reduc-
ing structure sensitivity involves changing the
design of the valve trim in order to make it less
sensitive to the fluid excitation.
Source Modification
As shown in Figures 2 and 3, lowering the inlet
velocity and reducing the swirl through the valve
body will lessen the severity of the low-pressure
zones as the flow negotiates the turn into the
seat ring. This lowers the turbulent energy in
the stream, which in turn lessens the magnitude
of the pressure pulsations produced by the de-
tached eddies. At a certain inlet velocity, vortex
production can even be eliminated. A properly
sized control valve can accomplish this.
Reducing the swirl in the upstream pip-
ing will reduce the overall turbulent energy in
the flow stream and is considered good design
practice. ANSI B31.1 2007 Appendix II recom-
mends that eight to 10 pipe diameters of straight
pipe run upstream of a safety relief valve in
order to prevent vibration caused by fluid-
structure interaction. Concentric reducers with
included angles of less than 15 degrees are also
recommended to reduce the turbulence of the
flow entering the valve.
Finally, protective plug caps can lessen the
effect of pressure pulsations within a hollow
plug (Figure 4) by preventing pressure pulsa-
tions from entering the plug cavity. These caps
also have the added benefit of transferring the
point of maximum turbulent energy from the
plug-cage interface, where it could cause the
most harm, to the tip of the plug cap (Figure 6).
Reducing Structure Sensitivity
Raising the natural frequency of the plug-stem
system will make it less sensitive to flow-
induced excitation by increasing the amount
of energy required to produce vibration ampli-
tude. There are two ways to change the natural
frequency of the system: reduce mass moment
of inertia and increase stiffness.
Reducing the inertia of the plug can be
readily accomplished by decreasing the
4. DES eddy. This series of images, captured during a detached eddy simulation (DES), shows
a low-pressure eddy forming and detaching from the valve body wall. Source: GE Energy
5. Mass spring system. A simplified torsional mass-spring system. Source: GE Energy
Actuator
Stem
d
L
Plug
where
I = Mass moment of inertia of the plug
k
y
= stem torsional spring constant
February 2012
|
plug wall thickness, but considerations of
plug strength and manufacturability limit
the usefulness of this approach.
Increasing the stiffness of the torsional
system can be achieved by increasing the
stem diameter. However, though this can
significantly increase natural frequency, it
is usually quite difficult to implement in
real-world applications because further
changes may be required to bonnets, pack-
ing, and possibly pressure vessel bolting.
Finally, the system can be desensitized
with damping. As with any free vibra-
tion system, the amplitude of the excita-
tion does not need to be very large to be
problematic; it only needs to be constant
and occur close to the natural frequency of
the system. The much-viewed footage of
the Tacoma Narrows Bridge, where gentle
pulsations led to the bridges destruction,
is a prime example of this phenomenon.
(The video can be viewed at http://tinyurl.
com/24fg4l.) When the motion is just be-
ginning, the amplitudes are very small and
even a very small amount of system damp-
ing in the form of nonreversible energy
drain can stop the motion. This can take
the form of mechanical friction between
parts or viscous damping.
Providing closer clearances between the plug
and cage, or even a seal ring near the bottom
of the plug, can provide the required damping.
For example, in a recent compressor anti-surge
valve application, the valve was fitted with a
plug cap and lower plug piston ring. The stem
diameter also was selected based on a strain en-
ergy evaluation. Together, these tactics reduced
the valve vibration energy by more than 50%.
It is important to note that the velocity or
kinetic energy of the process fluid in the cage
or stack has no impact on flow-induced sympa-
thetic vibration. In the flow-to-open direction,
the pressure pulsations caused by detached ed-
dies and turbulence from upstream equipment
and piping all occur before the process fluid en-
ters the valve cage or stack. For a specified mass
flow rate, selecting a cage or multi-stage stack
that further lowers acoustic noise or trim kinetic
energy will have no effect on valve vibration.
