8/31/2010

1
Dr. Parag Prakash Sutar
Department of Chemical Engineering
Institute of Chemical Technology
Matunga(E), Mumbai, INDIA 400 019
Fruits and Vegetables
First in the world in production of fruits (52.048 million
tonnes) and second largest producer of vegetables (72.54
million tonnes)
Post harvest losses 20-38% in 2007
Marine Products
One of the global leaders in the fisheries and aquaculture
sector (Coastline 8,100 km)
Second in world
Increase in Fish production by eight-folds from 1950
Inland fisheries: 3.3 million tonnes
Marine fisheries: 2.96 million tonnes
Export-1.6 billion US$ during the year 2005-06.
(Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,2008 and
survey of Indian Agriculture, 2006)
Value addition is any activity along the supply chain that
increase the usability, culinary attribute or economic viability
of a item
A measure of factors added to the total worth of a product at
each stage of the production
Increased income of small scale farmers and fishermen
Employment generation in rural areas
Reduced migration in urban areas
Consumer convenience
Increased export
Easy availability of food in remote areas
Availability of all types of foods round the year
What is preservation:
Protection of food from deterioration by microorganisms, enzymes
and oxidation, destroying the microorganisms and enzymes by:
Drying
Canning
Salting
Refrigeration
Heat treatment
Irradiation
Addition of chemical preservatives
Pickling
Smoking
Curing
8/31/2010
2
Dehydration is one of the oldest methods of food preservation
Simultaneous heat and mass transfer operation
Extends shelf-life
Reduces transportation and storage costs
Alternative to canning & freezing
Simple, safe and easy to learn
Can dry year round
No refrigeration needed
Takes little space
Removes moisture from food hence bacteria, yeasts & molds cant grow and
spoil food
Slows down action of enzymes
Energy transfer
Diffusion
of
liquid
ENERGY
SOURCE
HEATED
AIR
Energy Transfer
by Convection
Evaporation
From Surface
Mango
Banana
Sapota
Guava
Strawberry
Apple
Pomogranate
Pineapple
Papaya
Pears
Grapes
and many more.........
Onions (White, red and pink)
Cucumber
Cabbage
Potato
Eggplant (Aubergine)
Okra
Cauliflower
Bell Peper Green
Sweet Corn
Tomato
and many more.........
Coriander
Dill Tips
Chilles
Aloe Vera
Bitter Gourd
Neem
Mint
and many more.........
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3
Fish
Prawns
and many more.........
Cost of Dehydrated products
Carrot Powder (freeze dried) - US $ 18.95 - 1.36 per kg in
USA and Europe
Dehydrated Carrots slices and Cubes (freeze dried) - US
$ 18.29 - 24.98 per kg in USA and Europe
The value addition in the Agricultural and marine products can
be done through drying and dehydration using cost effective
technologies. Easy to understand drying technology can be
adapted by small scale farmers to increase their income.
Cleaning
Spray washing
Dipping
Sizing
Slicing
Dicing
Shredding
Pretreatment
Osmotic dehydration
Sulphitation
Blanching
Drying
Convection
Conduction
Dielectric
Hybrid
Packaging
MAP
Vacuum
Active Packaging
Intelligent Packaging
Storage
Ambient
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4
Types of Dryers
Convection
Belt Conveyor
Flash
Fluid Bed
Rotary
Spray
Batch Tray
Continuous Tray
Spray
Kiln
Freeze
Tunnel
Superheated Steam
Heat Pump
Conduction
Drum
Steam Jacket Rotary
Steam Tube Rotary
Continuous Tray
Batch Tray
Radiation
Solar
Infrared
Refractance
Window
Dielectric
Radio-frequency
Microwave
Hybrid
Microwave Vacuum
Microwave Hot Air
Solar Cabinet
Combined Osmotic and Microwave -
Vacuum Dehydration of Carrot
a. Orange Carrots contain beta carotene, with some alpha-
carotene, both of which are orange
pigments. High in Vitamin A. Originate from
Europe and Middle East.
b. Yellow carrots contain xanthophylls, pigments similar to
beta carotene. Come from Middle East.
c. Red carrots contain lycopene, (another form of carotene)
a pigment also found in tomatoes and
watermelon. Orginally from India and China.
d. Purple Carrots (Usually orange inside) get their pigment
from entirely different class anthocynins.
Originate from Turkey, Middle and Far East.
e. White Carrots lack pigment, but may contain other health
promoting substances called
phytochemicals. Originate from
Afghanistan, Iran and Pakistan
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Types of Carrots Based on Colour
Osmotic dehydration is the process of water removal by immersion of
water containing cellular solid in concentrated aqueous solution of high
osmotic pressure (hypertonic media) for a specified time and temperature.
Water
Nutrients Solute
Hypertonic
Solution
Fruit/
Vegetable
tissue
Mass transfer across a fruit/vegetable tissue during osmotic dehydration
8/31/2010
5
Microwaves are electromagnetic
waves in the frequency range
300Mhz-300GHz
Two frequencies are used in the
industrial, medical and scientific
applications: 915 MHz and 2450
MHz
The absorption of MWs by dielectric materials results in the MWs
given up their energy to the material, causing the temperature to
rise, some water to be evaporated and the moisture level to be
reduced.
Two mechanisms that explain heat generation in a material
placed in a microwave field are:
dipole rotation
ionic polarization
food materials contain polar molecules as water
they have random orientation
when an electrical field is applied the molecules orient
themselves according to the polarity of the field
Energy transfer
by
conduction
Diffusion
of
liquid water to
surface
surface
Absorption
of energy
by water molecules
molecules
ENERGY
SOURCE
HEATED
AIR
MICROWAVE
ENERGY
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY
VACUUM PUMP/
CONDENSER
Energy
Transfer
by Convection
Evaporation
From Surface
Diffusion of high
energy water
molecules
Energy Transfer
by Radiation
Water Evaporation
from surface
Water vapour Diffusion
through Surface
8/31/2010
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The value addition in the orange coloured carrots can be done
by increasing its sweetness using osmotic pre-concentration
and further it can be dried by microwave vacuum drying
The probable benefit of the osmotic pre-concentration in sucrose
solution is simultaneous sugar gain and osmotic dehydration
which reduces the water removal load during finish drying by
microwave vacuum drying and can help in improving dried
product quality by uniformly applying microwaves
The existing microwave vacuum system can be used for
enhancing the mass transfer during osmotic dehydration
process without separate arrangement


