Extracted from "A Half Century of Maritime Technology 1943-1993".

Reprinted with the permission of the Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers (SNAME). Material originally appearing in SNAME publications cannot be reprinted or reproduced without written permission from the Society, 601 Pavonia Ave., Jersey City, NJ 07306.

Refined Product and Speci -ty Tankers

MAURICE GORDON

Petrolewn Product Tankers

II there was a considerable movement of refined products from the Gulf Coast refineries to the East Coast and to Europe. This trend continued until the late 1950s. Most of the tankers built in that period were similar in arrangement to crude oil tankers and, in many cases, they were used interchangeably. Cargo in those ships was carried in :2.4 to 30 tanks arranged in four isolated systems with double valved crossover piping. This permitted the ship to handle up to four grades of cargo with a minimum possibiliry of contamination. Large quantities of gasoline, diesel oil, aviation fuel, kerosene, heating oil, and similar products were moved on those ships. Some built during that period had dry cargo holds forward. These were used for carrying specialry cargoes such as lube oils in drums. From 1943 to 1970, product tankers increased in size from the 16,000 dw! MarAd T:2. design to the 75,000 dw! Exxon San Francisco-class. As requirements for larger tankers grew, many ships built during the 1940S and 1950S were enlarged by adding new foreURING WORLD WAR

or mid-bodies, or both. Another trend during that period was a reduction in the number of cargo tanksfrom 30 to about 15. That simplified cargo handling significantly. Also during that period, the oil companies and independen ts undertook some major pipeline conStruction. Many of the pipelines extended from the Gulf Coast to the northeast. Advances in pipeline technology permitted different products to be sent through the same pipeline with minimal mixing. Also, the discovery of oil on Alaska's North Slope shifted the focus of the tanker owners to crude oil. As a result, most of the U.S.-flag tankers built or convened after 1968 were intended solely for crude oil. Today, in 1993, the main uses of product tankers are to: Transport clean products to terminals that are not yet served by a major pipeline. Transport products (such as heavily leaded aviation gasoline) that cannot be sent through a pipeline. Carry productS to alleviate spot shortages. This is most notable in the winter when tankers carry heating oil to the northeast terminals.

Fig. 1 The chemical tanker SS Manne Dow-Chem: length 551 ft, beam 68 ft, deadweight 16,200 tons. Delivered in 1954, the Marine Dow-Chem was the first oceangoing vessel specifically constructed for the transportation of liquid chemicals in bulk.

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Fig. 2 The liquid sulfur carner 55 Marine Flondlan: length 612 ft, beam 42 ft, -deadweight 24,412 tons. The Manne Floridian, a jumbolzed vessel, has a cargo capacity 50 percent greater than that of the T-2 tanker from whlc I It was bUilt (In 1967). Construction of the new tanker required extensive modification work on the ex-Paoli stern and ship's systems.

Specialty Product Tankers

Solvents, lube oil blending stocks, waxes and other specialry products are also transported by tanker. These specialry tankers or "drugstore ships" carry a wide variery of products, perhaps as many as 30 ot 40 different ones on a trip. The tank arrangements on these ships vary widely but there are generally no special conrainmenr or isolation requiremems as there may be on chemical ships. Also, cargo compatibiliry is such that some of the cargoes can be discharged sequenrially through the same cargo pumping system. Only a few ships of this rype have been built new, but several have been converred from product tankers. The most recent new buildings were the 42,000 dwt Exxon Charleston and Exxon Wilmington built by Avondale Shipyards in 1983-84. These ships have 42 cargo tanks, each capable of carrying a separate grade of cargo [3]. The main reason for the exisrence of these ships is that the products they carry require more protection from cOntamination than a pipeline can provide, or they require other special treatment such as heating. These ships are classified as product tankers, and cransporr their catgoes in compliance with 46 CFR Subchapter D ("Tank Vessels") of the Coast Guard Rules. The Noxious Liquid Substance (NLS) provisions of MARPOL Annex II have shaded the division be[Ween specialry tankers and chemical tankers. Annex II classifies the pollution and roxic potential of many

products and chemicals. Some solvenrs that had been carried as pertoleum products under Subchapter 0 were labeled NLS and are now transpotted under the proviSIOns of 46 CFR Subchaptet 0 ("Ha2ardous Cargoes").

Chemical Tankers
In the past half cemury, the transport of chemicals by water has increased dramatically. At this writing, however, the largest chemical tanker Beets are nOt under U.S.-Bag. Chemical tankers have some of the most sophisticated tank and pumping arrangements. Special coatings and linings are required for some products. In addition, many of rhe chemicals react with others and with water. The violence of one of these reactions resuJced in the loss of the Puerto Rican in 1983. In that case, caUStic soda corroded a damaged area in its tank and leaked inro an adjacent cofferdam. coated wi th inorganic zinc. The caustic soda and the zinc reacted to form hydrogen gas, which subsequentlyexploded. Chemical tankers have three basic types ofcontainmenr, which are mainly related to damaged Stability The mOSt stringent system, Type I, requires protection from grounding and collision damage. Type II requires protection only from grounding damage. Type III req uires only protective PoS! tioning of cargo tanks. Type I and II systems aJso require that the tank bulkhead be at least 76 em (30 in.) away from the ship's