The abatement strategies outlined here are
meant to serve as guidelines and a starting point
for use in control system design and valve speci-
fication. Every valve application is, of course,
unique and should be reviewed by an experi-
enced valve application engineer to determine
the likelihood of sympathetic flow vibration and
identify the appropriate remedies.
Asher Glaun (asher.glaun@ge.com) is
a senior principal engineer in the Valve
Development department at GE Energy.
This article is based on a presentation
given at KCI Publishings Valve World 2010
Conference & Exhibition.
6. Plug cap reduces turbulence. This pair of images shows the effect of a plug cap on redistributing turbulent energy. In the valve on the right, a
protective cap on the plug helps prevent pressure pulsations from entering the plug cavity and transfers the point of maximum turbulent energy from the
plug-cage interface, where it could cause the most harm, to the tip of the plug cap, where the potential risk is less. Source: GE Energy
tight?
tight!
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abt. power 1.5.12:Layout 1 1/5/12 4:06 PM Page 1
|
February 2012 84
NEW PRODUCTS
TO POWER YOUR BUSINESS
Handheld Fluorometer
Turner Designs has introduced the Opti-Check Handheld
Fluorometer for performing system verications for industrial
water process control applications. The Opti-Check is a small,
lightweight, highly durable handheld uorometer that is ideal
for quick measurements in the eld. Congurable for either
PTSA or Fluorescein as well as both dyes, the Opti-Check enables
monitoring of either cooling tower or boiler system applications.
(www.turnerdesigns.com)
Handheld Vibration Meter
Columbia Research Laboratoriess Model VM-300 is
a general purpose vibration measuring instrument
designed for periodic routine checks of industrial
equipment where portability and ease of use are
required. Acceleration, velocity, and displacement
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number of value-enhancing features. Dual power
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battery in the eld or from an external AC adapter
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precision low-voltage lockout circuit prevents the
VM-300 from making erroneous readings due to
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Ductile and Flexible Seal Rings
Milan-based ATO S.r.l. has introduced a series
of flexible seal rings made of KetaSpire
polyetheretherketone (PEEK) resin, which is made
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PEEK provides greater flexibility and elasticity than
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parts can be folded or twisted in half and then
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that of traditional compression molding. ATO
manufactures compression-molded seals with
diameters from 2.5 cm to 50 cm (1 inch to 20
inches) and thicknesses of 15 mm to 70 mm (0.6
inches to 2.8 inches). (www.atoitalia.com)

February 2012
|
NEW PRODUCTS
Inclusion in New Products does not imply endorsement by POWER magazine.
Batch Chemical Reactor
Simulation Software
French company ProSim, which provides process
simulation and optimization software to the process
industries, released a new version of BatchReactor,
its software for batch chemical reactors simulation.
The new software combines detailed equipment
modeling, reaction engineering, and advanced
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of alternative synthesis routes and new production
strategies through effective use of simulation in
parallel with lab and pilot plant experimentations.
(www.prosim.net/en/batch/kinetic.html)
High-Performance Air Pressure Regulator Series
The Precision Controls Division of Marsh Bellofram Corp. launched the Type 41
high-performance air pressure regulator series, which is designed to support
a variety of demanding industrial and original equipment manufacturer ow-
monitoring requirements. Available in two different packages with identical
performance characteristics, both with -inch NPT BSPT port size, the Type
41 incorporates a patented Bellofram rolling diaphragm for greater sensitivity,
improved accuracy, low-friction operation, and extended useful service life,
all in a compact size. The Type 41 incorporates precision die-cast aluminum
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valve stem provides stability and forgives dirt and other foreign matter. An
aspirator maintains downstream pressure and compensates for droop when
high ow occurs. The gauge port is convenient for installation and can also
be used as an additional full-ow outlet. Users can select from among pipe,
panel, or bracket mounting options. (www.marshbellofram.com)
Capacitive Accelerometer Modules
Silicon Designs, a designer and manufacturer of rugged industrial-grade microelectromechanical
systems (MEMS) capacitive accelerometer chips and modules, has introduced a 5 g model to
its 2210 accelerometer series. The low-noise, single-axis model 2210-005 accelerometer module
incorporates high-quality MEMS capacitive sensing elements. Sensing elements are packaged within
a compact, lightweight, anodized epoxy-sealed aluminum housing, occupying a total footprint
of just 1 square inch. The accelerometers feature a simple four-wire connection and internal
voltage regulator to minimize supply voltage variation effects. Units are relatively insensitive to
temperature changes and feature quick, easy self-calibration. (www.silicondesigns.com).
