2 international Conference on Transport infrastructures

nd

Rita Fortes Paulo Pereira

international Conference on Transport infrastructures iCTi2010

Book of Proceedings
Hotel Ibirapuera So Paulo, Brazil 4 - 6 August, 2010

Edited by

Rita Moura Fortes

Escola de Engenharia Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, Brasil

Paulo Pereira
Escola de Engenharia Universidade do Minho, Portugal

All rights reserved. No part of this publication or the information contained herein may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without written prior permission from the publisher. Although all care is taken to ensure integrity and the quality of this publication and the information herein, no responsibility is assumed by the publishers nor the author for any damage to the property or persons as a result of operation or use of this publication and/or the information contained herein.

Universidade do Minho Escola de Engenharia Departamento de Engenharia Civil, Campus de Azurm, P-4800-058 Guimares, Portugal Telefone: +351 253 510 240; Fax: +351 253 510 217 ISBN: 978-972-8692-57-5

International Organizing Committee

Committee Chair: Rita Fortes, Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, Brazil Committee Co-Chairs: Joo Merighi, Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, Brazil Paulo Pereira, iSMARTi President, Universidade do Minho, Portugal Rui Margarido, ANDIT Director, Brazil Tien F. Fwa, iSMARTi Executive President, National University of Singapore, the Republic of Singapore Waheed Uddin, former iSMARTi President, CAIT Director, The University of Mississippi, USA

International Scientific Committee (in alphabetical order)

Committee Chair Tien F Fwa, National University of Singapore, The Republic of Singapore Committee Members Adelino Jorge Lopes Ferreira, Universidade de Coimbra, Portugal Alan R Woodside, University of Ulster, UK Alessandro Marradi, University of Pisa, Italy Alex Visser, University of Pretoria, South Africa Ali Selim, SD State University, USA Andreas Loizos, National Technical University of Athens, Greece Athanassious Papagiannakis, University of Texas-San Antonio, USA Basil Psarianos, National Technological University of Athens, Greece Bertha Santos, Universidade da Beira Interior, Portugal Cesare Sangiorgi, Universit di Bologna, Italy Elisabete Freitas, Universidade do Minho, Portugal Ezio Santagata, Politecnico di Torino, Italy Filippo Giammaria Pratic, Mediterranean University of Reggio Calabria, Italy Frank B. Holt, Dynatest International, USA Ghim Ping Ong, Purdue University, USA Glicrio Trichs, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Brazil Hugo Silva, Universidade do Minho, Portugal Jan Celko, University of Zilina, Slovak Republic Joana Peralta, Universidade do Minho, Portugal Joo Merighi, Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, Brazil Joel Oliveira, Universidade do Minho, Portugal Jorge C. Pais, Universidade do Minho, Portugal Jos Alberto Pereira Ribeiro, ANEOR, Brazil Jose Tadeu Balbo, Escola Politcnica da USP, Brazil Jos Leomar Fernandes Junior, Escola de Engenharia de So Carlos, USP, Brazil Jos Neves, Instituto Superior Tcnico, Portugal Kanok Boriboonsomsin, University of California Riverside, USA Liedi Bernucci, University of Sao Paulo, Brazil Lus de Picado Santos, Universidade de Coimbra, Portugal Manuel Minhoto, Instituto Politcnico de Bragana, Portugal Massimo Losa, University of Pisa, Italy Mohammed Memon, PhalTech Corporation, President, USA Murat Ergun, Technical University of stanbul, Turkey Nestor Wilfredo Huaman Guerrero, Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera, Lima, Peru Paulo Pereira, Universidade do Minho, Portugal Ramzi Taha, Sulan Qaboos University, Oman Rita Moura Fortes, Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, Brazil Rosa Luzia, Instituto Politcnico de Castelo Branco, Portugal Rui Margarido, Andit Director, Brazil Silvino Capito, Instituto Superior de Engenharia de Coimbra, Portugal Sushant Upadhyaya, GeoConcepts Engineering, USA Tien F Fwa, National University of Singapore, The Republic of Singapore Waheed Uddin, The University of Mississippi, USA Wynand JvdM Steyn, University of Pretoria, South Africa Secretariat I. Virginia Fernndez

main sponsor

under the auspices of

PREFACE

A suitable transport infrastructure has always been essential for the mobility of the persons and goods all over the world since remote ages. Most of the transport infrastructures have been developed under national policy premises. There is the need to establish a single, multimodal system integrating land, sea and air transport connections which ensure the sustainability of our transport networks into the future. Environmental protection requirements are also the key to development sustainability and should not be left apart. The worldwide awareness of the sustainability of life and nature is indicative of an important role that civil infrastructures play in guaranteeing a sustainable life quality. Once an infrastructure is constructed its life-cycle demands a great effort in terms of maintenance and rehabilitation, in order not to jeopardize the initial investment in infrastructure assets and not to degrade surrounding and global environment. Thus, the iCTi series has been implemented with the support of a permanent organization, a technical and learned society iSMARTi with the aim of disseminating the most recent research in the themes approached in this international conference. After its first Conference in China, this second ICTI welcomes you in So Paulo, Brazil.

CONTENTS

Preface

vii 1 3

Keynote Lecture Toward an European Interoperable Rail Network: the Way to Build a Competitive Network P. Cicini

Application of new materials, concepts and technologies Measuring Asphalt-Aggregate Bond Strength Under Different Conditions H. Bahia, Raquel Moraes, Raul Velsquez Design and Performance Analysis of Foamed Asphalt Treated Mixtures A. Marradi, G. Ridondelli, U. Pinori Performance Study of Different Stabilizers Addition on 50% Dry Sludge from Water Treatment Plant (WTP) of Taiaupeba to Use as Compacted Material in Earthwork Ditches R. Moura Fortes, J. Merighi, D. Pauli, M. Barros, M. de Carvalho, N. Menetti, . Barbosa, B. Bento Changes in the Rubber Morphology Caused by the Interaction with Bitumen J. Peralta, H. Silva, J. Pais, A. Machado New Experimental Methods to Monitor and Characterize Asphalt Rubber Binders J. Peralta, H. Silva, J. Pais Monitoring Rubber Swelling and De- and Re-vulcanization through AR Elastic Recovery J. Peralta, H. Silva, J. Pais, A. V. Machado A Laboratory Study on the Fatigue Performance of Warm Mix Asphalt Mixtures J. Oliveira, H. Silva, P. Pereira, L. Moreno Laboratory Results Obtained On New Asphalt Mixtures With Polymer Modified Bitumen C. Rcnel, A. Burlacu, C. Surlea Use of Tire Rubber to Improve Fatigue Performance of Asphalt Mixtures L. P. Thives, G. Trichs, P. Pereira, J. Pais
ix

13 15 25

35

45 55 65 75

85 95

Application of Polypropylene Fibers in Pervious Concrete Pavement K. Behfarnia, S. Abtahi, A. R. Hejazi Evaluation of Usage of Gilsonite as an Additive for Modification of Asphalt Cement A. Mansourian, M. Ameri, S. Salehi Durable Asphalt Surfaces With High Crack Resistance F. Dourado, J. Scherer High Tenacity Acrylic Fibres in Bituminous Mixtures B. Pereira, J. Contreiras, A. Teixeira, M. Azevedo Studies of Bituminous Mixtures with Acrylic Fibers A. Teixeira, B. Pereira, J. M. Contreiras, M. C. Azevedo Comparative Study of a Mechanistic Resilient Modulus Predictive Equation for Unbound Materials C. Cary, C. Zapata Effects of the Rheological Properties of Mastics on Creep Performance of Asphalt Concretes H. M. Zelelew, A. T. Papagiannakis Asphalt Concrete with Low-Viscosity Modifier M. Iwaski, G. Mazurek Innovative Technologies for the Determination of the Density of Bituminous Mixtures F. G. Pratic, A. Moro A Theoretical Investigation on the Dependence of Gmb Measurements on Boundary Conditions F. G. Pratic, A. Moro Effect of Oil Palm Fiber on Properties of Asphalt Binders S. Anwar Vijaya, M. Karim, H. Mahmud Prospect of Using Waste Cooking Oil as Rejuvenating Agent for Aged Bituminous Binder M. R. Karim, H. Asli Effect of the Adhesion between Layers of Airport Pavements in their Structural Behavior L. Silva, P. Cachim, A. Benta Experimental Comparative Analysis of Laboratory Compaction Methodologies for Stabilized Soils G. Dondi, C. Sangiorgi, C. Lantieri, R. Cancellieri, P. Viola
x

107 115 125 131 139

147

157 167 177

187 197

205

215

225

The Use of Steel Fibers as a Reinforcement Material in Cement Concretes C. A. Kiremitci, S. Iyinam, A. F. Iyinam, M. Ergn Rheology of Fractionated Cornstover Bio-oil as a Pavement Material Mohamed Abdel Raouf, R. Christopher Williams Re-Capsulation of Styrene Butadiene Styrene (SBS), Styrene Butadiene (SB) with X-Linking Agent for Asphalt Modification G. Zamora, G. Memon Laboratory Investigation of Moisture Movement in Asphalt Concrete D. Bateman, R. Tarefder Identification of a Fuel Contamination Problem in the Production of Warm Mix Asphalts H. Silva, J. Oliveira, J. Peralta, C. Ferreira Use of Lime-Bagasse Ash for Subgrade Soil Stabilization T. Akram, A. Q. Khan Applications of spaceborne and airbone remote sensing technologies Remote Sensing and Geospatial Technologies for Inventory and Condition Monitoring of Transport Infrastructure Assets Waheed Uddin Optimal utilization and allocation of resources for maintenance management Natural and alternative Materials for Road Construction Environmental Optimization of Resources Management in a Territory D. Franois, T. Martaud, C. Ropert, E. Rayssac, A. Jullien, C. Proust Evaluation of Asphalt Plants in Terms of Performance: A Case Study for Turkey F. Yonar, S. yinam, A. F. yinam, M. Ergn Wheel Tracking Performance of Asphalt Concrete Mixture with Conventional and Modified Bitumen A. F. Nikolaides, E. Manthos Analysis of Full Scale Test Data to Study the Load Transfer Efficiency of Rigid Airfield Pavement Joints A. Wadkar, W. Kettleson, L. Musumeci, A. Zapata, Y. Mehta, Douglas Cleary Approach to Road Maintenance Works on Performance Criteria M. Dicu, C. Rcnel, A. Burlacu, C. Surlea Assessment of Fatigue Resistance and Aging of Asphalt Mixtures in Portugal J. Dias, F. A. Batista, M. G. Lopes
xi

235 245

255 265 275 285

295 297

307 309 317

327

337 347 355

Use of Construction and Demolition Waste as a pavement material in So Lus Brazil W. SantAna, T. Ferreira, L. Bernucci, R. Motta

363

Infrastructure asset management techniques and strategies A Simple Tool for Applying Sustainability Principles to Road Rehabilitation Strategy Michael L. J. Maher, Robert Noel-De-Tilley, Robert A. Douglas Use of 3D Laser Profiling Sensors for the Automated Measurement of Road Surface Conditions (ruts, cracks, texture) D. Lefebvre, Y. Savard, J. Laurent, J. F. Hbert, R. Habel The Effect of Geometric Features on Flexible Pavement Damage Using In-Service Pavement Performance Data Case Study H. Salama, N. Gonah, A. Wahdan, M. Solyman Road Pavements Maintenance through High Performance Measurement E. Cesolini, S. Drusin Utilizing Traffic Moulding of Road Pavements Towards More Cost Efficient Pavement Design and Management E. Kleyn, W. J.vdM. Steyn Multi-Objective Decision-Aid Tool for Pavement Management A. Ferreira, S. Meneses, M. Trindade Use of WIM Data to Evaluate Growth Including Economic Activities Attributed to Reconstruction of a Warranty Road R. Tarefder, N. Sumee A Preliminary Comparison of Continuous Compaction Control and Portable FWD systems for Qc/Qa A. Marradi, U. Pinori, C. Sangiorgi, C. Lantieri Precision and Bias Measurements in Automated Cracking Surveys and Future Technologies K. Wang Evaluation of Aircraft Landing Hydroplaning Risk H. R. Pasindu, T. F. Fwa, G. P. Ong Results of Accelerated Load Tests in Slovenia Marjan Tuar, Mojca Ravnikar Turk Combining FHWA and EVALIV Spreadsheets for Forwardcalculating Subgrade and Pavement-Layers Moduli M. Livneh
xii

373 375

385

395 405

415 427

437

447

457 469 479

489

Modifications to Pass-to-Coverage Ratio Computation in the FAAs FAARFIELD Design Procedure I. Kawa, G. Hayhoe, D. Brill Improvemets of Neural Networks Application for Backcalculation D. Cunha, S. Fontul, M. G. Lopes Construction of New Road Infrastructure in Poland with Emphasis on Bridge Structures J. Biliszczuk, J. Onysyk, M. Suchy Use of Trenchless Repair and Renewal Technologies in Roadway Drainage Infrastructure Management O. M. Salem, B. Salman, M. Najafi, A. Moawad HMA Composition vs. Surface Characteristics: Issues and Perspectives to Optimise Road Asset Management F. G. Pratic, R. Vaiana, A. Moro, T. Iuele New Methods of Traffic Growth Forecasting for Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG) K. Hall, X. Xiao, Y. Jiang, K. Wang Analyzing the Sensitivity of Error in Data Collection for Pavement Overlay Designing M. Khabiri Additional Road User Costs due to Pavement Conditions and Maintenance Actions: Initial Approach for Portuguese Conditions B. Santos, L. Picado-Santos, V. Cavaleiro Analysis of Aircraft Inflatable Slide Evacuation Events V. Motevalli Freight Traffic on High Speed Rail Line D. Leal, L. Picado-Santos Sustainable transportation and urban development Multimodal Transport Infrastructure Policies to Support Safe, Efficient and Reliable Freight Operations: A Case Study of the United States G. P. Ong Role of Multimodal Urban Transportation Infrastructures in Sustainable Integrated Transportation and Urban Planning: Lessons Learnt from the United States and Asia G. P. Ong New Bus Rapid Transit System: Significant Contribution to Public Transit Infrastructure of Istanbul S. Topuz Kiremitci, S. Iyinam, A. F. Iyinam, M. Ergn
xiii

499 511 521

531

549

531 559

567 577 587

597 599

609

619

Connecting two Continents: Marmaray Rail Transit Project of Istanbul C. A. Kiremitci, P. Alpkokin, M. Ergn, S. Topuz Kiremitci Effect of Transportation Infrastructure Investments on Urban Development; Case of Istanbul Y. Eryilmaz, M. Ergn Optimization of Bus Transport in Istanbul A. S. Kesten, M. Ergn Sustainable Personal Rapid Transit Strategies for Congested Cities and Urban Communities W. Uddin, U. Uddin

627

635

645

655

Environmental and social impact assessment Tribological and Environmental Effects in Dry and Wet Pavement-tyre Interaction: Modelling and Experiments F. G. Pratic, R. Ammendola, A. Moro Urban Road Safety Evaluation of Road Safety Measures C. Carvalheira, L. Picado-Santos Terrestrial Transport Infrastructures Effects on Natural Territories Development of a Quantitative Evaluation Method D. Franois, A. Ginot, S. Hennique, A. Jullien

667

669

679

689

Life cycle costing Road Base Stabilization: Performance Improvement and Pavement Life Cycle Consequences F. G. Pratic, M. Giunta, P. DAgostino The use of Boundary Element Method to Establish a Pavement Response A. Almeida, L. de Picado-Santos Thin Surfacing and Micro-Surfacing Alternative Cost Effective Wearing Course Materials A. Nikolaides Experimental Investigation of a Cement-Stabilized Low-Strength Soil for Pavement Construction in Eastern Nigeria R. Oduola

697

699

711

721

731

xiv

Keynote Lecture

iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Toward an European Interoperable Rail Network: the Way to Build a Competitive Network.
P. Cicini
Commercial and Operation Network Direction, Infrastructure Manager Italian Railways (RFI) , Italy p.cicini@rfi.it

ABSTRACT: T Between 1970 and 1998 the share of the goods market carried by rail in Europe fell from 21,1% to 8,4%, even though the overall volume of transported goods rose considerably. In the last years it has remained at the same value. The rail transport must regain a little slide of market. The objective proposed by the European Union on the White Paper is to increase the market share from 6 to 15% by 2020. It means to have an infrastructure suitable for modern transport and conditions of interoperability between networks and systems. Though it will not be possible in the immediate future to establish a complete rail network dedicated to freight, the investments must encourage the gradual development of trans-European corridors for priority or even exclusive use by freight trains. Parallel to the priority freight corridors an high speed passengers network is required. It includes high-speed lines, upgraded lines, connections and nodes. The rail offer must became more attractive and competitive than it is today. the European Union financed studies, developed by a groups of railway experts, to find a common command and control train system. They agreed in utilize the European Railway Traffic Management System (ERTMS). Six priority corridors have been identified, together with the technical and financial conditions required for a more rapid deployment of ERTMS. In this paper will be showed the planned actions to ensure the conditions of interoperability between networks and systems. KEY WORDS: ERTMS, Interoperability, Freight, Corridors, Rail network. 1. INTRODUCTION Between 1970 and 1998 the share of the goods market carried by rail in Europe fell from 21,1% to 8,4%, even though the overall volume of transported goods rose considerably. In the last years it has remained at the same value. The rail transport must regain a little slide of market. The objective proposed by the European Union on the White Paper is to increase the market share from 6 to 15% by 2020. The rail offer must became more attractive and competitive than it is today. It means to have an infrastructure suitable for modern transport and conditions of interoperability between networks and systems. In the last years the European Union actions have been directed to allow the development of multimodal corridors, giving priority to freight, and of high speed network for passengers. The establishment of multimodal corridors giving priority to freight, requires high quality rail infrastructure. The physical characteristics of the railways in Europe do not lend themselves to a mass transport system for freight. Nor is it possible to stack containers or
3

make up long trains, and generally the system has to cope with dense passenger train traffic, sharing the same infrastructure with the freight trains. Though it will not be possible in the immediate future to establish a complete rail network dedicated to freight, the investments must encourage the gradual development of transEuropean corridors for priority or even exclusive use by freight trains. They consist mainly of existing lines used primarily or even exclusively by freight trains. In areas with intensive traffic, particularly urban areas, having separate lines for freight and passengers will be guiding the principle in the development of the network, which will require the construction of new lines or loop lines around the nodes. In other areas, the gradual establishment of corridors giving priority to freight will be achieved through the improvements in capacity including the upgrading and rehabilitation of infrastructure on alternative low traffic ways or through the development of traffic management system. Parallel to the priority freight corridors an high speed passengers network is required. It includes high-speed lines, upgraded lines, connections and nodes. Passengers and priority freight networks objectives are not in contrast; on the contrary they are both part of the same effort to increase the capacity of the whole rail network and to aim to have specialized lines. High speed lines or upgraded lines aid the availability of the line for the freight by freeing up the lines previously used by passenger trains. In this paper will be showed the planned actions to ensure the conditions of interoperability between networks and systems. 2. STATE OF ART European Rail is a mixture of ancient and modern. On one side there are high performance high speed lines, served by modern stations, on the other side there are old freight services and old suburban lines at saturation point. Europe is a sum of different Countries. Each Country uses its own technology, in terms of rail gauge, electricity voltage (Figure 1), rolling stock design etc. and has got its own different train control and command system, that generally is stand alone and not-interoperable.

Figure 1: Rail electrification system in Europe There are more than 20 train control systems and 17 train radio systems (Figure 2), that together with other technologies, create a physical barrier to international traffic and loosetime at the border.

Figure 2: Train control and radio systems in Europe The Thalys trains, running between Paris, Brussels, Cologne and Amsterdam have to be equipped with seven different train control systems. Each one is extremely costly, in terms of installation and maintenance, and takes up space on-board. Obviously, interoperability does not mean only technology but also operation rules. It takes 30-40 minutes to replace the locomotive on a freight train and to check that the train is in proper working order (change of locomotive, fill out the composition form, check of the brakes, change of driver and crew, inspection of the train, carry out checks on dangerous materials, check of documents, make up the train, label of the wagons, train report, check of the rear light). In the last years, the European Union financed studies, developed by a groups of railway experts, to find a common command and control train system. The first important European Union step was the directive 96/48/EC established that the interoperability conditions for high speed lines were guaranteed by European Rail Traffic Management System ERTMS and gave the technical rules guidelines to realize it. In the 2001, with the directive 2001/16/EC, ERTMS was extended to the conventional rail network, defining the Technical Specifications of Interoperability (TSI). The specifications were subsequently reviewed to include additional functionalities and better join the needs of the railway companies and infrastructure managers. To ensure that ERTMS is constantly adapted to the railways needs, technical specifications are maintained under the lead of the European Railway Agency in cooperation with signaling industries and railway stakeholders. In parallel to the specifications work, a joint effort from the European Union and the member States to finance ERTMS has been implemented. In 2005 and in 2008 European Union and railway stakeholders signed two Memorandum of Understanding to further deploy ERTMS on Europeans corridors (Figure 3).

Figure 3: The legal framework More specifically the Memorandum of 4th July 2008 settles a cooperation framework for the main public and private rail actors to reach a common technical standard. This standard is scheduled to enter into force at the end of 2012. Six priority corridors have been identified, together with the technical and financial conditions required for a more rapid deployment of ERTMS. They interest a little less than 13.000 km of lines and were defined in terms of existing and future volumes of traffic. Some internal lines of the main States are already equipped with ERTMS, but they do not have the continuity, necessary to give competitiveness to international traffic. Crafted financial incentives were assigned to support both infrastructure and on-board installations. 3. THE INTEROPERABLE CORRIDORS The European Deployment Plan aims at filling up the network gaps an terms of technology and operation. It ensures that the Member States respect the National Deployment Plan for the tracks of European importance. It promotes and follows a corridor approach. Two important milestones were fixed: 2015: specific corridor sections have to be equipped, according to national deployment plans; 2020: the main freight zone throughout Europe should be linked to one another through the corridors. Necessary condition to reach the interoperability is an effort to develop bilateral crossacceptance of the rolling stock and the operational rules. It means to improve co-operation and procedural coordination among national safety authorities and notified bodies; it is necessary to standardize the tracks and the on-board equipment and harmonize testing specifications, references and procedures. The last but not less important point is to harmonize the operational rules, such as the driver licenses, trans-boundary operations, single train standards. Six priority corridors have been identified and planned to become interoperable with the joined effort of European Union and Member States. They are named "A" to "F", (Figure 4):

Figure 4: The six European interoperable corridors 4. THE ERTMS The European Railways Management System (ERTMS), the unique system train control designed to gradually replace the existing incompatible European systems. It is constituted by two basic components: ERTMS = ETCS + GSM-R ETCS, European Train Control System, is the new automatic train protection system (ATP) to replace the existing national ATP-systems. It ensures adequate safety margin between trains. The speed limits are transmitted from the track to the train, the drivers screen shows permitted maximum speed and the on-board computer stops the train if the speed exceeds the permitted maximum value (Figure 5); Corridor A: Rotterdam Genova Corridor B: Stockholm Napoli Corridor C: Antwerp-Base-Lyon Corridor D: Valencia-Lyon-Ljubliana-Budapest Corridor E: Dresden-Prague-Budapest Corridor F: Duisburg-Berlin-Warsaw

Figure 5: Train Control System GSM-R, the new radio system for providing voice and data exchange between the driver and the central control, based on standard GSM using frequencies reserved for rail application with specific and advanced functions (Figure 6).

Figure 6: Radio System These two components form ERTMS, the new signaling and management system for Europe, enabling the technological part of interoperability on European Rail Network. Due to the nature of the required functions, the ERTMS installation is part on the tracks and part an board of the trains. 4.1. ERTMS Levels A train equipped with ERTMS/ETCS on board equipment always co-operates with the ERTMS/ETCS track equipment in a defined ERTMS/ETCS level. ERTMS/ETCS can be configured to operate in one of the following application levels. Level 0. The train is equipped with ERTMS/ETCS and operates on a line without ERTMS/ETCS. Level 1 with or without infill transmission. The train is equipped with ERTMS/ETCS and operates on a line equipped with the eurobalises and optionally the euroloop or the radio infill. It overlies to the existing signaling system; the movement authorities are managed through the eurobalise and the trains integrity and position are managed by the track circuit (Figure 7).

Figure 7: ERTMS/ETCS Level 1 A variant is represented by the infill (euroloop, radio or extra balises) (Figure 8).

Figure 8: ERTMS/ETCS Level 1 with infill Level 2. The train is equipped with ERTMS/ETCS and operates on a line controlled by a Radio Block Center and equipped with the eurobalises and the euroradio. In this case the trackside signals are not more required; the movement authorities are managed through GSMR and the train position is managed through the eurobalises (Figure 9).

Figure 9: ERTMS/ETCS Level 2 Level 3. It is similar to level 2 but the train location and the train integrity supervision are based on information received by the train. It overpasses the concept of fixed blocks with the concept of dynamic blocks, not linked any more to a pre-determined physical space, but created depending on the traffic conditions (Figure 10).

Figure 10: ERTMS/ETCS Level 3

It is possible to overlay several application levels on the same track. Level 1, 2 and 3 are downwards compatible. It means that a level 3 equipped train can operate in level 1 and 2, and level 2 equipped train can operate in level 1. 5. ORGANISATION A stable corridor organisation has to follow the projects development to guarantee the success. The Letter of Intent, signed by the Ministries of the Member States in agreement with the European Union, gives the start to the project, settling the objectives and the deadlines. It is based on the reciprocity principle: it must be guaranteed that the traffic can cross the border and run in both directions between two Countries, at the same conditions. The project maintains strongly the corridor vision (Figure 11).

Figure 11: Corridors general structure organisation The corridor organisation has at the top level the Executive Board, constituted by the Representatives of the Ministries with the attendance of Infrastructure Manager, has the role of interface between Ministries and European Union. The operative role is managed by the Management Committee, constituted by the Representatives of Infrastructure Manager, with the task to manage and upgrade the Business Plan, and to make proposals for the corridor optimisation. The technical aspects are analysed and shared in the permanent working groups. It is advisable to have a legal structure for the corridor organisation (EEIG). This is a general structure but every corridor has little differences. 6. CONCLUSIONS The interoperability is a necessary step towards an integrated and competitive network. The deployment of ERTMS must be integrated into an broader approach including infrastructure and operational issues. Necessary condition to reach the interoperability is an effort to develop bilateral cross-acceptance of the rolling stock and the operational rules. It means to improve co-operation and procedural coordination among national safety authorities and notified bodies. The six identified priority corridors, planned to become interoperable, represent the first step of a more extended European interoperable rail network.

10

REFERENCES European Commission. White Paper European transport policy for 2010: time to decide. 2001. Commission Decision of 30 May 2002 concerning the technical specification for interoperability relating to the infrastructure subsystem of the trans-European high-speed rail system referred to article6 (1) of Council Directive 96/48/EC. ERA- Applicable standards in HS Infrastructure subsystem TSI 2008/217/ECERTMS European Interoperable Corridors eu.europa.eu ERTMS Interoperabilit RFI. www.rfi.it ERTMS The official website. www.ertms.com ERTMS Vinck Bucharest Januar 2009. Council directive 96/48/EC of 23 July on the interoperability of the trans-European highspeed rail system. Directive 2001/16/EC of the European Parliament and of the council of 19 March 2001 on the interoperability of the conventional rail system. Directive 2004/50/EC of the European Parliament and of the council of 29 April 2004 amending Council Directive 96/48/EC on the interoperability of the trans-European highspeed rail system and directive 2001/16/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on the interoperability of the trans-European conventional rail system. Letter of intent ERTMS deployment on Rotterdam Genova Corridor March 2006. Declaration of Ministers on rail freight corridors June 2010. Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) between the European Commission and the European Railway Associations (CER-UIC-UNIFE-EIM-GSM-R Industry Group - ERFA) concerning the strengthening of co-operation for speeding up the deployment of ERTMS July 2008. Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) between the European Commission and the European Railway Associations (CER-UIC-UNIFE-EIM) establishing the basic principles for the definition of an EU deployment strategy for ERTMS March 2005. Memorandum of Understanding (MOU). Schaffung einer internationalen Arbeitsgruppe zur Analyse der Probleme im Nord- SdGterverkehrskorridor und zur Lsung derselben Januar 2003. Corridors A Rotterdam Genova Annual Reports 2009. Corridors C Antwerpen/Basel/Lyon Annual Reports 2009. INTEROPERABILIT PRODOTTI EUROBALISE Autore/i: Claudio Rossi, Matteo Memoli, Marco Torassa e Pierluigi Pieraccini Capitolo: SICUREZZA, SEGNALAMENTO E NORMATIVA DI ESERCIZIO Rivista: Mese: Giugno Anno: 2005 Pagina: 21. LE NORME DESERCIZIO PER LERTMS Autore/i: Michele Mario Elia e Paolo Genovesi Capitolo: EDITORIALE Rivista: Mese: Aprile Anno: 2005. I collegamento dati tramite il GSM-R per il sistema ERTMS - La codifica HDLC rappresenta una scelta appropriata Autore/i: Coraiola A. Capitolo: IMPIANTI DI SEGNALA-MENTO E CONTROLLO DELLA CIRCOLAZIONE - COMPONENTI Rivista: Mese: Novembre Anno: 2004 Pagina: 947. ERTMS: iI nuovo sistema europeo di controllo/comando per la supervisione del distanziamento treni Autore/i: Carganico C. - Filippini M. - Poggio A. Capitolo: IMPIANTI DI SEGNALAMENTO E CONTROLLO DELLA CIRCOLAZIONE - COMPONENTI Rivista: Mese: Gennaio Febbraio Anno: 1999 Pagina: 3.