1
2
6
7
3 4 5
8 9
2
1
1.Microwave oven, 2. Pipe connecting the vacuum chamber and vacuum pump, 3. Fiber optic cables, 4.
Signal conditioner, 5. RS-232 data cable from signal conditioner, 6. Ice cooled moisture condenser, 7.
Vacuum pump, 8. Pressure sensor, 9. Digital pressure indicator
Plate 1. Microwave vacuum dryer used for the osmotic dehydration of
carrot slices

16
15
2
9
5
6
11 13 14

18
12
7
1
10
8
3
20
19
4
17
18
1.Beaker with carrot slices immerse in osmotic solution 2. Vacuum chamber, 3. Fiber optic cables with
sensors 4. Signal conditioner, 5. Microwave timer, 6. Microwave power on/off switch, 7. Turn table
controller, 8.Electric power switch, 9.Manual microwave power control, 10.Microwave power level
indicator, 11.Remote power control, 12.Heat extractor fan switch, 13.Moisture condenser, 14.Vacuum
pump, and 15.Pressure sensor, 16.Pressure control valve in moisture suction line, 17.Heat extractor fan,
18.Turn table, 19.RS-232 cables, and 20.Personal computer
Schematic diagram of experimental setup for combined pulsed microwave
vacuum osmotic dehydration
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
M
L
,

