Alexander the Great (July 20, 356 BC[2] June 10 or June 11, 323 BC),[3] also known as Alexander

r III of Macedon was an ancient Greek king (basileus) of Macedon (336323 BC). He was one of the most successful military commanders of all time and is presumed undefeated in battle. By the time of his death, he had conquered most of the world known to the ancient Greeks. Alexander assumed the kingship of Macedon following the death of his father Philip II, who had unified most of the city-states of mainland Greece under Macedonian hegemony in a federation called the League of Corinth. After reconfirming Macedonian rule by quashing a rebellion of southern Greek city-states and staging a short but bloody excursion against Macedon's northern neighbours, Alexander set out east against the Achaemenid Persian Empire, which he defeated and overthrew. His conquests included Anatolia, Syria, Phoenicia, Judea, Gaza, Egypt, Bactria and Mesopotamia, and he extended the boundaries of his own empire as far as Punjab, India. Alexander had already made plans prior to his death for military and mercantile expansions into the Arabian peninsula, after which he was to turn his armies to the west (Carthage, Rome and the Iberian Peninsula). His original vision, however, had been to the east, to the ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea, as is described by his boyhood tutor and mentor Aristotle. Alexander integrated many foreigners into his army, leading some scholars to credit him with a "policy of fusion". He also encouraged marriages between his soldiers and foreigners, and he himself went on to marry two foreign princesses. Alexander died after twelve years of constant military campaigning, possibly a result of malaria, poisoning, typhoid fever, viral encephalitis or the consequences of alcoholism.[9][10] His legacy and conquests lived on long after him and ushered in centuries of Greek settlement and cultural influence over distant areas. This period is known as the Hellenistic period, which featured a combination of Greek, Middle Eastern and Indian culture. Alexander himself featured prominently in the history and myth of both Greek and non-Greek cultures. His exploits inspired a literary tradition in which he appeared as a legendary hero in the tradition of Achilles. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great Death Alexander's Empire at his death in 323 BC. On the afternoon of June 11, 323 BC, Alexander died in the palace of Nebuchadrezzar II of Babylon. He was just one month short of attaining 33 years of age. Various theories have been proposed for the cause of his death which include poisoning by the sons of Antipater or others, sickness that followed a drinking party, or a relapse of the malaria he had contracted in 336 BC. It is known that on May 29, Alexander participated in a banquet organized by his friend Medius of Larissa. After some heavy drinking, immediately before or after a bath, he was forced into bed due to severe illness. The rumors of his illness circulated with the troops causing them to be more and more anxious. On June 9, the generals decided to let the soldiers see their king alive one last time. They were admitted to his presence one at a time. Because the king was too ill to speak, he confined himself to moving his hand. The day after, Alexander was dead. Cause The poisoning theory derives from the story held in antiquity by Justin and Curtius. The original story stated that Cassander, son of Antipater, viceroy of Greece, brought the poison to Alexander in Babylon in a mule's hoof, and that Alexander's royal cupbearer, Iollas, brother of Cassander and eromenos of Medius of Larissa, administered it. Many had powerful motivations for seeing Alexander gone, and were none the worse for it after his death. Deadly agents that could have killed Alexander in one or more doses include hellebore and strychnine. In R. Lane Fox's opinion, the strongest argument against the poison theory is the fact that twelve days had passed between the start of his illness and his death and in the ancient world, such long-acting poisons were probably not available. The warrior culture of Macedon favoured the sword over strychnine, and many ancient historians, like Plutarch and Arrian, maintained that Alexander was not poisoned, but died of natural causes; malaria or typhoid fever, which were rampant in ancient Babylon. A 1998 article in the New England Journal of Medicine attributed his death to typhoid fever complicated by bowel perforation and ascending paralysis. Other illnesses could have also been the culprit, including

acute pancreatitis or the West Nile virus. Recently, theories have been advanced stating that Alexander may have died from the treatment not the disease. Hellebore, believed to have been widely used as a medicine at the time but deadly in large doses, may have been overused by the impatient king to speed his recovery, with deadly results. Disease-related theories often cite the fact that Alexander's health had fallen to dangerously low levels after years of heavy drinking and suffering several appalling wounds (including one in India that nearly claimed his life), and that it was only a matter of time before one sickness or another finally killed him. No story is conclusive. Alexander's death has been reinterpreted many times over the centuries. What is certain is that Alexander died of a high fever on June 11, 323 BC. Successor On his death bed, his marshals asked him to whom he bequeathed his kingdom. Since Alexander had no obvious and legitimate heir (his son Alexander IV would be born after his death, and his other son was by a concubine, not a wife), it was a question of vital importance. There is some debate to what Alexander replied. Some believe that Alexander said, "Kratisto" (that is, "To the strongest!") or "Krat'eroi" (to the stronger). Alexander may have said, "Krater'oi" (to Craterus). This is possible because the Greek pronunciation of "the stronger" and "Craterus" differ only by the position of the accented syllable. Most scholars believe that if Alexander did intend to choose one of his generals, his obvious choice would have been Craterus because he was the commander of the largest part of the army (infantry), because he had proven himself to be an excellent strategist, and because he displayed traits of the "ideal" Macedonian. But Craterus was not around, and the others may have chosen to hear "Krat'eroi" the stronger. Regardless of his reply, Craterus does not appear to have pressed the issue. The empire then split amongst his successors (the Diadochi). Before long, accusations of foul play were being thrown about by his generals at one another, and no contemporaneous source can be fully trusted. Body Alexander's body was placed in a gold anthropoid sarcophagus, which was in turn placed in a second gold casket and covered with a purple robe. Alexander's coffin was placed, together with his armour, in a gold carriage that had a vaulted roof supported by an Ionic peristyle. The decoration of the carriage was very lavish and is described in great detail by Diodoros. According to one legend, Alexander was preserved in a clay vessel full of honey (which can act as a preservative) and interred in a glass coffin. According to Aelian (Varia Historia 12.64), Ptolemy stole the body and brought it to Alexandria, where it was on display until Late Antiquity. It was here that Ptolemy IX, one of the last successors of Ptolemy I, replaced Alexander's sarcophagus with a glass one, and melted the original down in order to strike emergency gold issues of his coinage. The citizens of Alexandria were outraged at this and soon after, Ptolemy IX was killed. The Roman emperor Caligula was said to have looted the tomb, stealing Alexander's breastplate, and wearing it. Around 200 AD, Emperor Septimius Severus closed Alexander's tomb to the public. His son and successor, Caracalla, was a great admirer of Alexander, and visited the tomb in his own reign. After this, details on the fate of the tomb are sketchy. The so-called "Alexander Sarcophagus," discovered near Sidon and now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum, is now generally thought to be that of Abdylonymus, whom Hephaestion had appointed as the king of Sidon by Alexander's order. The sarcophagus depicts Alexander and his companions hunting and in battle with the Persians. Testament Some classical authors, such as Diodorus, relate that Alexander had given detailed written instructions to Craterus some time before his death. Although Craterus had already started to implement Alexander's orders, such as the building of a fleet in Cilicia for expedition against Carthage, Alexander's successors chose not to further implement them, on the grounds that they were impractical and extravagant.[33] The testament, described in Diodorus XVIII, called for military expansion into the Southern and Western Mediterranean, monumental constructions, and the intermixing of Eastern and Western populations. Its most remarkable items were: The completion of a pyre to Hephaestion