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Application of new materials, concepts and technologies

iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Measuring Asphalt-Aggregate Bond Strength Under Different Conditions

H. Bahia, R. Moraes & R. Velsquez
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, United States hubahia@facstaff.wisc.edu bringel@wisc.edu ravelasquez@wisc.edu

ABSTRACT: Moisture damage in pavements can be defined as the loss of stiffness and strength in the asphalt mixture due to a combination of mechanical loading and moisture intrusion. There are three mechanisms by which moisture degrades mixture performance: loss of cohesion within the asphalt, adhesive failure between aggregate and asphalt, and degradation of the aggregate. The aggregate mineralogy, texture and porosity play a major role in the bond strength development. Furthermore, asphalt composition affects the bond strength since variation in concentrations of asphaltenes and maltenes can create different adhesion with the mineral surface. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the mechanisms by which moisture can affect the bond between asphalt and aggregates. The loss of bond strength due to moisture conditioning was evaluated by means of the newly developed Bitumen Bond Strength Test (BBS). An experimental matrix, which included different binders, modifications, and aggregate types, to account for different chemical and physical conditions in the aggregate-asphalt interface, was completed in this study. The results indicate that the bond strength of asphalt-aggregate systems is highly dependent on modification techniques and moisture exposure time. Polymers are found to improve the adhesion between the asphalt and aggregate as well as the cohesion within the binder. KEY WORDS: Moisture Damage, Stripping, Cohesion, Adhesion, Asphalt Composition, Bitumen Bond Strength Test (BBS). 1. INTRODUCTION In asphalt mixtures, moisture damage is defined as the loss of stiffness and strength due to moisture exposure under mechanical loading. Moisture damage reduces asphalt pavement integrity by accelerating distresses such as bleeding, cracking, rutting and raveling (Hicks et al., 2003). It is recognized that resistance of asphalt pavements to distresses depends on the mechanics of the bonding at the aggregate-binder interface, which could be highly affected by moisture conditions. There are three mechanisms by which moisture degrades an asphalt mixture: (a) loss of cohesion within the asphalt mastic, (b) failure of the adhesive bond between aggregate and asphalt (i.e., stripping), and (c) degradation of the aggregate (Copeland et al., 2007). The loss of cohesion occurs when water interacts with the asphalt binder resulting in a reduction in material integrity (Hicks et al., 2003). The loss of adhesion happens when water

15

penetrates the interface between asphalt binder and aggregate. If the bond between the asphalt binder and the aggregate surface is sufficient, failure will occur within the asphalt binder. However, if poor bond exists, failure will happen between the asphalt and the aggregate interface (Kanitpong and Bahia, 2003). Stripping occurs when failure of the interface between the asphalt and the aggregate happens due to the presence of moisture. Water can cause stripping in different ways, such as spontaneous emulsification, displacement, detachment, pore pressure, hydraulic scouring, and osmosis (Aksoy et al., 2005). In this paper, the reduction in the asphalt-aggregate bond strength due to moisture after different conditioning times was experimentally investigated by means of the Bitumen Bond Strength (BBS). Different base binders, modifications, and aggregate types were used to account for a broad range of chemical and physical conditions of the asphalt-aggregate interface. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. Asphalt-Aggregate Adhesion Mechanisms Most likely a combination of mechanisms occurs synergistically to produce adhesion. The three main mechanisms related to adhesion between asphalt binder and aggregate are physical, chemical, and mechanical interactions (Bhasin, 2006). The theories that fundamentally explain the adhesive bond between asphalt binder and aggregates are: mechanical theory, chemical theory, weak boundary theory, and thermodynamic theory (Kanitpong and Bahia, 2003; Terrel and Shute, 1989). The mechanical theory indicates that bonding of aggregate-binder is affected by physical properties of the aggregate such as porosity, texture, and surface area. The chemical theory suggests that adhesion depends on the pH and the functional groups of both the asphalt binder and aggregate. The weak boundary theory suggests that rupture always occurs at the weakest link of the asphalt-aggregate interface. Finally, the thermodynamic theory studies the attraction between aggregate-asphaltwater due to the difference in surface tension. These theories and associated mechanisms are not exclusively independent and many researchers agree that a combination of mechanisms could take place and result in weakening the asphalt mixture. What has been identified as a major challenge is a system that can effectively measure bond strength and evaluate effect of moisture exposure on its level. 2.2. Factors Influencing Adhesive Bond Between Asphalt and Aggregate 2.2.1. Effect of Asphalt Binder Characteristics Previous research has identified viscosity, chemical composition, film thickness and surface energy of asphalt binder as major factors affecting the adhesion of aggregate-asphalt systems. (Kanitpong and Bahia, 2003; Bahia et al., 2007). It has been reported that asphalt binder with higher viscosity has higher resistance to displacement by water than those with lower viscosity (Thelen, 1958). Also, higher concentration of polar compounds in high viscosity binders leads to better wetting within the asphalt-aggregate interface. The chemical characteristics of asphalt vary significantly with the crude oil source used in its production. Petersen et al. (1982) ranked various asphalt functional groups and identified that asphalts containing compounds such as carboxylic acids and sulfoxides have higher water absorption. However, asphalts with these compounds are easily removed from the aggregate

16

surface by water. He observed that asphalt binders containing ketones and nitrogen are the least susceptibility to moisture damage. In terms of geometry, samples with thicker asphalt film tend to have cohesive failure after moisture conditioning. On the other hand, specimens with thinner asphalt film have adhesive failure (Kanitpong and Bahia, 2003). With respect to surface energy, according to the thermodynamic theory of asphaltaggregate adhesion, low values of this fundamental property for the asphalt is preferable to provide better wetting. 2.2.2. Effect of Aggregate Characteristics The characteristics of the aggregate play a major role in ensuring good adhesion. Size and shape of aggregate, pore volume and size, surface area, chemical constituents at the surface, acidity and alkalinity, adsorption size surface density, and surface charge or polarity are some of the widely cited characteristics in the literature. Aggregates are commonly classified as either hydrophilic or hydrophobic with regard to their affinity to water (Bhasin, 2006; Kanitpong and Bahia, 2003; Tarrar and Wagh, 1992). Hydrophilic aggregates are considered to be acidic due to their high content of silica. They have better affinity for water than asphalt binder. Hydrophobic aggregates, on the other hand, are considered to be chemically basic, with low silica content. They tend to have greater affinity for asphalt than water. In general, hydrophobic aggregate have higher resistance to stripping (i.e., adhesive failure) than hydrophilic aggregates. For example, limestone is classified as hydrophobic aggregate and granite is considered as hydrophilic. It is important to note that the level of basic or acidic condition of the limestone and granite aggregates may vary according to their chemical composition. Physical characteristics of aggregate surface such as roughness, porosity, dust coating and surface moisture also affect adhesion in asphalt-aggregate systems. For example, rough surfaces and therefore larger contact area are preferred for better adhesive bond. Furthermore, some porosity is desirable to provide mechanical interlock. Aggregates that have large pores on their exposed surfaces, such as limestone, appear to show stronger bonds with asphalt than aggregates that have smaller or fewer pores on the surface (e.g., granite) (Kanitpong and Bahia, 2003; Tarrer and Wagh, 1992). Moisture and dust can significantly reduce the bond strength of aggregate-asphalt systems. Dust has the tendency to trap air and cause improper bond. When moisture is present in the pores of the aggregate surface, asphalt is prevented from contacting aggregate surface for good bonding. 4. MATERIALS AND TESTING PROCEDURE 4.1. Materials Two types of aggregates which are known to have different moisture sensitivity were selected: limestone and granite. Two commonly used asphalt binders were selected in this study: Flint Hills (FH) PG 64-22 and CRM PG 58-28. Also, four modified asphalt binders were prepared: FH64-22+1%PPA (modified with 1% by weight of polyphosphoric acid), FH64-22+0.7%Elvaloy (modified with 0.7% by weight of Elvaloy), CRM58-28+1%PPA (modified with 1% by weight of PPA) and CRM58-28+2%LSBS (modified with 2% by weight of Linear Styrene Butadiene Styrene). For conditioning media, tap water is used to investigate the effects of conditioning media on the adhesion between asphalt and aggregate.

17

4.2. Bitumen Bond Strength Test (BBS) The challenge to quantitatively evaluate the adhesive bond between asphalt and aggregate is to identify a test which is simple, quick and repeatable for evaluating adhesion properties of asphalt-aggregate systems. Furthermore, no method is included in the Superpave binder specifications to evaluate adhesive characteristics of asphalt binders (Copeland et al., 1998). Youtcheff and Aurilio (1997) used the Pneumatic Adhesion Tensile Testing Instrument (PATTI), originally developed for the coating industry, to measure the moisture susceptibility of asphalt binders. In this study, the Bitumen Bond Strength Test (BBS), which is a significantly modified version of the original PATTI (Meng, 2010), was used to evaluate the asphalt-aggregate bond strength. The main components of the BBS equipment are: pressure hose, portable pneumatic adhesion tester, piston, reaction plate and metal pull-out stub (Figure 1). Before running a test, the piston is placed over the pull-out stub and the reaction plate screwed on it. Then, compressed air is introduced through the pressure hose to the piston. An upward pulling force on the specimen is applied by the pull-out stub. During the test, failure occurs when the applied pressure exceeds the cohesive strength of the asphalt binder or the adhesive strength of the binder-aggregate interface. The pressure at failure is recorded and the pull-off tensile strength (POTS) is calculated by:

POTS =

(BP Ag ) C
A ps

(1)

where: Ag = contact area of gasket with reaction plate (mm2); BP = burst pressure (kPa); Aps = area of pull stub (mm2); C = piston constant. The pull-out stub has a rough surface that can prevent asphalt debonding from the stub surface by providing mechanical interlock and larger contact area between the asphalt binder and stub. The pull-out stub in the BBS test has a diameter of 20 mm with a surrounding edge, used to control film thickness. The stub edge has a thickness of 800 m. 4.2.1. Aggregate Sample Preparation Aggregate plates were cut with similar thickness and parallel top and bottom surfaces. After cutting and lapping, aggregates plates are immersed in distilled water in an ultrasonic cleaner for 60 minutes at 60C to remove any residue from the cutting process and neutralize the surface of aggregate to its original condition. It should be mentioned that the lapping is done to provide a control on the roughness of the surface. 4.2.2. Asphalt Sample Preparation The aggregate surface and pull-out stubs are degreased with acetone to remove moisture and dust which could affect adhesion. After cleaning with acetone, the pull-out stubs and the aggregate plates are heated in the oven at 65C for a minimum of 30 minutes to remove absorbed water on the aggregate surface and provide a better bond between the asphalt binder and the aggregate. The asphalt binders are heated in oven at 150C. The stubs are removed from the oven and an asphalt binder sample is placed immediately on the surface of the stub for approximately 10 seconds. Then, the aggregate plate is removed from the oven and the

18

stub with the asphalt sample is pressed into the aggregate surface firmly until the stub reaches the surface and no excess of asphalt binder is observed to be flowing. The stubs need to be pushed down as straight as possible and twisting needs to be avoided to reduce the formation of trap air bubbles inside the sample and to minimize stresses. Before testing, dry samples are left at room temperature for 24 hours. For wet conditioning, samples are first left at room temperature for 1 hour to allow for the aggregatebinder-stub system to reach a stable temperature. Then, samples are submerged into a water tank at 40C for the specified conditioning time. After conditioning time is completed, samples are kept at room temperature for 1 hour before testing.

Figure 1: Bitumen Bond Strength Test (BBS) 4.2.3. Testing Procedure The BBS testing procedure can be summarized with the following steps: Before testing, air supply and pressure hose connection should be checked. Set the rate of loading to 100 psi/s. Measure sample temperature using a thermometer before starting the test. Place circular spacer under the piston to make sure that the pull-off system is straight and that eccentricity of the stub is minimized. Carefully place the piston around the stubs and resting on the spacers not to disturb the stub or to induce unnecessary strain in the sample. Screw the reaction plate into the stub until the pressure plate just touches the piston. Apply pressure at specified rate.

19

After testing, the maximum pull-off tension is recorded and the failure type is observed. If more than 50% of the aggregate surface is exposed, then failure is considered to be adhesive; otherwise, it is a cohesive failure.

5. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS 5.1. Effect of Conditioning Time In this study, samples were conditioned in tap water for 0, 6, 24, 48, and 96 hours. The effect of conditioning time on the pull-off strength of the asphalt-aggregate systems tested can be observed in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Influence of conditioning time on the pull-off tensile strength (POTS) for different asphalt-aggregate systems The average pull-off strength was calculated from four replicates. The conditioning of specimens in water caused a significant reduction in the pull-off strength and a change in the failure mode from cohesive to adhesive type (see Table 1), regardless of the selected asphalt binder or aggregate. The change in failure mode is expected since water penetrates through the aggregate, which is a porous material, and hence weakens the bond at the interface

20

(Kanitpong and Bahia, 2003). The longer the conditioning time in water, the weaker the interface bond and the lower the pull-off strength value observed. 5.2. Effect of Asphalt Modification The effects of modification of asphalt are clearly indicated by the BBS testing results. For example, Figure 2 shows that the modified FH64-22 binders have higher dry average pull-off tensile strength in comparison to the neat binder for both granite and limestone aggregates. The asphalts modified with PPA show less susceptibility to moisture conditioning in comparison to neat asphalts. Note that the effect of PPA is better in granite than in limestone aggregates. Asphalt binder modified with elvaloy also show moisture resistance improvements for the granite case compared to the neat asphalt. However, for the limestone case, no significant difference between FH64-22 neat and FH64-22+Elvaloy were observed. Failure mechanisms are also affected by modification type. Table 1 indicates that failure type (i.e., cohesive and adhesive failure) changes according to modification, aggregate type and conditioning time. Note that all unconditioned (i.e. dry) samples showed cohesive failure (i.e., failure within asphalt). On the other hand, adhesive failure (i.e., between aggregate and binder) was observed for some conditioned specimens. The results show that the failure type after 6 hours of conditioning time for the FH 64-22 asphalt changes from adhesive to cohesive when PPA is used as modification. These observations indicate that PPA improves the bond of the interface between the asphalt and granite. All samples containing PPA have cohesive failure, which indicates that the bond at the aggregate-binder interface is greater than the cohesive strength of the binder at the specified testing conditions.

5.3. Effect of Aggregate Type The nature and chemical characteristics of aggregates greatly affect bond strength and failure mechanisms of asphalt-aggregate systems as indicated by Table 1. On both limestone and granite surfaces the failure mode changed after moisture exposure, showing that the nature of the aggregate greatly affects adhesion. It can be seen that for all limestone samples, the failure type was cohesive, which indicates that the adhesive bond in the asphalt-aggregate interface is larger than the cohesive strength of the binders. Also, Figure 2 indicates that limestone aggregates have higher adhesive bond to asphalt than granite aggregates, and thus more resistance to adhesive failure. The pull-off tensile strength obtained from BBS tests performed is highly influenced by the cleanness of the surface of the aggregate plate. Inconsistent and unexpected results for some of the samples conditioned at 48 and 96 hours were obtained when the aggregate plate used was different than the plate used for the 0, 6, and 24 hours tests. It appears that slight changes of the aggregate surface can greatly affect the magnitude of the pull-off tensile strength. Therefore, it is always important to perform moisture susceptibility experiments using the aggregates from the same source and to be consistent in sample preparation.

21

Table 1: Influence of conditioning time, modification, and aggregate type in the failure mode. Asphalt Binder Type *CT (hr) Dry 6 24 48 96 Dry 6 24 48 96 Dry 6 24 48 96 Dry 6 24 48 96 Dry 6 24 48 96 Dry 6 24 48 96 Failure Type Granite Limestone Cohesion Cohesion Adhesion Cohesion Adhesion Cohesion 50%A -50%C 50%A -50%C Cohesion Cohesion Cohesion Cohesion Cohesion Cohesion Adhesion Cohesion Cohesion 50%A -50%C Cohesion Cohesion Cohesion Cohesion Cohesion Cohesion Cohesion Cohesion Cohesion Cohesion Cohesion Cohesion Cohesion Cohesion Cohesion Cohesion Cohesion Cohesion Adhesion Cohesion Adhesion Adhesion Cohesion Cohesion Adhesion Cohesion Adhesion Cohesion 50%A -50%C Adhesion Adhesion Adhesion Cohesion Cohesion Cohesion Cohesion Cohesion Cohesion Cohesion Cohesion Cohesion Cohesion

FH64-22 neat

FH64-22+Elvaloy

FH6422+1%PPA

CRM 58-28 neat

CRM 58-28+2%SBS

CRM58-28+1%PPA

*Conditioning Time (CT)

6. CONCLUSIONS This paper shows promising results regarding characterization of asphalt-aggregate bond under different conditions by means of a simple to perform test. The results and analysis lead to the following conclusions: The Bitumen Bond Strength (BBS) test can effective measure the effects of conditioning time and modification on the bond strength of asphalt-aggregate systems.

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The pull-off tensile strength decreases when samples are conditioned in water, regardless of the selected asphalt binder or aggregate type. Bond measurements for the dry samples have lower coefficient of variation than for the samples tested after water conditioning. Conditioning of specimens in water causes not only loss of pull-off tensile strength but also a change in the failure mechanism. In absence of water, failure usually happens within the asphalt (i.e. cohesive failure). After water conditioning, the failure changes from total cohesive to adhesive failure. It is observed that the bonding between asphalt and aggregate under wet conditions is highly dependent on binder modification type and conditioning time. Polymers are found to improve the adhesion between the asphalt and aggregate as well as the cohesion within the binder. Polyphosphoric Acid (PPA) significantly improves the moisture resistance of asphaltaggregate systems tested in this study. The effect is especially noticed for granite or acidic aggregates. All samples containing PPA have a cohesive failure, which indicates that the bond at the aggregate-binder interface is greater than the cohesive strength of the binder.

REFERENCES Aksoy, A., Samlioglu, K., Tayfur, S. and Ozen, H., 2005. Effects of Various Additives on the Moisture Damage Sensitivity of Asphalt Mixtures. Construction and Building Materials, vol. 19, pp. 1118. Bahia, H. U., Hanz, A., Kanitpong, K., and Wen, H., 2007. Testing Methods to Determine Aggregate/Asphalt Adhesion Properties and Potential Moisture Damage. WHRP 07-02, Wisconsin Highway Research Program, Madison, Wisconsin. Bhasin, A., 2006. Development of Methods to Quantify Bitumen-Aggregate Adhesion and Loss of Adhesion Due to Water. Ph.D. Dissertaton, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas. Copeland, A. R., Youtcheff, J. and Shenoy, A., 2007. Moisture Sensitivity of Modified Asphalt Binders-Factors Influencing Bond Strength. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No. 1998, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C., pp. 1828. Hicks, R. G., Leahy, R. B., Cook, M., Moulthrop, J. S. and Button, J., 2003. Road Map for Mitigating National Moisture Sensitivity Concerns in Hot-Mix Pavements. Proceedings of the National Seminar on Moisture Sensitivity of Asphalt Pavements, San Diego, CA, pp. 331. Kanitpong, K. and Bahia, H. U., 2003. Role of Adhesion and Thin Film Tackiness of Asphalt Binders in Moisture Damage of HMA. Asphalt Paving Technology, vol. 72, pp. 502-528. Petersen, J. C., Plancher, H., Ensley, E. k., Venable, R. L., and Miyake, G., 1982. Chemistry of Asphalt-Aggregate Interaction: Relationship with Pavement Moisture-Damage Prediction Test. Transportation Research Record, No. 843, TRB, National Research Council, Washington D.C. , p.95-104. Meng, J., 2010. Affinity of Asphalt to Mineral Aggregate: Pull-off Test Evaluation, MS Thesis, University of Wisconsin, Madison. Santagata, F. A., Cardone, F., Canestrari, F. and Bahia, H. U., 2009. Modified PATTI Test for the Characterization of Adhesion and Cohesion Properties of Asphalt Binders. Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Pavements and Technological Control (MAIREPAV6), Torino, Italy.
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Tarrer, A. R., and Wagh, V. P., 1992. The Effect of the Physical and Chemical Characteristics of the Aggregate on Bonding. Strategic Highway Research Program Report SHRP-A/UIR91-507, Washington, D.C. Terrel, R. L., and Shute, J. W., 1989. Summary Report on Water Sensitivity. SHRP-A/IR-89003, Strategic Highway Program, Washington, D.C. Thelen, E., 1958. Surface Energy and Adhesion Properties in Asphalt-Aggregate Systems. HRB Bulletin 192, Highway Research Board, Washington D.C., pp. 63-74. Youtcheff, J., and Aurilio, V., 1997. Moisture Sensitivity of Asphalt Binders: Evaluation and Modeling of the Pneumatic Adehsion Test Results. 42nd Annual Conference of Canadian Technical Asphalt Association, Canada, pp. 180-200.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Design and Performance Analysis of Foamed Asphalt Treated Mixtures

A. Marradi, G. Ridondelli & U. Pinori
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Pisa, Italy a.marradi@ing.unipi.it, giacomo.ridondelli@ing.unipi.it, umberto.pinori@ing.unipi.it

ABSTRACT: The need to apply in situ cold recycling techniques for flexible pavement rehabilitation arises in response to economic, environmental and operational issues. The constant search for more efficient solutions to address these issues must be underpinned by in-depth studies which not only allow achievement of satisfactory performance but also ensures proper definition of the mechanical parameters to be adopted in the pavement design. This paper focuses on the technique of recycling an existing asphalt concrete by means of foamed bitumen with special emphasis on the dynamic performance of mixtures thus obtained. In addition to the classic determinations of resistance and deformation, stiffness and fatigue resistance tests were performed to define the behaviour of the material from the point of view of mechanistic design. Finally, as a result of fatigue tests performed, the material was assigned a stiffness degradation induced by repeated dynamic loads, based on which it is possible to outline a method for a more reliable and realistic estimate of the useful life of pavements. KEY WORDS: Foamed asphalt treated mixture, RAP, Mix design, Stiffness modulus, Resistance to fatigue, Recycling. 1. INTRODUCTION In road construction, the term recycling defines the re-use of materials obtained from a distressed pavement which are then utilized to construct new pavement layers, after demolition or milling and subsequent treatment with the possible addition of suitable binders. Recourse to such recovery operations offers many advantages. First of all, it reduces both the exploitation of quarries for extraction of virgin aggregates as well as the areas intended for disposal of material removed. In particular, on-site cold recycling procedures have generated great interest in the scientific and technical community and, at the same time, among the construction companies. In these techniques, bitumen is the most widely used binder, both as foam and as emulsion and the addition of cement has the primary purpose of obtaining the necessary compromise between resistance to deformation and flexibility. Recovery of the reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) can be total and immediate when carried out on-site, making it possible to eliminate the logistical problems involved in transportation towards fixed plants or landfills. In addition, the amount of carbon dioxide and other pollutants emitted during mixing with the bituminous binder is practically negligible. Thence, there is also an unquestionable economic advantage, provided that the recycling technique is mature enough to guarantee durability and resistance levels comparable to those of classic solutions. It is necessary to increase technical and scientific knowledge on
25

alternative materials, defining the mechanical behaviour and any critical or idiosyncratic characteristic that affect or encourage their use in specific applications. 2. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM In the framework of the above considerations, the present study focuses on in situ recycling of pavements with the foamed bitumen technique, determining by laboratory tests the actual response to dynamic loads, so as to assess dynamic stiffness and fatigue resistance. Both of these parameters are necessary to allow an experimentally-based mechanistic design method for a pavement containing recycled materials. The data obtained from fatigue tests were assessed through further analysis and interpretations, in order to define and explain the good durability shown on sites where the recycled mix was adopted to construct the pavement base layer. The experimental program (Table 1) is composed of four types of tests to be conducted on samples compacted by means of a gyratory compactor using the parameters shown in Table 3. The quantities of CEM II/B-M 32.5 Portland cement (UNI EN 197-1/2001), bitumen and water to prepare specimens were respectively 2%, 3% and 5%, that is the optimal solution obtained by the mix design procedure. Table 1: Experimental program Test type Indirect diametrical tensile strength Resistance loss after water immersion Stiffness modulus Resistance to fatigue 3. CHARACTERIZATION OF RAW MATERIALS 3.1. Aggregate The quantity of material necessary for mix design procedures and further laboratory tests was collected by milling a portion of the pavement assessed as being in need of restoration operations. Generally, milling cannot separate all the bound material. There remain agglomerates of aggregates that produce a fairly marked difference between the grading curve of the RAP as is and the curve obtained after extraction of the bituminous binder. In this respect it can be said that the as is curve, taking into account the incidence of undivided agglomerates formed by residual bituminous bound particles, should be considered when it is necessary to evaluate quantity of surface to be coated with bitumen and the effective presence of fine available for dispersion of the binder (mix design phase). In contrast, the after extraction curve obtained after solvent action is needed in order to verify, in qc/qa of mixtures after construction, the respondency of grain size distribution to the curve obtained from the mix design, which must in this case be considered as after extraction. Size distribution detected before extraction and bitumen content of RAP are shown in Figure 1. 3 Curing time (days) 14 28

26

100 90 80

Bitumen content referred to the mass of the mixture (%): 3.9 Bitumen content referred to the mass of the aggregate (%): 4.1

Passage ratio (%)

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0.01 0.1 1 10 100

Sieve size (mm)

Figure 1: Grain size distribution and composition of RAP 3.2. Asphalt binder The binder used in the foaming process is bitumen 70/100 Azalt produced and indicated as suitable for this purpose by Total Italia. Its characteristics are specified in Table 2. For what concerns the quality of foamed bitumen, the key parameters are expansion ratio and half-life: the first one indicates the viscosity of the foam and is calculated as the ratio between the maximum volume of foam and the original volume of bitumen; the second one consists of the time during which the volume of foam changes from maximum to its half and measures stability of the foam indicating its speed of collapse. Table 2: Characteristics of bitumen used in the foaming process Penetration (dmm) 82 Softening point (C) 49 Fraas breaking point (C) -9 Expansion ratio* 18 Half-life time* (sec) 68

*temperature: 170C; water in the foaming process: 3.0% of the bitumen weight

4. SPECIMEN COMPACTION AND CONDITIONING 4.1. Compaction After producing the foam bitumen using the Wirtgen WLB10 machine, designed to reproduce the normal functioning of the production equipment installed on recycling machines, samples were compacted with the gyratory compactor, adopting the standard parameters shown in Table 3. Table 3: Gyratory compaction parameters Vertical pressure (kPa) 600 3 4.2. Curing In general, specimens must be subjected to a conventional process of curing to simulate the departure of the water and the strengthening of the material that can be observed in the
27

Gyration angle () 1.25 0.02

Gyration speed (rpm) 30

Specimen diameter (mm) 150

Number of gyrations (#) 180

Specimen weight (g) 4500

pavement. For what concerns curing time, Castedo et al. (1983) reported that foamed asphalt strengths increase with curing time, particularly from 1 to 3 days. Most of the previous researches adopted the laboratory curing procedure proposed by Bowering (1970), that is 3 days oven curing at 60C (Kim et al., 2006). This procedure allows to obtain a moisture content stabilizing at about 0 to 4 per cent, which represents the driest state achievable in the field. In spite of this, concerns have been expressed over the binder ageing which may occur at a curing temperature of 60C. Moreover, since this temperature is above that of the softening point of common road-grade bitumens, changes in bitumen dispersion within the mix are possible during curing (Muthen, 1999): 49C is really the softening point value measured for bitumen used in the present study (Table 2). On the other hand, some Authors recommended a temperature of 40C for 1-day intermediate curing and 3-day long-term curing (Kim et al., 2006): the Italian most common specifications align themselves to this position. That considered, curing times of 3, 14 and 28 days at a temperature of 40C were adopted. Some researches compare the effect of the composite curing 24 h @ ambient in mould, 72 h @40C to a nominal field cure period from 1 (Kekwick, 2005) to 6 months (AIPCR, 2003). 5. LABORATORY TESTS 5.1. Indirect diametrical tensile strength test IDTS tests were carried out at 25C adopting the test equipment described in UNI EN 1269723. CTI (Indirect Tensile Coefficient) is a stiffness parameter that appears in the main Italian specifications (ANAS, Autostrade) and is given by the following equation:
CTI =

D IDTS
2 Dc

where D = diameter of the specimen, Dc = breaking deformation. The results of tests after 3day curing and the above mentioned reference values are summarized in Table 4. Table 4: IDTS tests results IDTS (N/mm2) CTI (N/mm2) Mean Standard deviation Reference values 0.32 0.02 0.32 0.55** 76 3 50** IDTS* (N/mm2) 0.28 0.01 CTI* (N/mm2) 71 1 IDTS/IDTS 0.88 0.70***

*before testing, specimens were kept at the temperature of 25 C and at the pressure of 50 mmHg for 1 hour **ANAS (2008) specifications ***Autostrade (2004) specifications

5.2. Stiffness moduli Since there is currently no specific standard for determination of the dynamic stiffness modulus of foamed asphalt treated mixtures, it was considered appropriate to adopt the same test equipment currently used for asphalt concrete and described by UNI EN 12697-26

28

(indirect tensile configuration, IT-CY). However, in the present test, specimen height was greater than the maximum stated in the above-mentioned standard (75 mm). The procedure involves the application of IT-CY indirect diametrical tensile stress on cylindrical specimens compacted using the gyratory compactor, adopting the following parameters: rise-time: 0.075, 0.125 and 0.200 s; pulse repetition period: 3.000 s, temperature: 20C. The evolution of stiffness with respect to frequency of applied load was evaluated using three different rise-time values. Furthermore, a series of tests was undertaken in which the stress induced was increased each time, in order to investigate the behaviour of the material in respect of the magnitude of applied load and thus to detect any non-linear behaviour. Care was taken to maintain the strain measured on the horizontal diameter in the range of 40 (that is approximately a value of 80 at the central point of the specimen), as this threshold is recognized as optimal by UNI EN 12697-26 on asphalt concrete and, with regard to cement-bound mixtures, it does not cause stress-cracking that can compromise test results (Lancieri et al., 2009), as proved by results contained in 5.2.2. Furthermore, previous studies showed that this strain level should not be exceeded to reduce the fatigue risk when the material is used as base layer on heavy trafficked roads (Losa et al., 2009). The Poissons ratio of foamed asphalt treated mixtures varies with respect to bitumen and cement content, as stated by Berthelot et al. (2007): with regard to a stabilized granular base, the tests conducted adopting a load frequency equal to 1 Hz showed values between 0.18 (when 2% of foamed asphalt and 1.5% of cement were added) and 0.40 (when 3% of foamed asphalt was added). In the present study, a value of 0.30 was assigned, accordingly to the most common values reported in the technical literature. 5.2.1. Curing time and frequency of load application The stiffness modulus value obtained for the rise-time of 0.200 s, corresponding to a frequency of about 1 Hz, aligns itself to the prescription (1700 MPa) required by Autostrade (2004) specifications for similar values of frequency and temperature. Table 5: Values of stiffness modulus@0.200s for three curing times Mean (MPa) Standard deviation (MPa) 3-day curing time 1711 109 14-day curing time 3234 211 28-day curing time 3576 248

It is also noticeable that the first phase of the curing period was characterized by a much stronger growth of stiffness in comparison to the subsequent period. This trend may be related both to the type of curing (at 40C) and to the curing rate of cement, which appears to develop mainly during the first days of climatic chamber curing. As far as the frequency domain is concerned, a viscous behaviour was observed: an increase in stiffness with decreasing rise-time (ie a frequency raise) can be seen, as shown in Table 6. Table 6: Stiffness modulus increases as percentages of values@0.200 s Rise-time (s) 0.200 0.125 0.075 3-day curing time 1711 Mpa +9.1% +19.8% 14-day curing time 3234 MPa +9.0% +18.8% 28-day curing time 3576 MPa +8.9% +17.8%

29

5.2.2. Curing time and peak load values A series of IT-CY stiffness modulus tests were conducted, increasing each time the compression load values on the vertical diameter, in order to verify the assertion that some Authors (Asphalt Academy, 2009) attribute these mixtures a stress-dependant behaviour, because the individual bitumen droplets are not linked and the coarser aggregate particles remain uncoated, maintaining the granular characteristics of the parent material. The stiffness moduli were determined by imposing horizontal diametral strain values between 30 and 50 and a rise-time of 0.200 s. For 3-day and 28-day curing time, the corresponding indirect tensile stress applied was approximately up to 30% of the IDTS value measured and equal to 0.32 N/mm2 (for 3-day curing, see Table 4) and 0.55 N/mm2 (for 28day curing). The results obtained for different rise-times and curing periods showed no stressdependent behavior for strain up to 50 , as indicated in Figure 2.
4500

3-day curing

Stiffnessmodulus(MPa)

4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20

14-day curing 28-day curing Rise time: 0.075 s Rise time: 0.125 s Rise time: 0.200 s

Peak stress(MPa)

1 Peak load 2 Pulse repetition period 3 Rise-time

Figure 2: Stiffness modulus vs. peak stress diagram (left) and form of load pulse, showing the rise-time and peak load (right) 5.3. Resistance to fatigue With regard to the foamed asphalt treated mixtures, the bitumen and cement must provide a satisfactory compromise in terms of flexibility (resistance to fatigue) and stiffness (resistance to deformation). Resistance to fatigue tests were therefore performed on cylindrical specimens, as described in the UNI EN 12697-24 standard designed for asphalt concrete. A good interpolation of the results given in terms of 0-N (initial strain at the central point of the specimen- number of load cycles to failure of specimens) can be obtained with the curve shown in Figure 3.
1000

Initial deformation ()

100

y = 656.4x -0.1497 R = 0.91

10 1000

10000

100000

1000000

Number of cycles

Figure 3: Resistance to fatigue test results

30

At strain levels lower than 80 , the admissible number of cycles is greater than 106 and the integrity of the specimen didnt reduce at all; this strain value can be considered a safe value with regard to the fatigue risk. As stated in a previous study (Losa et al., 2009), a fatigue relationship seems to be identifiable for such low strain levels, but it should not be reliable being the regression line quite horizontal and its correlation coefficient too low. These results align themselves with considerations expressed by Multhen (1999), who reported that foamed asphalt mixes, having mechanical characteristics that fall between those of a granular structure and those of a cemented structure, show fatigue characteristics inferior to those of hot-mix asphalt materials, as stated by Bissada (1997) and Little et al. (1983). However, available experiences on trial sections currently under monitoring of University of Pisa for over 3 years (Marradi, 2007) confirm that once laid these recycled mixtures can perform significantly better than expected: this can be explained considering the on-site postcompacting effect produced by vehicular traffic (Montepara, 2008) and assuming the selfpreservation behaviour that arose during the laboratory tests and that is summarized below. 5.4. Resistance to fatigue and decay of stiffness: self-preservation of the foamed asphalt treated mixtures Horizontal deformation measured during fatigue tests allowed determination of the stiffness modulus with respect to the number of load cycles (n), according to the following relation contained in UNI EN 12697-26: F ( + 0.27 ) S = m zh where Sm = stiffness modulus (MPa), F = peak load (N), = Poissons ratio, z = horizontal diametrical strain (mm), h = specimen thickness (mm). Several specimens were tested, each subjected to a different stress level, namely a different value of initial deflection 0 ( 5.3). Expressing Sm as a percentage (%Sm0) of the initial value Sm0, for each specimen a %Sm0-n trend was obtained, as shown in Figure 4a. For each stress level the values can be interpolated with good accuracy using exponential laws, henceforth called decay curves (Figure 4b). With increasing number of load cycles, they showed a decrease in stiffness modulus, the Sm decrease becoming sharper with increasingly elevated values of applied stress, up to breaking point.
100 90 80 70 60

100 90 80

50 40 30 20 10 0 100

Stress level 1 Stress level 2 Stress level 3 Stress level 4 Stress level 5 Stress level 6 Stress level 7 Stress level 8 Stress level 9 Stress level 10
1000 10000 100000 1000000

70

%Sm0

%Srm0

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 100 1000 10000 100000 Stress: 0.53 MPa Stress: 0.46 MPa Stress: 0.40 MPa Stress: 0.35 MPa

Figure 4: a) Stiffness measured; b) Decay curves parameterized as a function of stress level This behaviour of foamed asphalt treated mixtures was also observed during in situ surveys (Wirtgen GmbH, 2004): it was ascertained that after a phase of ageing, during which the dynamic modulus increases as the material cures and humidity decreases to equilibrium levels, two phases can subsequently be distinguished: first phase, when stiffness diminishes due to the effects of repeated traffic loads;

31

 second phase, when material cracking results in a equivalent granular layer state. Asphalt Academy (2009) confirms this two-phase behaviour and suggest to adopt a model parameter (called Effective Long Term Stiffness) which serves as a relative indicator of the average long term in situ stiffness of a pavement layer, taking into account the decrease of stiffness owing to traffic related deterioration: a further development of this approach, consisting of decay curves application in design process, is proposed in the following paragraphs. 5.4.1. The first phase The above mentioned loss of stiffness has important consequences on the way a pavement containing a foamed asphalt treated layer behaves under traffic loads, as the part of the load taken by this layer decreases with respect to load repetition. That is to say, it can legitimately be underlined that laboratory testing through which the fatigue laws can be derived is performed in force control, ie maintaining a constant load applied: this mode of operation is conceptually well-founded, since it simulates the effect of an impulsive load (due to traffic) that does not vary during load repetitions. However, heterogeneous development of stiffness of the different materials that constitute the pavement layers may lead to a redistribution of tensions among such layers. For each layer that undergoes a decrease in stress level, others can be distinguished that tend to become overloaded. Normally, the decay in stiffness is not considered in design processes. This is correct as long as its magnitude is negligible or is of the same order of magnitude for all the materials that constitute the pavement: in such cases, there is no redistribution of tension. However, there are studies that attribute to unbound materials and to asphalt concrete a negligible drop of stiffness during the useful life of the pavement, while for cement bound mixtures this behaviour should be taken into account (Thgersen et al., 2004). Thus foamed asphalt treated mixtures show a self-preservation behaviour during the useful life of the pavement, since there is a decrease in stiffness and therefore also in stress level. The performance will consequently be better than that inferred on the basis of classical fatigue tests, during which, as mentioned, the load applied has a constant peak value. For design purposes, if the strain level is higher than 80 , that can be considered the safe value with regard to the fatigue risk ( 5.3), it seems more convenient to schematize the actual behaviour with regard to load repetitions on the basis of decay curves parameterized as a function of stress of the material (Figure 4b). Thus the first phase should be subdivided into several substages corresponding to gradually decreasing stress levels. This behaviour is in agreement with that described by Long (2001): the back-calculation of data from trial section subjected to Heavy Vehicle Simulator tests showed that the stiffness of the foamed bitumen treated material (containing 2% cement and 1.8% foamed bitumen) initially decreased rapidly, thereafter with a more gradual decrease to an equivalent granular state. The stiffness decrease was load dependent, and the damage exponent estimated taking into account the effective fatigue life, that is the number of load repetitions to reach the equivalent granular state, was found to be larger than the values typically assumed: it seems therefore very important to consider the effective stress induced by each type of traffic, to which a particular decay curve corresponds. 5.4.2. The second phase Once breaking has occurred, the IT-CY configuration is no longer adequate to estimate the stiffness modulus. Even if the material retains a certain portion of the internal bonds that formed part of its initial characterization, it becomes almost granular unbound.