|
February 2012 86
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February 2012 88
COMMENTARY
T
he electric power generation system
is the backbone of our economy. Re-
cently, however, sudden outages or
rolling blackouts have increased. Some
power producers argue that new envi-
ronmental regulatory burdens make U.S.
generation capacity even more vulnerable.
Other producers argue that the direction
of regulation and the need for retrofits or
new technology has long been clear. Re-
liability regulators say that, even if the
direction of regulation were obvious, some
regions are power-starved and new capac-
ity has not filled the potential void.
Generating companies, system manag-
ers, and the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) all have roles to play in en-
suring electric power reliability; however,
they must coordinate their actions and
policies to avoid potentially disastrous
near-term supply shocks.
System Reliability Risks
Several interrelated factors challenge the
reliability of U.S. electric power produc-
tion. Peak demand has grown faster than
anticipated. For example, in February 2011,
the Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ER-
COT), the Texas grid operator, recorded a
winter peak demand of 57,315 MW. There-
after, ERCOT recorded a 2011 summer peak
demand of 68,379 MW. These levels had not
been projected until 2014. An economic re-
covery would exacerbate this trend.
Growth in demand is intensified by de-
manding operating conditions. The U.S.
Southwest experienced severe drought
conditions during 2011. It is estimated
that in Texas alone, 9,000 MW of capacity
is dependent upon drought-depleted wa-
ter resources. If these conditions persist,
up to 3,000 MW could be unavailable due
to lack of water resources. Adverse oper-
ating conditions include increased output
cycling in normal baseload power plants.
Increased cycling is likely due to environ-
mental emission limits and will increase
maintenance and capacity outages.
Reliability issues are made more acute
by inevitable retirement or retrofit of
portions of the coal-powered generating
fleet. Several proposed or recently effec-
tive EPA regulations will require retrofits,
fuel switching, or decreased operation of
coal-fired units. In the short term, 2,000
MW to 6,000 MW of capacity may be un-
available for summer 2012 due to the EPAs
Cross-State Air Pollution Rule.
Increased generation from renewables is
not likely to address peak-related reliabil-
ity concerns. Wind and solar are generally
intermittent and require commitment of
load-balancing capacity. Demand response
measures are projected to provide only a
fraction of potential capacity shortfalls.
Increased nuclear capacity is decades away
and appears politically unacceptable.
In contrast, gas-powered generation
seems to appeal to several key stakeholders:
environmental stakeholders (gas plants pro-
duce far lower levels of CO
2
, mercury, and SO
2

but imply increased use of hydrofracking);
elected officials (gas production will help to
offset losses in coal-related jobs); and sys-
tem operators (gas power provides flexibility
for low production/fast ramp-up).
New Capacity Deferred
If a transition from coal is under way, why
havent gas plants quickly filled the void?
One partial answer is that in competitive,
energy only markets such as ERCOT, the
purchase price for electricity includes only
the delivered power and may not provide a
price signal that incentivizes the creation
of new capacity or results in higher reserve
margins.
Political uncertainty also undercuts
these price signals. The EPA has doggedly
proposed, litigated, and re-proposed rules
to reduce coal-derived mercury emissions
and regional transport of NO
x
and SO
2
.
Just as this litigation has preserved the
value of many coal-fired assets, it has
also undercut investment in alternatives
to coal. Current opponents of the latest
EPA rules propose legislation to void the
rules or defer effective dates. This strat-
egy seems counterproductive to long-term
system reliability. Legislative amendment
of EPA rules creates an expectation that
these and future rules may be overturned
entirely. Although the political resilience
of these rules suggests that repeal is un-
likely, legislative tweaking of compliance
schedules creates uncertainty for coal
competitors and delays investment.