The building of "a thousand warships, larger than triremes, in Phoenicia, Syria, Cilicia, and Cyprus for the campaign against the Carthaginians and the other who live along the coast of Libya and Iberia and the adjoining coastal regions as far as Sicily" The building of a road in northern Africa as far as the Pillars of Heracles, with ports and shipyards along it. The erection of great temples in Delos, Delphi, Dodona, Dium, Amphipolis, Cyrnus and Ilium. The construction of a monumental tomb for his father Philip, "to match the greatest of the pyramids of Egypt" The establishment of cities and the "transplant of populations from Asia to Europe and in the opposite direction from Europe to Asia, in order to bring the largest continent to common unity and to friendship by means of intermarriage and family ties." (Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historia, XVIII) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great Mysterious Death and Apotheosis Suddenly, in Babylon, while busy with plans to improve the irrigation of the Euphrates and to settle the Arabic coast of the Persian Gulf; Alexander was taken sick after a splendid entertainment in honour of Nearchus departure for Arabia (it was also commemoration of the death of Heracles). There he drank much unmixed wine, and finally, filling a huge beaker, downed it at a gulp. The pain increased and no one was able to do anything helpful and Alexander continued in acute suffering. His Friends asked: "To whom do you leave the kingdom?" and he replied: "To the best (the strongest)." These were his last words. Predicca has received from the king before he died his ring, as the symbol of his regency. On the sundown of 10th of June, after the ten day fever, in the Palace of Nabukodonossor, Alexander died. Historians disagree about the date of Alexander's death (Aristobulus (30th or 29th) last day (triakdi) of Daesius; Plutarch 28th of Daesius; Daesius was the eighth Macedonian month). While 5th-century Armenian version of the Historia Alexandri Magni, The Alexander Romances reports 4 th of Pharmouthi as the day of the death,which corresponds to 13th of June; but according to contemporary Babylonian Astronomic Diary, which is most credible and accurate source, Alexander has died on 29th Aiaru (10th of June). Alexander III of Macedon died in his 33rd year; and had reigned for 12 years and eight months.( 8 month -Arrian; 7 month Diodorus) Some historians disagree about the death of Alexander, and state that this occurred in consequence of a draught of poison, it seems necessary for us to mention their account also. His Friends staged a vast contest in honour of his funeral. Ptolemy, the later king of Egypt, transferred Alexander's body to Alexandria in Egypt. He received divine honors, both in Egypt and elsewhere in the Greek cities

Some centuries later, Alexander's golden sarcophagus was melted down for coinage by the Ptolomius XI (116-107, 87-81 B.C.)and replaced with one of alabaster. Strabo (17. C 794), who visited Alexander's tomb himself in the first century A.D. The subsequent mismanagement of Egyptian affairs by Ptolemy IX's successors, as well as the economic collapse of the kingdom, caused by an incompetent administration, made it impossible for the Ptolemies to restore Alexander's gold sarcophagus. Diodoros from Sicily visited Alexandria and Alexander in ca. 60 B.C. and has preserved an exciting description of the tomb for posterity (18.26.3; 28.2-4). Alexander's prominent visitors included Caius Julius Caesar who visited Alexandria in 45 B.C. and went to pay his respects to his idol. -[Suetonius (Caesar, VII) and Lucian (X.19), second century A.D.] When Augustus defeated Marcus Anthonius and Cleopatra at Actium in 31 B.C. and then conquered Alexandria in 30 B.C., he visited Alexander's tomb. When Augustus's guides offered to take him next to the tombs of the Ptolemaic dynasty, Augustus answered that he came to see a king and not dead people (Dio Cassius, Roman History, 51; 2nd-3rd centuries A.D.). An anecdote in Dio's report of Augustus's visit to Alexander is interesting: When Augustus inclined over to kiss the Alexander, he accidentally broke Alexander's nose.