32

Consequently, there is no possibility of applying the concept of indirect tensile taken as the result of a compression load by virtue of cohesion within the material conceived as continuous. It follows that stiffness modulus estimation in the post-breaking phase may reasonably lead to significantly higher values than those characterizing an unbound granular mix, but it requires a different type of test procedure (triaxial cell), as suggested by Jenkins et al. (2007) and described in UNI EN 13286-7. In this regard, the stiffness values reported in the technical literature for this second phase behaviour vary in the range 200-600 MPa (Asphalt Academy, 2009, Long, 2001 & Wirtgen GmbH, 2004). 6. CONCLUSIONS The present study was conducted on the RAP material from the demolition of a pavement to be recycled with the foamed bitumen process. Laboratory tests performed on specimens having the optimal composition defined by mix design procedure showed that the behaviour of the material was viscous-type, because the variation of 1 Hz in frequency of load application, when the frequency is relatively low as in the case of IT-CY tests, induces a variation in the stiffness modulus close to 10%. Furthermore, examination of the effects of accelerated aging time at 40 C on stiffness showed that these effects are sensitive as long as curing time does not exceed 14 days. Beyond this period, the gradient with which the resilient module increases is much less sharp, indicating that reactions involving cement are close to exhaustion: thence, 14day@40C is sufficient to obtain a long-term value of stiffness modulus. Fatigue tests performed adopting the IT-CY configuration made it possible to confirm 80 as a safe strain value with regard to the fatigue risk. Considering the lack of influence exerted by the magnitude of the load applied in stiffness modulus tests to induce strain in the range of the above-mentioned value, the stiffness modulus previously obtained can be considered significant in order to adopt a linear-elastic model in the design process of the pavement. For higher deformation values, experimental results suggested the need to go beyond the usual concepts linking stress, stiffness modulus and load repetition in order to achieve a more realistic schematization of the behaviour of the material. Applying a constant stress level to each specimen, an increase in deformation was noticed, a reduction in stiffness being observed with increasing loading cycles. Furthermore, the more intense was the peak load applied, the sharper was the effect observed. For each stress level at which the dynamic test was conducted, an exponential decay curve was found. This means that a foamed asphalt treated layer is characterized by a reduction in stiffness resulting from repeated traffic loads and consequently by a decrease in stress, differently to the other materials of the pavement, which accumulate more stress. So, implementation of the decay curves in pavement design procedures leads to values of damage affecting the foamed asphalt treated mixture that are generally lower than those obtained with the standard methods of mechanistic design. The definition of such a design procedure, together with the study of the constitutive law for strain level above 100 and the determination of the second phase dynamic modulus, which are expected to use appropriate triaxial cell tests, will be the object of the following work. REFERENCES AIPCR, Pavement recycling, Guidelines for in-place recycling with cement, in-place recycling with emulsion or foamed bitumen, hot mix recycling in plant, La Defence, Cedex, 2003.
33

Asphalt Academy, Technical Guideline: Bitumen Stabilised Materials, TG 2, Pretoria, 2009. Berthelot, C., Podborochynski, D., Fair, J., Anthony, A., Brent Marjerison, B., Mechanisticclimatic characterization of foamed asphalt stabilized granular pavements in Saskatchewan, Paper prepared for presentation at the Characterization and Improvement of Soils and Materials Session of the 2007 Annual Conference of the Transportation Association of Canada, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. Bissada, A. F., Structural response of foamed-asphalt-sand mixtures in hot environments, Asphalt materials and mixtures, Transportation Research Record 1115, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC, 1987, pp. 134-149. Bowering, R. H., Properties and behaviours of foamed bitumen mixtures for road building. Proc., 5th ARRB Conf., Australian Road Research Board, Canberra, 6, 1970, 38-57. Castedo, F. L. H., Wood, L. E., Stabilization with foamed asphalt of aggregates commonly used in low-volume roads, Transportation Research Record 898, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., 1983, 297-302. Jenkins, K. J., Long, F. M., Ebels, L. J., Foamed bitumen mixes = shear performance?, International journal of pavement engineering, Vol. 8, No. 2, 2007, pp. 85-98. Kekwick, S.V., Best practice bitumen emulsion and foamed bitumen materials laboratory processing, 24th Annual Southern African Transport Conference 2005. Kim, Y., Lee, H. D., Development of Mix Design Procedure for Cold In-Place Recycling with Foamed Asphalt, Journal of materials in civil engineering, ASCE, January/February 2006, 116-124. Lancieri, F., Marradi, A., Ridondelli, G., Preliminary investigation into the utilization of cupola slag as road construction material, Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Pavements and Technological Control, MAIREPAV6, Torino, July 8-10 2009. Lee, H. D., Kim, Y., Manual of laboratory mix design procedure for cold in-place recycling using foamed asphalt (CIR-foam), IHRB Report TR 474, June 2007, Public Policy Center, University of Iowa. Little, D. N., Button, J. W., Epps, J. A.. Structural properties of laboratory mixtures containing foamed asphalt and marginal aggregates, Asphalt materials, mixtures, construction, moisture effects, and sulphur, Transportation Research Record 911 Transportation Research Board Washington, DC, 1983, pp. 104-113. Long, F.M., The development of structural design models for foamed bitumen treated pavement layers , Report CR-2001/76, Pretoria, 2001. Losa, M., Bacci, R., Terrosi Axerio, A., Leandri, P., Design of pavements containing foamed bitumen recycled layers, Bearing capacity of roads, railways and airfields (BCRA 09), Taylor & Francis Group, London, 2009. Marradi, A., Verifiche prestazionali su materiali riciclati a freddo, Cold recycling 2007, Roma, 29 novembre 2007. Montepara, A., Valutazione del ruolo del legante sulle caratteristiche meccaniche e prestazionali di conglomerati bituminosi riciclati a freddo con bitumi emulsionati e schiumati, Final report of research committed by Valli-Zabban S.p.A, Sesto Fiorentino (FI), 2008. Muthen, K. M., Foamed Asphalt Mixes Mix Design Procedure, Contract Report CR98/077, Pretoria, 1999. Thgersen, F., Busch, C., Henrichsen, A., Mechanistic Design of Semi-Rigid Pavements An Incremental Approach, Danish Road Institute Report 138, Denmark, 2004. Wirtgen GmbH, Cold recycling manual, Windhagen, 2004.

34

iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Performance Study of Different Stabilizers Addition on 50% Dry Sludge from Water Treatment Plant (WTP) of Taiaupeba to Use as Compacted Material in Earthwork Ditches
R. Moura Fortes & J. Merighi
Department of Civil Engineering, Mackenzie Presbyterian University, rmfortes@terra.com.br; jmerighi@terra.com.br

D. Pauli; M. Barros; M. de Carvalho; N. Menetti

SABESP - Companhia de Saneamento Bsico do Estado de So Paulo. drpauli@sabesp.com.br; mbarros@sabesp.com.br; mhcarvalho@sabesp.com.br; nmenetti@sabesp.com.br

. Barbosa; B. Bento
LENC Laboratrio de Engenharia e Consultoria Ltda alvaro.barbosa@lenc.com.br; benicio@lenc.com.br

ABSTRACT: This present paper is a report from a research that has been carried since 2005 in the Mackenzie Presbyterian University. This research takes part of the CNPq Research Group denominated Sistemas virios (Roads Systems) for use of the sludge from the water disposal treatment in pavement construction as sub-base or roadbed reinforcement. The study presents and discuss the performance of the 50% dry sludge, with 3 to 5% of Portland cement lime or micro granular lime weight addition, looking for an inert material, as defined in the Brazilian Standard (NBR 10004: 2004), attending to the technician-economic-environmental viability with potential to use in workmanships of earthwork ditches. KEY WORDS: Pavement, Laboratory Tests, Dry Sludge, Recycling Materials, Earthwork Ditches, Stabilizer. 1. INTRODUCTION So Paulo is the fourth most populous city in the world, and the largest in the southern hemisphere. Almost 11 million people live within its 1,530 square kilometers, according to the year 2000 Census. The So Paulo Metropolitan Area includes, besides the city itself, 38 other municipalities. As in any great metropolis, the population density is quite high and in many cases, it is difficult to know where the city ends. Having that in mind, the region is home to 20 million people, many from all over Brazil and the world (CIDADE DE SO PAULO, 2009). In many cases, it is found at least six public concessionaires companies associated with municipality activities. In downtown, under a plenty of pavements, there are telephonic cables, gas, energy line, TV cable, petroleum, water and sewage disposal facilities, etc. The local water and sewage disposal facilities concessionaire, named Companhia de Saneamento Bsico do Estado de So Paulo (SABESP), is present in 366 municipalities of the So Paulo State, to provide better quality of life for more than 26.7 million people. This corresponds to 60% of urban population of So Paulo, being responsible for the management of the water
35

distribution and sewer system (Companhia de Saneamento Bsico do Estado de So Paulo, 2010 (a)) (FORTES et al., 2006(a)). Considering the emergencies services motivated by innumerous repairs, SABESP has a lot of pavement recuperation to cover holes. The execution of this type of repair involves special cares because they need to repair and to finish the service as soon as possible. A planning contemplating all different concessionaries and the city hall is practically unachievable for many reasons. It is common that, after a rehabilitation or construction of an urban pavement, a concessionaire intervention occurs, because it is impossible to foresee workman-ships emergencies that need a ready fix by the concessionaire. Many proposals have been presented in the direction of managing these problems, developing management tools of the pavements, searching to reduce the negative impact of these workmanships, but so far, none has shown effectiveness (FORTES et al., 2008). These repairs are more than 1,500 potholes per day (over than 550,000 per year), due to the water or sewage disposal outflow (FORTES et al., 2005). It has to be considered that the water or sewage disposal outflow, the soil used in the earthwork ditches isn`t suitable to be reused, since it is saturated or contaminated, needing to be removed and substituted (FORTES, 2006 (b)). This fact creates the necessity of searching soils deposits, a task which is becoming almost unachievable considering that the exploration of the available deposits are more difficult because of the environmental protection. On the other hand, the process used in Water Treatment Plants (WTPs) removes suspended particles from the water by sedimentation and filtration processes, resulting in waste production (GUERRA; ANGELIS, 2005). The sludge from the water or sewage disposal treatment is considered a solid residue which the final destination has been hardly questioned. The Brazilian standard NBR 10004 Solid waste Classification (2004) classify it in different danger levels and defines that this residue must be treated. Considering the risks to the environment and to the public health, this Brazilian standard also stabilizes the criteria for final deposition. The development of a sustainability technology for the utilization of this material is significant and vital. The sludge from Taiaupeba is, according to Brazilian standard NBR 10004 (2004), classified as Classroom IIA - No Inert. It means that the residue is not considered dangerous. This research intends to study the technician-economic-environmental viability for the improvement of the dry sludge generated by the water treatment plant (WTP) of Taiaupeba, searching the stabilization of this material to use as compacted soil in earthwork ditches. 2. TAIAUPEBA WATER TREATMENT PLANT (WTP) The WTP of Taiaupeba is located in Suzano municipality, near So Paulo: city. It produces almost 16,000 kg of dry sludge per day, which are taken to sanitary landfills. Nowadays, almost 3,000 m of dry sludge is disposed by Taiaupeba, for the second stage, approximately 5,000 m of dry sludge (28,000 kg per day). The Alto Tiet Producing System was conceived in stages because of its complexity. Taiaupeba was projected in five modules of m/s each. In March of 1992 was implanted the first stage with nominal productive capacity of 5 m/s. Nowadays WTP operates with the nominal capacity of 10 m/s, treating on average 9.8 m/s that they supply about 3.5 million resident people of the Great So Paulo east region. In Figure 1 an aerial sight is showed.

36

Figure 1: Aerial sight of Taiaupeba Water Treatment Plant. The CAB spat (Alto Tiet Producing System) is a Society of Specific Purpose (SPE) created in 11/04/2008, having for shareholders the Galvo Company and the environmental CAB. The administrative PPP between the CAB spat and the SABESP will do that the number of people attended by Taiaupeba WTP increases the 3.5 to 5 millions, in other words, 15 % of the Metropolitan Region of the So Paulo State population. That will be possible by the enlargement in the Alto Tiet Producing System, the drinkable water production grows 10 m/s to 15 m/s. Nine counties in the metropolitan region will benefit from the expansion of the Taiaupeba WTP: Aruj, Biritiba-Mirim Ferraz de Vasconcelos, Itaquaquecetuba, Mogi das Cruzes, Po, Salespolis, Suzano and So Paulo (East Zone). Currently, WTP receives water from five dams that integrate the Alto Tiet Producer: Paraitinga, Ponte Nova, Biritiba-Mirim, Jundia and Taiaupeba, which together boast a total capacity reservation of 513 million m. The currently operation system is composed basically of two consolidation type rotating drum with 60 m/h and capacity centrifugal condensation of 30 m/h each one. This system of sludge condensation and dewatering processes produces daily about 60 tons of dehydrated sludge with in medium 18% of total solid. Figure 2 illustrates the condensed and dewatering sludge.

Figure 2: Condensed and dewatering (a); transportation of sludge (b) Sludge drying process reduces mass and volume of the product, making its storage and transport (FLAGA, 2005). This residue is transported and deposited into two waterproofed landfill cells, for dewatering to obtain almost 50% (or more) of the total possible dry solids (DS) concentration (Companhia de Saneamento Bsico do Estado de So Paulo, 2010 (b)). The pos dewatering sludge is illustrated in Figure 3.

37

Figure 3: Dewatering sludge localization (a) Drying process (b) 3. SCOPE OF THE RESEARCH This research is being developed in mutual cooperation between the SABESP and the Mackenzie Presbyterian University, with the contribution of the LENC (a technological and consultant company) in the execution of the physical and chemical characterization tests. This deal was signed on February, 14th, 2008, when SABESP organized a Sustainability and Innovation Public Audience about one of most controversial subjects: the final destination of the sludge generated in the water treatment process (Companhia de Saneamento Bsico do Estado de So Paulo, 2008 (a)). In the chemical tests, SABESP attended the recommendations of Brazilia Standard NBR 10006: 2004. Several tests were made at different concentrations of alkaline material that searching with these residues of WTP to become inert. The concentrations ranging between 3 and 5% of alkaline material: micro granular lime and Portland cement. From the practical point of view it was made two tests than originally planned with 14 and 21 days of dry sludge in contact with alkaline materials. The results indicated that the best solution for the sludge Taiaupeba has characteristics of inert environmental point of view is the treatment of solid with a mixture of micro granular lime or portland cement a total concentration of 5% weight. It was also made complete chemical tests as recommended by the Brazilian Standards to dry sludge, and with addiction of 3 or 5% portland cement or microgranular lime for 14 and 21 days and was obtained a classification class IIA (no inert) because of the presence of some metals as aluminum, manganese. The solid waste is considered non-hazardous waste. In the physical characterization, the dry sludge was classified as A-2-4 with NL and NP Atterberg limits and this classification didn`t change for: pure dry sludge with 50% or 85% of solids content; with addition of 3% or 5% of hydrated lime or portland cement or micro granular lime. The specimens were compacted with the normal energy Proctor according to NBR 7182 (1986) and was cured in the moist room. The specimens were molded in different situations: with mixture and immediate compacting or after 3 or more days of cure, as discriminated in table 1. In this research the samples were: dry sludge (50% of solids content), dry sludge (50% of solids content) with 3% weight of portland cement and the compactation after 14 days of cure, dry sludge (50% of solids content) with 3% weight of portland cement and the compactation after 21 days of cure, dry sludge (50% of solids content) with 5% weight of portland cement and the compactation after 14 days of cure, dry sludge (50% of solids content) with 5% weight of portland cement and the compactation after 21 days of cure, dry sludge (50% of solids content) with 3% weight of micro granular lime and the compactation after 14 days of cure, dry sludge (50% of solids content) with 3% weight of micro granular lime and the compactation after 21 days of cure, dry sludge (50% of solids content) with 5% weight of micro granular lime and the compactation after 14 days of cure, dry sludge (50%
38

of solids content) with 5% weight of micro granular lime and the compactation after 21 days of cure. The cylindrical specimens have been molded as determined by the Brazilian Standard Test Method (DNER ME 202: 1994) (Figure 4) and carried through the determination of the compressive strength test (Brazilian standard NBR 12025: 1990) and determination of the tension strength of cylindrical specimens submitted to diametrical compression (NBR7222: 1994), as a recommendation of Little et al. (2000). The compressive strength was determined to 1, 3, 7, 14, 21 and 28 days age and the diametrical compression was determined to 14, 21 and 28 days age. It was also used the CBR and the Mini CBR test, that is similar to the CBR (California Bearing Ratio), different in terms of the specimen size obtained through a compactation procedure called the mini Proctor. The molds have a diameter of 50 mm and a volume of 100 ml. The sample mass is 250g, and the maximum grain diameter is 2 mm. The diameter of the penetration piston (plunger) is 16 mm, while the loading machine has a capacity and speed of 4.5 kN and 1.25 mm/min, respectively. There are two compactation rammers used for compaction: (a) standard energy rammer weighing 2.27 kg, height of drop 305 mm, blows 10 total or 5 per side and (b) the intermediate energy rammer weighing 4.5 kg, height of drop 305 mm, blows - 12 total or 6 per side. Soaking time is 24 hours. If not soaked, expansion can be determined as in the CBR test. This test is used in the MCT methodology (FORTES, MERIGHI, 2003).

Figure 4: Specimen Molded For each determination of CBR, mini CBR, compressive strength and tension strength, the results presented in table 1 are the average of six specimens tested. It is observed that this material is composed by 66.1% of sand, 30.7% of silt and 3.2 of clay.

39

Table 1: Results of physical tests

s pe c i men 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 M axim um D ry U nit W e ight (kg/m ) 870 1290 1380 1370 1210 1210 1250 1410 1410 1220 1220 1230 1290 1200 1221 1220 1240 1250
3

O ptim um M o isture C o nte nt wo (% ) 5 1 .0 4 3 .3 2 6 .4 3 3 .1 3 5 .9 3 3 .3 3 2 .6 2 9 .7 2 7 .5 2 8 .6 2 8 ,0 2 9 .4 2 9 .5 3 0 .5 2 8 .5 2 8 .2 2 9 .1 2 9 .3

C o m pre s sive s tre ngths (M P a) 1 day (* * * ) 0 .2 0 0 .5 0 0 .2 1 0 .2 8 0 .5 1 0 .7 6 3 days 7 days 1 4 days 2 1 days (* * * ) (* * * ) 0 .6 0 0 .9 0 0 .8 0 0 .6 0 0 .4 6 0 .6 6 0 .5 5 0 .8 4 0 .5 0 0 .5 3 0 .6 7 0 .7 5 0 .1 3 0 .1 5 0 .2 1 0 .3 1 0 .2 2 0 .3 8 0 .2 0 0 .2 5 0 .2 2 0 .3 2 2 8 days (* * * ) 0 .7 6 1 .0 4 0 .9 4 1 .0 5 1 .2 0 -

Te ns io n s tre ngth (M P a) 1 4 days 0 .0 3 7 0 .0 2 0 .0 3 0 .0 2 3 0 .0 3 2 1 days 0 .0 4 0 .0 8 0 .1 0 0 .0 4 7 0 .0 8 3 2 8 days 0 .0 2 0 .0 7 0 .0 0 3 0 .0 3 0 .1 2 -

m ini CBR (% ) wo 8 ,0 6 ,0 7 ,0 9 ,0 7 ,0 1 0 ,0 8 ,0 8 ,0 7 ,0

m ini CBR (% ) s ature d 1 2 .0 2 5 .0 2 4 .9 1 8 .0 2 3 .6 2 5 .2 6 ,0 6 ,0 7 ,0 9 ,0 7 ,0 9 ,0 7 ,0 7 ,0 6 ,0

Sludge with 3 % o f hydrate d lim e - m ixture and im m e diate c o m pac ting (5 0 % o f s o lids c o nte nt) * * Sludge (8 5 % o f so lids c o nte nt) * * Sludge with 3 % o f hydrate d lim e - m ixture and im m e diate c o m pac ting (8 5 % o f s o lids c o nte nt) * * Sludge with 3 % o f po rtland c e m e nt - m ixture and im m e diate c o m pac ting (8 5 % o f s o lids c o nte nt) * * Sludge with 3 % o f hydrate d lim e - afte r 3 days o f c ure (8 5 % o f s o lids c o nte nt) * * Sludge with 3 % o f po rtland c e m e nt - afte r 3 days o f c ure (8 5 % o f s o lids c o nte nt) * * 4 5 % o f s o il + 5 0 % o f s ludge + 5 % o f hydrate d lim e - m ixture and im m e diate c o m pac ting (5 0 % o f s o lids c o nte nt) * * Sludge with 5 % o f hydrate d lim e - m ixture and im m e diate c o m pac ting (8 5 % o f s o lids c o nte nt) * * Sludge with 5 % o f po rtland c e m e nt - m ixture and im m e diate c o m pac ting (8 5 % o f s o lids c o nte nt) * * Sludge pure (5 0 % o f s o lids c o nte nt) Sludge with 3 % o f po rtland c e m e nt c o m pac te d afte r 1 4 days o f c ure (5 0 % o f so lids c o nte nt) Sludge with 3 % o f po rtland c e m e nt c o m pac te d afte r 2 1 days o f c ure (5 0 % o f so lids c o nte nt) Sludge with 5 % o f po rtland c e m e nt c o m pac te d afte r 1 4 days o f c ure (5 0 % o f so lids c o nte nt) Sludge with 5 % o f po rtland c e m e nt c o m pac te d afte r 2 1 days o f c ure (5 0 % o f so lids c o nte nt) Sludge with 3 % o f m ic ro granular lim e c o m pac te d afte r 1 4 days o f c ure (5 0 % o f s o lids c o nte nt) Sludge with 3 % o f m ic ro granular lim e c o m pac te d afte r 2 1 days o f c ure (5 0 % o f s o lids c o nte nt) Sludge with 5 % o f m ic ro granular lim e c o m pac te d afte r 1 4 days o f c ure (5 0 % o f s o lids c o nte nt) Sludge with 5 % o f m ic ro granular lim e c o m pac te d afte r 2 1 days o f c ure (5 0 % o f s o lids c o nte nt)

* Determination of the tension strength of cylindrical specimens submitted to diametrical compression (FORTES et al., 2008) *** (FORTES et al., 2006(b)) *** (FORTES et al., 2009) In Figures 5, 6 and 7 are presented the mini CBR, Compressive strengths and the tension strength of cylindrical specimens submitted to diametrical compression graphics, respectively.
CBR

mini CBR (%)

12,0
30

10,0
25

8,0
20 Mini CBR (%)

CBR (%)

15

mini CBR (%) wo mini CBR (%) satured

6,0

CBR without imersion (wo) CBR with 4 days imersion

4,0
10

2,0
5

0,0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Sample

10

11

12

13

14 Sample

15

16

17

18

Figure 5: Mini CBR and CBR

40

Figure 6: Compressive strengths (MPa)

Figure 7: Tension strength of cylindrical specimens submitted to diametrical compression graphics

3.3. Discussion of results The Taiaupeba sludge with 85% of solids content stabilized using 5% of hydrated lime, according to the NBR 10004 (2004) classification change of Class IIA - No Inert to Inert, in other words, the addiction of the hydrated lime allows its utilization as compacted soil in earthwork ditches (FORTES et al., 2009). In case of the dry sludge with 50% of solids content, the best results in the chemist point of view occurred with cement and micro granular lime concentration with 5% weight, but to evaluate what each one contributed to the best result we believe that the cement was not effective for neutralize the manganese effect but had the best results for color, turbidity and pH stable in all samples little variation.
41