%

I
W
t, min
Experimental 25C
Experimental 37.5C
Experimental 50C
Experimental 62.5C
Predicted 25C
Predicted 37.5C
Predicted 50C
Predicted 62.5C
Effect of solution temperature on moisture loss during osmotic
dehydration of blanched carrots at 40% sucrose concentration.
8/31/2010
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The kinetics of osmotic dehydration and the final equilibrium point can be
found out from slope and intercept of linear form of following equations
(Azuara et al. ,1992)
For moisture loss :
(1)
For solid gain :
(2)
where,
ML

= moisture loss at any time , fraction

ML

= moisture loss at equilibrium, fraction

SG

= solids gained at any time , fraction

SG

= solids gained at equilibrium, fraction

S
1
and S
2
= constants related to the rates of water
and solids diffusion respectively, min
-1
u
u
u
u
u
+
=
+
=

1
1
1
1
) (
1
) (
S
ML
S
ML S
ML
u
u
u
u
+
=
+
=

2
2
2
1
) (
1
) (
S
SG
S
SG S
SG
Modeling Mass Transfer Kinetics
Based on the model given by Crank (1975), Azuara et al. (1992) presented
an expression from which the diffusion coefficient can be calculated at
different times during the osmotic process:
2
2
model
experimental 4 1
L St X
D
t St X
t

( | | | |
=
| | (
+ \ .\ .
where, D is the diffusivity, L is the half thickness, S is the constant
related to the rate of ML or SG; X
model
, theoretical equilibrium value for
ML or SG and X
experimental
, experimental equilibrium value for ML or SG.
(3)

16

2
9
5
6
11 13

14

18
12
7
1
10
8
3
20
19
4
18
17
1. Carrot slices, 2. Vacuum chamber, 3. Fiber optic cables with sensors, 4.Signal conditioner, 5.
Microwave timer, 6. Microwave power on/off switch, 7. Turn table controller, 8.Electric power
switch, 9.Manual microwave power control, 10.Microwave power level indicator, 11.Remote power
control, 12.Heat extractor fan switch, 13.Moisture condenser, 14.Vacuum pump, and 15.Pressure
sensor, 16.Pressure control valve in moisture suction line, 17.Heat extractor fan, 18.Turn table,
19.RS-232 cables, and 20.Personal computer
Experimental setup for microwave vacuum drying of carrot slices
Modeling of Drying Data
Model Name Model Reference
Newton MR = exp(-kt) Liu and Bakker-Arkema(1997),
Nellist (1987)
Page MR = exp(-kt
n
) Agrawal and Singh (1977),
Bruce (1985)
Henderson and
Pebis
MR = a exp(-kt) Pal and Chakraverty (1997),
Rahman and Perera (1996)
Two-Term MR = a exp(bt) + c exp(dt) Henderson (1974)
Asymptotic
Logarithmic
MR = a exp(-kt)+b Yaldz and Ertekin (2001)
Wang and Singh MR =1+at+bt
2
Wang and Singh (1978)
Diffusion
approximation
MR = a exp(-kt)+(1-a) exp(-kat) Yaldz and Ertekin (2001)
Two term
Exponential
MR = a exp(-kt) + (1-a) exp(-kat) Wang and Singh (1978)
Verma et. al. MR = a exp(-kx)+(1-a) exp(-gt) Verma et. al (1985)
Modified
Henderson and
Pabis
MR = a exp(-kx)+b exp(-gx)
+c exp(-gx)
Karathanos and
Belessiotis (1999)
Table 1. Mathematical models used to test the drying kinetics
8/31/2010
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Moisture diffusivity
In the analysis of falling rate-drying period, a simple
diffusion model based on Ficks second law of diffusion was
considered for the evaluation of moisture transport, which is
given by the following equation (Karathanos et al., 1990).
where,
M = free moisture content, kg water/kg dry matter
t = time, s
x = diffusion path or length, m
D = moisture dependent diffusivity, m
2
/s
The diffusivity varies considerably with moisture content of
the food and was estimated by analyzing the drying data, using
the method of slopes technique.
M M
D
t x x
c c c | |
=
|
c c c \ .
1
An infinite slab being dried from both sides
Assumptions:
(i) uniform initial moisture distribution throughout the mass
of the sample
(ii) negligible external resistance to mass transfer
Initial and boundary conditions fixed for a solution of
equation 1
M = M
0
at t = 0 for all L
M = M
s
= M
e
at t > 0, x = L/2 at the surface
where, M
0
= the initial moisture content
M
s
= the moisture content at the surface
M
e
= the equilibrium moisture content
L = the thickness of the slab.
The solution of equation 2 for constant moisture diffusivity (D),
for an infinite slab is given by equations 3
where, l is half thickness of slab.
When the drying time becomes large and n > 1, equations 2 can
be reduced to the following form after neglecting all other
terms of right hand side except the first one.
For infinite slab
The equation 3 is evaluated numerically for Fourier number
(F
0
= D t / l
2
).
2
2 2
0
8
exp
4
e
e
M M D t
M M l
t
t
| |
=
|