Some other Roman emperors visited the tomb of Alexander in Alexandria: Caligula, went to Alexandria, paid a visit to the Sema and left with Alexander's cuirass (Xiphilinus, Epitome of Dio's Roman History). Septimus Severus (early third century A.D.) eventually closed the tomb to the public because he was nervous about its safety under the hoards of tourists who rushed to visit. The last reported imperial visit was made by Caracalla (3rd century A.D.), who believed that he was Alexander's reincarnation. [ Herodian (Tes Meta Markou Basileias Historion Biblia 4, 8) and Ioannes Antiocheus (ca. 108-238 A.D.).] The alabaster sarcophagus disappeared some time in the 4th century AD, and his alabaster tomb may be found at the cemetery near latin quarter of Alexandria. In 1995 his tomb was eventually? rediscovered in oasis of Siwah (although there are not certain archeological proofs). Quite apart from the fact it was in Siwah, Egypt and not Alexandria, where it was visited many times in antiquity, the tomb is dedicated to Alexander. http://1stmuse.com/frames/ Alexander's Death, Plutarch When once Alexander had given way to fears of supernatural influence, his mind grew so disturbed and so easily alarmed that, if the least unusual or extraordinary thing happened, he thought it a prodigy or a presage, and his court was thronged with diviners and priests whose business was to sacrifice and purify and foretell the future. So miserable a thing is incredulity and contempt of divine power on the one hand, and so miserable, also, superstition on the other, which like water, where the level has been lowered, flowing in and never stopping, fills the mind with slavish fears and follies, as now in Alexander's case. But upon some answers which were brought him from the oracle concerning Hephaestion, he laid aside his sorrow, and fell again to sacrificing and drinking; and having given Nearchus a splendid entertainment, after he had bathed, as was his custom, just as he was going to bed, at Medius's request he went to supper with him. Here he drank all the next day, and was attacked with a fever, which seized him, not as some write, after he had drunk of the bowl of Hercules, nor was he taken with any sudden pain in his back, as if he had been struck with a lance, for these are the inventions of some authors who thought it their duty to make the last scene of so great an action as tragical and moving as they could. Aristobulus tells us, that in the rage of his fever and a violent thirst, he took a draught of wine, upon which he fell into delirium, and died on the thirtieth day of the month Daesius. But the journals give the following record. On the eighteenth day of the month he slept in the bathing-room on account of his fever. The next day he bathed and removed into his chamber, and spent his time in playing at dice with Medius. In the evening he bathed and sacrificed, and ate freely, and had the fever on him through the night. On the twentieth, after the usual sacrifices and bathing, he lay in the bathing-room and heard Nearchus's narrative of his voyage, and the observations he had made in the great sea. The twenty-first he passed in the same manner, his fever still increasing, and suffered much during the night. The next day the fever was very violent, and he had himself removed and his bed set by the great bath, and discoursed with his principal officers about finding fit men to fill up the vacant places in the army. On the twenty-fourth he was much worse, and was carried out of his bed to assist at the sacrifices, and gave order that the general officers should wait within the court, whilst the inferior officers kept watch without doors. On the twenty-fifth he was removed to his palace on the other side the river, where he slept a little, but his fever did not abate, and when the generals came into his chamber he was speechless and continued so the following day. The Macedonians, therefore, supposing he was dead, came with great glamours to the gates, and menaced his friends so that they were forced to admit them, and let them all pass through unarmed by his bedside. The same day Python and Seleucus were despatched to the temple of Serapis to inquire if they should bring Alexander thither, and were answered by the god that they should not remove him. On the twenty-eighth, in the evening, he died. This account is most of it word for word as it is written in the diary. At the time, nobody had any suspicion of his being poisoned, but upon some information given six years after, they say Olympias put many to death, and scattered the ashes of Iolaus, then dead, as if he had given it him. But those who affirm that Aristotle counselled Antipater to do it, and that by his means the poison was brought, adduced one Hagnothemis as their authority, who, they say, heard King Antigonus speak of it, and tell us that the poison was water,

deadly cold as ice, distilled from a rock in the district of Nonacris, which they gathered like a thin dew, and kept in an ass's hoof; for it was so very cold and penetrating that no other vessel would hold it. However, most are of opinion that all this is a mere made-up story, no slight evidence of which is, that during the dissensions among the commanders, which lasted several days, the body continued clear and fresh, without any sign of such taint or corruption, though it lay neglected in a close sultry place. http://1stmuse.com/frames/ Death in Babylon Evil omens In February 323, Alexander ordered his men to prepare for the march to Babylon. When he reached the cultural capital of the ancient world, an astrologer of the Esagilatemple complex with the name Belephantes came to him, saying that there were evil omens. According to Arrian of Nicomedia, Alexander was not supposed to enter the town through the eastern gate, because in that case, the king would have to face to the west, or, to follow Arrian's colleague and contemporary Appian of Alexandria, the setting sun. (It may be noted that this Belephantes is also known from the Babylonian Astronomical diaries; his real name was Bl-apla-iddin.) Alexander took that this very serious. There are indications that the sun was the symbol of the Macedonian royal house. (Go here or here for the story and a discussion of the omen.) So, Alexander followed the advice of the astrologers and tried to enter the ancient city from the east, through the Royal Gate, but the terrain made it impossible to march as planned, and therefore, Alexander was forced to enter Babylon heading west. From now on, embassies came to do homage to the conqueror and to discuss politics. Many Greek towns complained about the decree on the exiles (above), and there were representatives from Carthage and several tribes in Italy. These people had very good reasons to visit the son of Zeus. Carthaginians had given aid to Tyre when Alexander had besieged this city (text), and Alexander had announced that one day, he would punish them. The Italian tribes had killed a brother-in-law of Alexander, Alexander of Molossis, and knew that they would receive a harsh treatment. Among the embassies were also representatives of Rome, which was at that moment a strong state in central Italy and had been allied with Alexander of Epirus, but was not a world power yet. There has been some scholarly debate about the truth of Arrian's statement that there were Roman ambassadors, but the story is confirmed by Cleitarchus, who was almost a contemporary and had no reason to flatter or belittle Rome( text). During his first stay in Babylon in 331, Alexander had ordered restoration works at the Esagila complex, and the nearby temple tower Etemenanki, the "tower of Babel". Now, he saw that not much progress had been made, and he ordered that the workmen should begin anew. This is told by several Greek authors and is confirmed by a cuneiform tablet (quoted here). Another cuneiform text, the Astronomical diary, indicates that the prizes of grain were sky high during the second stay of Alexander and his army. In the meantime, Alexander planned a new war, this time against the Arabs. The word 'Arabia' referred to at least four centers of settlement on the Arabian peninsula: the Arabs of southern Mesopotamia, who had invaded Babylonia in 329 (above); those of Maka (modern Oman), an old satrapy of the Achaemenid empire that had not recognized Alexander as king; those of Yemen, where incense was produced; and the Arabs of Jordan, who may have supported the invasion of 329. A large navy had been prepared to transport the expeditionary force -Nearchus' expedition had shown that it was possible to ship large armies to distant countries-, and reconnaissance operations had reached modern Bahrain. It seems that Maka was the first target, that the legendary incense country was next, and that Alexander wanted to sail through the Red Sea until he was in Egypt. The expedition was well-timed: a favorable wind would make it easy to reach Maka in the summer, and in the winter, the wind would assist their voyage to Yemen. The conquest of Arabia was only the beginning, however. From Egypt, and with a new, even larger fleet (built in Cilicia), Alexander wanted to attack Carthage, Sicily and Italy. The fact that in the weeks before his death, he was planning the construction of a military road to the Pillars of Heracles, shows the extent of Alexander's ambitions. They were not unrealistic. Carthage was, at