The increase of the mechanics strength with bigger additions of air binder, discloses, according to Nez et al (2005), the occurrence of a cementation. The values taken for the compressive strength and tensile strength for diametrical compression are acceptable for its use in earthwork ditches. It is important to point out that the use of the dosage with addition of 45% of soil plus 50% of sludge and 5% of hydrated lime, it is relatively important to take into account the mechanical behavior presented in a better performance, beyond presenting a lesser expansion value. Not only does this new dosage brings the advantage to mix this material with soil, but also diminish the heavy mineral presence that can be presented in the sludge, even so the classification has given to Classroom II A- no inert. Bandeira, Merighi e Fortes (2008) had presented an analysis through the use of the computational program of finite elements ANSYS, of the structural behavior of airport pavements, considering an aircraft with maximum load of 540 kN (aircraft EMB 195), with pressure of application of the tire of 1,083 MPa and wheel load of 125 kN, they obtained 0.5 MPa as the compression strength in 100 mm of depth and tension strength from the triple state of tensions of 0.01 MPa. Analyzing all the studied dosages it is verified that the same ones had presented better values that one, so it is possible to conclude that on the point of view of the mechanical characteristics, this material can be used in earthwork ditches, or in layers of sub-base of airport pavements, therefore they attend the recommendation of the support capacity (superior to 20%) and expansion values less than 1.0%, beyond the values of compression and tension strengths. In this last dosage carried out, it was obtained inferior values that in the previously, due to the use of dry sludge with 50 % of solids content and it was used microgranular lime. We also have to consider that the samples were been prepared by the WTP, packed and sent to the laboratory to be tested, and in the previous dosages, the addition was carried out by the laboratory itself, besides the dry sludge was used with 85 % of solids content. If the results obtained in this research are compared with presented ones from the PCA (2003) for clay stabilization with portland cement addition, where the authors searched ten types of different soils, and had found a value of 0.19 MPa to compression strength for A6 soil (8) without no portland cement addition, being that with 3% of portland cement in weight, the value passed to 1.44 MPa and with 5% for 2.22 MPa to the 7 days of age, one checks that they are coherent. The results obtained with addition portland cement have been more promising than the ones obtained with addition of hydrated or micro granular lime in terms of resistance. However, considering that the samples stabilized with this last binder had presented acceptable values, its use is very interesting, being a kind of air binder and does not require care in its stockage, allowing its preparation foresaw. CONCLUSION Little et al. (2000) affirmed that the reactions between the hydrated lime and the soil are complex. The pozzolan reaction that occurs between the air binder and the silica and/or aluminum of the soil is the solution for an effective and durable stabilization of it. This affirmation strengthens that when adding the hydrated lime or Portland cement to the sludge, its chemical composition is modified, thus, will be carried through chemical analyzes to verify the changes in the composition of the mixture considering the recommendations of Brazilian standard NBR 10004 (2004). The new steps of this research contemplate to repeat these tests adding micro granular lime or Portland cement, but mixing in the laboratory, carrying out the chemical and mechanical
42

analysis and after applying the better performance in an experiment in field in earthwork ditch. All these mixtures will be carried through chemical analyses. The proposal of the mixtures with micro granular lime or Portland cement addition study, cure and posterior compacting, inhabits in the preparation easiness that can occur in a plant or the seedbed. The material previously would be prepared, excusing the constructor to add/to dose the binder in the hour to apply, what will prevent losses, beyond providing a bigger technological and quality control of the material to be used in earthwork ditches. The authors are motivated by the promising results, and feel that this research contributes for the environment and sustainability point of view because of rehabilitate a residue conferring the necessary quality for its application in civil constructions. They really believe in the technician-economic-environmental viability of this technology. REFERENCES ASSOCIAO BRASILEIRA DE NORMAS TCNICAS - ABNT NBR7182 Solo - Ensaio de compactao (Soil - Compaction testing - Method of test). Rio de Janeiro, 01/08/1986. 10 p. ASSOCIAO BRASILEIRA DE NORMAS TCNICAS (ABNT). NBR7222 Argamassa e concreto - Determinao da resistncia trao por compresso diametral de corpos-deprova cilndricos (Mortar and concrete - Determination of the tension strength of cylindrical specimens submitted to diametrical compression Method of test). Rio de Janeiro. 1994, 3 p. ASSOCIAO BRASILEIRA DE NORMAS TCNICAS - ABNT NBR 10004 - Resduos slidos Classificao (Solid waste Classification). Rio de Janeiro, 2004. ASSOCIAO BRASILEIRA DE NORMAS TCNICAS - ABNT NBR 10006 Procedimento para obteno de extrato solubilizado de resduos slidos (Procedure for obtention of solubilized extraction of solid wastes). Rio de Janeiro, 2004, 3 p. ASSOCIAO BRASILEIRA DE NORMAS TCNICAS - ABNT NBR12025 Solo-cimento - Ensaio de compresso simples de corpos-de-prova cilndricos (Soil Cement Compression Testing of Soil-cement specimens Method of Test). Rio de Janeiro, 30/12/1990, 2 p. BANDEIRA, Alex Alves; MERIGHI, Joo Virgilio, FORTES, Rita Moura. A Study of the HMA Layer Thickness Reduction When Applied Over Lateritic Soils Cement Base in Airfield. In Proceeding of 10th International Conference on Application of Advanced Technologies in Transportation AATT 2008. Athens, Greece. May 27th-31st, 2008. CIDADE DE SO PAULO. Geography. 19.01.09. Accessed in 05/07/2010. http://www.cidadedesaopaulo.com/sp/en/geography COMPANHIA DE SANEAMENTO BSICO DO ESTADO DE SO PAULO SABESP. Lodo no processo de tratamento. 2010 (a). Accessed in 05/07/2010. http://site.sabesp.com.br/site/interna/Default.aspx?secaoId=4 COMPANHIA DE SANEAMENTO BSICO DO ESTADO DE SO PAULO SABESP. O que fazemos\Tecnologia\Disposio dos lodos. 2010 (b). Accessed in 05/07/2010. http://sabesp.com.br/CalandraWeb/CalandraRedirect/?temp=4&proj=sabesp&pub=T&db= &docid=3D233B8527E8304E832571B1006B31FC DEPARTAMENTO NACIONAL DE ESTRADAS DE RODAGEM DNER ME 202/94 Solo - cimento - moldagem e cura de corpos de prova cilndricos. Rio de Janeiro. 1994. FLAGA A. SLUDGE DRYING. www.lwr.kth.se/forskningsprojekt/Polishproject/Flagasludgedrying73.pdf. Accessed in July, 2008.
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FORTES, Rita Moura & MERIGHI, Joo Virgilio. The use of MCT Methodology for Rapid Classification of Tropical Soils in Brazil IJP - International Journal of Pavements, Vol.2, No.3, September 2003, pp.1-13. FORTES, Rita Moura; ZUPPOLINI NETO, Alexandre; MENETTI, Nlson Csar; BARBOSA Jr., lvaro S. & MERIGHI, Ceclia Fortes. A importncia do Controle Tecnolgico e de Qualidade na Reabilitao de Pavimentos aps a interveno de concessionrias em So Paulo. 36. Reunio Anual de Pavimentao, ABPv Associao Brasileira de Pavimentao, Curitiba PR, Brasil, 24 a 26 de agosto de 2005. FORTES, Rita Moura; ZUPPOLINI NETO, Alexandre; MENETTI, Nlson Csar; BARBOSA Jr., lvaro, S. Potencial da Utilizao do ensaio de penetrao dinmica da metodologia MCT para controle da construo de valas. V Jornada Luso-Brasileira de Pavimentos: Polticas e Tecnologias. ANDIT, Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, FEUP Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto Portugal, Ca Md. Recife, Pernambuco, Brasil, 5-7 de julho de 2006 (a). FORTES, Rita Moura; ZUPPOLINI NETO, Alexandre; MENETTI, Nlson Csar; BARBOSA Jr., lvaro S. Estudo da dosagem com cal de lodo oriundo do tratamento de gua. V Jornada Luso-Brasileira de Pavimentos: Polticas e Tecnologias. ANDIT, Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, FEUP Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto Portugal, Ca Md. Recife, Pernambuco, Brasil, 5-7 de julho de 2006 (b). FORTES, Rita Moura; MERIGHI, Joo Virgilio; PAULI, Dante Ragazzi; BARROS, Marco Antonio L; de CARVALHO Magda H.; MENETTI, Nlson Csar; BARBOSA Jr., lvaro S.; RIBEIRO, Fabio Vaz; BENTO, Benicio Bibiano. 02-005 - Estudo da estabilizao de lodo oriundo da estao de tratamento de gua (ETA) de Taiaupeba para utilizao com material em reaterro de valas. 2008 CONINFRA Congresso de Infraestrutura de Transportes. ANDIT - Associao Nacional de Infraestrutura de Transportes. ISSN 19833903. So Paulo, So Paulo, Brasil, 25 a 28 de Junho de 2008. FORTES, Rita Moura; MERIGHI, Joo Virgilio; PAULI, Dante Ragazzi; BARROS, Marco Antonio L; de CARVALHO Magda H.; MENETTI, Nlson Csar; BARBOSA Jr., lvaro S.; RIBEIRO, Fabio Vaz; BENTO, Benicio Bibiano. Study of dry sludge stabilization from water treatment plant (WTP) in Taiaupeba to use as compacted soil in earthwork ditches. BCR2A 09 - The 8th International Conference on the Bearing Capacity of Roads, Railways, and Airfields, June 29-July 2 2009, University of Illinois, at Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, USA. GUERRA, R. C.; ANGELIS, D. F. D. Classificao e biodegradao de lodo de estaes de tratamento de gua para descarte em aterro sanitrio. Universidade Estadual Paulista, Instituto de Biocincias, Departamento de Bioqumica e Microbiologia, Av. 24-A, 1515, CEP 13506-900, Rio Claro, SP, Brasil. 2005. LITTLE, Dallas N.; MALES, Eric H.; PRUSINSKI, Jan R.; STEWART, Barry. Cementitious Stabilization. A2J01: Committee on Cementitious Stabilization Transpor-tation in the New Millennium. TRB, 2000. http://onlinepubs.trb.org/Onlinepubs/millennium/00016.pdf NEZ, W. P.; LOVATO R. S.; MALYSZ, R. & CERATTI, J. A. P. Revisiting Brazilian State Road 377: A well-succeed case of lime-stabilized Road base. Second International Symposium on Treatment and Recycling of Materials - TREMTI 2005, Paris, October 2426, 2005. Communication C036. 11 p. PORTLAND CEMENT ASSOCIATION PCA. Properties and Uses of Cement-Modified Soil. 2003. Item Code: IS411. 12 p. http://www.cement.org/bookstore/profile.asp?store=&id=273
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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Changes in the Rubber Morphology Caused by the Interaction with Bitumen

J. Peralta, H. Silva & J. Pais
Territory, Environment and Construction Centre C-TAC, University of Minho, Guimares, Portugal joana@civil.uminho.pt hugo@civil.uminho.pt jpais@civil.uminho.pt

A.V. Machado
Institute for Polymers and Composites/I3N, University of Minho, Guimares, Portugal avm@dep.uminho.pt

ABSTRACT: It is estimated that about 10 kg of tires are discarded per inhabitant annually. This residue can be reused as a constituent of pavements in the form of asphalt rubber (AR) binder. The use of bitumen modified with crumb rubber contributes for a sustainable development of road infrastructures through: (i) the definition of an efficient final destination for the used tires of cars and trucks; (ii) the improvement of the performance of the resulting material used in the pavement. However, the materials which constitute these AR binders and the physicochemical changes in the binder during the production of the AR are not sufficiently characterized. Thus, the main objective of this study is to characterize the changes in the morphology of the rubber particles due to the interaction with three different bitumens during the production of the ARs. The studied bitumens were selected from the same origin and obtained in the same distillation column. Initially, the bitumens were left to interact with 17.5% of crumb rubber by mass of AR binder. After that, a modified Basket Drainage Method was used to divide the residual bitumen and the rubber of the AR binder. The recovered rubber (RR) particles from the AR binders, and the ones filtered (FR) from the residual bitumens, were then observed in an optical microscope, being measured and weighted. The morphology of the crumb rubber particles was assessed by macroscopic and microscopic observation, and their percentages of depolymerization (ASTM D 6814-02) were also determined. It was observed that the extent of morphological changes in the rubber particles is higher when softer bitumens are used, due to swelling, splitting, depolymerization or devulcanization and eventually repolymerization or revulcanization phenomena. KEY WORDS: Asphalt rubber, Rubber particles, Swelling, Microscopy, Morphology. 1. INTRODUCTION Although tires are not regarded as a dangerous residue, their hollow shape usually brings sanitary problems and important difficulties in their final deposition. Furthermore, the society is wasting material from the tire with a high intrinsic value, namely its main constituent: vulcanized natural and synthetic rubber. Thus, the introduction of crumb rubber in the production of Asphalt Rubber (AR) mixtures for road pavements should be considered as a sustainable technology which transforms an unwanted residue into a new bituminous mixture
45

with a high resistance to fatigue and fracture. However, the addition of rubber in a bituminous mixture increases its complexity, hence being essential to carry out a study to understand the interaction between its constituents in order to optimize the performance of AR mixtures. The main objective of this study is to characterize the changes in the morphology of the rubber particles due to the interaction with three different bitumens during the production of ARs. The main results of this work are (i) the assessment of the changes in the RR and FR morphology due to the interaction with each bitumen; (ii) the quantification of the variation of rubber weight in consequence of bitumen-rubber interaction; (iii) a better understanding of the effect of bitumen constitution in the extent of rubber swelling, splitting and devulcanization. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ON THE BITUMEN EFFECT ON RUBBER PARTICLES The morphology of the rubber particles, before and after the interaction with bitumens of different chemical constitution, should be studied because (i) the morphology of the crumb rubber (CR) determine the form and extension of interaction with bitumen and has a significant influence in the viscosity of the AR, and (ii) bitumens with different constitution interact with rubber particles in diverse extension and rate, promoting changes in the rubber particles morphology (Peralta, 2009). The effects of crumb rubber on asphalt rubber binders can be separated into interaction effect (IE) and particle effect (PE). The IE is the effect of the lighter fractions of the binder diffusing into the crumb rubber particles. The PE is the effect of the crumb rubber particles acting as filler in the binder (Putman and Amirkhanian, 2006). The IE is greatly influenced by the crude source of the binder and could potentially be used as an indicator of a binders compatibility with CR (higher IE would indicate a more compatible binder). The PE is most significantly affected by the CR content of the binder (higher CR contents result in greater PE values). The effect of CR size on the PE follows the same trends. The extent of swelling and degradation depends on the nature of the rubbers, the bitumens chemical composition and the mixing conditions, time, temperature and degree of agitation. For example, during the AR binder production, the interaction of the crumb rubber particles with softer bitumens is clearly higher than with harder bitumens (Peralta et al., 2009). In addition, these processes will determine the mechanical properties of the crumb rubber modified binders (Artamendi and Khalid, 2006). Two main types of activities that affect AR binder properties have been reported in the literature: particle swelling and detachment or depolymerization. These processes occur as the binder is subjected to different combinations of time and temperature (Jensen and Abdelrahman, 2006; Peralta et al., 2009). During the interaction process, rubber particles swell in a time and temperature dependent manner, which results in a reduction in the interparticle distance, thereby increasing viscosity. Once the rubber has swelled, if temperature is maintained too high or for too long a period, the rubber begins to disintegrate into the asphalt by partial depolymerization, causing a reduction in viscosity. Change in the viscosity of the asphalt rubber binder has traditionally been used to indicate the progress of the interaction between asphalt and rubber (Jensen and Abdelrahman, 2006). The application of higher temperatures for long periods of time, during asphalt rubber production, results in swelling followed by depolymerization (Khalid, 2005), whereas applying lower temperatures results only in swelling (Leite and Soares, 1999). Post-vulcanization (Green and Tolonen, 1977) is an interesting phenomenon that sometimes occurs when mixing asphalt cement with rubber. During rubber processing there are sulphur and other agents that have not been entirely chemically bonded during vulcanization of the rubber. When mixing rubber with hot asphalt, the vulcanization process will be reactivated and continue for some time, depending on the interaction temperature.

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3. BITUMEN-RUBBER INTERACTION AND RUBBER SEPARATION AND CHARACTERISATION 3.1. Bitumen selection and samples preparation The bitumens used in this work were carefully selected, being collected from the same batch of production at the refinery, because the characteristics of bitumens are highly depend on their sources and processing. Three bitumens were chosen to carry out this research, namely the commercial bitumens A (10/20), I (60/70) and M (150/200), in order to understand the influence of the penetration grade in the rubber morphology.

3.2. Crumb rubber selection and samples preparation The crumb rubber used in this work was obtained by the cryogenic process, being constituted by 30% of truck tyres and 70% of car tyres. The CR was sieved through a sequence of sieves in the laboratory, in order to use only the fraction passed through the sieve ASTM #20 (0.850 mm) and held on the sieve ASTM #40 (0.425 mm). The sieved CR obtained in the lab was washed with toluene and dried in an oven at 135 C. The clean and dry rubber particles where observed and measured, using an optical microscope, being also analyzed to assess its soluble percentage (ASTM D 6814-02).

3.3. Interaction with bitumen and separation of the rubber particles The method used to produce AR and collect the desired samples of rubber was a modified Basket drainage method (Rahman, 2004). The used wire basket was manufactured with a square wire mesh, with an opening of 0.470 mm (observed in an optical microscope). The AR production and collection of rubber samples consisted of (i) heating about 1 kg of base bitumen at 180 C; (ii) introducing 21.0% w/w of crumb rubber (CR) and re-heating of the mix at 180 C; (iii) stirring the asphalt rubber at 180 C, at a velocity at 230 rot/min for 60 min.; (iv) suspend the basket in a oven at 180 C for 15 min and; (v) collecting a sample of the recovered rubber (RR) retained in the basket.

3.4. Recovery and analysis of the rubber particles Throughout the process of AR production, the rubber particles greatly change their morphology. The changes are caused by the interaction with bitumen, which diffuses through the rubber reticulated structure causing them to swell, while transforming rubber from an elastic solid into a gel structure. Furthermore, the AR production process involves aggressive stirring at high temperatures, which favour the swelling process. When rubber particles turn into gel structures they also become more brittle, and the stirring and eventual localized depolymerisation of the gel rubber particles can break them into little pieces. The wire basket mesh was chosen to unable the rubber particles, in their initial shape, to pass through the wire basket during the drainage of the residual bitumen, but it cannot assure that little pieces of depolymerised rubber will be retained. The reported phenomena may vary when rubber particles interact with different grade base bitumens. In order to evaluate this phenomenon, the rubber particles recovered (RR) from ARs produced with the commercial bitumens and
47

filtered from the respective residual bitumens (FR) were observed and measured with an optical microscope. The preparation of the RR particles for microscopic observations was carried out by: (i) introducing 2.0 g of RR in a bottle with roughly 200 mL of toluene and agitation of the bottle until the rubber particles were totally separated; (ii) filtering the resulting solution with a filter paper, and washing it with toluene until the filtered solution appears absolutely clean; (iii) drying the filter paper with the resulting RR in an oven at 135 C and; (iv) observing and measuring the clean particles in an optical microscope. The preparation of the FR particles (those suspended in the residual bitumen after going through the wire basket) for the microscopic observations was carried out by: (i) introducing 2.0 g of residual bitumen in a baker of 250 mL capacity; (ii) diluting the residual bitumen with small amounts of toluene while stirring the solution with a glass rod (the diluted solution is filtered through a filter paper and washed with toluene until the filtered solution appears absolutely clean); (iii) drying the filter paper with the resulting FR in an oven at 135 C and; (iv) observing and measuring the clean particles in an optical microscope. 4. STUDY OF THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE CRUMB RUBBER PARTICLES 4.1. Percentage of depolymerisation The crumb rubber solubility was assessed according to ASTM D 6814-02 standard, in order to indirectly evaluate its depolymerisation potential after interacting with bitumen. Two solvents were used in this test, toluene and cycle-hexane, being the CR mass loss respectively equal to 10.9% and 10.7% (low depolymerisation potential). This mass loss can also result from the soluble additives and fillers present in the CR constitution. 4.2. Initial shape and dimension of the crumb rubber particles The CR particles used in this work were obtained by the cryogenic gridding of used tyres. The resulting rubber particles are very small (Figure 1), thus being impossible to evaluate their shape with the naked eye.

Figure 1: Macroscopic and microscopic photos of the crumb rubber particles

48

An optical microscope was used to assess the shape and average dimension of the CR particles. It is noticed that the rubber particles present slightly the same size, with an average equivalent diameter of 620.1 m. The shape of the particles is irregular and angular, but their faces are almost plan. 4.3. Morphology of the recovered rubber particles 4.3.1. Rubber particles recovered from asphalt rubber A The RR particles from the AR produced with base bitumen A (10/20) were photographed and observed by microscopic methods (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Macroscopic and microscopic photos of the RR particles of the AR produced with bitumen A The microscopic photo shows that the RR particles present a very different shape and size in comparison with the original crumb rubber. The average equivalent diameter (eq = 620,648 m) of the RR particles is similar to the CR one, but this does not mean that during the AR production the rubber particles were not affected. Actually, the rubber particles swelled and broke during the AR production with the base bitumen A. At the end of the AR production process, the rubber particles present a very irregular shape and very little pieces of rubber can be observed among larger ones. Rubber swelling was assessed using the Basket drainage method combined with the Sphere AR production simulator method (1, 3), thus being possible to evaluate the variation of the rubber weight during the AR production. During the AR production with bitumen A, the initial weight of rubber was 428.6 g and the final one was 574.4 g, indicating an increase of 25.23%. The percentage of rubber in the beginning of the AR production with bitumen A was 21.0% w/w, but the final percentage of swelled rubber particles in the AR was 70.1% w/w. This increase of 50% is coherent with earlier observations, indicating that the rubber swelling was due to the diffusion of bitumen molecules in its reticulated structure. 4.3.2. Rubber particles recovered from asphalt rubber I Bitumen I (60/70) is the softer binder generally used to produce AR. The appearance of the RR particles from the AR produced with this bitumen is presented in Figure 3.

49

Figure 3: Macroscopic and microscopic photos of the RR particles of the AR produced with bitumen I The microscopic photo shows a collection of rubber particles recovered from the AR produced with bitumen I. There are RR particles of several sizes, forming a continuous particle size distribution. In average, the equivalent diameter of these particles is 634.19 m. The signs of degradation, holes and irregularities in the particles are more marked than in the RR obtained after interaction with bitumen A. The initial weight of rubber used to produce the AR with bitumen I was 210.84 g and the final weight of the RR after swelling was 379.57 g (increase in mass of 44.5%). The percentage of the rubber particles in the AR increased from 21.0%, at the beginning, to 77.87% at the end of the AR production with bitumen I. 4.3.3. Rubber particles recovered from asphalt rubber M Usually, 150/200 pen grade bitumens (M) are not used to produce bituminous mixtures, whether rubberized or not. However, it was used in this research work about AR binders. Figure 4 presents the photos of the RR from AR produced with bitumen M.

Figure 4: Macroscopic and microscopic photos of the RR particles of the AR produced with bitumen M Surprisingly, and in contrast with the RR from the previous ARs, the rubber particles recovered from AR produced with bitumen M have slightly the same size (608.42 m), i.e.,
50

the particle size distribution is narrow and sharp. Additionally, the rubber particles are not isolated (as the RR from the other ARs), forming little clusters. During the interaction with bitumen M, the rubber particles augment their weight in 51.6% (210.11 to 434.39 g). Thus, the final percentage of swelled rubber in the AR was 81.8%, being much higher than the initial value of 21.0%. 4.4. Morphology of the filtered rubber particles During the AR production the rubber particles split in little pieces and some passed through the wire basket. Therefore, to quantify and make a visual inspection of these little pieces of rubber (FR), they were observed to the naked eye and in an optical microscope. To assess the percentage of rubber in the residual bitumen, the mass of the insoluble material in the base bitumen and in the residual bitumen was determined, by using EN 12592 standard (the comparison between the two values is the mass concentration of FR in the residual bitumen). 4.4.1. Rubber particles filtered from asphalt rubber A The photos of the filter containing the FR particles from the residual bitumen A and the microscopic image of the FR particles are presented in Figure 5.

Figure 5: Macroscopic and microscopic photos of the FR from residual bitumen A Observing the photo in the left side, it is evident that the dimension of the FR particles is clearly lower than the previously observed (RR). However, the FR particles are easily identified to the naked eye. Surprisingly, when analysing the microscopic photo, it was noticed a similarity in the size of the FR particles from residual bitumen A. Their equivalent diameter was 378.67 m, thus being lower than the CR and RR particles. The mass concentration of FR in the residual bitumen was 1.01% w/w, thus being almost undetectable in the physical and rheological characterization of this material. 4.4.2. Rubber particles filtered from asphalt rubber I Figure 6 presents the photos of the FR particles from residual bitumen I (filter and at an optical microscope).

51

Figure 6: Macroscopic and microscopic photos of the FR from residual bitumen I The photo of the filter clearly shows a reduction in the amount of FR particles in the residual I, when compared with the previous FR from residual bitumen A. In fact, its mass concentration in the residual bitumen I was assessed, being equal to 0.34%. At the same time, the dimension of these FR particles seems to be much lower than the one of the FR observed before (residual bitumen A). Actually, an average equivalent diameter of 278.76 m was determined by carrying out a microscopic evaluation. 4.4.3. Rubber particles filtered from asphalt rubber M The macro and microscopic photos of the FR particles from residual bitumen M are presented in Figure 7.

Figure 7: Macroscopic and microscopic photos of the FR from residual bitumen M The appearance of the FR from residual bitumen M is even dustier and the quantity of rubber retained on the filter is lower than that previously observed. In fact, the residual bitumen M contains only 0.14% w/w of FR particles. Unsurprisingly, the equivalent diameter of the FR from residual bitumen M is only 282.98 m. Furthermore, the FR particles appear to be stick to each other, as earlier observed in the RR from AR M.

52

5. CONCLUSIONS Several morphological changes on CR were detected during the AR production and were related with the used base bitumen. The rubber particles swell due to the diffusion of small molecules of bitumen in the reticulated molecular structure of rubber. The swelling increases with the base bitumen penetration, until a maximum value that corresponds to the saturation of the rubber. The rate and extent of swelling of rubber particles in the AR depend on the concentration of bitumen molecules capable of diffusing into the rubber bulk. The rubber particles saturated with bitumen molecules become a brittle gel that can easily split by stirring, heating and depolymerisation. Therefore, a slight increase in the volume of rubber for bitumens with penetrations lower than 70 dmm was observed, although for softer bitumens the average dimension of the rubber particles decreased. During AR binder production, the interaction of crumb rubber particles with softer bitumens is clearly higher, and the morphology of the rubber particles is clearly more influenced by those bitumens than by harder ones. Apparently the rubber particles in contact with softer bitumens swell much more, splitting and releasing a great amount of very small elements. Thus, the particles filtered from residual bitumen A are the largest and the ones filtered from residual bitumens I and M are the smaller. When softer bitumens are used, rubber particles can swell to their saturation and re-vulcanization and re polymerization among the rubber particles can occur.

REFERENCES Artamendi, I., Khalid, H.A., 2006. Diffusion Kinetics of Bitumen into Waste Tyre Rubber. Journal AAPT, Vol. 75, Savannah, Georgia, pp. 133-164. Green, E.L., Tolonen, W.J., 1977. The Chemical and Physical Properties of Asphalt-Rubber Mixtures. FHWA-AZ-HPR14-162, Arizona DoT, Report ADOT-RS-14 (162), USA. Jensen, W., Abdelrahman, M., 2006. Crumb Rubber in Performance-Graded Asphalt Binder. Nebraska Department of Roads, Final Report, SPR-01 (05) P585, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA. Khalid, H.A., 2005. Recent Research on Use of Rubber in Asphalt. WRAP Rubber in Roads Seminar, University of Liverpool, UK. Leite, L.F.M., Soares, B.G., 1999. Interaction of Asphalt with Ground Tire Rubber. Petroleum Science and Technology, 17 (9), pp. 1071-1088. Peralta, J., 2009. Study of the Interaction between Bitumen and Rubber. Thesis submitted to the University of Minho for the degree of Master of Science, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Minho, Portugal. Peralta, J., Silva, H.M.R.D., Pais, J., Machado, A.V., 2009. Rheological and Functional Evaluation of the Interactions between Bitumen and Rubber. 7th International RILEM Conference, Rhodes, Greece. Putman, B.J., Amirkhanian, S.N., 2006. Crumb Rubber Modification of Binders: Interaction and Particle Effects. AR2006 Conference, Palm Springs, USA. Rahman, M.M., 2004. Characterisation of Dry Process Crumb Rubber Modified Asphalt Mixtures. Thesis submitted to the University of Nottingham for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, University of Nottingham, School of Civil Engineering, UK.
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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

New Experimental Methods to Monitor and Characterize Asphalt Rubber Binders

J. Peralta, H. Silva & J. Pais
Territory, Environment and Construction Centre C-TAC, University of Minho, Guimares, Portugal joana@civil.uminho.pt hugo@civil.uminho.pt jpais@civil.uminho.pt

ABSTRACT: The need for continuous quality improvement of the road pavements, leads to the development of new binders, such as asphalt rubber (AR). AR is produced by the digestion of crumb rubber from used tires on bitumen. The resulting AR is a heterogeneous material with high viscosity. The study of this product during its production is essential due to the sudden and sharp increase in the volume of AR in this phase. Knowledge of the extent of this phenomenon has obvious implications in the design of the AR production equipment. In addition, to predict the performance of the AR in the pavement, its components (i.e. bitumen and rubber) should be analyzed separately. Thus, the objective of this paper is to present new experimental methods for the evaluation of the referred parameters, namely: i) a method to control the AR density during its production; ii) a modified basket drainage method to separate the swelled rubber from the residual bitumen after the AR production and; iii) a sphere AR production simulator (SARPS) method developed to reproduce the bitumen aging during the AR production (without the contribution of the rubber interaction). The effectiveness of these procedures was assessed by applying conventional CEN tests in the different bituminous materials obtained with the previous methods (base bitumen, sphere bitumen, residual bitumen and AR). SARPS method, combined with the basket drainage method, was found to be a simple and effective way to monitor rubber-bitumen interaction. SARPS was also a simple and adequate method to evaluate the aging of bitumen during AR production. Finally, it was also possible to assess the evolution of the bitumen, rubber and AR densities during the AR binder production. KEY WORDS: Asphalt rubber, Density, Sphere production simulator, Basket drainage method. 1. INTRODUCTION Rubber from wasted tires is a material with a highly valuable constituent, i.e. vulcanized natural and synthetic rubber, although 9 to 10 kg of rubber tyres, approximately, per inhabitant are being currently discarded every year in the industrialized societies. These discarded rubber tires have found end-use applications in the production of new bituminous binders. Behind the obvious positive impact on the natural environment, the incorporation of this new ingredient, in the constitution of flexible bituminous pavements, confers improved characteristics with impact in their performance and security (Airey et al., 2002; Airey et al., 2003; Bahia and Davis, 1994; Green and Tolonen, 1977; Heitzman, 1992; Jeong et al., 2010; Zanzotto and Kennepohl, 1996; Coomarasamy and Hesp, 1998).
55

In fact, when compared with unmodified asphalt roadways, the service life of roadways with asphalt rubber mixtures will be prolonged (Xiang et al., 2009; Navarro et al., 2004; Chiu et al., 2007; Lee et al., 2008). However, the increasing demands concerning the durability of pavements lead to the need of a profound knowledge of the changes of the constituents of the AR binders. When crumb rubber is mixed and heated with bitumen, the properties of the produced modified binder are significantly different from the original bitumen. Properties modification is caused by physical and/or compositional changes during the interaction process (Jensen and Abdelrahman, 2006). The swelling of the rubber particles due to the absorption of light fractions into the rubber particles, and stiffening of the residual binder phase are the main mechanism of the interaction (Abdelrahman and Carpenter, 1999; Airey et al., 2003; Shen and Amirkhanian, 2005). The measured swelling ratio varies from 200 to 400% and is mainly related to the rubber content and bitumen composition (Ould-Henia and Dumont, 2006; Massucco, 1994). Interaction with rubber stiffens the residual bitumen (Khalid, 2005). In addition, during AR production the inevitable oxidation of bitumen occurs at high temperatures. Consequently, residual bitumen is richer in higher molecular weight components (Rahman, 2004). Swelling can lead to a partial degeneration of the polymer properties (Lougheed and Papagiannakis, 1996). By using high temperature and high shear during AR production, the rubber particles can be devulcanized and depolymerised in the asphalt. It has been found that the devulcanization and depolymerization of rubber is higher when asphalts are rich in aromatics (Billiter et al., 1997). If the rubber is not partially devulcanized, it produces a heterogeneous binder with the rubber acting mainly as flexible filler (Giavarini, 1994). The AR is a heterogeneous material, which can be separated in two different phases, the swelled rubber and the residual bitumen. The swelled rubber, by itself, does not promote the adhesion between the aggregates in the production of AR mixtures. Thus, it is reasonable to consider the swelled rubber as a special category of aggregate, being the residual bitumen the final binder of the AR mixture. Therefore, it is essential to evaluate the behaviour of this residual bitumen of the AR binder in order to optimize the performance of the AR mixtures (Peralta, 2009; Gawel, 2004). Thus, the aim of this work is to present new experimental methods that allow the study of the two materials that constitute the AR, namely by evaluating the following parameters that affect the AR production and performance: a method to control of the AR density during its production; a modified basket drainage method to separate the swelled rubber from the residual bitumen after AR production; a sphere AR production simulator (SARPS) method developed to reproduce the bitumen aging during AR production (without the contribution of the rubber interaction). 2. TEST METHODS DESCRIPTION 2.1. Basket drainage method The method used to produce AR and collect the desired samples of AR, of recovered swelled rubber and of residual bitumen is a modified basket drainage method, and the original method was proposed by Rahman (2004). The asphalt rubber production facility is constituted by several equipments, presented in Figure 1, assembled in a laboratory ventilation chamber. The wire basket used in the AR production facility was manufactured with a wire mesh, which was previously observed in an optical microscope (Figure 2) to measure its average opening dimension (# 0.370 mm). The microscope was able to draw an idealized picture of the mesh in order to assess the referred opening dimension.

56

Figure 1: Scheme and photo of the asphalt rubber production facility

1 mm

1 mm

Figure 2: Optical microscopy photo and drawing of the wire mesh used to make the basket The dimensions of the crumb rubber must be carefully selected in order to prevent them to pass through the wire basket. Therefore, the crumb rubber should be sieved, and only the fraction retained in a sieve with an opening slightly higher than that of the basket can be used to produce the AR binder. The process used to collect the several samples of AR binder, of recovered swelled rubber and of residual bitumen consisted of suspending the wire basket with the AR binder in an oven at 180 C for 15 minutes, so as to separate its constituents (Figure 3) and collect a sample of the recovered rubber and residual bitumen (Res), presented in Figure 4.

Figure 3: Separation between the crumb rubber and the residual bitumen of the AR

57

Recovered rubber

Residual bitumen

Figure 4: Residual bitumen and recovered rubber after separation 2.2. Density determination during AR production In order to assess the variation of the apparent density of the AR binder at the production temperature (e.g., 180 C), the density can be measured every 5 minutes during the AR production. Even though some standard test methods (e.g. those using densimeters) were found in the literature to be suitable to measure the density of bituminous binders (ASTM D3142-05, ASTM D 1298-99, prEN 15326), they were not appropriate to be used at the typical AR production conditions (the density should be measured almost continuously at very high production temperatures). Another approach about using new technological devices suited to measure the apparent density of the AR binders also proved to be fruitless, because these devices are not able to evaluate the production conditions continuously. Therefore, the methodology selected for density assessment was based on the definition of density, i.e. by measuring the mass/volume of the binder during the production of AR binders. 2.2.1. Technique Simple experimental equipment was developed to assist on the measurement of the mass and volume of the binder during the AR production. First, a measuring device made of a platform with two scales attached (Figure 5) was made. Then, the container used to produce the AR binders (with and without the basket) was filled with different and known volumes of liquid, assessing the corresponding height with the measuring device. Thus, two calibration lines (with and without the basket) were obtained relating the volume of liquid in the container with the average height measured in the scales of the measuring device. Finally, the density of AR was assessed every 5 minutes, by weighting all the AR production facility (WPF), i.e., the heating blanket (WHB), the container (WCT), the basket (WBK) and the AR binder (WAR), and by measuring indirectly the volume of AR binder (VAR) in the container with the measuring device. The density was the ratio between the measured values of weight and the volume of the AR binder. During this procedure the AR production facility was placed on a balance and the system horizontality was confirmed using a spirit level installed in the measuring device, as presented in Figure 5. The evolution of the density of the base/residual bitumen during AR production can be determined using the same technique. However, the measurements (weight and volume) can be carried out only in the residual bitumen left in the container after removing the basket with the rubber. The evolution of the rubber density can be calculated based on the measured values of the residual bitumen and AR densities at the different digestion times.