\ .
( )
( )
2
2
2 2 2
0 0
8 1
exp 2 1
4 2 1
e
n e
M M Dt
n
M M l n
t
t

=
(
= +
(
+

MR =
Considering mass and energy balances and conversion of
microwave power into thermal energy within the carrot slices
Effect of product shrinkage was considered
Assumptions
Moisture transfer occurred in vapour phase only
products are homogeneous in composition
The heat transfer coefficient at the surface are constant
Temperature and moisture content are initially uniform
throughout the product
The incident electric field is considered to be normal to the
material surface.
8/31/2010
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Prediction of average temperature and moisture changes across the
thickness of thin slices of food.
Model based on 1-D energy balance equations for slab shaped
material taking into account microwave heat generation term.
C
p
L(oT/ ot) = p
L
[ K(M
v
-M
v
) + h(T-T

)] .. (5)
where,
p
L
= microwave power absorbed (W/cm
2
)
[K(M
v
-M
v
)] = loss of latent heat associated with
moisture vaporization in foods
[h(T-T

)] = heat loss due to convective cooling at the

surface
Finite difference method for simulation.
Input
T
o
, Q
o
, K
o
, M
o
and
M
do
Is
S
T,
S
Md

0.1
Calculate
C
pi
,
i
, Q
i
and K
i
from equations
Input
C
w
, C
d
, h, ,
o
, M
vo
, T

, L, A, m
d
,
t
Input and
Calculate T
i+1
and M
d(i+1)
Calculate S
T
and S
Md
Print S
T
, S
Md
Print and
No
Yes
Change values of and
by a fixed increment /
decrement
Rehydration Ratio
Density (True density, Bulk density)
Texture (Hardness)
Colour
Sensory evaluation
Chemical Properties (-Carotene, Ascorbic acid..)
Scanning Electron Microscopy
Air dried Freeze Dried
Microwave Vacuum
Dried
Osmotic Microwave
Vacuum Dried
SEM Images
8/31/2010
10
MVD OMVD
FD AD
Conclusions
1. The blanched carrot slices showed an increased range of
moisture and solid diffusivity as well as rate constants during the
osmotic dehydration process.
2. The initial sucrose concentration and time of osmosis increased
mass transfer (ML and SG) significantly whereas, solution
temperature was effective only on solid gain during osmotic
dehydration at atmospheric pressure. In case of osmotic
dehydration under pulsed microwave vacuum conditions the
microwave treatment time and osmotic duration were found to
significantly enhance the mass transfer in carrot slices.
3. The models developed by regression technique were found
adequate to predict the responses and the optimum conditions
for osmotic dehydration at atmospheric pressure were at 56.82 %
sucrose concentration, 28.98C solution temperature and 6.36
min time and in osmotic dehydration under pulsed microwave
vacuum conditions were MWT (microwave time per minute for
initial 5 min) of 40.97 seconds and osmosis time of 7.50 min.
4.The application of combined pulsed microwave vacuum during
osmotic dehydration of carrots increased ML from 24.82 to 32.48 %
and simultaneously reduced the SG from 10.31 to 8.674 %
5.The microwave vacuum drying of carrot slices without osmotic
pretreatment was found in the constant as well as falling rate
periods whereas the osmotically pretreated carrot slices showed
only falling rate periods
6.The Page model is most suitable model for microwave vacuum
drying of non pretreated and osmotically pretreated carrot slices as
compared to the other models. The Page model drying rate
constant and average diffusivity increases with increase in the
microwave power density according to a Power-law relationship at
all pressure levels and show the variation with both the microwave
power density and pressure by logarithmic relationship.