One EPA response has been to propose
negotiation of consent decrees and consent
orders that extend compliance deadlines.
Such case-by-case negotiation has two
potential flaws. First, compliance deferrals
are, in essence, forgiveness of statutory vi-
olations. A formal exercise of enforcement
discretion typically involves several stages
of negotiation within and between the EPA
and the Department of Justice, public no-
tice of negotiated terms, response to public
comment, and judicial approval.
This process is ill-suited to address
short-term reliability and offers operators
little certainty as to whether violations
will be fully excused or when and how op-
erators will exit this enforcement process.
Additionally, consent decree negotiations
would define the operating schedules and
production from the facilities without ref-
erence to the capacity impacts from other
operators compliance-driven retrofits or
shut-down schedules. Other operators will
have to make unilateral capacity-schedul-
ing decisions or defer these decisions until
the completion of EPA negotiations. Such
multi-stage scheduling of investments and
retirements will certainly not encourage
new construction.
Instead, the EPA, regional system op-
erators, and the Federal Energy Regulatory
Commission should take coordinated action
to craft schedules for retrofits and capacity
reductions where necessary to ensure power
availability until long-term capacity is on-
line. This coordination is necessary not just
to ensure short-term system reliability but
also to more clearly define when investment
in new capacity will be rewarded.
Patrick J. Larkin (patrick.larkin@
strasburger.com) is the practice leader of the
Environmental Industry Team at the law firm
of Strasburger & Price LLP, in Dallas.
Clean Air, Jobs, and Power
Reliability
By Patrick J. Larkin
14
TH
ANNUAL
BALTIMORE CONVENTION CENTER
MAY 15-17, 2012
BALTIMORE, MD
Register with code PWR02
for the best rates at
www.electricpowerexpo.com
CO-LOCATED WITH:
2012 Plenary
Session Announced:
STATE OF THE INDUSTRY
TUESDAY, MAY 15TH, 8:30 10:00 AM
> Transformative Technology - Arshad Mansoor, SVP, Research
and Development, Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)
> Future Fuels Mix - Dr. Howard Gruenspecht*, Acting Ad-
ministrator, US Energy Information Administration (EIA)
BIGGEST CHALLENGES FACING THE
POWER INDUSTRY PANEL DISCUSSION
> Mark Crisson, President & CEO, American Public Power
Association
> Thomas Kuhn*, President, Edison Electric Institute
> Dr. Howard K. Gruenspecht*, Acting Administrator, US Energy
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> Arshad Mansoor, SVP, Research and Development, Electric
Power Research Institute (EPRI)
> Moderator/Chair: Robert Peltier. Ph.D. PE, Editor-in-Chief,
POWER magazine
* Invited Speaker
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14
TH
ANNUAL
BALTIMORE CONVENTION CENTER
MAY 15-17, 2012
BALTIMORE, MD
Register with code PWR02
for the best rates at
www.electricpowerexpo.com
CO-LOCATED WITH:
STATE OF THE INDUSTRY
> Transformative Technology - Arshad Mansoor, SVP, Research
and Development, Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)
> Future Fuels Mix - Dr. Howard Gruenspecht*, Acting Ad-
ministrator, US Energy Information Administration (EIA)
BIGGEST CHALLENGES FACING THE
POWER INDUSTRY PANEL DISCUSSION
> Mark Crisson, President & CEO, American Public Power
Association
> Thomas Kuhn*, President, Edison Electric Institute
> Dr. Howard K. Gruenspecht*, Acting Administrator, US Energy
Information Administration (EIA)
> Arshad Mansoor, SVP, Research and Development, Electric
Power Research Institute (EPRI)
> Moderator/Chair: Robert Peltier. Ph.D. PE, Editor-in-Chief,
POWER magazine
* Invited Speaker
R
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T
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