58

Figure 5: Scheme of the AR production device used for density assessment 2.2.2. Calculations The apparent density of AR (DAR) should be calculated according to Equation 1, being the ratio between the measured values of its weight (WAR) and volume (VAR).
DAR ( g / cm3 ) = WAR ( g ) WPF WHB WCT WBK ( g ) = VAR (cm3 ) VAR (cm3 )

[1]

2.3. Analysis of the rubber particles used in the AR production 2.3.1. Rubber apparent density The apparent density of the original crumb rubber was assessed according to standard ASTM D792-08. Approximately 2.0 g of crumb rubber were weighted in an analytical balance. Then, a sieve with an opening dimension lower than the size of the smallest rubber particles was selected and weighted (dry and in the isopropyl alcohol). Finally, the rubber particles were sealed and weighted, with the sieve, in the isopropyl alcohol. The apparent density of the used crumb rubber was calculated using Equation 2.

= 0.0012 +

(m

ds

ip

) [0.99983 (m

ssl

- m sl

)]

[2]

Where: a Apparent density of the crumb rubber (g/cm3); mds Mass of the dry sample of crumb rubber (g); ip Density of the isopropyl alcohol (g/cm3); mssl Mass of the sealed sample of crumb rubber in isopropyl alcohol (g); msl Mass of the sieve in isopropyl alcohol (g). 2.3.2. Rubber bulk density The sample of rubber previously weighted was boiled and stirred to release all the air and then the volume occupied by the boiled crumb rubber was assessed. This analytical procedure is described in the standard test AG:PT/T144.

59

2.4. Assessment of bitumen aging during the AR production using the sphere AR production simulator method When the bitumen is heated, some smaller molecules are volatilized (aromatics), while other molecules may be associated with bigger ones (asphaltenes). Furthermore, when bitumen interacts with rubber, the rubber particles absorb the light parts of bitumen and swell. Since those phenomena simultaneously occur during the AR production, it seems unfeasible to evaluate the changes in the bitumen structure caused by each one of the previous phenomenon. Hence, a new method was developed in order to quantify the changes exclusively induced in the bitumen by heating and stirring during the AR production, named sphere AR production simulator (SARPS). The aim of this method is to simulate the AR production, by replacing the rubber particles with metallic spheres (roughly with the same dimensions of the crumb rubber particles) in order to reproduce the evaporation and association processes occurring in the bitumen during the heating period of AR production, independently from its interaction with rubber. Before the experimental procedure, the metallic spheres were observed and measured by optical microscopy (Figure 6), using an Olympus BH-2 microscope and a magnification of 100 times, and their volumetric weight was evaluated.
1mm

Figure 6: Microscopic photo of the metallic spheres used to simulate the crumb rubber particles The SARPS method was carried out in a reduced scale AR production facility (smaller than but similar to the one used for AR production), and the used procedures were also similar to the ones applied in the AR production. 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The sphere AR production simulator is a test designed to assess the changes occurring in the base bitumen during the production of AR that are independent from the interaction between bitumen and crumb rubber, so that, in posterior tests, it would be possible to isolate the changes in the bitumen due to the presence of rubber particles. This test is a simulation of the AR production conditions that result on aging of the bitumen. In order to assess the changes that the sphere AR production simulator induced in the bitumen, a characterization of some physical properties (penetration at 25 C, ring and ball softening point and apparent viscosity) of a set of bitumens was performed. Figure 7 presents the results obtained for the sphere bitumens submitted to the SARPS method in comparison with those results obtained for the base (original bitumen) and residual (obtained through the basket drainage method) bitumens.
60

1E+3

Res

Sphere

Base

80 75 70

Pen (dmm); AV (cP)

1E+2

65 60 55 50 45

R&B (C)

1E+1

1E+0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

40

Pen at 25 C of base bitumen (dmm)

Figure 7: Representation of the physical properties of the sphere bitumens compared to the base and residual ones (thick line viscosity; medium line R&B; thin line penetration) The lines representing each physical property for the sphere aged bitumen are similar to those corresponding to the base and residual bitumen, thus confirming that the properties of the sphere bitumen (after the SARPS process) and residual bitumen (after interaction with rubber) still depending on the used base bitumen. Furthermore, the reduction in the penetration due to the SARPS process is lower than that of the residual bitumen (after interaction with rubber). The same tendency was observed in the increase of the dynamic viscosity and R&B temperature parameters, in which the values of the sphere bitumen remain between those of the base and the residual bitumen. The higher changes in the residual bitumen are caused by the absorption of light fraction of the residual bitumen during the interaction with rubber, which does not occur in the sphere bitumen during the SARPS process. During the production of the AR binders the density of base bitumen, rubber and AR binder changes significantly. The study of the variations of the material density throughout the AR binder production process is very important to adequately design the production equipment and to understand the interactions between the bitumen and the rubber particles. Thus, the variation of the density of the bitumen, rubber and AR binder for a typical commercial bitumen are graphically represented in Figure 8.
1.2 1

Density (g/cm )

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 10 20 30 Bitumen AR Rubber 40 50 60 70 80

Time (min)

Figure 8: Screening of the evolution of the density of the AR constituents

61

The AR binders are initially composed by base bitumen and crumb rubber. During the interaction time several phenomena occur, some of which are independent of the interaction between the materials: Bitumen becomes denser and harder after being subjected to heat and stirring for more than 60 minutes (base bitumen); Crumb rubber contains a large quantity or air and moisture, in and within their particles. When exposed to heat, the air and water expand their volume, before being replaced by liquid bitumen (rubber). Furthermore, during the rubber-bitumen interaction other phenomena also occur, such as: The rubber particles swell, due to the diffusion of small molecules of bitumen in the reticulated molecular structure of rubber; The molecules of bitumen diffused in the rubber structure, also induce a relaxation of the links between the rubber atoms causing a decrease in the bulk density of rubber; The rubber particles saturated with bitumen molecules transform into a fragile gel which split by the action of stirring, heat and punctual depolymerisation; Parts of the rubber molecules, which were not totally reticulated, can be depolymerised and solubilised in the bulk of the residual bitumen. The compounds of rubber that were solubilised in the bitumen, combined with the absorption of the smallest molecules of the bitumen, that contribute to its fluidity and softness, turns bitumen denser. This phenomenon together with an increase in density due to the heat, which causes the evaporation of its lighter molecules, adds more density to bitumen. The AR is the final product of a chain of physic-chemical interactions, not only between bitumen and rubber, but also with the air and water. The big reduction of density in the beginning of the production of the AR is clearly due to the changes that occur among the rubber particles. The reported reduction of density corresponds to a significant increase in the volume of the AR binder, which leads to other questions, such as: How should an AR production plant be dimensioned? How long does it take to the air and the moisture contained in the rubber to be expelled? Finally, the different types of binder obtained after carrying out the several test methods previously presented (base bitumen, AR binder, residual bitumen and sphere bitumen) were aged using the RTFOT aging method (standard EN 12607-1). One of the results obtained in the RTFOT aging method is the percentage of bitumen weight loss (Figure 9).
1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 0 20 40 60 80 100 Res AR Sphere bitumen Base bitumen 120 140

Weight Loss (%)

Pen at 25 C (dmm)
Figure 9: Comparative plot of the weight loss for the base bitumen and AR (before and after RTFOT aging), sphere and residual bitumens
62

The variation of bitumen weight loss parameter with the penetration of the base bitumen is a linear trending line with a positive slope. The mass loss increased for softer bitumens, being the base bitumens the most influenced by aging, followed by the residual bitumens and finally by the AR binders.

4. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE RECOMMENDATIONS The main conclusions drawn from this study are the following: The SARPS method, combined with the basket drainage method, was found to be a simple and effective way to monitor rubber-bitumen interaction; The SARPS method was also a simple and adequate method to evaluate of the aging of bitumen during AR production; Finally, it was also possible to assess the evolution of the bitumen, rubber and AR densities during the AR binder production. As future recommendations, the authors would like to refer that the basket drainage method is being developed in order to facilitate and accelerate the drainage of the residual bitumen from the AR binder. In fact, a new rotating basket apparatus is being designed in order to obtain the bitumen by centrifugation.

REFERENCES Abdelrahman, M., Carpenter, S., 1999. Mechanism of interaction of asphalt cement with crumb rubber modifier. Transportation Research Records, 1661, pp. 106-113. Airey, G., Rahman, M., Collop, A., 2003. Absorption of bitumen into crumb rubber using the basket drainage method. Int J Pavement Eng, 4 (2), pp. 105-119. Airey, G., Singleton, T., Collop, A., 2002. Properties of polymer modified bitumen after rubber-bitumen interaction. J Mater Civ Eng, 14 (4), ASCE, pp. 344-354. Bahia, H., Davis, R., 1994. Effect of crumb rubber modifiers (CRM) on performance related properties of asphalt binders. J Assoc Asphalt Pav Technol, 63, pp. 414-449. Billiter, T., Chun, J., Davison, R., Glover, C., Bullin, J., 1997. Investigation of the Curing Variables of Asphalt-Rubber Binder. Pet. Sci. Technol., 15, p. 445. Chiu, T., Lu, C., 2007. A laboratory study on stone matrix asphalt using ground tire rubber. Constr Build Mater, 21 (5), pp. 1027-1033. Coomarasamy, A., Hesp, S., 1998. Performance of scrap tire rubber modified asphalt paving mixes. Rubber World, 218, 26. Gawel, I., Stepkowski, R., Czechowski, F., 2006. Molecular Interactions between Rubber and Asphalt. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 45 (9), pp. 3044-3049. Giavarini, C., 1994. In Asphaltenes and Asphalt, Elsevier, Amsterdam, Vol. I. Green, E., Tolonen, W., 1977. The chemical and physical properties of asphalt-rubber mixtures. Report ADOT-RS-14 (162), Arizona Department of Transportation. Heitzman, M., 1992. Design and construction of asphalt paving materials with crumb rubber modifier. Trans Res Rec, J Trans Res Board, 1339, p. 1-8. Jensen, W., Abdelrahman, M., 2006. Crumb Rubber in Performance-Graded Asphalt Binder. Nebraska Department of Roads, Final Report, SPR-01 (05) P585, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA. Jeong, K-D., Lee, S-J., Amirkhanian, S., Kim, K., 2010. Interaction effects of crumb rubber modified asphalt binders. Constr Build Mater, 24 (5), pp. 824-831.
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Khalid, H., 2005. Recent Research on Use of Rubber in Asphalt. WRAP Rubber in Roads Seminar, University of Liverpool, UK. Lee, S-J., Akisetty, C., Amirkhanian, S., 2008. The effect of crumb rubber modifier (CRM) on the performance properties of rubberized binders in HMA pavements. Constr Build Mater, 22 (7), pp. 1368-1376. Lougheed, T., Papagiannakis, A., 1996. Viscosity Characteristics of Rubber-Modified Asphalt. J Mater Civ Eng, 8, p. 153. Massucco, J., 1994. Asphalt Rubber a Federal Perspective. Proceedings of the Third Materials Engineering Conference. New Materials and Methods of Repair, San Diego, pp. 467. Navarro, F., Partal, P., Martnez-Boza, F., Gallegos, C., 2004. Thermo-rheological behaviour and storage stability of ground tire rubber-modified bitumens. Fuel, 83 (14-15), pp. 2041-2049. Ould-Henia, M., Dumont, A-G., 2006. Assessment of the Rheological Properties of Asphalt Rubber Binder and its Residual Phases. Asphalt Rubber 2006 Conference, Palm Springs, USA, pp. 931-948. Peralta, J., 2009. Study of the Interaction between Bitumen and Rubber. Thesis submitted to the University of Minho for the degree of Master of Science, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Minho, Portugal. Rahman, M.M., 2004. Characterisation of Dry Process Crumb Rubber Modified Asphalt Mixtures. Thesis submitted to the University of Nottingham for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, University of Nottingham, School of Civil Engineering, UK. Shen, J., Amirkhanian, S., 2005. The Influence of crumb rubber modifier (CRM) microstructure on the high temperature properties of CRM binder. Int J Pavement Eng, 6 (4), pp. 265-271. Xiang, L., Cheng, J., Que, G., 2009. Microstructure and performance of crumb rubber modified asphalt. Constr Build Mater, 23 (12), pp. 3586-3590. Zanzotto, L., Kennepohl, G., 1996. Development of Rubber and asphalt binders by depolymerization and devulcanization of scrap tires in asphalt. Trans Res Rec, J Trans Res Board, 1530, pp. 51-59.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Monitoring Rubber Swelling and De- and Re-vulcanization through AR Elastic Recovery
J. Peralta, H. Silva & J. Pais
Territory, Environment and Construction Centre C-TAC, University of Minho, Guimares, Portugal joana@civil.uminho.pt hugo@civil.uminho.pt jpais@civil.uminho.pt

A.V. Machado
Institute for Polymers and Composites/I3N, University of Minho, Guimares, Portugal avm@dep.uminho.pt

ABSTRACT: Healthy economies require an appropriate transportation system, in which roadways are an essential part. Therefore, the construction and maintenance of road pavements should be long lasting and have a significant impact on the economic vitality of a nation. The elastic recovery is a property characteristic of the elastomers, or binders modified with those polymers, being used to classify them and especially to survey the polymerization reactions in rubber production and the crosslink density during the vulcanization process. In this work, a large range of pen grade bitumens from the same source were used to produce different asphalt rubber binders (ARs). Then, the elastic recovery (ER) of each AR binder was determined while the rubber used to produce the AR was recovered, weighted and observed by optical microscopy. Finally, the elastic recovery of the AR binder was related to the corresponding weight percentage and dimensions of the rubber particles recovered from the final AR binder. The main conclusion draw from this study is that the analysis of the elastic recovery of the AR binder can give very useful information about the magnitude of rubber swelling, de- and re-vulcanization and final degradation of the rubber networks. The results of the elastic recovery of the AR binders and the recovered rubber properties also suggested that it possible to select a bitumen to produce AR binders with enhanced characteristics.
KEY WORDS: Elastic recovery, Rubber, Dimensions, De/revulcanization, De/repolymerization.

1. INTRODUCTION The construction and maintenance of road pavements should be long lasting and have a significant impact on the economic vitality of a nation. Beyond the traditional constituents of the bituminous pavement layers, the use of crumb rubber recycled from used tyres should be studied as a form of environmental protection and as a pavement performance enhancer. Billiter et al. (1997a) referred that the improved adhesion of asphalt-rubber binder (AR) promotes chip retention when it is used as a chip seal. Thus, rubber modified pavement improves skid resistance even under icy conditions. Furthermore, the practice of utilizing rubber in bitumen is environmentally friendly since it eliminates a solid waste and is able to reduce traffic noise.
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The obvious benefit of adding rubber to bitumen is that the rubber imparts elasticity to the binders, which helps increase pavement fatigue life or fatigue resistance, as well as reduces reflective cracking. This elasticity also makes the pavement more flexible, thus improving the pavements susceptibility to low-temperature cracking. It has been reported that rubber also imparts tensile strength, ductility, toughness, resiliency, tenacity and thus, durability to the binder modification (Martinez et al., 2006; Neto et al., 2003; Way, 2003; Gopal et al., 2002; Coomarasamy and Hesp, 1998). Elastic recovery describes the ability of a bitumen binder to elongate when tension is applied and to recover its original shape when the tension is released. This property is important in both fatigue and rutting resistance. Additionally, elastic recovery is a property that is indicative of the quality of polymer components in bitumen binders (Jensen and Abdelrahman, 2006). The elastic recovery of the asphalt-rubber binders tends to increase as the rubber particle size decreases. Finer rubber particles result in higher ductility than larger particles and, in accordance, toughness increases as particle size decreases (Jensen and Abdelrahman, 2006). Some authors referred some breakings in cross-links (devulcanization) due to heating during the curing process (Billiter et al., 1996). This phenomenon induces a progressive decrease in viscosity, which is considered, in some papers, as the initial degradation of the polymer chains. Both swelling and devulcanization are present during the asphalt rubber curing, even for the so-called dry process. The predominance of one of the phenomena relies on the processing parameters and essentially on blending temperature and digestion time (Ould-Henia and Dumont, 2006). The effect of the interaction conditions on the development of the high temperature properties can be summarized as follows (Jensen and Abdelrahman, 2006): The temperature controls the activity of the interaction process. There are two main activities within the interaction process, namely swelling and depolymerisation. Interaction temperature affects the process by controlling the time when swelling is replaced with depolymerization; Shearing energy can be very effective in controlling crumb rubber particle sizes during the interaction process. Higher shear turns coarser particles into fine particles and help stabilize crumb rubber binder properties. The absorption/swelling capacity of a rubber particle is related to the crude source, the penetration grade of the binder and the nature of the crumb rubber (Rahman, 2004; Airey et al., 2003; Shen et al., 2009). Two main types of activities that affect AR binder properties have been reported in the literature: particle swelling and detachment or depolymerization. Rubber particles might swell to 3-5 times their original volume (Massucco, 1994). Moreover, the extent of rubber swelling in asphalt varies according to the temperature and time of rubber-asphalt contact, chemical composition of asphalt, rubber type, and particle size (Stroup-Gardiner et al., 1993). The scrap tire rubber used as an asphalt modifier is in a vulcanized state. Swelling accounts for a partial degeneration of the polymer properties (Lougheed and Papagiannakis, 1996). By using high temperature and high shear, the rubber particles can be devulcanized and depolymerized in the asphalt. It has been found that the devulcanization and depolymerization of rubber is higher when asphalts are rich in aromatics (Billiter et al., 1996). Increased rubber dissolution was determined to improve the low- and intermediate-temperature rheological properties of a binder (Billiter et al., 1997b). If the rubber is not partially devulcanized, it produces a heterogeneous AR binder with the rubber acting mainly as a flexible filler (Giavarini, 1994). However, excessive devulcanization brings about the deterioration of binder properties. An improvement in the elasticity of the binder may be achieved by additional cross-linking of the polymer in the asphalt-rubber binder (re-vulcanization). Xiang
66

et al. (2009) reported that a fine and perfect polymer reticular structure was formed when crumb rubber powder was used to produce AR. These literature references suggest that a good relation may be observed between the changes in rubber morphology and concentration, during AR production, and the elastic recovery (ER) of AR binder. Thus, monitoring of the elastic recovery of AR binders can be an easy and useful method to assess the optimum parameters of interaction between bitumen and rubber, in order to achieve the best AR binder performance Therefore, the aim of this work is to assess the elastic recovery of AR binders and relate them to the corresponding changes in the rubber concentration and dimensions. A large range of base bitumens was used in order to carry out this study, and thus the type of base bitumen was one of the main parameters evaluated. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1. Materials In order to minimize any variability in the characteristics of the materials due to their source and processing, bitumens were collected from the same batch of the La Rbida refinery of CEPSA in Huelva, Spain. Asphalt rubber properties are very dependent on the used bitumen. Thus, in this work, several grade bitumens were initially chosen in order to evaluate their influence on the AR binder characteristics. Due to the difficulty of the refinery to supply other bitumens than those from their commercial line (10/20, 40/50, 60/70 and 150/200), these commercial bitumens were combined in different proportions in order to obtain eight base bitumen samples, as presented in Table 1. Table 1: Proportions of commercial bitumen used to obtain the eight base bitumen samples
Sample labeling Commercial bitumen 10/20 40/50 60/70 150/200 A 1.00 B 0.75 0.25 1.00 1.00 0.75 1.00 0.25 0.75 0.50 0.50 E I J 0.25 M N O

The laboratorial characterisation of these base bitumen samples was carried out in order to evaluate some physical empiric properties, namely the penetration at 25 C (EN 1426), ring and ball softening point (EN 1427) and the dynamic viscosity (EN 13302). The crumb rubber used in this work was produced by the cryogenic process and, according to the supplier, was obtained by the grinding of 30% of truck tires and 70% of car tires. The crumb rubber size ranges between 0.18 and 0.60 mm (sieves ASTM #80 to #30). These sizes represent the AR mixtures typically produced and applied in Portuguese roads. The supplied crumb rubber was sieved so as to select and use only the fraction passed in sieve ASTM #20 (0.850 mm) and retained in sieve ASTM #40 (0.425 mm). The crumb rubber sieved in the laboratory was washed with toluene and dried in an oven at 135C. After cleaning the rubber particles, they were analyzed by optical microscopy (carried out to assess the rubber particles form and size), using an Olympus BH-2 microscope and a magnification of 100x (10x 10x).

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2.2. Methods The method used to produce AR and collect the desired samples of AR, of recovered swelled rubber and of residual bitumen was the basket drainage method (Rahman, 2004). The asphalt rubber production facility is constituted by several equipments, assembled in a laboratory ventilation chamber. The wire basket used in the AR production facility was manufactured with a wire mesh, which was previously observed in an optical microscope to measure its average opening dimension (# 0.370 mm). The process used to produce and collect the several samples of AR, of recovered swelled rubber and of residual bitumen consisted of heating of 1 kg of each base bitumen at 180C (collecting a sample). Then, 21% (w/w) of crumb rubber were added to the bitumen, and the resulting AR binder was continuously heated at 180 C for 60 minutes (digestion time), while stirring the binder at 230 rot/min. A sample of the produced asphalt rubber binder (AR) was collected and finally, the wire basket with the AR binder was suspended in an oven at 180C for 15 minutes, so as to separate and weight its constituents (recovered swelled rubber and residual bitumen). Finally, the elastic recovery of the AR binder sample was determined. In order to prepare the recovered rubber particles for microscopic observations, 2.0 g of recovered rubber were put in a container with approximately 200 mL of toluene, and the container was slightly shaked until the rubber particles were totally separated. The resulting solution was filtered with a filter paper and washed again with toluene until the filtered solution became completely clean. Finally, the filter paper with the resulting recovered rubber was dried in an oven at 135 C and, ultimately, analyzed by optical microscopy. The recovered and filtered samples for microscopy tests (carried out to assess the rubber particles size) were also obtained by using standard EN 12592, repeating the procedure several times if necessary until the adequate number of rubber particles (about 150 in this study, according to standard ISO 9276) were obtained. The washed and dried rubber particles were analyzed by optical microscopy using an Olympus BH-2 microscope and a magnification of 100x (10x 10x). The rubber particle size was quantified using a method of image analysis (Leica Quantimet 550). The results were obtained after studying typically 150 rubber particles.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The swelling of the rubber increases with the base bitumen penetration, going to a maximum value that corresponds to the saturation of the rubber particles. When this point is achieved, the rubber particles are in the form of a gel and the diffusion process of bitumen molecules into rubber reticules cannot continue. The stirring and the high temperatures cause the rupture of the particles, exposing the centre of each particle to the bitumen, thus maintaining the swelling process. Simultaneously, parts of the gel rubber particles are partly or completely depolymerized, depending on the concentration of small molecules in the bitumen. In fact, when the swelling process of the rubber particles is complete, splitting and degradation of the rubber gel particles can occur in the AR binder. Therefore, it is evident that, as the AR production process takes place, the relative importance of the rubber particles in the binder increases. In fact, the evolution of the rubber weight concentration (%) in the AR and in the residual bitumen, as a function of the penetration of the used base bitumen, was quantified and compared with the concentration of the crumb rubber in the beginning of the ARs production process (17.35 % w/w).
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Figures 1, 2 and 3 show the quantitative representation of the results obtained in the tests performed to assess the changes in the morphology of the rubber particles during the production of AR binders with various pen grade bitumens. Those Figures are a summary of the observations made in this work, allowing a holistic understanding of the AR production process form the point of view of the rubber particles. Therefore, the points representing the evolution of the equivalent diameter of the crumb rubber initially added to the 4 commercial base bitumens, after being recovered from the AR, are presented in Figure 1 in function of the rubber mass concentration (%) in the AR binder.
640
Crumb rubber

eq of rubber particles (m)

635
I

630 625 620 615 610 605 35 37 39 41 43

A

45

47

Rubber in AR (% m/m)
Figure 1: Correlation between the changes in the concentration and dimension of rubber in AR produced with four commercial bitumens The same crumb rubber, with an equivalent diameter (eq) of 620.10 m, was always used on the production process of the different AR binders. The swelling of the rubber increases with the penetration of the base bitumen, trending to a maximum value that corresponds to the saturation of the rubber particles. When this point is achieved, the rubber particles are in the form of a gel and the diffusion process of bitumen molecules into rubber reticules cannot continue. These observations show that during the AR production process the rubber particles swell and transform into a fragile gel. The stirring and high temperature caused the rupture of the particles, exposing the centre of each particle to the bitumen, aiding the prolongation of the swelling process. Simultaneously, parts of the gel rubber particles are partly or completely depolymerized, depending on the concentration of little molecules in the bitumen. In fact, when the swelling process of the rubber particles is complete, the phenomena that occur in the AR are the splitting and degradation of the rubber gel particles. However, re-polymerization and re-vulcanization may concurrently occur. Attending on the facts previously exposed, it is evident that, as the AR production process takes place, the relative importance of the rubber particles in the binder increases. Therefore, the evolution of the rubber mass concentration (%) in the AR binder, in function of the used base bitumen, was quantified and compared to the concentration of the crumb rubber in the beginning of the AR production process (17.35 % w/w). During the AR binder production, the interaction of the crumb rubber particles with softer bitumens is clearly higher than with harder bitumens, and thus the morphology of the rubber particles is clearly more influenced by softer bitumens. Apparently the rubber particles in
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contact with softer bitumens swell much more, splitting and releasing a great amount of very small elements. Furthermore, the formation of smaller particles increases the rubber volume fraction in AR binder, inducing the re-vulcanization/re-polymerization, as shown in the rubber particles recovered from AR M (Figure 1). The elastic recovery is a property characteristic of the elastomers, being used to classify them and especially to survey the polymerization reactions in rubber production and the crosslink density during the vulcanization process. The introduction of rubber in the bituminous binders confers to the pavement, among others, the capacity of recovering the form after being subjected several times to deformation without showing signs of fatigue. The graphic presented in Figure 2 was drawn in order to analyze the effect of the final eq of the rubber particles (recovered from the four ARs produced with the commercial bitumens) in the resultant elastic recovery of the AR binder.
635

eq of rubber particles (m)

630 625 620 615 610

M A E

605

40

42

44

46

48

50

52

54

56

58

ER (%)
Figure 2: Correlation between the rubber particles dimensions and the elastic recovery of the AR binders produced with four different commercial bitumens By analyzing the previous graphic, it was observed that the rubber swelling phenomenon increases the value of AR elastic recovery. In fact, the larger the rubber particles present in the AR are, the higher is the elastic recovery of the AR binder. Furthermore, the rubber particles swelling phenomenon is proportional to the quantity of small molecules in the AR, and the swelling process only ends when the rubber particles are saturated and/or when there is no more molecules to be absorbed. The equivalent diameter of the rubber particles recovered from the AR binders (eq) can be related with the elastic recovery by an exponential trending line, but only until the saturation and splitting of the crumb rubber, which occurs when rubber interacts with softer base bitumens (e.g. bitumen M). Actually, when crumb rubber interacted with very soft bitumens (e.g. bitumen M), it was noticed that the elastic recovery is still increasing in spite of the reduction of the eq. This behaviour is similar to that observed in Figure 1, but appears to be somewhat contrary to the one usually reported in the literature, which indicates that the elastic recovery is a function of the rubber particles size and content. In order to clarify the previous observations, and essentially to analyze if the rubber content is more influential than the particles size, a large range of pen grade bitumens were used to produce AR binders and their final elastic recovery and rubber concentration were determined (Figure 3).
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47 45 43 41 39 37 35
B E

J I

O M

Rubber in AR (% m/m)

40

45

50

55

60

65

ER (%)
Figure 3: Correlation between the elastic recovery and the rubber final concentration in the AR binders produced with eight different bitumens The higher interaction between the rubber particles and softer base bitumens enhances the elastic recovery of the resultant AR binder, but only until a certain point. In this study, when the softest base bitumen (M) was used, the interaction with rubber particles was maximized. Nevertheless, the elastic recovery was lower than that verified with bitumen N. From the obtained results it was observed that the final rubber percentage in the AR binder has an exponential relation with the respective elastic recovery. However, when softer bitumens (I, O, M and N) are used, the rubber percentage in the AR binder is roughly the same in spite of the significant changes in the elastic recovery. These observations indicate that when the rubber saturation is achieved, the rubber particles start to split, which increases the volume fraction of rubber in bitumen. This fact, in addition to the stirring and high temperature used during the production of the AR binder, may cause processes of re-polymerization and re-vulcanization, thus increasing the length of the polymer chains. The rubber particles are constituted by polymer chains that can be compared to springs. When a spring is compressed or tensioned, it recovers its initial form, and the longer is the spring the higher is the recovered length. This is the reason why AR binders with the same rubber percentage, but constituted by rubber particles with lower eq, present a higher elastic recovery. Conversely, when very soft bitumens (e.g. bitumen M) are used, a decrease in the elastic recovery of the corresponding AR binders can occur due to a simultaneous decrease in the rubber percentage and eq of the rubber particles. This means that irreversible phenomena of degradation and solubilization of the rubber particles in the recovered bitumen is occurring during the production of the AR. This inflection point of the curve relating the rubber percentage with the elastic recovery can be used as a criterion to select base bitumens to be used in the production of AR binders with improved elastic recovery performance. The elastic recovery results may also be useful to determine the optimum temperature, interaction time, initial rubber content and dimensions among other production parameters. However, since all these parameters are co-dependent, they must be studied separately so as to understand their individual contribution to optimize the AR binder behavior.

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4. CONCLUSIONS Any study of bituminous materials constituents and behavior is a very complex task, since bitumen composition and performance vary significantly according to its origin and processing of the crude oil. Therefore, the results presented above may not be applicable to all paving grade bitumens. The main conclusions drawn from this study are the following: for paving grade bitumens usually applied to produce AR binders, the elastic recovery can be a very effective parameter to assess the changes in the rubber percentage and eq during the AR production; although the rubber percentage and eq are nearly constant when AR binder are produced with softer bitumens (with penetrations higher than 70), the elastic recovery is still increasing due to rubber splitting and re-polymerization or/and re-vulcanization; the elastic recovery decreases when very soft bitumens (e.g. bitumen M) are used, as well as the rubber percentage and eq, indicating an irreversible degradation of rubber; the maximum value of elastic recovery was observed for bitumen N (25% of 60/70 plus 75% of 150/200), which is the best base bitumen to use in order to obtain AR binders with improved elasticity; the elastic recovery results may be used to determine the best production parameters of AR binders with optimized performance. REFERENCES Airey, G., Rahman, M., Collop, A., 2003. Absorption of bitumen into crumb rubber using the basket drainage method. Int J. Pavement Eng., 4(2), pp.105-119. Billiter, T., Chun, J., Davison, R., Glover, C., Bullin, J., 1996. Investigation of the Curing Variables of Asphalt-Rubber Binder. Pet. Sci. Technol. 15, p. 445. Billiter, T., Davison, R., Glover, C., Bullin, J., 1997a. Physical Properties of Asphalt-Rubber Binder. Petroleum Science and Technology 15 (3&4), pp. 205-236. Billiter, T., Davison, R., Glover, C., Bullin, J., 1997b. Production of Asphalt-Rubber Binders by High-Cure Conditions. Transportation Research Record 1586, TRB, pp. 50-56. Coomarasamy, A., Hesp, S., 1998. Performance of scrap tire rubber modified asphalt paving mixes. Rubber World, 218, 26. Giavarini, C., 1994. In Asphaltenes and Asphalt. Amsterdam, Vol. I. Gopal, V., Sebaaly, P., Epps, J., 2002. Effect of Crumb Rubber Particle Size and Content on the Low Temperature Rheological Properties of Binders. TRB Annual Meeting, Washington D.C. Jensen, W., Abdelrahman, M., 2006. Crumb Rubber in Performance-Graded Asphalt Binder. Nebraska Department of Roads, Final Report, SPR-01 (05) P585, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA. Lougheed, T., Papagiannakis, A., 1996. Viscosity Characteristics of Rubber-Modified Asphalt. J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 8, p. 153. Martinez, G., Caicedo, B., Celis, L., Gonzlez, D., 2006. Rheological Behaviour of Asphalt with Crumbed Rubber and other Modifiers. Asphalt Rubber 2006 Conference, Palm Springs, USA, pp. 863-884. Massucco, J., 1994. Asphalt Rubber a Federal Perspective. Third Materials Engineering Conference, New Materials and Methods of Repair, San Diego, p. 467. Neto, S., Farias, M., Pais, J., Pereira, P., Santos, L., 2003. Behavior of asphalt-rubber hot mixes obtained with high crumb rubber contents. Asphalt Rubber 2003 Conference, Brasilia, Brazil, December.