7.The microwave power density shows a significant effect on drying
rate constant as well as average diffusivity (5% level of
significance) whereas the pressure does not show significant
effect. This indicates that microwave vacuum drying is mainly
controlled by internal mass transfer.
8.Good quality dehydrated carrots can be obtained by microwave-
vacuum drying method with and without osmotic pretreatment
having properties comparable to freeze dried products.
9.The simulation studies on temperature and moisture changes of
carrot slices during microwave-vacuum drying indicated that the
predictions were more accurate for temperature than moisture
changes.
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11
SOLAR CABINET
DRYING OF FISH
Open Sun drying
On floor
On Bamboo Structure
Drying on floor
Drying on Bamboo structure
8/31/2010
12
Drying on Bamboo structure
Damage to the product by rodents, birds and
animals
Degradation through exposure to direct irradiation
of the sun and to rain, storm and dew
Contamination by dirt, dust, wind-blown debris
and environmental pollution
Insect infestation
Growth of microorganisms
Additional losses during storage due to insufficient
or non-uniform drying
Losses can be estimated at more than 30% and it
could be reduced to a great extent by improved
methods of drying
Faster method of drying as compared to open
sun drying
Cleaner drying process
Easy to operate and maintain
Controlled process
Better final product quality
Specifications:
Solar collector area : 20 m
2
Air velocity : 0.9-1 m/s
Drying air temperature : Ambient to 65C
Cabinet dimensions : Length 1.20 m
Breadth 0.76 m
Height 0.40 m
Air flow rate : 16.70 m
3
/min
Tray capacity : 16 Nos. ( each 2 kg
approx.)
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Solar cabinet dryer (side view)
Drying cabinet of solar dryer
Arrangement of trays in the drying cabinet
Bombay duck (Harpodon nehereus)
Shrimp (Penaeus indicus)
8/31/2010
14
Fresh sample
Open sun dried Solar Cabinet dried
Solar cabinet dried shrimp Open sun dried shrimp
Fresh shrimp
Drying of fish is promising method to add the
value in the fisheries
Solar cabinet dried fish can attract the
international market and export of dehydrated
fish can be increased
Solar cabinet drying results in high quality dried
product as compared to traditional drying
process
Solar cabinet drying gives more profit by
increasing quality, reducing the losses and time
of processing
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CONVENTIONAL METHODS
Kiln drying
Tray drying
Tunnel drying
Airlift drying
Fluidized bed drying
Spray drying
Vacuum drying
Freeze drying
Osmotic dehydration
NOVEL METHODS
Microwave Assisted
drying
Radio Frequency Drying
Ultrasonic Assisted drying
Heat Pump Drying
Infra- red drying
Microwaves are electromagnetic
waves in the frequency range
300Mhz-300GHz
Two frequencies are used in the
industrial, medical and scientific
applications: 915 MHz and 2450
MHz
The absorption of MWs by dielectric materials results in the MWs
given up their energy to the material, causing the temperature to
rise, some water to be evaporated and the moisture level to be
reduced.
Two mechanisms that explain heat generation in a material
placed in a microwave field are:
dipole rotation
ionic polarization
food materials contain polar molecules as water
they have random orientation
when an electrical field is applied the molecules orient
themselves according to the polarity of the field
8/31/2010
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Domestic microwave oven
Standard Industrial and Laboratory Microwave system (Gerling, 2004)