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shell. Most chemical tankers have a combination of containment systems. Cargo handling arrangements vary, but the cutrent standard arrangement is to have a cargo pump, either deepwell or submerged type, in each tank with a dedicated line to the loading manifold. A highly effective stripping arrangement is also required, so as to discharge the maximum amount of high value cargo, and to meet the requirements of MARPOL Annex II. Some chemicals have properties requiring unusual discharge arrangements. On the Manne Dow-Chern, for example, six rubber lined pressure tanks were installed for hydtochloric acid [1]. The tank surface was pressurized with compressed air to force the liquid dlrough the ship's piping to the suction of a pump ashore. In 1954, Bethlehem Steel's Quincy yard delivered the 16,625 dwt Manne Dow-Chern to Marine TtansPOrt Lines and Dow Chemical. This was the first tanker built from the keel up as a chemical tanker. Until that time, tankers and barges had been converted from other uses to carry chemicals. The Marine Dow-Chern had 24 chemical tanks served by 11 totally isolated cargo systems. In addition, there were 18 wing tanks that could be used for petroleum producrs, and five double botrom tanks. The ship carried perchlorerhylene, methylene chloride, styrene, glycol, carbon tetrachloride, and chloroform. Six of the cargo tanks were 100 psig pressure vessels for hydrochloric acid. Four other tanks, clad with 50 tOns of nickel, were installed fot caustic soda. Another notable U.s.-built chemical tanker was the 37,100 dwt Edgar M. Queeny, built in 1970 by Bethlehem Steel, Sparrows Point for Keystone and MonsantO. The ship was capable of carrying up to 26 separate cargoes, including liquid naphthalene and caustic soda. In 1971, the same yard delivered the 34,600 dwt Puerto Rican to Hendy (now West Coast Shipping) and Union Carbide. This ship included cryogenic tanks and handling arrangements for uninhibited vinyl chloride and butadiene. It also carried such products as caustic soda, ethylene glycol, rrichloroethylene, pylene and merhyl-chloroform. In 1983, Newport News delivered the 35,000 dwt Chemical Pioneerro Marine Transport Lines and Union Carbide for service between Texas and New Jersey. This ship was, in fact, a conversion using the afterbody from the Sea Witch, which had been all but destroyed in a fiery collision with the Esso Brussels in 1973. Newport News built a new forebody, which incorporated the latest chemical tanker technology. The ship has a double hull and 48 cargo tanks. Each

Fig. 3 The Chemical Pioneer. Cones that resemble large eyes protruding port and starboard from the bow are inexpensive alternatives to flaring the upper hull enough to protect the bulbous bow against damage when the anchors are lowered.

tank has a submetged hydraulic pump with a dedicated discharge to the loading manifold. All piping is self draining to the cargo pump. Product is stripped from each tank using compressed nitrogen through an eductor syStem. The ship also has a liquid nitrogen system to supply nitrogen for tank atmosphere padding, stripping and instrumentation.

Edib Liquid Tankers

While not a mode for transpOrting the finest wines, one tanker was built in the United States to carry wine as its main catgo. In 1957, the Bethlehem Steel San Francisco yard converted the 15.343 dwt T-2 AngekJ PetTi by building a new midbody. The ship was arranged to carry 26 different wines in stainless steel vats. Another product transpOrted by this tanker is orange juice. This requires stainless steel COntainment and special inert gas arrangements.

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Elevated Temperature Producrs

Two elevated temperarure products are notable for being transported by tanker. These are asphalt and liquid sulfur. Asphalt is a residual of the petroleum refining process. It must be maintained at about 300 oF. Bur, even at this temperature it is quite viscous and generally requires positive displacement pumps, special seals and heat tracing. It has generally been carried in single hull vessels and the temperature differential with the seawater has made thermal hull stress a serious consideration. Liquid sulfur also requires special consideration. The main reason for carrying sulfur as a liquid is that the end user needs it in that form. Moreover, stOring ir as a liquid eliminates a number of hazards that arise when sroring it in solid form. Liquid sulfur is carried at 260-280 OF [4]. It solidifies ar 238 oF. The U.S. Coast Guard requires that liquid sulfur tanks be independent of the hull. They are also insulated. The vapor space above rhe cargo is ventilated co maintain hydrogen sulfide concentration at halfits 3 7 percent lower explosive limie. In addition, sulfur reaces with copper, so no copper bearing materials are used in the cargo system and special provisions are made in the machinery space co protect equipment from damage.

References
1

Danielson, R.., and McDonald, A, "The Design of the 5.5. Dow-Chern Tankship for Special Commodities," New England Secrion, SNAME, Sept. 1954. Price, R. 1., Goldbach, R. D., Dyer, A E, and Wheeler, F. ]., "Sending Chemicals ro Sea," Metropolitan Section, SNAME, May 1967. Koops, Coldwell, and Gordon, "Two Stare-of-the-Art Product Specialcy Ships," Tram. SNAME, Vol. 92, 19 84, pp. 51- 83. Johnson, L., "Sulphur Vessels," GuJfcoast Secrion, SNAME, Feb. 1972.

MAURJCE

GORDON graduared from Case Instirute in

1970 wirh a degree in mechanical engineering. Following

eight years of tanker design experience wirh Berhlehem Shipbuilding, he spenr two years managing mainrenance and repairs for Atlanric Richfield and EI Paso Marine. Since 1980 he has been with the Exxon Shipping Company, largely as a projecr engineer for new construction. In 1984 he was given rhe SNAME Linnard prize as co-author of the best annual meeting paper (on specialcy product ships). He is a life member of SNAME, a fellow of rhe Insriture of Marine Engineers, a member of ASME, and a registered Professional Engineer.