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Ould-Henia, M., Dumont, A.-G., 2006. Assessment of the Rheological Properties of Asphalt Rubber Binder and its Residual Phases. Asphalt Rubber 2006 Conference, Palm Springs, USA, p. 931-948. Rahman, M. M., 2004. Characterisation of Dry Process Crumb Rubber Modified Asphalt Mixtures. Thesis submitted to the University of Nottingham for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, University of Nottingham, School of Civil Engineering, UK. Shen, J., Amirkhanian, S., Xiao, F., Tang, B., 2009. Influence of surface area and size of crumb rubber on high temperature properties of crumb rubber modified binders. Constr Build Mater; 23(1), pp. 304-310. Stroup-Gardiner, M., Newcomb, D., Tanquist, B., 1993. Asphalt-Rubber Interactions. Transportation Research Record, Vol. 1417, p. 99. Way, G., 2003. The Rubber Pavements Association, Technical Advisory Board leading the way in Asphalt Rubber Research. Asphalt Rubber 2003 Conference, Brasilia, Brazil. Xiang, L., Cheng, J., Que, G., 2009. Microstructure and performance of crumb rubber modified asphalt. Constr Build Mater, 23(12), pp. 3586-3590.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

A Laboratory Study on the Fatigue Performance of Warm Mix Asphalt Mixtures

J. Oliveira, H. Silva & P. Pereira
University of Minho, Guimares, Portugal joliveira@civil.uminho.pt, hugo@civil.uminho.pt, ppereira@civil.uminho.pt

L. Moreno
Universidad Militar Nueva Granada, Bogot, Colombia luis.moreno@unimilitar.edu.co

ABSTRACT: Reducing fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions are two major challenges for society today. Different technologies have been developed in the last few years to reduce the production and application temperatures of bituminous mixtures. Those mixtures are known as Warm Mix Asphalts (WMA). The important benefits of WMAs, among which the reduction of emissions in their production and the reduction of the amount of fuel spent in the burners can be highlighted, have reinforced their growing development. In the application process, WMAs assure suitable workability for the lay-down and compaction operations at a lower temperature, when compared to conventional Hot Mix Asphalts (HMA) mixtures, making it possible to be transported throughout longer distances, extending the paving season, and allowing their application under less favorable conditions (lower air temperatures). However, the sustainability of WMAs during the road life cycle can only be obtained by optimizing the performance of the mixture. Thus, the objective of this work was to assess the fatigue performance of different WMA mixtures (produced with two commercial additives Sasobit and Cecabase and different bitumen types) and one HMA mixture, in order to evaluate the effect of those variables in the resistance of the mixtures to fatigue cracking. Therefore, the mix design was kept constant in terms of aggregate gradation and binder content. Since the additives are different in nature (one is a viscosity reducer and the other is a surfactant), different temperature reductions were achieved for each WMA using the same binder, when similar volumetric properties were sought. The results obtained with the present study allow concluding that it is possible to obtain WMA mixtures with a fatigue performance similar to that of HMA mixtures and that the use of softer binders together with the studied additives resulted in WMA mixtures with the best fatigue performance. KEY WORDS: Warm Mix Asphalts, Fatigue, Bitumen additives, Synthetic wax, Surfactants, Four-point bending tests. 1. INTRODUCTION Several technologies have been developed in the last few years to produce bituminous mixtures at a lower temperature. These mixtures are generally known as Warm Mix Asphalts (WMA) and are based on three different types of technologies (EAPA, 2007): (i) the use of
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additives to reduce the viscosity of the binder or to improve the workability of the mixture; (ii) the use of some form of water to produce foam or emulsified binders; (iii) the use of engineering processes to obtain an adequate coating of the aggregates at lower temperatures (i.e., double coating). The present study is based on the use of two binder additives (Sasobit and Cecabase) that can be introduced in the production process of bituminous mixtures without demanding any special modification of the asphalt plants. Sasobit is a Fischer-Tropsch (F-T) or synthetic wax that is created during the coal gasification process and that has been used as a compaction aid and a temperature reducer. The Sasobit process incorporates a low melting point organic additive that chemically changes the temperature-viscosity curve of the binder (Button et al., 2007). This additive melts at approximately 100 C and significantly reduces the viscosity of the base bitumen. It increases the asphalt resistance to deformation throughout the operating temperature range without affecting the low temperature properties of the mixture, which are determined by the characteristics of the base bitumen (Sasol, 2008). Sasobit is completely soluble in bitumen at temperatures above 115C. It forms a homogeneous solution with base bitumen on stirring reducing remarkably its viscosity. This also enables mixing and reducing by 10 to 30C the handling temperatures of the asphalt (Sasol Wax GmbH, 2004). According to Hurley and Prowell (2005), Sasobit has shown to improve the compactability of mixtures in both the shear gyratory compactor and vibratory compactor. Statistics indicated an overall reduction in air voids. Improved compaction was noted at temperatures as low as 190F (88C). Cecabase is an additive containing surface active agents that, when mixed with asphalt, allows a reduction on the road surface application temperature of about 50C with no effect on performance of the material. Compared to the classical paving process, the use of this additive reduces energy consumption by 20 to 50%, depending on the process, and considerably reduces dust emission (CECA, 2008). According to the producers, the incorporation of this additive in the production of bituminous mixtures (2 to 4 kg per tonne of asphalt binder) enables the application temperature to be reduced to 120C and, at the same time, it enables the WMA layer to retain the same properties as a classical layer with HMA produced at 160-180C.

2. PRELIMINARY STUDY ON THE USE OF THE ADDITIVES 2.1. Preliminary study for selection of additive content In this preliminary study, three asphalt binders were studied in order to evaluate the characteristics of WMA vs. HMA binders. One of those was a conventional 50/70 bitumen for HMA mixtures, typically used in Portuguese mixtures, while the other two were new WMA binders modified with the two mentioned commercial additives (a synthetic paraffin wax, Sasobit and a surfactant, Cecabase). For the selection of the optimum WMA additive content, six samples of modified binders were prepared in the laboratory for testing (penetration, softening point and dynamic viscosity). These samples comprised the addition of three percentages of each additive to the 50/70 grade bitumen. The amounts added to the conventional bitumens were 2, 3 and 4% wax and 0.2, 0.3 and 0.4% surfactant. The modified binders were obtained by mixing the bitumen with the additive for a period of five minutes at a temperature of 130C. Higher temperatures or mixing times could result in binder ageing. In order to classify the binders used in this study, a basic characterization was performed in accordance with the EN 12591 standard. This included the tests of penetration at 25C
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(following the EN 1426 standard) and of softening point (also known as Ring & Ball temperature, R&B, according to the EN 1427 standard). The results obtained for the paving grade bitumens and for those modified by the addition of a certain amount of additive are summarized in Figures 1 and 2.
Amount of surfactant (%) 0,2

0 80
Penetration 25C (dmm)

0,1

0,3

0,4

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 1 2 Amount of wax (%) 3 4 B50/70 Wax B50/70 Surf

Figure 1: Evolution of the penetration with the amount of WMA additive

Amount of surfactant (%) 0,2 0,3

0 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 0

0,1

0,4

Ring & Ball Temperature (C)

B50/70 Wax B50/70 Surf

2 Amount of wax (%)

Figure 2: Evolution of the softening point temperature with the amount of WMA additive The addition of up to 0.4% of surfactant to the original bitumen does not change its classification (penetration and R&B temperature is barely altered) while the addition of wax significantly modifies its properties (which can be classified as a hard binder type 35/50, thus changing the penetration grade). 2.2. Determination of production temperatures (compactability) Prior to the production of the mixtures, a mix design study was carried out using the Marshall method for the conventional mixture and it was observed that its characteristics were in conformity with the Portuguese specifications, and its optimum binder content was 5.0%.
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Therefore, the same binder content was used for the WMA mixture in order to compare the performance of mixtures with similar composition. After analysing the viscosity results of the 50/70 pen grade bitumen, the target production temperature of 160 C (defined by the EN 12697-35 standard) was selected for the conventional HMA mixture. Also based on the viscosity characterization of the binders modified with wax, it was observed that, in comparison with the 50/70 pen grade bitumen, the mixing temperature could be reduced by about 8 C. The viscosity test results obtained during the surfactant binder characterization were inconclusive. However, there are other factors influencing the compaction of bituminous mixtures, namely the surface tension between the binder and the aggregates which is reduced by the additive, allowing the reduction of the mixing temperature, nearly without changing the binder viscosity. Thus, the mixing temperatures of the WMA mixtures produced with both additives were mainly chosen by means of EN 12697-10 compactability tests, comparing the results with those of the HMA mixture (Figure 3). The control parameter was the voids content for the reference compaction energy. Three different temperatures were used for the WMAs in order to determine the one that would result in an air voids content closest to that of the HMA. For each set of mixture/temperature combination three specimens were produced and the average was calculated to account for some common variability.
15% HMA (160 C) WMA wax (150 C) WMA wax (140 C) WMA wax (130 C)
Reference compaction energy

15%

Air voids content

10%

Air voids content

10%

HMA (160 C) WMA Surf (140 C) WMA Surf (130 C) WMA Surf (120 C)

Reference compaction energy

5%

5%

0% 0 50 100 150 Number of blows 200

0% 0 50 100 150 Number of blows 200

Figure 3: Comparison between the compactability test results obtained for HMA and for WMA mixtures at different temperatures (Silva et al., 2010) The comparison between the voids content of the HMA control mixture and those of the WMA mixtures produced with wax, and compacted at different temperatures, allowed to conclude that it is possible to reduce the mixing temperature up to 20 C without varying the compactability of the mixture. However, taking into account the viscosity result presented in Section 4.1 (maximum reduction of 8 C), it was decided to reduce the mixing temperature by 15 C. Regarding the comparison between the voids content of the HMA control mixture and those of the WMA mixtures produced with surfactant, it was concluded that the mixing temperature can be reduced up to 30-35 C without varying significantly the compactability of the mixture (Silva et al., 2010). 3. COMPOSITION OF THE STUDIED MIXTURES Taking the results presented in Section 2 into consideration (case study 1), two more types of mixtures were studied. The objectives of the extension of this study were to assess the performance of mixtures produced with softer bitumens modified with the wax additive,
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which hardens the bitumen (case study 2), and of mixtures that are generally more difficult to produce due to the use of harder binders (case study 3). In the latter case, the surfactant was used to reduce the production and compaction temperatures. 3.1. Mixture produced with the wax modified binder For this case study, a high flexibility bituminous mixture AC 14 Surf (HFBM) that should be used in a surface course layer was evaluated. The binder used was a very soft 160/220 penetration grade bitumen modified with 6% wax. In order to compare the results of this mixture with a conventional HMA, a control mixture was also produced using a typical 50/70 pen bitumen. A preliminary study, similar to that presented in Section 2, was carried out to determine the temperature reduction, and it was concluded that the production temperature could be reduced by 30 C, without compromising the workability/compaction of the mixture, resulting in similar volumetric properties. 3.2. Mixtures produced with the surfactant modified binder Two more mixtures were studied using the surfactant additive to reduce their production temperature. These mixtures are an Asphalt Rubber (AR) mixture and a Hot Recycled Bituminous Mixture (HRBM) incorporating 50% of Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP). Due to the highly viscous binders that these mixtures use, their production temperatures (or at least the heating temperature of the virgin aggregates) have to be significantly higher than those of conventional mixtures. Based on the experience gained with the study presented in Section 2, it was decided to use 0.5% surfactant in both types of mixture and their behaviour was compared to that of control mixtures (without additive) produced at conventional temperatures. In this study a reduction of 40C was obtained in the heating temperature of the virgin aggregates used in the recycled mixture, while the production temperature of the AR mixture could be reduced by 30C. Both mixtures presented similar volumetric properties when comparing the control mixture with the WMA mixture. The binder content was kept constant within each type of mixture studied (HFBM, AR and HRBM), so that their fatigue performance would not be affected by the binder content. 4. STIFFNESS AND FATIGUE PERFORMANCE OF THE MIXTURES The stiffness and fatigue resistance tests were carried out at 20 C using a 4-point bending apparatus and a sinusoidal loading configuration. The results obtained for each of the three case studies are presented in the following sub-sections. 4.1. Case study 1 In terms of stiffness modulus, the three mixtures assessed in case study 1 presented values typical of conventional bituminous mixtures, although the WMAs slightly outperformed the conventional mixture (Figure 4), while the fatigue performance of the three mixtures was similar, as can be observed in Figure 5.

79

8000
Stiffness modulus (MPa)

7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 0,1

HMA WMA wax WMA surf

1 Frequency (Hz)

10

Figure 4: Stiffness modulus of HMA and WMA mixtures at 20 C

1000 WMA wax y = 4961,6x-0,227 R = 0,979

Microstrain

HMA y = 6947x-0,252 R = 0,9961

HMA WMA wax 100 1,0E+03 WMA surf 1,0E+04

WMA surf y = 5856,9x -0,245 R = 0,9902 1,0E+05 No of cycles 1,0E+06 1,0E+07

Figure 5: Fatigue cracking resistance of HMA and WMA mixtures at 20 C The results presented in Figures 4 and 5 confirm that it is possible to produce WMA mixtures without compromising their fatigue performance in comparison to HMA mixtures, provided that an adequate quality control is assured. 4.2. Case study 2 As for case study 2, the bituminous mixtures studied presented different performance due to the influence of the soft bitumen used in the WMA mixture. On the one hand, as can be observed in Figure 6, the stiffness modulus obtained is below that of the control mixture. On the other hand, the fatigue performance of the WMA mixture is far superior to that of the HMA mixture (Figure 7).

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9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 0.1

Stiffness modulus (MPa)

HFBM (HMA 50/70) HFBM (WMA 160/220+6%wax)

1 Frequency (Hz)

10

Figure 6: Stiffness modulus of HFBM (HMA and WMA) mixtures at 20 C Based on the results obtained in this case study, it can be concluded that the paraffin wax additive has a stiffening effect on the mixtures. However, since a softer bitumen was used, the effect of the additive is not so significant, and thus the stiffness modulus of the WMA was lower than that of the corresponding HMA.
500.0 HFBM WMA y = 2969.8x-0.202 R = 0.9125 HFBM HMA y = 2722.7x-0.237 R = 0.9883

Microstrain

HFBM (HMA - 50/70) HFBM (WMA - 160/220+6%additive) 50.0 1.0E+03 1.0E+04 1.0E+05 1.0E+06 1.0E+07

Number of cycles

Figure 7: Fatigue cracking resistance of HFMA (HMA and WMA) mixtures at 20 C 4.3. Case study 3 In the third case study, the surfactant additive barely affected the stiffness modulus and the fatigue performance of the studied mixtures, as can be observed in Figures 8 and 9. The differences observed between the two types of mixture are mainly due to the different binder content used (the binder content of the AR is almost the double of the HRBM).

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10000 9000

HRBM AR

HRBM-WMA AR-WMA

Stiffness modulus (MPa)

8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 0.1

10

Frequency (Hz)

Figure 8: Stiffness modulus of AR and HRBM (HMA and WMA) mixtures at 20 C

1000

Microstrain

HRBM y = 2131.1x-0.189 R = 0.962

AR-WMA y = 2676.7x-0.173 R = 0.834 AR y = 2334x-0.162 R = 0.9168

HRBM HRBM-WMA AR AR-WMA

HRBM-WMA y = 1505.6x-0.16 R = 0.9015

100

1.0E+03

1.0E+04

1.0E+05

1.0E+06

1.0E+07

No. of cycles

Figure 9: Fatigue cracking resistance of AR and HRBM (HMA and WMA) mixtures at 20 C The use of the additive resulted in very small differences in the fatigue resistance of both mixtures, which confirms the possibility of producing these types of mixtures at lower temperatures maintaining an adequate fatigue performance. 5. CONCLUSIONS The main conclusions that can be drawn from this study are as follows: - In case study 1, it was confirmed that, by using 4% of wax and 0.3% of surfactant to modify the 50/70 pen bitumen, the mixing temperatures could be reduced by 15 and 35 C, respectively, without compromising the laboratory fatigue performance of the studied mixtures; - the use of paraffin wax additives in softer base bitumens is a very good solution to maximise the reduction of the production temperatures of WMA mixtures; in case study 2, it was possible to reduce the temperature of the HFBM-WMA mixture by 30 C and the fatigue
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performance of the mixture was significantly improved; as for the stiffness modulus, the results obtained for the WMA are lower than those of the control mixture due to the softer 160/220 pen bitumen used; - it is possible to reduce the temperature of the virgin aggregates (in the recycled mixtures) by 40 C and of the production temperature of the asphalt rubber mixtures by 30 C, without compromising the stiffness and fatigue performance of the final mixtures, when using a surfactant additive, as in case study 3. REFERENCES Button, J. W., Estakhri, C. and Wimsatt, A., 2007. A Synthesis of Warm-Mix Asphalt. Texas Transportation Institute and Federal Highway Administration, Report 0-5597-1. Texas. CECA 2008. Green Road Formulation - Warm Mix Asphalt - Cecabase RT. Ceca, Arkema Group. <http://www.cecachemicals.com/sites/ceca/en/business/bitumen_additives/warm_c oated_material/warm_coated_material.page> (Accessed on 4Mar10). EAPA, 2007. Environmental Guidelines on Best Available Techniques (BAT) for the Production of Asphalt Paving Mixes. European Asphalt Pavement Association, Brussels, Belgium. Hurley, G. C. and Prowell, B. D., 2005. Evaluation of Sasobit for use in Warm Mix Asphalt. National Center for Asphalt Technology, Auburn University, NCAT Report 05-06. Auburn. Sasol Wax GmbH, 2004. The Bitumen Additive for Highly Stable Easily Compactible Asphalts. Sasobit Product Information 124. Sasol Wax GmbH. Hamburg. Sasol, 2008. Sasobit Technology. Sasol Wax. <http://www.sasolwax.com/en/Applications/Bit umen+Modification/Europe/Sasobit+Technology.html > (Accessed on 4Mar10). Silva, H. M. R. D., Oliveira, J. R. M., Ferreira, C. I. G., Pereira, P. A. A., 2010. Assessment of the Performance of Warm Mix Asphalts in Road Pavements. International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology, Vol. 3 (3), pp. 119-127.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Laboratory Results Obtained On New Asphalt Mixtures With Polymer Modified Bitumen
C. Rcnel, A. Burlacu & C. Surlea
Technical University of Civil Engineering of Bucharest, Roads and Railways Department, Romania carmen@cfdp.utcb.ro; aburlacu@cfdp.utcb.ro; claudia@cfdp.utcb.ro

ABSTRACT: As well known, adding the polymer in bitumen leads to decrease of penetration, increase of softening point and improving of elasticity and Fraass breaking point. The polymer modified bitumen (PMB) provides certain qualities for asphalt mixture containing PMB: elastic properties at elevated temperature, thermal cracking resistance, fatigue cracking resistance as well as long term durability. Considering the improvement that PMB brings into asphalt mixture behavior, in heavy traffic conditions and unfavorable climate conditions, necessitates the imposing of PMB using in asphalt mixture layers (wearing and binder course). The goal of this paper is to emphasize the contribution of PMB (bitumen modified with elastomers designed to has a very good storing stability and a special elasticity and plasticity grade) concerning to specific laboratory tests performed on asphalt mixtures with and without fibers (high modulus asphalt mixture and stone mastic asphalt). Thus, the conclusions obtained from asphalt mixture behavior results at creep and fatigue according to European norms are presented like influence graphs. KEY WORDS: Asphalt Mixture, Polymer Modified Bitumen, Creep, Fatigue, Stiffness. 1. INTRODUCTION The asphalt binder for pavement structure is a material with viscoelastic properties that presents elastic deformation and viscous flow, too. The behaviour of this material strongly depends on temperature, time of loading and stress and strain level. Thus, the bitumen is like a solid at low temperatures and small loading time while at high temperatures and large loading time has a viscous behaviour. His viscoelastic properties are transmitted to asphalt mixture that contains this bitumen; the asphalt mixture must assure satisfying mechanical properties in traffic and climate conditions. The asphalt mixture must be flexible sufficient at low temperature to prevent cracking and rigid sufficient at high temperature to prevent rutting. To improve certain characteristics of bituminous binders it is recommended to use polymers. As well known, adding polymer to the bitumen leads to a decrease of penetration, increase of softening point and improving of elasticity and Fraass breaking point. The polymermodified bitumen (PMB) provides certain qualities for asphalt mixture containing PMB: elastic properties at elevated temperature, thermal cracking resistance, fatigue cracking resistance as well as long-term durability.

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The necessity of using polymer-modified binder (PmB) in asphalt courses appears as a response for the increasing traffic volume and axle loads, overlapped with our country climate: cold winters with abundant precipitations and hot summers with poor precipitations. 2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVE The goal of this paper is to test new polymer-modified bitumen that is recommended for asphalt mixtures application on airfields. Effective binder specification should be based on a mixture behavior scale. The benefits of using the new polymer-asphalt mixture result by comparison with other asphalt mixtures in loading conditions referring to the main distress that can be occurred in a flexible pavement: fatigue and rutting. Beside this, the test for resistance to fuel is made, taking into account the use on aprons of airports. This study was carried out in Roads Laboratory of Faculty of Railways, Roads and Bridges (Technical University of Civil Engineering of Bucharest). 2. MATERIALS AND ASPHALT MIXTURE RECIPES In order to achieve the goal, two asphalt mixtures for wearing course were chosen: high modulus asphalt mixture (MAMR16) and stone mastic asphalt (MASF16) with four types of binders, noted from A to D. The both asphalt mixtures were designed in accordance to national and European norms with D type of bitumen. Three bitumen (A, B and D) are polymer-modified binders and one (C) is an original one, using as a base for D type of bitumen. The A, B and C types of bitumen have similar penetration class. The A type of bitumen is the one recommended for airfield application. The materials (aggregates, fiber and bitumen) used to prepare the asphalt mixtures and the asphalt mixtures recipes are presented in Table 1 and 2. Table 1: The used asphalt mixtures materials and the recipes of the used asphalt mixtures Asphalt Mixture Source Crushed Rock Filler /type 8/16 4/8 0/4 and % Limestone Source Holcim Revrsarea /type % MASF16 35 29 25 Fiber Bitumen by Mixture by Mixture A: 45/85-FR PMB B: 45/85-65 PMB C: 50/70 D: 25/55-65 PMB 11 4.12 A: 45/85-FR PMB Limestone B: 45/85-65 PMB Topcel Holcim C: 50/70 D: 25/55-65 PMB 11 0.3 5.7

MAMR16

Source Turcoaia /type % 45 25 13

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Table 2: Bitumen properties Properties Penetration at 25oC (0.1mm) Ring and ball soft point ( C) Ductility at 25oC, cm
o

Bitumen A (Pmb) 49 90 92

Bitumen B Bitumen C (Pmb) 68 83 92 64 51 >100

Bitumen D (Pmb) 35 81 95

3. LABORATORY TESTS AND TESTING CONDITIONS To have mixtures characterization against the main distress can occur in situ (rutting and fatigue) the following test will be considered: - Triaxial Cyclic Compression test on cylindrical samples according to SR EN 12697-25 test method B: 50oC test temperature, 300kPa axial load, 1 bar confining pressure, 1s/1s frequency (block pulse); - Four Point Bending test on prismatic samples, according to SR EN 12697-26 Annex B, for stiffness modulus: 20oC test temperature, 8Hz frequency, = 50 def; - Four Point Bending test on prismatic samples, according to SR EN 12697-24 Annex D, for fatigue: 20oC test temperature, 30Hz frequency, = 300 def. Test conditions were selected according to European standards and according to previous experience with these asphalt mixture. For example, it was choosen an imposed deformation of 300 def to obtain a fatigue life between 104 and 2x106 cycles. To evaluate the fuel resistance of asphalt mixtures (on cylindrical samples), the test according to SR EN 12697-43 was considered. The bulk density of samples was equal to 2370 Kg/m3 for MASF16 asphalt mixture and 2550 Kg/m3 for MAMR16 asphalt mixture. 4. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS Following the laboratory studies it has achieved experimental results plotted in figures 1 11 and presented in tables 1 - 6. According to type of binder, it can be highlight the following: a) values of cumulative axial strain (figure 1 and 2, table 2 and 3) and creep modulus (figure 3 and 4, table 2) for creep behaviour;
14000 12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 Number of load applications MAMR16-A MAMR16-B MAMR16-C MAMR16-D

Cumulative axial strain, microdef

Figure 1: Creep curves for MAMR16 asphalt mixtures

87

18000 Cumulative axial strain, microdef 16000 14000 12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 Number of load applications MASF16-A MASF16-B MASF16-C MASF16-D

Figure 2: Creep curves for MASF16 asphalt mixtures

1200 Creep Modulus, kPa 1000 800 600 400 200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 Number of load applications MAMR16-A MAMR16-B MAMR16-C MAMR16-D

Figure 3: Creep modulus values for MAMR16 asphalt mixtures

1400 1200 Creep modulus, kPa 1000 800 600 400 200 0 0 500 1000 1500 Number of load applications MASF16-A MASF16-B MASF16-C MASF16-D 2000 2500 3000

Figure 4: Creep modulus values for MASF16 asphalt mixtures

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Table 2: Creep results, method I and creep modulus values Type of Mixture Parameters of equation on (quasi) linear stage II Method I (n=A1+B1n) A1 B1 6260.4 0.0208 9252.7 0.0349 11307 0.0615 5895.1 0.0333 5882.5 0.0425 5951.7 0.0386 12837 0.2835 5129.1 0.0478 Creep modulus, En=/n, kPa initial 741 518 418 1227 1025 961 512 1243 1000 503 348 291 579 558 527 266 649 10000 464 313 252 482 476 474 192 536

Creep rate fc=B1 0.0208 0.0349 0.0615 0.0333 0.0425 0.0386 0.2835 0.0478

MAMR16-A MAMR16-B MAMR16-C MAMR16-D MASF16-A MASF16-B MASF16-C MASF16-D

Table 3: Creep results, method II Parameters of Equation on (quasi) Linear Stage II Method II (logn=logA+Blogn) A B 5188 0.0239 7497.22 0.0268 8357.95 0.038 4314.2 0.0397 3955.49 0.0505 4167.73 0.0454 4339.1 0.139 3096.71 0.0643

Type of Mixture

Calculated Permanent Deformation 1000: 1000,calc=A1000B 6119 9022 10867 5675 5607 5703 11334 4828

Calculated Permanent Deformation 10000: 10000,calc=A10000B 6465 9596 11860 6219 6298 6331 15610 5599

MAMR16-A MAMR16-B MAMR16-C MAMR16-D MASF16-A MASF16-B MASF16-C MASF16-D

b) values of stiffness modulus (table 4); Table 4: Stiffness modulus values Type of Mixture MAMR16-A MAMR16-B MAMR16-C MAMR16-D MASF16-A MASF16-B MASF16-C MASF16-D Stiffness Modulus, MPa 8800 6700 11200 9300 5100 4700 9100 9400
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c) resistance to fatigue (number of cycles to fatigue table 5), evolution of stiffness modulus (figure 5 and 6), Cole-Cole and Black diagrams (figure 7, 8, 9 and 10) for fatigue behaviour; Table 5: Fatigue results Type of Mixture MAMR16-A MAMR16-B MAMR16-C MASF16-A MASF16-B MASF16-C Number of Cycles to Failure 311000 238500 12000 224500 163000 6600 Stiffness Modulus, MPa initial final 4572 2439 4373 2371 9753 5135 7202 3637 5462 2792 12485 6288 Phase Angle, o initial final 20 30 20 36 12 25 13 29 20 31 12 25

14000

12000 Stiffness Modulus, MPa

10000

8000

6000

4000

2000 100

20100

40100

60100

80100

100100 120100 140100 160100 180100 200100 220100 240100 Number of Cycles to Fatigue

MAMR16-A

MAMR16-B

MAMR16-C

Figure 5: Fatigue results: stiffness modulus versus number of cycles for MAMR16 asphalt mixtures
10000 9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 100

Stiffness Modulus, MPa

50100

100100

150100

200100

250100

300100

350100

Number of Cycles to Fatigue MASF16-A MASF16-B MASF16-C

Figure 6: Fatigue results: stiffness modulus versus number of cycles for MASF16 asphalt mixtures
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4000 3500 3000 Viscous Modulus, MPa 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 5000 Elastic Modulus, MPa MAMR16-A MAMR16-B MAMR16-C 10000

Figure 7: Fatigue results: Cole-Cole diagram for MAMR16 asphalt mixtures

90 80 70 60 Phase Angle,
o

50 40 30 20 10 0 1000 Log (Stiffness Modulus), MPa MAMAR16-A MAMR16-B MAMR16-C

10000

Figure 8: Fatigue results: Black diagram for MAMR16 asphalt mixtures

91

4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 5000 Elastic Modulus, MPa MASF16-A MASF16-B MASF16-C 10000

Viscous Modulus, MPa

Figure 9: Fatigue results: Cole-Cole diagram for MASF asphalt mixtures

90 80 70 60 Phase Angle,
o

50 40 30 20 10 0 1000 Log (Stiffness Modulus), MPa MASF16-A MASF16-B MASF16-C

10000

Figure 10: Fatigue results: Black diagram for MASF16 asphalt mixtures d) resistance to fuel (table 6, figure 11). Table 6: Resistance to fuel results Type of Mixture MAMR16-A MAMR16-B MAMR16-C MASF16-A MASF16-B MASF16-C Mass Loss after 24 hours, % 4.83 8.67 10.37 4.75 6.35 8.76
92

Mass Loss after 72 hours, % 7.55 10.25 7.4 8.38 -

Figure 11: Asphalt mixture samples after 24 hours and 72 hours in kerosene 4. CONCLUSIONS The conclusions that result from this study are the following: - aggregate type and gradation as well as bitumen type can have significant influence on rutting and fatigue; the same conclusion for resistance to fuel; - referring to resistance to permanent deformation of the studied mixtures: by interpreting the creep curve result the creep rate (fc), the creep modulus (En), the calculated permanent deformation after 1000 and 10000 cycles (1000 calc, 10000 calc) and the slope from the least square linear fit (B parameter): o Creep rate rise for MAMR16 asphalt mixture with 40% for passing from polymer modified binder (PmB) A recommended for airports to polymer modified binders (PmB) B and D and with 65% for passing from polymer modified binder (PmB) A to original bitumen, C; for MASF16 asphalt mixture, percent are modified: result a loss of 10% in case of passing from polymer modified binder PmB A to binder PmB B, a loss of 85% in case of passing from bitumen PmB A to original bitumen C and a loss of 11% in case of passing from bitumen PmB A to bitumen PmB D; o Creep modulus value rise with increasing of bitumen rigidity (average 25% for mixture with bitumen PmB A for airports comparatively with mixture with bitumen PmB B and with 90% for mixture with bitumen PmB A comparatively with mixture with original bitumen C) and decreases with increasing of number of applied loads, according with bitumen type and mixture recipe (average 2.5 times for MASF16 and 1.6 times for MAMR16, exception MAMR16 with bitumen D for which the loss is 2.5 times, similar with MASF16); o Permanent deformation calculated after 1000 cycles and after 10000 cycles decrease with increasing of bitumen hardening; mixture with bitumen PmB A has a better behavior at permanent deformations comparatively with mixture with bitumen PmB B: values for 1000,calc and 10000,calc are with 30% smaller in case of MAMR16 mixture and with 2% smaller in case of MASF16 mixture a bigger influence of bitumen proposed for airports (A) on high modulus mixture comparatively with mixture with fibers; instead, the contribution of modified bitumen A it can be seen in case of comparing with original bitumen C: loss of deformation with 50% average in case of using of bitumen PmB A; - referring to asphalt mixtures stiffness: as it knows asphalt mixture with original bitumen presents higher stiffness the asphalt mixture with modified bitumen; yet, bitumen PmB A
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gives, comparatively with bitumen PmB B, to asphalt mixture, stiffness with 8 % (MASF16) to 25% (MAMR16) higher based on granularity used; - referring to asphalt mixtures fatigue: even stiffness is bigger in case of using of original bitumen, fatigue life is high superior in case of using modified bitumen with polymer; result, no matter mixture, a bigger fatigue life with 25% in case of bitumen PmB A from bitumen PmB B and with 96% in case of bitumen PmB A from original bitumen C; phase angle which point out elastic / viscous character of asphalt mixture has values between less then 20o in initial phase and 30o at the end of test; - refering to asphalt mixtures fuel resistance: it can be seen a good resistance fuel action in case of bitumen PmB A, after 24 hours in kerosen, but, unfortunately a weak resistance at 72 hours in kerosen (mass lossing > 5%); it is possibil that asphalt mixture recipe to influence this resistence and, for the future, it envisages repetition of test with other types of asphalt mixture. Generally, asphalt mixtures with PmB A recommended for using in wearing course for asphalt pavements apron in airports have o good behaviour to main distress (fatigue and permanent deformation) but not a good resistance to fuel. Many tests must be performed in future to demonstrate the benefits of this kind of binders (PmB A) to airfield application. REFERENCES LCPC Bituminous Mixtures Design Guide. (2007) Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chaussees, Reseau Scientifique et Technique de lEquipement. SR EN 12697/24 -2005. Bituminous mixtures Test methods for hot mix asphalt Part 24: Resistance to fatigue. SR EN 12697/25 -2005. Bituminous mixtures Test methods for hot mix asphalt Part 25: Cyclic compresion test. SR EN 12697/26 -2005. Bituminous mixtures Test methods for hot mix asphalt Part 26: Stiffness. SR EN 12697/43 -2005. Bituminous mixtures Test methods for hot mix asphalt Part 43: Resistance to fuel. SR EN 13108/1 -2005. Bituminous mixtures Material specifications Part 1: Asphalt Concrete SR EN 13108/20 -2005. Bituminous mixtures Material specifications Part 20: Type testing. SR 174-2002. Road works.Hot bituminous rolled pavements. Quality requirements. NF P98-141 Enrob hydrocarbons Couches de roulement et couches de liaison: btons bitumineux module lev.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Use of Tire Rubber to Improve Fatigue Performance of Asphalt Mixtures