Product Process detail Scale* Country
Bacon
Meat balls
Chicken parts
Egg yolk
Vegetables
Onions
Potato slices
French fries
Pasta
Bread crumbs
Rice
Pet foods
Snacks
Grain, Peanuts
Cocoa, Coffee
Biscuits
Pre-cooking
With hot air
With air
With infrared
With air, under vacuum
With hot air
With air
Pre-drying
With hot air
Bake, dry, grind
With hot air
Preceded by extrusion
Puffing
Under vacuum
Roasting
Post-baking
I
P
P
I
I
I
I
P
I
I
I
I
I
P
I
I
USA
Germany
Japan
Japan
UK and Japan
USA
Germany and UK
Netherlands
USA and Italy
USA
UK, USA
UK
USA
USA, Canada
USA
Worldwide
I-Industrial level , P-Pilot plant
8/31/2010
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In radio frequency drying system alternating electric field
between two electrodes is created by RF generator.
The material to be dried is put between the electrodes, where the
alternating energy causes polar molecules in the water to
continuously re-orient them to face opposite poles - much the
same way magnets move in an alternating magnetic field.
This movement causes the friction and due to this water in the
material to rapidly evaporate throughout the material.
The radio frequency (RF) band of the electromagnetic spectrum
covers a broad range of high frequencies, typically either in the
kHz range (3 kHz< f 1 MHz) or MHz range (1 MHz<f 300
MHz).
RF heating has been used in several drying applications such as
post-baking drying of cookies, crackers and snack foods offering
advantages over conventional and microwave drying
Currently, RF postbaking drying is recognized as a bonafide and
sound processing technology for different types of cookies and
crackers.
RF drying applications are increasing for drying granular foods
with poor thermal characteristics such as coffee beans, cocoa
beans, corn, grains and nuts.
Frequency Ranges of Ultrasound
Low frequency of 20kHz with a power capacity of
100 W is used
High-intensity ultrasonic vibrations are used to
generate energy
Reduction in drying time takes place
Improve mass transfer rate during osmotic
dehydration
8/31/2010
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Osmotic
dehydration
Water
R2
Evaporator
External
Condenser
Desuperheater
Internal Condenser
Ambient
Air
Reflux
Coil (L)
Reflux
Coil (V)
Expansion
valve
Convective
Dryer Com
pres
sor
Heat pump dryer (HPD)
8/31/2010
19
Low temperature drying method
Use of refrigeration system to remove the moisture from the
air
Humidity of air is reduced at evaporator and heat rejected at
condenser is used to heat the dry air
Increases the drying rate at low air temperature
Results in high quality dehydrated food product
Time and energy saving as compared to other methods of
drying
Infrared radiant heat transfer is often more efficient than
convective heat transfer
Produce virtually no volatile organic compounds (VOC),
carbon monoxide (CO), and nitrogen oxides (NOX)
Limited uses of infrared radiation in food and agricultural
processing
Type of radiation Wavelength (m) Temperature (C)
Near Infrared (NIR) 0.8-2 1175-3350
Medium Infrared(MIR) 2-4 450-1175
Far Infrared (FIR) 4-100 245-450
Heating methods
Continuous
Intermittent
Fixed heating cycle
Variable heating cycle
Recirculation fan on
Recirculation fan off
8/31/2010
20
Great scope for application of new drying techniques for
Indian agricultural products.
Needs clear understanding of innovative drying techniques
for proper application.
Industry -academia partnership is required to design and
develop large scale food dryers based on novel drying
techniques
8/31/2010
21
Developed Farmer
Small Scale
Equipment
Development
Training
Cost Effective
Technology