that stage in its history, very weak. Twelve years later, it was to suffer a large and successful invasion by the Greek leader Agathocles of Syracuse. The substitute king The astrologers of Babylon were still afraid that something would happen to Alexander. It seems that in May 323, they organized a ritual to avert the danger, but that the Greeks and Macedonians failed to understand it. On a hot day, when Alexander was away from his throne to have a drink, a person of humble origins went to the throne. The eunuchs who guarded the object let him pass, and started to show all signs of mourning when he sat on Alexander's chair, although they did nothing to turn him off. (Go here and here for the story.) The explanation of this incident is that the Asians believed that if an evil omen threatened the king, a substitute king could be appointed. If he sat on the throne, evil would hurt him, and the real king would remain safe. It is probable that the Babylonian astrologers organized this ritual to save Alexander, that the eunuchs understood, but that Alexander did not. If this interpretation is correct, the astrologers were the most loyal subjects any king could wish. Death A few days later, the embassy that Alexander had sent to Siwa (above) returned: Zeus Ammon permitted that Hephaestion was to be venerated as a demi-god (heros). This news had to be celebrated with the usual drinking party. There were other reasons to be cheerful: within a few days, the expeditionary force would leave, and Alexander was looking forward to the first addition to his empire in more than two years. After the party, he met his young friend Medius of Larisa, who invited him for an afterparty with more wine. What happened next, is variously reported, but it is a fact that next morning, Alexander was ill. During the following days, the king rapidly declined (text). At one moment, he was so desperate that he gave his ring to his vizier Perdiccas, saying that he left the kingdom in the hands of 'the strongest one'. The son of Ammon died in the afternoon of 11 June 323 (text). Maybe the conqueror of the world remembered what the leader of the Indian sages, Dandamis, had once said: 'You will soon be dead, and then you will own just as much of this earth as will suffice to bury you.' http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander16.html HIS DEATH Alexander had vast plans, including his governmental reorganization and an expedition to Arabia. But he was taken seriously ill with malaria at Babylon. The simple remedies of the day did not help him. He died on June 13, 323 B.C. His body was placed in a gold coffin and taken to Memphis, in Egypt. Later it was carried to Alexandria, and placed in a beautiful tomb. Alexander left no choice for a successor. His only son, Alexander IV, was born after Alexander's death. As a result, Alexander's leading generals became governors of various areas and fought among themselves for control of the Empire. But no single leader emerged, and by 311 B.C. the empire split into independant states or monarchies. http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/8740/Alexander.htm The Death of Alexander... The death of Alexander the Great is still shrouded in mystery to this day. It seems hard to believe that a 33-year-old man could die of natural causes that spring up out of the blue, and consequently, modern historians have made many attempts to explain exactly what happened. According to Plutarch, the events leading up to his death are as follows: Alexander proceeded to Babylon, even after receiving word of several bad omens, such as ravens fighting each other over the city wall with some falling dead right in front of him, a man with a deformed liver being sacrificed in the king's honor, and his best lion was kicked to death by an ass. The god Serapis told a man to put on the king's robes and sit upon the throne. These all served as warnings to Alexander about what may lie in store for him, but they did not deter him. Once in Babylon, he drank heavily at several banquets. One such banquet was hosted by his friend, Medius. In the Armenian version of the story, Psuedo-Callisthenes wrote that this banquet was a conspiracy involving Iollas, Cassander, and others who were unhappy with Alexander. They gave him poisoned wine, and immediately after drinking it, Alexander felt as if he had "been hit in the liver with an arrow." When he tried to throw it back up, he was given a poisoned feather, which ensured that the poison would reach his blood stream. He proceeded to

get very sick and his condition deteriorated until his death. Plutarch did not believe this version, saying the sudden pain Alexander felt after drinking was a detail "with which certain historians felt obliged to embellish the occasion, and thus invent a tragic and moving finale to a great action. Aristobulus tells us that he was seized with a raging fever, that when he became thirsty he drank wine which made him delirious." We will probably never know the truth, even though new theories are still coming out. We do know that on the 7th of June, 323 BC, the Macedonians were allowed to file past their leader for the last time and finally, three days later, he succumbed to the illness. Thus, on June 10, 323 BC, Alexander the Great died at the age of 33. http://wso.williams.edu/~junterek/death.htm The Rise and Fall of Alexander the Great On July twentieth, 356 B.C., Olympius, the wife of King Philip the Second of Macedonia, gave birth to a son and named him Alexander. This boy eventually became known as Alexander the Great. The actual date of his birth still lies in question. Though July twentieth seems to be the most widely accepted one, that date may have been chosen to align with other important dates in Alexander's life. It is also said that on the day of his birth, the Temple of Artemis burned down, thus indicating it was a good omen for Alexander's future greatness. Often as a child he would get discouraged when the news came home that his father had conquered and taken another territory. This was because he was worried that there would be nothing left for him to do. By the time he was thirteen, he was quite mature. This can be partly credited to the fact that he was probably around his father's army for a good portion of his childhood, most likely, he was running through the groups of soldiers ever since he could walk. Alexander's maturity is demonstrated through a famous story. His father had just bought a beautiful horse named Bucephalus. But, much to Philip's dismay, no one around could ride it. He was about to get rid of it when Alexander decided to make a wager on whether or not he could ride it. He bet thirteen talens, which was the price of the horse. This was a fairly good sum of money for a thirteen year old to have. Alexander calmly approached the horse to find that the horse was afraid of its own shadow. Facing it toward the sun to keep the shadow behind it, Alexander got on Bucephalus and rode him. Alexander got to keep the horse and later rode the same horse all the way to India. When the horse died there, Alexander founded a city and named it Bucephala after his beloved horse. Alexander's parents wanted the best for their son, so they hired some of the finest tutors around to give him a good education. When Alexander was thirteen, he started learning from Aristotle. From him he learned the ways of the Greeks which he incorporated into his life from that point on. He found interest in other countries, philosophy, ethics, politics, plants, animals, and a wide range of other topics. Alexander also acquired a love for the works of Homer. Alexander read and learned the Iliad, taking Achilles as his role model. Once he had learned enough from Aristotle, his parents thought it was time for him to move onto a different teacher. Leonidas, who was most likely related to Olympius and possibly Alexander's uncle, was his next tutor. Leonidas was a harsh teacher and did not last all that long because Alexander did not particularly care for him. Alexander's final tutor was Lysimachus. From him he learned many cultural aspects of the world around him. He found an appreciation for fine arts such as drama, poetry and music. Lysimachus also taught Alexander how to play the lyre. By this time in Alexander's life, he was a well-rounded and very intelligent teenager. Alexander rose to power rather quickly, and at an early age. At sixteen years of age, he was already given some large responsibilities. When his father, King Philip, left him in charge while he was away for an extended period of time, one of their colonies revolted. Alexander quickly took hold of the situation and marched troops to the area. Also by the age of sixteen he had founded his first colony and named it Alexandroupolis. Alexander's ultimate rise to power came in June 336 when he was twenty years old. King Philip was killed at the theater. Many speculate that Alexander may have played a role in his father's death, but most likely Alexander's mother, Olympius, had more to do with it. With his father dead, Alexander became the king of Macedonia, and soon took the title of Alexander the Great. He soon showed his power when the large city of Thebes revolted in 335. He stormed the city with mighty force, taking 30,000 as slaves.