L. P. Thives & G. Trichs
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Santa Catarina, Santa Catarina, Brazil liseanethives@gmail.com; ecv1gri@ecv.ufsc.br

P. Pereira & J. Pais

Department of Civil Engineering, University of Minho, Portugal ppereira@civil.uminho.pt; jpais@civil.uminho.pt

ABSTRACT: The accelerated failure of pavements is one of the main problems in Brazilian roads resulting from fatigue cracking due to the repeated application of traffic induced stresses. The incorporation of crumb rubber from waste tires in asphalt, named asphalt rubber, is a method which has been used in several countries to improve the properties of asphalt pavement mixtures and, at the same time, has been a ecologically alternative to deal with the proper disposal of waste tires. This paper describes the results obtained from a laboratory investigation that was undertaken to evaluate the fatigue performance of asphalt rubber mixtures produced by using the wet process with asphalt rubber binder from the continuous and terminal blend. The results were compared to the ones obtained from a reference mixture produced with conventional asphalt typically used in pavement rehabilitation. The laboratory performance of these mixtures was evaluated in terms of fatigue through four-point bending fatigue test. The dynamic mechanical properties, namely the stiffness modulus and fatigue resistance of rectangular beam specimens were evaluated for both types of mixture. The results showed that the asphalt rubber mixtures produced with Brazilian materials and asphalt rubber from the terminal blend system presented the largest fatigue in comparison with the typical mixtures used for pavement rehabilitation. This research allowed defining alternative mixtures which may improve the performance of Brazilian pavements. Correlations between fatigue performance and asphalt rubber characterization in terms of penetration, softening point, resilience and apparent viscosity, were established indicating that the fatigue performance can be predicted through the softening point of the binder. KEY WORDS: Asphalt Rubber; Wet process; Fatigue. 1. INTRODUCTION As in other developed countries in the world, Brazil has to deal not only with problems caused by roads subject to failure, but also with waste tires disposal. The main distress observed in Brazilians roads is the fatigue cracking, which results from the repeated application of traffic induced stresses. The incorporation of crumb rubber from waste tires in asphalt, named asphalt rubber, has been used in several countries around the world to improve

95

the properties of the asphalt mixtures being at the same time an ecological alternative to reuse waste tires. The major transportation mode for people and goods in Brazil is based on roads due to the fact that distances can range up to 4000 km. However, the quality of most roads is poor and a significant part of the Brazilian highways lack adequate driving conditions. Therefore pavements need new materials which may support high loads and a considerable traffic volume without reaching premature failure. In Brazil, one of the methods to solve the problem of waste tires is to grind them and incorporate them into asphalt to produce the asphalt rubber that is used in high performance asphalt mixtures. The use of recycled tire rubber in asphalt may be carried out through Wet process, which consists of dissolving crumb rubber in the asphalt as a binder modifier. In this study, four asphalt rubber mixtures were evaluated through fatigue tests (flexural four point bending). A conventional mixture was tested to be used as a reference mixture. Two aggregate gradations were chosen: a gap graded for asphalt rubber mixtures; a dense graded for the conventional mixture. In order to produce asphalt rubber, the conventional asphalt used in the conventional mixture was a 50/70 pen asphalt, which is the most common category applied in asphalt pavement mixtures in the South of Brazil. The asphalt rubbers were produced by the continuous blend process (prepared in laboratory) and the terminal blend process (made in a refinery). 2. FATIGUE APROACH Asphalt mixtures in road pavements are subjected to a short term load each time a vehicle passes. This causes micro damages that result in a loss of rigidity of the material, what may lead, in the long term, to failure (Di Benedetto et al., 2003). Under the action of repeated vehicular loading, deterioration of the asphalt concrete materials in pavements, caused by the accumulation and growth of micro and macro cracks, gradually takes place (Suo & Wongl, 2009). Thus, fatigue cracking is one of the major modes of distress in flexible pavements along with rutting and thermal cracking. Fatigue is a significant distress as fatigue cracking propagates through the entire asphalt mixture layer, which then allows water infiltration into the unbound layers (Priest, 2005). This causes accelerated surface and structural deterioration as well as pumping of the unbound materials and rutting. The model definition of fatigue theory states that fatigue cracking initiates at the bottom of the flexible layer due to repeated and excessive loading and that it is associated with the tensile strains at the bottom of the asphalt mixture layer (Romero et al., 2000). In spite of the fact that fatigue cracking involves tensile failure at stress or strain levels lesser than the static strength of the material, the asphalt mixture stiffness, temperature variations and loading frequency need to be taken into account in pavement design. Fatigue cracking is the primary pavement distress at intermediate service temperatures (Roberts et al., 1996). Pavement fatigue cracking is considered a strain controlled distress in thin pavement layers (up to 5 cm thick) because deformations in the asphalt layers are typically the result of a poor subsurface layer support and not so much of the effect of decreases in pavement stiffness (Huang, 1993). Pavement fatigue cracking is considered a stress-controlled distress in thick pavement layers (greater than 15 cm), as the pavement is the main load-carrying constituent. A combination of both stress controlled and strain controlled distresses exists with intermediate thickness asphalt mixture pavements.

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3. LABORATORY STIFFNESS MODULUS AND FATIGUE TEST In the laboratory, fatigue life is typically assessed by repeated load bending tests. The configuration employed in this study to evaluate the fatigue resistance of the mixtures was the four-point bending test in controlled strain, presented in Figure 1. Flexural fatigue tests were conducted according to the AASHTO TP 8-94 (Standard Test Method for Determining the Fatigue Life of Compacted HMA Subjected to Repeated Flexural Bending). A servo electric hydraulic controlled testing system equipped with an automatic data measuring system applied the sinusoidal input strain waveform. Loading data were measured through the load cell and flexural deflections were recorded through a single linear differential variable transducer (LVDT) attached to the centre of the specimen. During the test, load and flexural deformation data were captured electronically every 0.002 s. Actual loading of the specimen was transmitted by the bending beam device, to which the beam specimen was firmly clamped. The bending beam fatigue test consists of applying a repeated constant vertical strain to a beam specimen in flexural tension mode until failure or up to a specified number of load cycles. In this study, the test was performed in strain controlled mode of loading applying a input strain sinusoidal waveform at a frequency of 10 Hz without any rest period.

Figure 1: Fatigue test equipment (Axial Testing System and Flexural Beam Device) 3.1. Stiffness modulus test The frequency sweep test measures the stiffness (dynamic modulus) and the phase angle of a mixture when subjected to different loading frequencies. This test was performed in the same beam used for the fatigue test prior the fatigue test. All frequency sweep tests of this study were executed at a strain level of 100 microstrains, at seven frequencies: 10, 5, 2, 1, 0.5, 0.2, 0.1 Hz and at the test temperature of 20 C. To minimize the damage of the beam, only 100 cycles were applied for the first three frequencies and 10 cycles for the last four ones. Prior to testing, the specimens were placed in the environmental chamber for 2 hours at the test temperature. 3.2. Fatigue test The simple flexural four-point test followed AASHTO TP8/94. In this test, samples of asphalt mixtures were cut in to beams with the following dimensions: 50 mm x 63 mm x 380 mm. The test was conducted at three strain levels of approximately 200, 400 and 800 microstrains, consistent with the AASHTO TP8-94 test protocol, in a controlled chamber at a temperature of 200.5 C. The specimens were previously conditioned for 2 hours.
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Failure criteria are defined as the point at which the specimen flexural stiffness is reduced to 50% of the initial flexural stiffness (Di Benedetto et al., 2003). This initial stiffness is generally defined as the specimen flexural stiffness measured at the 100th load cycle. The selected AASHTO TP8/94 standard used in this study utilizes the flexural bending beam fatigue test (four-point loading) and considers bottom-up cracking to determine an empirical fatigue relationship of the simple power form (Monismith et al., 1971) shown as: N = a(1/t)b (1)

where: N = number of repetitions until failure; t = tensile strain applied; a and b = experimentally determined coefficients. The design strain at which the pavement fatigue life must be estimated using the empirical fatigue relationship developed based on laboratory test results is often computed using a simple multilayer elastic theory. 4. ASPHALT RUBBER One of the main problems, that mankind faces this century, is related that waste tires disposal management. In the world, large amounts of rubber are used in tires for airplanes, trucks and cars. Crumb rubber modifier (CRM), is the denomination given to the material derived from reducing waste tires into uniform rubber granules. For road pavement applications the particles are normally finer than 4.75 mm (sieve n 4). The application of crumb rubber in asphalt mixtures intend to improve the properties of asphalt by reducing the binders inherent temperature susceptibility. During the interaction with asphalt, the crumb rubber particles absorb a portion of the oils in asphalt and the particles swell; therefore increasing the viscosity and stiffness of the asphalt rubber (Lee et al., 2008). Processing waste tires into CRM can be accomplished through two main types of grinding: ambient (at ambient temperature) and cryogenic (uses liquid nitrogen). There are two main processes for applying CRM into asphalt mixtures: the dry and the wet process. In the dry process, crumb rubber is added to the aggregate, as a fine aggregate, before the asphalt binder is added to the mixture. In the wet process, asphalt cement is pre-blended with the rubber at high temperatures (177 to 210 C) and under specific blending conditions. The final product is called asphalt rubber, which sees its binder properties improved by the addition of the rubber (Heitzman, 1992). The blending methods in the wet process are commonly divided into two systems: continuous blend that describes those wet process technologies that include a continuous production system and, terminal blend, produced by blending crumb rubber and other additives with asphalt at the asphalt terminal. Nowadays, in Brazil, the terminal blend asphalt rubbers are produced, manly with two rubber concentrations, 15 and 20%. 5. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 5.1. Properties of the aggregates The aggregates used in this study included a crushed coarse aggregate (granite), crushed fine aggregate (granite) and mineral filler (limestone) that come from the north of Portugal, with the following gradations: grade 1 with particles from 6 to 12 mm; grade 2 with particles from 4 to 10 mm and grade 3 with particles 4 mm. Material properties for the coarse and fine

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aggregates, listed in Tables 1 and 2, respectively, indicate that the aggregate meets the specification consistent with the test methods. Table 1: Coarse aggregate properties Test Particle shape (flat) Particle shape (elongated) Particle shape (flat) Particle shape (elongated) Los Angeles Water absorption Water absorption Specific gravity Specific gravity Standard BS 812 BS 812 BS 812 BS 812 ASTM C 131 NP 581 NP 581 NP 581 NP 581 Aggregate 6/12 mm 6/12 mm 4/10 mm 4/10 mm 6/12 mm 6/12 mm 4/10 mm 6/12 mm 4/10 mm Test results 23% 17% 21% 19% 24% 0.88% 1.24% 2.66% 2.65%

Table 2: Fine aggregate properties Test Methylene Blue Test Sand Equivalent Test Water absorption Specific gravity Standard EN 933-9 EN 933-8 NP 954 NP 954 Test results 0.02% 60% 0.41% 2.61%

5.2. Properties of the asphalts A Brazilian graded asphalt cement 50/70 pen asphalt was used in this study. This asphalt was used as a base to produce the asphalt rubber through the two systems: terminal and continuous blend. The crumb rubber from waste tires used to produce both asphalts rubber in this study was obtained from ambient grinding. The rubber gradation was tested in accordance with the requirements of ASTM C136, amended by the Greenbook recommendations (Greenbook, 2000). The rubber used followed the ADOT requirements type B (ADOT, 2005). Figure 2 shows the gradation of the ambient crumb rubber.

Figure 2: Gradation of ambient rubber The terminal blend asphalt rubbers (TB) were used in two rubber concentrations, 15% and 20%, and were supplied by a Brazilian provider. The continuous blend asphalt rubber (CB), which was produced in laboratory, was optimized in terms of: % of crumb rubber; digestion
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time; digestion temperature. The results of the enhanced blend were: 17% rubber content by weight; 90 minutes of digestion time; 180 C digestion temperature. The laboratory characterization of the asphalt materials was carried out based on conventional tests, such as penetration, softening point, viscosity and aging (RTFOT Rolling Thin Film Oven Test). The resilience test, usually related to modified asphalts, was also undertaken. The test results, which represent mean values of at least three asphalt rubber samples, are shown in Table 3. Table 3: Properties of asphalts rubber Test Standard Specification ASTM D 5 Penetration 25C, 100g, 5s (0,1 mm) 25 to 75 ASTM D 36 Softening Point ring and ball (C) 54.4 min Apparent viscosity (cP) at 175C ASTM D 2196 1500 min ASTM D 5329 Resilience (%) 20 RTFOT 163C, 85 minutes Change in mass (% de mass) max 0.6 Change in softening point (C) Penetration 25 C, 100g, 5s (0,1 mm) ASTM D 2872 Retained penetration (%) Apparent viscosity (cp) a 175 C Resilience (%) TB (20%) TB (15%) CB (17%) 40 42 26 68.0 67.7 65.0 2178 1644 2829 28 33 49 0.3 1.0 28.8 72.0 5350 39 0.3 2.9 25.3 60.2 1962 36 0.3 8.5 18.5 71.1 4800 46

5.3. Mixture gradation and design In order to compose the mixtures, graded and gap graded were used. The conventional mixture (CON) was designed following the Brazilian specification grade C, DNIT-ES 031/2006 (Brazilian Department of Transport Infrastructures), using conventional 50/70 asphalt. The aggregate grain distribution produces a dense graded asphalt mixture usually applied in Brazilian flexible pavements. The asphalt rubber mixtures were produced using either dense or gap gradations. The gap graded mixture used was the Caltrans ARHM-GG mixture (Asphalt Rubber Hot Mixture Gap Graded), designed according to the Caltrans Standard Special Provisions, SSP 39 400. The dense graded mixture produced with asphalt rubber was specified in accordance with the Asphalt Institute (AI), mix type IV. Figure 3 shows the gradation curves of these mixtures. The Caltrans (C) gap graded mixtures were produced with both asphalt rubbers as follows: continuous blend asphalt rubber (mixture CCB) and terminal blend asphalt rubber with 20% of crumb rubber (mixture CTB). The Asphalt Institute (A) dense graded mixtures were produced using continuous blend asphalt rubber (mixture ACB) and terminal blend asphalt rubber with 15% of crumb rubber (mixture ATB). The Marshall design procedure was used to determine the optimum asphalt content of the asphalt mixtures. Table 4 presents the mix design properties for the mixtures. The production of the samples of asphalt mixtures involved the following steps: i) aggregate and asphalt heating; ii) asphalt-aggregate mixing, iii) compacting and sawing of the mixture. In this study, the mixtures were compacted in slabs through the repeated passage of a vibrating cylinder over the asphalt mixture to obtain/reach the apparent density of the asphalt hot mixes defined in the design. Then, the slabs were sawed to produce prismatic specimens (50 mm x 63 mm x 380 mm) for stiffness and fatigue tests.

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100 90 80 70

% Passing

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0.01 0.1 1 10 100

Caltrans DNIT AI

Sieves (mm)

Figure 3: Gradation curves of the mixtures Table 4: Marshall mixture design

Mixture Air voids (%) Optimum binder content (%) CON 5.0 5.5 CCB 6.0 9.0 CTB 6.0 8.5 ACB 5.0 8.0 ATB 6.0 7.0

5.4. Dynamic modulus and fatigue The test procedure for all mixtures included two types of test, frequency sweep and fatigue, which were conducted in accordance with the AASHTO TP 8-94 (Standard Test Method for Determining the Fatigue Life of Compacted HMA Subjected to Repeated Flexural Bending), through a four-point bending test in controlled strain (the strain was kept constant and the stress decreases during the test). Prior to the tests, the specimens were placed in an environmental chamber for 2 hours to reach the test temperature. In the frequency sweep test, used to obtain the dynamic modulus and phase angle, seven frequencies were tested (10; 5; 2; 1; 0.5; 0.2; 0.1 Hz) in 100 cycles (for the first four ones) and 10 cycles (for the last three ones), at 20 C. The results of the tests are shown in Figures 4 and 5. The dynamic modulus of the conventional mixtures presents the highest modulus, because the addition of crumb rubber reduces the modulus of the asphalt rubber mixtures and enhances their flexibility. The results of the phase angle show that asphalt rubber mixtures have more elastic properties than the conventional ones.
7000 6000 Dynamic modulus (MPa) 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 0 5 Frequency (Hz) 10
CTB ATB CCB ACB CON

Figure 4: Dynamic modulus as function of load frequency

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50 45 Phase angle () 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 0.1 1 Frequency (Hz) 10

CTB ATB CCB ACB CON

Figure 5: Phase angle as function of load frequency The flexural fatigue tests were conducted in accordance with the AASHTO TP 8-94 and carried out at 20 C and at 10 Hz. Fatigue failure was assumed to occur when the flexure stiffness is reduced to 50 percent of the initial value (100th cycle). For every mixture, nine beam specimens were tested at three strain levels, 200, 400 and 800 (10-6 micro strains). The resulting fatigue curves are depicted in Figure 6. Figure 7 represents the fatigue life for a strain level of 100x10-6 (N100), which is the strain level usually applied in empirical mechanistic pavement design.
1000
CCB ACB

Tensile strain (mm/mm)

CON CTB ATB

100 1E+03

1E+04

1E+05

1E+06

1E+07

1E+08

N (cycles)

Figure 6: Fatigue curves of the mixtures It was found out that the fatigue life was higher for asphalt rubber mixtures in comparison to conventional mixtures (CON). The order of magnitude of fatigue life for the asphalt rubber mixtures was remarkable considering that the CON mixture has 5.5% binder content, whereas the asphalt rubber mixtures have 7.0 % to 9.0%. Terminal blend mixtures exhibit better fatigue life than the continuous blend mixtures in comparison to asphalt rubber mixtures. To evaluate the influence of the binder properties in the fatigue resistance, a series of graphics is presented, in which the fatigue life, expressed in terms of N100, is presented as function of the asphalt penetration (Figure 8), softening point (Figure 9), resilience (Figure 10) and apparent viscosity (Figure 11). Only the softening point seems to be a potential indicator of the fatigue performance of asphalt rubber mixtures.

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1E+10 1E+09 1E+08

N100

1E+07 1E+06 1E+05 1E+04 COM CCB ACB CTB ATB

Figure 7: Fatigue life (N100)

1E+10 ATB CTB 1E+09 ACB

N100

1E+08 CCB 1E+07 COM

1E+06 20 30 40 Penetration (0,01 mm) 50 60

Figure 8: Comparison between fatigue life (N100) and penetration

1E+10 y = 0,6382e
2 0,3149x

ATB CTB ACB

1E+09

R = 0,8102

N100

1E+08 CCB 1E+07 COM 1E+06 50 55 60 Softening point (C) 65 70

Figure 9: Comparison between fatigue life (N100) and softening point

1E+10 CTB 1E+09 ACB N

0 0 1 1E+08

ATB

CCB COM

1E+07

1E+06 0 10 20 30 40 50 Resilience (%)

Figure 10: Comparison between fatigue life (N100) and resilience

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1E+10 ATB 1E+09 CTB ACB

N100

1E+08 CCB 1E+07 COM 1E+06 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 Apparent viscosity (cP)

Figure 11: Comparison between fatigue life (N100) and apparent viscosity 6. CONCLUSIONS In this study the effects of fatigue behavior in four asphalt rubber mixtures produced through the wet process were analyzed. Two mixtures were gap graded (Caltrans ARHM-GG) and the other two were dense graded AI type IV. Terminal blend and continuous blend asphalt rubber were obtained. The fatigue performance of these mixtures was compared to a conventional asphalt concrete dense-graded mixture (grade C, DNIT-ES 031/2006), a typical mixture used in pavements in the South of Brazil. The crumb rubber and the asphalts were previously tested in laboratory. Fatigue tests were conducted on beam specimens obtained in laboratory. Both stiffness and fatigue were determined by using controlled strain fatigue beam tests performed at 20 C and 10 Hz. Based on the test results obtained in this study, the following conclusions can be drawn: - crumb rubber can be a proper means to improve conventional asphalt properties; - the use of asphalt rubber in asphalt mixtures results in asphalt mixtures with a higher optimum binder content than that shown by conventional mixtures; - in general, the stiffness of the asphalt rubber mixtures are lower than that of the conventional ones, used as reference; - the lower phase angle of the asphalt rubber mixtures obtained in this study indicates that these mixtures have better elastic properties in comparison to the conventional ones; - fatigue tests indicate that the conventional asphalt mixtures showed poor performance if compared to the typical asphalt mixtures; - the asphalt rubber mixtures obtained through the terminal blend system require a lower binder content than the mixtures produced with continuous blend mixtures; - the terminal blend mixtures presented a higher fatigue life than the continuous blend mixtures; - the dense graded terminal blend asphalt rubber AI mix type IV showed the best performance in terms of fatigue life.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The first author was supported by the Programme Alan, the European Union Programme of High Level Scholarships for Latin America, scholarship n E04D040507BR, between 2004 and 2006, and by CNPQ (Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientfico e Tecnolgico) between 2007 to 2009. The authors are thankful to Greca Asfaltos (Brazil) that supplied the asphalts and the crumb rubber, and Pedreira Bezerras (Portugal) for the aggregates.
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REFERENCES Arizona Department of Transportation (ADOT), 2005. Construction Manual, Section 1009 Rubber Material. Arizona, USA. Di Benedetto H; de La Roche C; Baaj H; Pronk A, Lundstrm, R., 2003. Fatigue of Bituminous Mixtures: Different Approaches and Rilem Group Contribution. 6th International Rilem Symposium on Performance Testing and Evaluation of Bituminous Materials, PTEBM'03. Zurich, Switzerland. Greenbook 2000. Standard specifications for Public Works Construction. Edition. Public Works Standards, Inc. Anaheim, California, USA. Heitzman M., 1992. State of the Practice Design and Construction of Asphalt Paving Materials with Crumb Rubber Modifier. Research Report n. FHWA-SA-92-022, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C., USA. Lee SJ, Akisettya CK, Amirkhaniana SN., 2008. The Effect of Crumb Rubber Modifier (CRM) on the Performance Properties of Rubberized Binders in HMA Pavements. Construction and Building Materials. Volume 22, Issue 7, Pages 1368-1376, July. Monismith CL, Epps JA, Kasianchuch DA, McLean DB., 1971. Asphalt Mixture Behavior in Repeated Flexure. Report TE 70-5, University of California, Berkeley, USA. Suo Z, Wongl GW., 2009. Analysis of Fatigue Crack Growth Behavior in Asphalt Concrete Material in Wearing Course. Construction and Building Materials. Volume 23, Issue 1, Pages 462-468, January. Priest AL., 2005. Calibration of Fatigue transfer Functions for Mechanistic-Empirical Flexible Pavement Design. M.S. Thesis, Auburn University, USA. Romero P, Stuart KD, Mogawer W., 2000. Fatigue Response of Asphalt Mixtures Tested by the Federal Highway Administrations Accelerated Loading Facility. Journal of the Asphalt Paving Technologists; v. 69, p. 212. Roberts FL, Kandhal PS, Brown E.R, Lee D, Kennedy TW., 1996. Hot Mix Asphalt Materials, Mixture Design and Construction. NAPA Research and Education Foundation, Lanham, MD, USA. Huang YH. , 1993. Pavement Analysis and Design. Prentice Hall, Englewood. Cliffs, N.J., USA.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Application of Polypropylene Fibers in Pervious Concrete Pavement

K.Behfarnia, M.Abtahi & A.R.Hejazi
Department of Civil Engineering, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran kia@cc.iut.ac.ir, mabtahi@cc.iut.ac.ir, hejaziahmad@gmail.com

ABSTRACT: Portland cement pervious concrete (PCPC) is one of the many kinds of concrete. PCPC mixture has no or a little (0%-20%) fine aggregate. The main specification of this kind of concrete is the high permeability of it because of its connected void structure with void content of 15%-30% (ACI Committee 522). The most important advantage of PCPC is controlling storm-water pollution at the source, controlling storm-water runoff, reducing tyre spray and reducing hydroplaning. One of the applications of PCPC is in pavements. Low compressive strength is one of the disadvantages of PCPC. For this reason, pervious concrete pavement is used in low traffic areas such as parking lots, sidewalks and other paved areas. On the other hand, Polypropylene fibre is a material with widespread field of application in concrete mixtures. The polypropylene fibers provide three-dimensional reinforcement of the concrete. By this way, concrete becomes more tough and durable. In this paper the results of an experimental study on the effect of polypropylene fibres on compressive strength and permeability of PCPC are presented. The work was aimed at studying the effects of various factors including fibre content and w/c ratio of PCPC samples. PCPC specimens were prepared with 0, 0.9 and 1.5 percent of polypropylene fibres. Samples were cured for 28 days in water curing tank. The compressive strength of pervious concrete specimens was evaluated based on standard compressive strength test. The obtained results show that the application of polypropylene fibres in pervious concrete will statistically increase the compressive strength considerably. KEYWORDS: pervious concrete, porous, polypropylene, fiber, permeability, compressive strength.

1. INTRODUCTION Pervious concrete is one of the concrete kinds which have no or a small amount of fine aggregate. Because of the lack of water permeability of the conventional concrete pavement, the rainfall is usually become stormwater or a runoff on the ground (Yang & Jiang, 2003). So the supply of groundwater is decreased. The elimination of fine aggregate produces concrete in which the coarse aggregate particles are coated with a water-cement paste that bonds them together at their contact points (Meininger, 1988). This structure has interconnected voids that can drain off water quickly. Pervious concrete has various environmental benefits such as controlling storm water runoff, restoring groundwater supplies, and reducing water and soil pollution (Haung et al,
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2009). For this reason PCPC becomes more useful in paving systems (Ghafoori & Dutta, 1995). PCPC has two major applications: pavement and non-pavement. Pavement application of Portland cement pervious concrete is mainly in three areas: (1) No-fines concrete pavement; (2) no-fines permeable base; and (3) no-fines concrete pavement edge drains or shoulders (Ghafoori & Dutta, 1995). In the United States, the initial success of pervious concrete, applied for parking lots and service roads (Ghafoori & Dutta, 1995). Non-pavement application of PCPC include: (1) Wall concrete for structural applications where lightweight and/or better thermal insulation characteristics are required; (2) rigid drainage layers under exterior mall areas; (3) bridge embankments; (4) swimming-pool decks; (5) beach structure and seawall; (6) sewage-treatment plant and sludge beds; and (7) tennis courts, zoo areas, barns and greenhouse floors (Ghafoori & Dutta, 1995). Generally the void content of PCPC is between 15% and 25% and the water permeability is typically about 2-6 mm/sec (Haung et al, 2009). However, due to the significantly reduced strength associated with the high porosity, pervious concrete mixtures currently cannot be used in highway pavement structures (Haung et al, 2009). For this reason, pervious concrete pavement is used in low traffic areas such as parking lots, sidewalks and other paved areas (ACI Committee 522, 2006). Many methods are examined to improve the strength of PCPC. Most of these methods cause the void content and permeability to decrease (Yang & Jiang, 2003; Haung et al, 2009; Ghafoori & Dutta, 1995). Polypropylene fiber is a material with widespread field of application in concrete mixtures. The polypropylene fibers provide three-dimensional reinforcement of the concrete. By this way, concrete becomes more tough and durable (Noumowe, 2005). Polypropylene fibers are a vital component of high-performance concrete (Einsfeld & Velasco, 2006). Since initial research work in the 1960s, polypropylene fibers have been successfully used to reinforce conventional Portland cement-based mixtures. With low-modulus and high-elongation characteristics, these fibers tend to improve the energy absorption characteristics of the cementitious matrix, rather than its strength. Typical applications have been low-volume (0.10.3% by volume) (Nani & Meamerian, 1991). 2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE The work was aimed at studying the effects of various factors including fibre content and w/c ratio on the compressive strength and permeability of Portland cement pervious concrete. 3. LABOROTARY EXPERIMENT 3.1. Materials Ordinary Type Portland cement was selected in the experiments. The Portland cement satisfied the requirements of ASTM C150 and its chemical analysis was as follow: SiO2 = 21.68, AL2O3 = 5.9, Fe2O3 = 3.2, CaO = 63.5, MgO = 1.8, SO3 = 1.7, Na2O = 0.2 and K2O = 0.7. The mechanical specifications of the Portland cement are summarized in Table 1.

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Table 1: Specification of the Portland cement Blain Setting Time Mechanical Strength Initial(min) Final(hr) 3 days 7 days 28 days 2900 (min) 90 4.00 13 (MPa) 24 (MPa) 36.5 (MPa)

Single-sized limestones passed 12.5 mm sieve but retained on the 4.75 mm sieve, were used as coarse aggregate. Crushed limestone coarse aggregate compiled with the grading requirements NO.8 of ASTM C33. The grain size distribution is shown in Fig.1. The properties of the coarse aggregate were as follows (where unit weight and voids tests were performed based on ASTM C29, and the specific gravity and absorption tests were performed based on ASTM C127): oven-dry specific gravity (OD) = 2.58, saturated-surface dry specific gravity (SSD) = 2.61, absorption = 1.24%, dry rodded density = 1414 kg/m3 and void content percentage = 45.7%.