Alexander could never really be the dominate force in his area as long as the Persian ruler Darius was still living. After beating Persia the second and final time in 332, Darius had managed to survive and fled to the mountains. He died there when he was killed by one of his own noblemen, Bessus. With Darius out of the way, Alexander was crowned King of Persia in November of the same year, and became known as the king of all of Asia. Alexander had developed into quite an individual. He was a very generous man who demonstrated extreme loyalty toward his friends, though at the same time he was very cautious and smart. Alexander also had an excellent sense of humor. Though it was simple, and almost child-like, it usually helped him win favor with his troops. His great character and values were two of the things that made Alexander the Great a prominent individual in history. Another, of course, being that he conquered a very large amount of territory in a relatively short amount of time. Alexander's physical accounts show that he had a strong and athletic build, but was shorter than the average Macedonian. He was fair skinned, and his clean shaven face had a ruddy tinge to it. His eyes were gray and he was said to be a very handsome man. While leading his army he would always wear something so the enemy troops could recognize him from long distances. His brightly shining armor would glisten in the sun and he wore two large white plumes in his hat to distinguish him from the other soldiers. While not in battle, the Macedonian actually wore Persian clothing, at least during his late twenties and early thirties. His silk Persian clothing consisted of a long robe, cape, sash and headband in the royal purple and white colors. The Macedonian King loved drama, music, poetry, and wine. Alexander also liked various exercises such as hunting, ball games and running. He was said to be an Olympic quality runner, but declined to run unless he was matched up against other kings. His pride was so great that it would not allow the possibility that someone might let him win. Though he generally liked to play sports, he disliked athletic competitions. Alexander the Great respected women, and treated them fairly. Aristotle's early teachings may have had something to do with Alexander's attitude toward women. When taking young woman captive after raiding a city, he would protect them from his troops, and treat them as if they were his daughters. Often, when addressing older queens, Alexander would refer to them as 'mother', showing his respect to them as if being a part of his close family. One of Alexander's finest acts was when he took his enemy Darius' mother and other family members when he conquered Persia: thinking that Alexander was going to kill them, Darius was much relieved to find that Alexander treated them royally and with respect as guests of his kingdom. Along the span of his lifetime, Alexander the Great conquered many regions in a short period of time. Quite possibly his biggest military accomplishment was beating Persia the second and final time though being greatly out numbered. Of course Alexander the Great had many military accomplishments, making it through each battle alive. Living through all these battles was another great feat since Alexander always rode in the front line of his army. In the battle against the Mallians, when an arrow pierced Alexander's lung, his troops thought that their leader was killed. They were so enraged that they ran through the city killing all in a bloody massacre. Alexander made it through with a splintered rib and a torn lung. This was not the only time Alexander was struck by an arrow; while invading Samarkand, an arrow split his leg bone making it impossible for him to ride back. The Calvary got the honor of carrying Alexander back home, but soon the infantry became jealous of their privilege. Alexander decided to let each unit take turns sharing the honor. Alexander also lived through various other serious, as well as minor, wounds and illnesses along his conquests ranging from a bird dropping a stone on his head to getting a mild case of hypothermia while crossing the Cydnus. Along his many journeys, Alexander the Great founded many cities and colonies. Quite possibly the most famous is the one that bares his name, Alexandria. When Alexander reached Egypt, the Egyptians viewed him as their deliverer from Persian rule, and crowned him as their Pharaoh. Alexandria, which is located on the mouth of the Nile River in Egypt, was established as the center of commerce and learning. With all these new nations under Alexander's rule, he needed to unite these nations together to keep things running smoothing. He encouraged intermarriages, and set the example by marrying a second wife, Stateira, who was Persian. He also drew soldiers from all different

provinces to mix cultures within his army. A uniform currency system was also used in the region under Alexander's rule. Alexander, in a final attempt to unite his nation, chose a common religion, in which he received all worship unto himself. Eventually, Alexander the Great started to lose some of his power. A lot of his troops wanted to go home again, but Alexander kept pushing them to conquer more, thus losing their support. In one incident, while drunk, Alexander fought and killed his friend Clitus. At this point, he lost the trust from the already unhappy troops. Not only were some of his soldiers unhappy with him, but a lot of the Macedonians started to dislike him. This was caused by his adoption of Persian ways. Though he was pulling together his vast empire, the Macedonians felt they were losing their leader. Also by accepting his promised deification after his death, he started to feel as though he was a god while he was still living. He started self-worship to help unite his varied territories with a common religion, but he took it too far with prokynesis. Prokynesis is the act of bowing before someone, and Alexander had the people of his empire do so. After all this, Alexander still retained much of his power, but it would soon be taken away from him. On June tenth, 323, a little more than a month from his thirty-third birthday, Alexander the Great died. The actual cause of his death remains unknown, but it seems unlikely that a thirtytwo year old man of his health would die of natural causes, even for his time in history. One more colorful account tells how Alexander drank a cup of wine, which was poisoned, and he started gasping and choking, and died soon after. Most likely, he died from complications of the flu, or was struck by malaria while in Babylon. At that time, though during his downfall, many soldiers still loved their leader, and they all sat around outside his tent as his condition deteriorated. The day before he died, his soldiers marched past his death bed, honoring their great leader. They embalmed him and placed his body in a gold sarcophagus which was taken to Memphis, Egypt. Later it was transported to it's final destination, Alexandria. Unfortunately, the tomb was not left untouched. In 89 B.C., Ptolemy IX needed money, so he opened the tomb and melted down Alexander's sarcophagus to make gold coins. People were so enraged that Ptolemy would do such a thing to a legend, that Ptolemy was killed soon after. With no successor named on his death bed, his empire went out to generals and officers who would then become governors of sections of his empire. Soon after, Alexander the Great's empire split and crumbled. http://members.aol.com/tomstp9/alex.html What Killed Alexander? In 323 BC Alexander the Great, king of Macedonia, ruled a dominion that stretched from the Balkans to the Himalayas and from Egypt to the Caspian Sea. Possibly the most brilliant soldier in history, he had led a small and poorly equipped European army on a campaign of over 20,000 miles to conquer the mighty Persian Empire. Originally from Iran, the Persians held sway over a domain which also included all of what are now Turkey, Iraq, Afghanistan, Syria, Jordan, Israel and Egypt. It had taken him twelve years and he was still only thirty-two. Alexander the Great may have been the undisputed master of the world, but he was a slave to destiny. He did not die a warriors death in battle, but expired as helpless as a baby in his own bed. In the summer of that year Alexander had finished his conquest of the Persian Empire and returned to Babylon, the greatest city on earth. Situated on the banks of the River Euphrates, in what is now central Iraq, the city was to be the capital of his new empire. On the night of June 1, in chambers within the royal palace, Alexander was holding a memorial feast to honor the death of a close personal friend. Suddenly, around mid-evening, he was seized with intense pain and collapsed. He was taken to his bedchamber where, after ten days of agony, convulsions and delirium, he fell into a coma and died. The death of Alexander the Great is one of historys most enduring mysteries. What caused the strong and healthy young ruler of half the known world to die so unexpectedly at the very height of his power? Historians have proposed malaria, typhoid and alcohol poisoning as possible causes of death. There have also been those who have suggested murder, but until now no one has seriously investigated the possibility. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon. This may have been the royal palace where Alexander held his last feast. (Mary Evans Picture Library) Unlike many events in ancient history, the details of Alexanders death have been preserved. The initial symptoms were agitation, tremors, aching or stiffness in the neck, followed

by a sudden, sharp pain in the area of the stomach. He then collapsed and suffered acute and excruciating agony wherever he was touched. Alexander also suffered from an intense thirst, fever and delirium, and throughout the night he experienced convulsions and hallucinations, followed by periods of calm. In the final stages of the condition he could not talk, although he could still move his head and arms. Ultimately, his breathing became difficult and he fell into a coma and died. The three popular theories concerning the cause of Alexanders death Malaria, typhoid and alcohol poisoning - can now be discounted. Malaria is carried by mosquitoes that live in jungle and tropical locations, but not in desert regions such as central Iraq where Alexander died. Two years earlier, Alexander had been in an area of India where malaria was common. Nevertheless, the disease cannot remain dormant for this period of time without producing symptoms. Alexanders life from the time he was in India is well documented but there is no report whatsoever of a previous illness of this kind. Typhoid is transmitted by food or water contaminated by bacteria which causes epidemics and not just single, individual cases. There is nothing in any of the historical accounts to suggest such outbreak in Babylon at the time Alexander died. The main effect of alcohol poisoning is continual vomiting, but not once do any of the historical sources mention vomiting or even nausea as one of Alexanders symptoms. One theory that has only recently been proposed is that Alexander died of an epidemic of the socalled West Nile Virus. Although a television documentary made the idea popular for a while, scientists soon pointed out that the virus is only a relatively recent disease that could not have infected someone over 2000 years ago. So what did kill Alexander? According to the historical accounts, Alexanders body failed to show any signs of decay for six days after death, even though it was kept in a hot, sultry place. If Alexanders body had remained preserved for this amount of time under the conditions described, somehow bacteria had been prevented from starting the process of decomposition. There could be only two causes: radiation, which could be discounted for the time, or a lethal does of a toxic substance that pervaded the corpse. The corpses state of preservation could only have been caused by large amounts of a toxic substance in the bodys system. Alexander the Great had to have been poisoned. Belladonna, strychnine and aconite: three of the most poisonous plants in the world. One of these deadly alkaloid toxins was used to murder Alexander the Great. The only known poisons to produce the symptoms from which Alexander is recorded to have suffered are alkaloid vegetable toxins. Coming from plants, shrubs and trees, these nitrogen-bearing chemicals especially affect the nervous system, causing shaking limbs and muscle pains in the back or neck before the victim experiences severe agony and seizures. Most of the alkaloid poisons cause stomach pain, and many produce seizures, delirium and hallucinations; all of which are described in Alexanders case. However, the list of poisons that could have killed Alexander can be shortened considerably because many of the alkaloid toxic plants also produce severe vomiting and intense headaches that are not reported. With the help of the Los Angeles County Regional Poison Centre at the University of Southern California, Graham eventually narrowed down the poisons to just one: strychnine, which comes from the fruit of the Nux Vomica tree. http://www.grahamphillips.net/Alexander/Alexander_2.htm 1: ANTIPATER - the military governor falsely accused of treason. In the early fourth century BC Macedonia rose to prominence as Europes most powerful nation. Although ethnically distinct from the Greek realms to the south, Macedonia had absorbed much of Greek culture and even spoke its language. The Greek world had reached a zenith of civilization over a hundred years before. However, by the time Alexanders father Philip II came to the Macedonian throne in 359 BC, Greece was a collection of declining city-states. Philip had ambitions to unite them into a single kingdom under Macedonian control and one man above all others helped him realize this goal: his senior general Antipater. No one played a greater role in shaping Alexanders early life than Antipater. He was intimate with the royal family and had a close personal friendship with Philips wife, Queen Olympias. When Alexander was born in 356 BC, some even suspected that Antipater was the true father. He certainly showed a keen interest in Alexanders education, helped shape his military genius and eventually secured him the throne.

By 336 Philip had gained control over much of Greece. However, in October that year he was murdered by his chief bodyguard. It was never proved whether or not the assassin acted alone but the murder left the country on the brink of civil war. It was Antipater who made sure Alexander became king by mustering the army behind the 21-year-old prince and saw to the elimination of rival claimants. He was rewarded by being appointed supreme commander of all the Macedonian forces in Europe. In 334 BC, when Alexander began his twelve-year campaign to conquer the Persian Empire, Antipater remained behind as governor to secure the home front. During this time Olympias relations with Antipater progressively deteriorated and she eventually began to write to her son accusing him of conspiracy. For a long time Alexander ignored her, but on his return to Babylon he decided to summon Antipater to court to answer the charges. Antipater refused to go, claiming that he needed to remain in Europe as he feared a rebellion in Greece. Instead, he sent son Cassander as an emissary to explain his absence and to refute Olympias allegations. Ancient writers, such as the Greek historian Plutarch, referred to rumors some years later that Cassander was also sent with a contingency plan to assassinate Alexander if he failed to convince him of his fathers innocence, and that his brother Iolas, the royal butler, was ultimately instructed to poison the king. Were these rumors true? Was Antipater behind Alexanders death? 2: ARRIDAEUS - the unstable brother whose throne Alexander usurped. Like Alexander, Arridaeus was the son of Philip II. He was born a couple of years before his brother, to Philips first wife, a Greek woman named Philinna. Macedonian custom allowed for a man to have more than one wife and the year after Arridaeus birth the king married Olympias, the daughter of a foreign king with whom he wished to cement an alliance. One year after her marriage Olympias gave birth to her own son, Alexander, and from the very start there can be little doubt that she intended to make him Philips heir. By the time he reached his late teens Arridaeus was widely thought unfit to succeed his father as he was considered weak-willed and feeble-minded. The truth is that Arridaeus was a highly-intelligent, studious youth whose problem appears to have been epilepsy. Displaying signs of military genius, Alexander was clearly a more suitable successor and Philip had officially named him as heir. However, in 338 BC Philip divorced Olympias and she and Alexander were forced to leave the court. Philip did not disinherit Alexander, but it may only have been a matter of time. It appears that Olympias enemies argued that under supervision Arridaeus was still capable of becoming king. Alexander and Arridaeus could not have been more opposite. Alexander was handsome, athletic and a natural warrior, while his brother was sickly, timid and studious. The ancient Sicilian historian Diodorus accuses Olympias and Alexander of assuring Alexanders succession by orchestrating Philips assassination. Alexander, however, must have been fond of his half-brother as he did not have him killed as he did other rivals for the throne. What, though, where Arridaeus feelings toward Alexander? Did he harbor a bitter resentment against his brother for depriving him of the throne? There are certainly reasonable grounds for suspicion. During the remained of Alexanders campaign Arridaeus remained behind in the west and did not see his brother again for eleven years. When he finally did it was when he arrived unexpectedly in Babylon and, just a few weeks later, Alexander fell ill and died. 3: BARSINE - the devoted concubine whose son Alexander refused to acknowledge. In November 333 BC the 24-year-old Alexander had already conquered much of what is now Turkey. With an army of 30,000 men, at the battle of Issus (see map of Alexanders campaigns), he defeated a Persian force twice that size. The Persian king Darius III had fled but his family were captured as was Barsine, a friend of the Persian queen. Although she was a widow, eight years his senior, with a daughter ten years old, Alexander seems to have fallen immediately in love with Barsine and for the next few years she remained his concubine. In 327 BC Barsine bore Alexander a child. However, no sooner was the boy Heracles born than Alexander met the much younger Roxanne, a beautiful 16-year-old princess from northern Afghanistan. The king paid Roxanne the honor he had always denied Barsine by marrying her and making her his queen. Barsine and her child left the court to return home and did not see Alexander again until a few weeks before he died. His campaign over, he had summoned her to Babylon so that he could see his four-year-old son for the first time in years. As his only son,

Heracles was still the closest thing he had to an heir. However, Alexander now had two official wives and either of them could bear the king a more legitimate successor at any time. As it might prove to be years before Barsine would be so close to Alexander again, had she seized the opportunity to take both revenge on her former lover and secure the throne for her child? 4: SELEUCUS - the ruthless commander who was best placed to seize control. About the same age as Alexander, Seleucus was a common soldier who rose through the ranks to become one of the most senior Macedonian officers. He was by far the most ruthless and successful general in the civil war that followed Alexanders death and took control of much of what had been Alexanders empire. His dominion became the Seleucid Empire, named after him, and lasted for almost two-and-a-half centuries until it was conquered by the Romans. Had this ambitious professional officer assassinated Alexander to seize his empire for himself? By the late summer of 330 BC all that remained of the Persian Empire was its eastern province of Bactria roughly what is now Afghanistan. Its governor, Bessus, refused to surrender and Alexander was forced into a protracted campaign in unfamiliar desert and mountainous terrain. It was during the Bactrian campaign that Seleucus proved himself to be one of Alexanders most able officers. When the war was finally over in 327 BC, he was promoted to commander of the Shield Bearers, an elite unit of heavy infantry whose purpose it was to protect the king. They were in effect the royal guard, such as the praetorians were to the later Roman emperors. However, the death-toll had been high and Alexander was forced to draft in foreign reinforcements. The Shield Bearers were doubled in size and were now to be used as a military police force to maintain order within the new, multi-national army. Although junior to the commanders of the infantry and cavalry, the commander of the Shield Bearers now had direct control of discipline throughout the entire Macedonian and allied army. Placing so much power in the hands of one man may have been a mistake that Alexander eventually paid for with his life. In Babylon in June 323 BC, the one person best placed to seize control in a military coup was Seleucus which is exactly what he may have decided to do. Fearing that they had gained too much influence, Alexander had a habit of replacing senior officers between campaigns. The conquest of the Persian Empire was over and Alexander was already planning an invasion of Arabia: a re-shuffle in the high command was almost inevitable. In June 323 BC, if Seleucus had his eyes on Alexanders crown, it may have been a case of now or never. 5: ROXANNE - the adoring queen who was jilted for a younger girl. During one of the last skirmishes of the Bactrian campaign, Roxanne was captured by the Macedonian army. The sixteen-year-old daughter of an Afghan chieftain, she is said to have been beautiful, intelligent and vivacious. Alexander appears to have fallen madly in love with her because he married her almost at once. From all accounts, the feelings were mutual. There was certainly no political reason for the marriage as Roxannes father was a minor figure of no real importance. In 327 BC the war with Persia was over and all of its once mighty empire was now under Alexanders control. With this added to his homeland of Macedonia, its adjacent countries and the Greek states, Alexander now ruled the largest empire the world had ever known. It should have been time to return home and call it a day, but Alexander decided to push on into India (see >map). India was a place of mystery to Europeans and to most Persians too, and Roxanne seems to have become enthralled by this exotic land. She was excited by plants and animals she had never seen, captivated by the local customs and intrigued by the Hindu religion. In 326 BC, as Alexanders army moved along the Indus Valley, Roxanne was able to visit a number of Hindu temples and shrines. Alexanders biographers reveal that Roxanne seems to have understood more about the native religion than Alexanders own court scribes. When Alexander returned to Iran in 324 BC, he took a second wife, Statira, the daughter of the dead Persian king Darius III. This marriage may well have been political, but how did it affect Roxanne? Could such an endearing and seemingly spiritually-minded a girl really have killed her husband three years later because he had taken a second queen? There is no indication that Alexander was in actually in love with Statira, as his marriage to her seems to have been purely a political act to appeal to his new Persian subjects and bolster his claim to be their king.

Nevertheless, Roxanne may have felt humiliated before the world, and it would not be the first time in history that an amorous young woman had been turned into vengeful murderess by a love she thought betrayed. 6: MELEAGER - the long-suffering general whose men Alexander betrayed. Alexanders spectacular military achievements were due in part to the open dialogue he had always encouraged with his men. He treated them with respect and in return received their unswerving devotion in battle. A seasoned infantry officer of around fifty-five, Meleager shared a deep admiration for his commander-in-chief. However, once he had defeated the Persian Empire Alexander began to change. It began when Alexander started to behave like a Persian king, expecting his courtiers to prostrate themselves before him a royal greeting that was alien to Macedonian culture. This was so unlike the familiar Alexander that when he first ordered his entourage to bow down to him, his court scribe Callisthenes thought he was joking and refused. Everyone realized Alexander was deadly serious when he had the man arrested and killed. The king was also growing increasingly paranoid. He had his cavalry commander Philotas executed on the merest suspicion of disloyalty and ran his replacement Clitus through with a spear for daring to criticize him. Alexanders officers quickly learned to keep quiet, but the rank and file of the Macedonian infantry came close to mutiny in the late summer of 326 BC. They had conquered much of the western Punjab, but the Indian campaign was taking it toll. In the stifling monsoon heat, when the king ordered the army deeper into the subcontinent they refused to go. The infantry commander Coenus confronted Alexander with his troops verdict that it was a pointless war, and Alexander reluctantly backed down. However, a few weeks later Coenus died under mysterious circumstances. Whether or not this was Alexanders doing is unknown, but when Meleager replaced Coenus as chief infantry general, in September 326 BC, he must have considered his promotion a mixed blessing. How long would he survive? A painting by the seventeenth-century artist Charles Le Brun portrays Alexander depicting himself as a god as he enters Babylon in 323 BC. Alexanders inflated ego and arrogance after his defeat of the Persian Empire alienated him from his own men. When he returned to the Persian city of Susa (see >map) Alexander began to purge the Macedonian army in retaliation for their conduct in India. He demobilized half the Macedonian infantry, ordered them home and replaced them with a contingent of Persians. Incredibly, three quarters of Alexanders soldiers were now Persian and when the Macedonian infantry protested, he threatened to deploy the Persians against them and had thirteen officers executed for mutiny. Meleager survived the purge but he must have felt his position, even his life, to be under threat. Alexander needed what remained of his Macedonian infantry until he reached Babylon, but he had plans to replace them all. It seems that Meleager had every reason in the world to wish Alexander dead. 7: STATIRA - the captive consort who blamed Alexander for her fathers death. Statira was the sixteen-year-old daughter of the Persian king Darius III who had been captured as a child after the battle of Issus in 333 BC. Along with her mother and sister, she had been well treated by Alexander and had been raised with a Greek education in the occupied city of Susa. When Alexander arrived back from India in 324 BC he decided to make Statira his second wife, presumably as a political act to secure his position as king of the Persian Empire. Statira had promised to kill Alexander as a child, as she hated him for conquering her country and held him responsible for her fathers death. However, she had another motive to assassinate the king. Although she had been brought up Macedonian style, she had been allowed to practice her native Zoroastrian religion. However, having originally been tolerant of foreign religions, a few months before he died Alexander began to persecute the Zoroastrians. He desecrated their temples, outlawed their practices, executed priests and ordered the Avesta, the holy book of Zoroastrianism, to be burned. Not everyone in Persia was Zoroastrian and it is doubtful its teachings would have mattered much to the average Persian soldier in Alexanders ranks. However, Alexander totally underestimated the depth of religious conviction amongst Zoroastrian zealots, and when the equivalent of a fatwa was issued against him after he erected a blasphemous statue of a lion in

the holy city of Ecbatana at the end of 324 BC, he failed to show any sign of concern. Alexander even ignored a number of Zoroastrian holy men who warned him about the religious death threat a few weeks before he died. Zoroastrianism taught the equality of men and women and, as a devout Zoroastrian, it was Statiras obligation to kill her husband if she could. For some months after the death sentence was passed, Alexander was in the field of battle putting down an insurrection in northern Iran and Statira had been sent ahead to Babylon. The first chance she got to carry out what she may have considered her sacred duty was when Alexander joined her there in the summer of the following year - and within a few short weeks he was indeed dead. Revenge for the death of her father, King Darius, may not have been Statiras only motive to murder Alexander. (Mary Evans Picture Library) 8: PERDICCAS - the scheming chief minister who was hungry for power. Some four or five years older than Alexander, Perdiccas was a competent but by no means an outstanding soldier. However, he did have one of the most varied careers of any of Alexanders officers. He commanded an infantry unit until the death of Darius, he was a royal adjutant during the war in Bactria and he became a senior cavalry officer during the Indian campaign. In October 324 BC, Alexanders deputy Hephaestion fell ill and died. Hephaestions death unexpectedly left Perdiccas as the highest ranking officer at Alexanders court and he was not only appointed commander of the cavalry but took over the function of vizier the equivalent of prime minister. Against all the odds, a common, average soldier had found himself second-incommand of the largest empire the world had ever known. Perdiccas was clearly a brave soldier, but he lacked any real aptitude for senior command in battle and his appointment, although expedient, was almost certainly temporary. By June 323 BC, Alexander was preparing for a new campaign in Arabia and it is likely that Perdiccas would soon be replaced. No one else in the high command appears to have had much enthusiasm for another major war, and if Alexander were to die the chances were the plan would die with him as indeed it did. Perdiccas was well aware of this, giving him a prime motive for killing Alexander. When Alexander died, Perdiccas started a civil war by claiming that the king had made him his successor on his death bed. (From The Death of Alexander by the seventeenth-century artist Karl Theodor von Piloty) http://www.grahamphillips.net/Alexander/Alexander_3.htm (3-11 actually) Alexander was one of the greatest generals of all time, noted for his brilliance as a tactician and troop leader and for the rapidity with which he could traverse great expanses of territory. He was usually brave and generous, but could be cruel and ruthless when politics demanded. The theory has been advanced that he was actually an alcoholic having, for example, killed his friend Clitus in a drunken fury. Microsoft Encarta 2008. 1993-2007 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.