Figure 1: Grain size distribution Polypropylene fiber was also added into the mixture to further enhance the mechanical properties of PCPC. Polypropylene fiber has features and benefits as follows: inhibits and controls the formation of intrinsic cracking in concrete; reinforces against impact forces, reinforces against the effect of shattering forces, and provides improved durability. The polypropylene fiber was 100% virgin polypropylene fibrillated fibers containing no reprocessed olefin materials with an average length of 12 mm. The mechanical properties of polypropylene fiber is summarized in Table 2 (Hejazi, 2008). Table 2: Physical and Mechanical Properties of PP fibers Characteristic Homogeneity Color Length (mm) Melting Point (0C) Specific Gravity (gr/ cm3) Fire Point (0C) Tensile Strength (kN) Elongation at rupture (%) Tensile Modulus (MPa)
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Value 100% Transparent 12 160 910 590 17.341 118.5 6840

Standard ASTM D 792 ASTM D 638 ASTM D 638 ASTM D 638

In composition of some mixes superplasticizer (SP) was used which was liquor of the phenolic aldehyde with density of 1.1 g/cm3 and 31% solid content. 3.2. Mix design ACI 211.3R-24 was selected as the main guide for mix design. First, three PCPC mixtures which were comprised of Portland cement, coarse aggregate and different water/cement ratio were chosen. One of these mixtures which attained suitable permeability and compressive strength was selected as reference mixture. To improve mechanical properties of PCPC mixture, polypropylene fiber was added. The amount of polypropylene fiber was selected as follows: 0.9 kg/m3 and 1.5 kg/m3 based on the studies of other researchers (Haung et al, 2009; Ghafoori & Dutta, 1995; Nani & Meamerian, 1991; Hsie et al, 2008). Mixes proportion is shown in Table 3. The performance and properties of PCPC were compared with conventional pervious concrete. Table 3: Mix proportion Mix type A B1 B2 B3 C Cement Content, kg 330 330 330 330 330 w/c, % 26 30 30 30 34 SP , % 0.8 0 0 0 0 PP Fiber kg/m3 0 0 0.9 1.5 0

Note: SP dosage is the percent of binder

3.3. Sample preparation A mechanical mixer was used to mix pervious concrete mixtures. The specimen's sizes were 150 150 150 mm for all tests. Fo r compressive strength test three specimens, for pemeability test three spesimens and for void content test one spesimen prepared for each mixture type. The compaction was occurred with standard rodding in three layers. The specimens were cured in a standard moisture curing chamber until the days of testing. Samples were all cured for 28 days in water curing tank. 3.4. Test methods In this study unit weight and slump tests were performed for fresh concrete based on ASTM C138 and C143. Compressive strength tests were performed according to ASTM C39. Air void content of PCPC samples was calculated as follow. Specimens were submerged in a chamber and then after 10 minutes, increased height of water was measured. The void content was determined using equation (1): (1) Where ho = increasing height of water, cm; S = section area of device, cm2 and V = volume of specimen, cm3. The device is shown in Fig. 2.

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Figure 2: Void content test device A test was designed for measuring permeability of pervious concrete specimens. In this test the sample was placed in a device that is shown in Fig.3. The device dimension is 152 152 700 mm . To prevent any water leakage, edges of sample was confined with melted paraffin as shown in Fig. 4. Permeability of samples was determined by measuring the falling water head. Two different water head, which represented the values that a pavement may experience, were applied to the sample, and the time for the water to drain out of the sample was then recorded. For each water height, the permeability coefficient (k) was determined using Equation (2) (Wang et al, 2006).

(2) Where k = coefficient of permeability, mm/s; A = cross sectional area of the standpipe, mm2; L = length of sample, mm; A = cross sectional area of specimen, mm2; t = time in seconds from h1 to h2: h1 = initial water level, mm; and h2 = finial water level, mm.

Figure 3: Permeability test device

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Figure 4: Sample confinement 4. RESULTS AND DISCCUSSION 4.1. Effect of w/c ratio As shown in Table 4 different w/c ratios were used in mixes of PCPC samples. The objective of this part of the tests was to examine the effect of w/c ratio on both the compressive strength and permeability. It was not clear to the authors that whether both compressive strength and permeability could be improved simultaneously by changing the w/c ratio. The compressive strength, apparent density and permeability (water penetration coefficient) of the PCPC specimens were measured. Due to high void content of pervious concrete, low compressive strength was obtained. In mixes A, B1 and C, by increasing the w/c ratio the void content was decreased. When w/c ratio increased from 26% to 30% the void content decreased by 4.73% and by increasing w/c ratio from 26% to 34% the void content decreased by 15.77%. Decreasing void content was a parameter that caused improving compressive strength. However, increasing w/c ratio caused inverse effect and reduced compressive strength. The lowest compressive strength obtained for mix type B3 by 13% reduction compare to mix type C. Based on the results it was concluded that there is an optimum w/c ratio which in that specific ratio desired compressive strength and permeability can be obtained. To study the effect of superplasticizer on mix properties, superplasticizer was added in mix type A. As the results show, the permeability in related specimens was decreased 17.08% compare to mix B. It was noted that the application of superplasticizer made the specimens non- homogenise due to flow of cement paste through the interconnected voids. Table 4: Test results Mix w/c, 28-Day compressive type % Strength, MPa A 26 15.32 B1 30 14.26 B2 30 17.95 B3 30 13.22 C 34 16.39 Permeability, mm/sec 3.64 4.39 4.73 5.20 2.55 Void content, % 22.39 21.33 23.27 25.70 18.86 Density, Kg/m3 1988.97 1932.12 1906.91 1881.48 1964.94

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4.2. Effect of polypropylene fibers As shown in Table 4 by adding 0.9 kg/m3 polypropylene fibers to the PCPC mix, compressive strength is improved by 25.88%. However it can be observed that the compressive strength is reduced by 7.29% by addition of 1.5 kg/m3 polypropylene fibers to the PCPC mix. Based on the obtained results, application of polypropylene fibers in the pervious concrete mixes has increased the void content and significantly permeability of the concrete. The void content is increased by 7.74% and 18.45% by addition of 0.9 kg/m3 and 1.5 kg/m3 of polypropylene fibers the PCPC mix, respectively. 5. SUMMARY AND CONCULOSION An experimental study was conducted to investigate the permeability and strength characteristics of pervious concrete containing polypropylene fibers. The effects of polypropylene fiber and w/c ratio were evaluated in a series of laboratory tests. Based on this study, the following conclusions can be drawn: - There is an optimum w/c ratio that results in a desired compressive strength and permeability. - Using superplasticizer in the PCPC reduces permeability of PCPC. - By addition of limited amount of polypropylene fibers in the PCPC mixes both strength and permeability of pervious concrete can be improved. However adding excess fibers has inverse effect and reduces compressive strength. REFERENCES YANG, J.; JIANG, G. Experimental study on properties of pervious concrete pavement materials, Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. (33), 2003, pp. 381386. MEININGER, R; No fines Pervious concrete for paving, International Concrete, August 1988, pp. 21-27. HAUNG, B; et al. Laboratory evaluation of permeability and strength of polymer-modified pervious concrete; Available from http://www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat Accessed: 2009. GHAFOORI, N.; DUTTA, S. H. Development of no fines concrete pavement applications, Journal of transportation engineering, May/June 1995, pp. 283-288 GHAFOORI, N.; DUTTA, S. H. Development of no fines concrete pavement applications, Journal of transportation engineering, November 1995, pp. 286-289. ACI Committee 522, pervious concrete, ACI 522R-06 Report. GHAFOORI, N.; DUTTA, S. H. Development of no fines concrete pavement applications, Journal of transportation engineering, August 1995, pp. 183-191 NOUMOWE, A. Mechanical properties and microstructure of high strength concrete containing polypropylene fibers exposed to temperatures up to 200 1C, Cement Concrete Research, 2005, 35, pp. 2192-2198. EINSFELD, A.; VELASCO, L. Fracture parameters for high performance concrete, Cement Concrete Research, 2006, 36, pp. 576-583. NANI, A.; MEAMERIAN, N.; Distribution and opening of fibrillated polypropylene fibers in concrete, cement and concrete composites, Vol. (1991), No. 13, pp. 107-114 HEJAZI, S. M. et al. Introducing Two Simple Models for Predicting Fiber Reinforced Asphalt Concrete (FRAC) Behaviour during Longitudinal Loads, International Journal of Applied Polymer Science, Vol. 109 (2008), pp. 2872-2881, ISSN: 1097-4628.

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HSIE, M. et al. Mechanical properties of polypropylene hybrid fiber-reinforced concrete, Materials Science and Engineering A, VOL. (2008), No. 494, pp. 153-157. WANG, K. et al. Development of mix proportion for functional and durable pervious concerte, NRMCA Concrete Technology Forum: Focus on Pervious Concrete, May 24-25, 2006, Nashville, TN.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Evaluation of Usage of Gilsonite as an Additive for Modification of Asphalt Cement

A. Mansourian
Transportation Research Institute, Tehran, Iran a_mansourian@iust.ac.ir

M. Ameri
Iran University of science and technology (IUST), Tehran, Iran ameri@iust.ac.ir

S. Salehi
Transportation Research Institute, Tehran, Iran Saeid.salehi@rocketmail.com

ABSTRACT: In this research, the effect of the Iranian Gilsonite on two types of asphalt binders produced in Iran with performance grades PG58-22 and PG64-22 were studied according to Superpave performance grading (PG) system. Results of implemented tests on the modified asphalt binders with %4, %8 and %12 gilsonite show that gilsonite causes the increase in softening point as well as the high performance temperature of PG58-22 and PG64-22 asphalt binders in that 12% of Gilsonite increases the high performance temperature of PG58-22 and PG64-22 asphalt binders from 58C and 64C to 70C and 76C respectively. Although 12% of gilsonite increases the low performance temperature of PG64-22 asphalt binder form -22C to -16C, it has no impact on the low performance temperature of PG58-22 asphalt binder, which means the low temperature remains at the same temperature. KEY WORDS: Asphalt, Gilsonite, Performance Grading (PG). 1. INTRODUCTION Although the weight percentage of asphalt binder in asphalt mixtures is quite low, a major part of the implemented research on the pavement is about asphalt binder at present time. Asphalt binder has a significant effect on the optimal performance, durability and stability of asphalt mixtures, due to its physical and chemical properties, and any type of asphalt binder performance will finally influence the performance of pavement [Bahia, Hanson, 2001]. At present, due to the lack of various asphalt binder types, two types of asphalt binder with penetration grades 60-70 and 85-100 are generally used in the pavement construction. According to the Superpave tests implemented on these two types of asphalt binder (60-70 Tehran refinery, and 85-100 Isfahan refinery), it was clear that the performance grade (PG) of these two types are PG64-22 and PG58-22 respectively. The lack of climatic accordance of the mentioned asphalt binders for arid climates, which need use of PG76-10 and PG70-10 asphalt binders, not only causes decrease in the service life of pavements, but also brings about some other problems such as immature destructions,
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increase in repair and maintenance costs, downgrading of driving quality and decrease in safety. Nowadays, a great amount of mineral, organic, natural and industrial additives are used for improvement and modification of some properties of asphalt binder such as resistance to thermal and shrinkage cracklings, decrease in permanent deformation and asphalt bleeding of pavements as well as reduction of hardness and ageing of asphalt binder [Bahia, Hanson, 2001], however, considering geographic conditions and existent facilities of various countries, selecting a suitable modifier differs from one country to another one. Significant research has been conducted on polymer modified asphalt binders, the results of which show that polymers improve the performance of modified asphalt binders at low, intermediate and high temperatures [Khattak, Baladi, 2001]. Research on asphalt binder modified by rubber powder shows that rubber powder has had positive effects on performance properties of the unmodified asphalt binder in that use of 1018% weight percentage of rubber powder in asphalt binder has concluded to satisfactory performance of asphalt binder at high and low temperatures [Potgieter, 2004]. Although various additives such as polymers and rubber powder may improve the performance of bitumen, suitable performance of a special additive should not be the criteria of choosing it, but there are also some other factors such as economical issues, production of modifier and environmental compatibility that should be considered when selecting an additive. Gilsonite which belongs to the hydro carbonates within classification of asphalt binder modifiers [Bahia, Hanson, 2001] is a resinous hydrocarbon that has been evaluated and used variously in industrial aspects [Davis, 1989]. Generally, the natural bitumen is a crude oil- based byproduct which is separated from its underground stone reservoir and has been ascended towards the ground surface through fractures of the ground layers. If the natural bitumen reaches the ground surface, it makes the bituminous springs, and if it remains underground or closed to the ground surface it will gradually be solidified and oxidized and finally it will make a solid and hard substance which is mineral bitumen. Gilsonite is mineral bitumen, black and brittle, which is easily crushed into powder. Addition of gilsonite (as an additive) to asphalt binder increases its viscosity and decreases its penetration grade. The result of such addition is a modified asphalt binder with higher hardness. Generally, gilsonite can be used in pavement construction in two ways: preliminary addition of gilsonite to the asphalt binder, or addition of gilsonite to aggregates during premixing cycle at batch plant [Bardesi et al. 1999]. Research in the field of Gilsonite application shows that the American gilsonite causes the performance improvement of asphalt binder in high temperatures, while in low temperatures it causes fragility of the asphalt binder, and provides a suitable background for low temperature cracking in pavement [Anderson, 1999]. In this research the effect of Iranian Gilsonite on the properties of the asphalt binders used in this country (PG64-22 and PG58-22) has been studied. 1.1. Research Objectives Iran is located in a point of the world in which there are numerous and rich mines of gilsonite. Studies on the present data provided by the Geological Organization of Iran show that the rich gilsonite mines in Iran, which are mainly located in the mountainous Zagros area, are as follows [OGSI , 1996, OGSI, 1999]: Natural bitumen gilsonite mines in Kermanshah province with the capacity of 3193000 tons
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 Natural bitumen gilsnoite mines in Ilam province with the capacity of 256000 tons Natural bitumen gilsonite in Lorestan province with the capacity of 6000 tons Due to the vast and rich gilsonite resources in Iran, some of its major advantages for use in pavement construction are as follows: Good compatibility with asphalt binder Ease of provision and accessibility Low cost of production compared to other modifiers Therefore, in this research, it has been tried that the performance of two types of modified asphalt binder (PG58-22 and PG64-22) with 4%, 8% and 12% gilsonite at low, intermediate and high temperatures based on superpave performance grading (PG) specification to be evaluated. 2. EXPERIMENTAL WORK 2.1. Material Due to the variation of gilsonite mines in Iran and the probability of different physical and chemical properties of glsonite which are usually based on type of the mine, complete analysis and identification of gilsonite properties of each mine are required. A required factor for selecting of gilsonite is its solubility in benzene or carbon disulfide because the less is the solubility of gilsonite in benzene or carbon disulfide, the better is the mixture of gilsonite and asphalt binder [Edwin, 1962]. In order to study the physical and chemical properties of the Iranian gilsonite, five various mines in Kermanshah, Ilam and Lorestan were selected. Results of tests for specifying the physical properties and elemental analysis of 5 gilsonite types and also the conventional tests for the physical properties of asphalt binders have been shown in tables 1 and 2 respectively. Due to the significance of higher solubility and lower ash amount in Gilsonite which are required for complete mixing of gilsonite with the asphalt binder, the and b Gilsonite samples were selected for further research. Table 1: Physical properties and elemental analysis of gilsonite
Parameter measured Specific gravity @ 25 c (gr/cm3) Solubility in CS2 (%) Solubility in TCE (%) Penetration @ 25 c (0.1mm) Ash content (%) Moisture content (%) Carbon content (%) Hydrogen content (%) Nitrogen content (%) Oxygen content (%) Sulfur content (%) Test method ASTM D3289 ASTM D4 ASTM D2042 ASTM D5 ASTM D3174 ASTM D3173 ASTM D5291 ASTM D5291 ASTM D5291 ASTM D5291 UOP 864 Sample a 1.147 98.31 97.65 0 0.75 0.66 79.9 7.5 1.3 1.2 8.65 Type of gilsonite Sample b Sample c Sample d 1.158 1.139 1.161 94.12 92.87 0 3.62 1.3 78.7 8.0 1.0 1.7 7.24 90.42 84.31 0 8.08 1.33 75.8 7.8 0.8 2.6 7.63 92.11 89.83 0 5.92 2.54 77.6 7.9 0.8 1.8 7.04 Sample e 1.138 91.37 88.73 0 6.71 1.62 76.7 7.7 0.9 2.2 7.47

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Table 2: Physical properties of pure bitumen

Parameter measured Specific gravity @ 25C (gr/cm3) Penetration @ 25C (0.1mm) Flash point (C) Softening point (R & B, C) Viscosity @ 160 C (c.stokes) Test method ASTM D70 ASTM D5 ASTM D92 ASTM D36 ASTM D2170 Type of bitumen PG64-22 PG58-22 1.013 1.012 60 89 311 308 48 47 139 110

2.2. Modified Bitumen preparation According to the recommendations of World Road Association (PIARC) [Bardesi et al. 1999], the gilsonite powder used for modification of the bitumen should completely pass through Sieve No. 50 (0.2mm). On this basis the gilsonite powder passed through sieve No.50 (0.2 mm), in amount of %4, %8, and %12 of the weight of the asphalt binder, was added to the base bitumen heated up to 180C and blended for 150 min at 150 rpm in the mixer and in order to be assured of the homogenous blend of gilsonite and base bitumen, the mixing was continued for 30 min at 5000 rpm. 2.3. Testing Method In this research, for studying the properties of PG58-22 and PG64-22 asphalt binders (unmodified and modified with gilsonite), rotational viscosity (RV) test, dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) test and bending beam rheometer (BBR) test were implemented according to superpave performance grading (PG) specification [AASHTO MP1, 1993]. Rotational viscosity (RV) test was conducted in order to be assured of bitumen pumping and bitumen mixing with warm aggregates. According to AASHTO MPI recommendations, bitumen viscosity should be less than 3000 mPa.s at 135 C [AASHTO MP1, 1993]. The dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) test at the frequency of 10 rad/s (1.6 Hz) was conducted at high temperatures (46-76C) and intermediate temperatures (13-31C) for control of permanent deformation at high temperatures and fatigue cracking at intermediate temperatures respectively. As a result of dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) test, two G* and parameters were obtained. According to AASHTO MPI recommendations for control of permanent deformation (rutting), the G*/Sin for unaged bitumen and residue aged bitumen from rolling thin film oven (RTFO) test should be more than 1 kPa and 2.2 kPa respectively; moreover, for control of fatigue cracking the G*.Sin should be less than 5000 kPa for aged bitumen obtained from rolling thin film oven (RTFO) and pressure age vessel (PAV) tests. Generally, in addition to existent requirements for the high performance temperature (HT) and the low performance temperature (LT), there is a limiting maximum stiffness at the intermediate temperature (IT) to prevent from fatigue cracking; accordingly, at the intermediate service temperature (IT), which equals with HT + LT + 4 c the G*.Sin should
2

be less than 5000 kPa for aged bitumen from rolling thin film oven (RTFO) and pressure age vessel (PAV) tests [AASHTO MP1, 1993]. For studying the characteristics of bitumen in low temperatures (< 0C), which leads to low temperature cracking, the bending beam rheometer (BBR) test was conducted at -6 to - 24 C. Two parameters were obtained through this test, Stiffness and bitumen stiffness and the rate of change of stiffness with time (m-value) at 60 seconds loading. According to AASHTO MPI recommendations to control the low temperature cracking, stiffness of bitumen should be less than 300 MPa and m-value should be greater than 0.3 [AASHTO MP1, 1993].
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3. TESTING AND ANALYSIS OF TEST RESULTS By conducting of Superpave tests on the modified bitumens, it was clear that the effect of two types of gilsonite (a and b) on the performance grade of PG64-22 and PG58-22 bitumens is almost the same. For this reason, in this paper the effect of type a gilsonite on the performance of PG58-22 and PG64-22 bitumens at high, intermediate and low temperatures was studied and evaluated. 3.1. Effect of Gilsonite on Bitumen Viscosity The rotational viscosity (RV) test on unmodified and modified (with 4%, 8% and 12% gilsonite) PG64-22 and PG58-22 bitumens showed that gilsonite causes increase in viscosity of unmodified bitumen in that the more the percentage of gilsonite, the more the viscosity of modified bitumen. According to results of viscosity test shown in table 3, it is clear that the viscosity of all modified bitumen samples are less than optimum limit 3000 mPa.s. Therefore, it may be concluded that addition of gilsonite to the bitumen has not had any negative effect on the viscosity of modified bitumens. Table 3: Viscosity of modified and unmodified bitumens
Type of bitumen PG64-22 PG64-22+4%Gilsonite PG64+8%Gilsonite PG64+12%Gilsonite PG58-22 PG58-22+4%Gilsonite PG58-22+8%Gilsonite PG58-22+12%Gilsonite Viscosity (m Pa.s) 494 661 901 1082 302 592 763 1163

3.2. Effect of Gilsonite on the High Performance Temperature of Bitumens Due to the fact that PG64-22 and PG58-22 bitumens do not have suitable high temperature (HT) performance in arid areas, one of the most important objectives of this paper is evaluation of the effect of gilsonite on the high performance grade of modified bitumens. As observed in figures 1 and 2, addition of %4 gilsonite to the unmodified PG64-22 and PG58-22 bitumens before and after short term ageing process causes increase in G*/Sin for modified bitumens compared to unmodified ones at the same temperatures in that high temperature (HT) performance of PG64-22 and PG58-22 increased form 64 C and 58C to 76 and 70C respectively. In fact, test results emphasize the positive effect of gilsonite on modification of the high temperature (HT) performance of bitumens and increase in shear strength of modified bitumens. This trend has continued with increase in amount of gilsonite to %8 and %12, and the performance of modified bitumen in high temperatures has improved considerably in that with %8 and %12 of gilsonite, the high temperature (HT) performance of modified PG58-22 has increased to 70C. Furthermore, the high temperature (HT) performance of modified PG64-22 has increased from 64C to 70C and 76C with 8% and 12% of gilsonite respectively.Generally, the major reason for increase in high performance temperature (HT) of modified bitumens compared to unmodified bitumens can be the increase in G* and simultaneously the decrease in phase angle. In other words, the behavior of bitumen is dependent on its visco-elastic characteristic, which increase in G and decrease in phase angle () extend the temperature at which bitumen can have elastic property.
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1000
1000

8% Gilsonite
100

G*/Sin (Kpa)

10

G*/Sin (Kpa)

12% Gilsonite 4% Gilsonite A.C (PG64-22) Temperature (C)

100

12% Gilsonite 8% Gilsonite 4% Gilsonite A.C (PG58-22)

10

0.1

0.1

0.01 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

0.01 30 40 50

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Temperature (C)

60

70

80

90

Figure 1: G*/Sin versus temperature for unaged PG58-22 and PG64-22 bitumens
1000

1000

12% Gilsonite 8% Gilsonite 4% Gilsonite

100

100

G*/Sin (Kpa)

G*/Sin (Kpa)

G*/Sin (Kpa)

A.C (PG64-22)

12% Gilsonite 8% Gilsonite 4% Gilsonite A.C (PG58-22)

10

10

0.1 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

0.1 30 40 50

Temperature (C)

Temperature (C)

60

70

80

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Figure 2: G*/Sin versus temperature for short aged PG58-22 and PG64-22 bitumens 3.3. The Effect of Gilsonite on the Low Performance Temperature of Bitumen For assessment of the effect of gilsonite on the low performance temperature of bitumens, the bending beam rheometer (BBR) test at low temperatures was conducted at low temperatures (-6 to -24 c) on two PG64-22 and PG58-22 bitumens. As it is observed in Figure 3, addition of gilsonite to PG64-22 bitumen causes increase and decrease in the stiffness and m-value of modified bitumen respectively. Therefore, the low performance temperature of bitumen reduces. These changes occur in a manner that the specimen of the above mentioned bitumen fulfills the requirements before addition of gilsonite and after addition of %4 gilsonite at -18C (Stiffness< 300 MPa and m-Value>-0.3), but addition of %8 and %12 gilsonite to bitumen cause these requirememnts to be fulfilled in -12C and -6C respectively and the low temperature of performance grade for this type of bitumen increases form -22C for the base bitumen to -16C with addition of %8 and %12 gilsonite.

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0.45 0.4 0.35 0.3 m-value 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 0% 4% Gilsonite (%) 8% 12%

-6 -12 -18 -24

700 600 500 Stiffness 400 300 200 100 0 0% 4% Gilsonit e (%) 8% 12%

-6 -12 -18 -24

Figure 3: The stiffness and m-value of PG64-22 bitumen One of the main reasons for the undesirable increase in low temperature performance of modified bitumen may be increase in stiffness, which leads to decrease in its flexibility. Such conclusions may be gained through reference to softening points and penetration grades of different specimens of modified bitumens. As seen in figure 4, with increase in the gilsonite amount (%) to the base bitumen, the amount of penetration grade and softening point of PG64-22 and PG58-22 bitumens have been increased and decreased respectively. Following this process, the modified bitumen specimens have become stiffer and are more fragile in low temperatures (< 0 C).
100 90

Penetraion and Softening points

80 70 60 50 40
Penetration, 0.1 mm ASTM D5
ASTM D36 Softening point: C

PG 64-22 PG 58-22

PG 58-22

30 20 10 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Gilsonite content (percent)

PG 64-22

Figure 4: The effect of gilsonite on physical properties (penetration grade and softening point) of base bitumens
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However, the results shown in the figure 5 are affirmative of the fact that the effect of gilsonite on PG58-22 bitumen is somehow different. Addition of %4 Gilsonite to this type of bitumen causes increase in stiffness and simultaneously decreases in m-value of the modified bitumen. This trend has been repeated with increase in the percentage of gilsonite to %8 and %12. A major point regarding the effect of gilsonite on PG58-22 is that although addition of gilsonite leads to increase in stiffness and decrease in m-value of modified bitumen, these changes are in a manner that would have trivial effect on the low temperature (LT) performance and it has remained at -22C even with addition of %12 gilsonite.

0.45 0.4 0.35 0.3 m-value 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 0% 4% Gilsonite (%) 8% 12%

-6 -12 -18 -24

700 600 500 400 Stiffness 300 200 100 0 0% 4% Gilsonite(%) 8% 12%

-6 -12 -18 -24

Figure 5: The stiffness and m-value of PG64-22 bitumen 3.4. Effect of Gilsonite on the Intermediate Performance Temperature of Bitumens As seen in Figure 6, addition of 4% gilsonite to unmodified bitumens increases the G*.Sin, and this trend will continue with increasing of amount of gilsonite to %8 and %12. All types of modified bitumens with various percentages of gilsonite fulfill the necessary requirement at intermediate service temperature (IT), which is G*.sin should be less than 5000 kPa in view of the low and high performance temperatures. But it should be mentioned that with increasing of the percentage of gilsonite, the intermediate service temperature of modified bitumens have been increased compared to unmodified bitumens. The major reason for increase in intermediate service temperature of bitumens after addition of gilsonite may be the increase and decrease in G* and phase angle () respectively, which have caused the prevalence of elastic behavior of modified bitumens at these temperatures.

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100000

100000

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12% Gilsonite 8% Gilsonite 4% Gilsonite A.C. (PG64-22) G*.Sin (Kpa)

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G*.Sin (Kpa)

1000

1000

100 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34

100 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31

Temperature (C)

Temperature (C)

Figure 6: G*.Sin versus temperature for long aged PG58-22 and PG64-22 bitumens 4. CONCLUSION Due to the fact that two types of bitumen PG64-22 and PG58-22 are mainly used in Iran for pavement construction, high temperature (HT) improvement of the mentioned bitumens that do not have appropriate thermal compatibility with required high temperatures (70C and 76C) in arid areas of country is necessary. Considering low cost of gilsonite compared to other additives and existence of numerous gilsonite mines in Iran, evaluation of modified asphalt binders by gilsonite has been the main reason of this research. The obtained results of this research are as follows: 1. Addition of %4 Gilsonite to PG58-22 and PG64-22 bitumen causes the increase of G*.Sin (before and after short term ageing process in RTFOT) and the performance of bitumen in high temperature has modified considerably. This trend has continued when the ratio of Gilsonite has been increased to %8 and %12 and the high performance temperature of PG58-22 and PG64-22 bitumen has increased 70C and 76C with %12 Gilsonite. 2. Addition of %4 gilsonite to PG58-22 and PG64-22 bitumen increases the G*.Sin and by increasing the amount of gilsonite this trend will continue, meanwhile the intermediate service temperature (IT) of bitumen will increase by raised amount of gilsonite. 3. In a specific temperature, increased gilsonite percentage causes increase in stiffness and simultaneously decreases in m-value. Addition of gilsonite to PG64-22 bitumen will have an unfavorable effect on the low performance temperature of bitumen in that the low temperature (LT) of bitumen will increase from -22C to -16C, by addition of %12 gilsonite. The undesirable effect of gilsonite on the performance grade of PG58-22 at low temperature is trivial in that by addition of %12 gilsonite to this type of bitumen, the low temperature of performance grade will remain unchanged. REFERENCES AASHTO MP1, Standard Specification for Performance Graded Asphalt Binder, 1993. Anderson, D. A., Maurer, D., Ramirez, T., Christensen, D.W., Marasteanu, M. O., Mehta, Y., 1999. Field performance of modified asphalt binders evaluated with superpave test methods: 1-80 test project. Transportation Research Record, 1661: 60-68. Bahia, H.U., Hanson, D.I., 2001. Characterization of Modified Asphalt Binders in Superpave Mix Design. Transportation Research Board-National Research Council, Washington DC.

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Bardesi, A. et. al., 1999. Use of modified bituminous binders, special bitumens and bitumens with additives in road pavements. World Road Association (PIARC), 118-120. Davis, I., Neal, T., Clyde, E., 1989. New Laboratory Tests Evaluate the Effectiveness of Gilsonite Resin as a Borehole Stabilizer. J SPE Drilling Engineering, 4(1): 47-56. Edwin, J. B., 1962. Asphalt; science and technology. Khattak, M. J., Baladi, G. Y., 2001. Fatigue and permanent deformation models for polymermodified asphalt mixtures. Proceeding of the 80th transportation research board annual meeting, Washington DC. OGSI (Organization of geological survey of Iran), Investigation of Gilsonite Mines in Kermanshah and Ilam provinces, 1996. OGSI (Organization of geological survey of Iran), Investigation of Gilsonite Mines in Potgieter, C. J., 2004. Bitumen rubber asphalt, design and construction procedures in South Africa. Proceedings of the 8th conference on asphalt pavements for Southern Africa (CAPSA 04), Sun City, South Africa.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Durable Asphalt Surfaces With High Crack Resistance

F. Dourado
S&P Clever Reinforcement Iberica, Portugal

J. Scherer
S&P Clever Reinforcement Company, Switzerland

ABSTRACT: For several years now pre-bituminised grids have been successfully used for increasing the durability of asphalt surfaces. The grids reduce fatigue cracks as well as thermal cracking in the bituminous pavement and, as a result, also minimize maintenance costs. Carbon fibre grids additionally increase the structure value of the reinforced pavement layer. The carbon fibre grid has a structure value equal to that of an asphalt layer measuring 3-4 cm in thickness. This provides interesting rehabilitation options for inner-city areas. For example, an existing old pavement can be cut-milled to a depth of 3 cm and repaired with the carbon fibre grid as well as a new pavement layer of 3 cm. The structure value of the reinforced pavement layer corresponds to a 6-7 cm thick layer of non-reinforced asphalt. When milling to a depth of 3 cm the kerb and edge areas are not affected. Because the existing, old level is maintained after the repair job, shafts do not have to be raised to the new level. This makes the carbon fibre grid an interesting option with regard to costs. Moreover, the construction period is reduced and resources saved. At the materials research centre EMPA Dbendorf/CH, conventional grids were compared with the pre-bituminised S&P grids. The results of these comparisons are presented in this article. Finally its presented practical applications of this techniques in Portugal and others countries of Europe. KEY WORDS: Pavement, Carbon fiber, Reinforcement, Test on EMPA laboratory, case studies and applications.

1. INTERLAYER SHEAR BOND OF REINFORCED ASPHALT LAYERS For multilayer asphalt pavements which are not reinforced, an interlayer shear bond > 15 kN is usually achieved using the Leutner method. This corresponds to the adhesive tensile strength of 0.68 N/mm . Graph 1 shows the relationship of the shear force (Leutner) to the adhesive tensile strength.

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adhesive pull strength [N/mm ]

shear force [kN]

Figure 1: Relationship shear force/adhesive pull strength Improved mechanical interfacial penetration is possible if the existing pavement layer is milled prior to renewal. The shear force for layers applied to a milled base course is 17-25 kN. The required minimum values for the shear force and adhesive tensile strength respectively are to be phased into the respective EU or country-specific standard in the medium term. Experience from practice shows that there is an identical interlayer shear bond for S&P grids as there is for asphalt courses without reinforcement. Stresses from the asphalt layer are directed into the asphalt reinforcement via the interlayer shear bond. This enables a reduction in the elongation as well as reduced stress in the actual asphalt. At the EMPA CH S&P CF-reinforced and non-reinforced rolled asphalt layers were tested under permanent dynamic load. The interlayer shear bond was tested before and after the 0.5 million load cycles. The results clearly show that the effect of the asphalt reinforcement could only unfold where there existed a satisfactory interlayer shear bond. The best results were achieved with CF reinforced pavements which were applied to milled sub-bases. 2. ASPHALT REINFORCEMENT AGAINST THERMAL CRACK REFLECTION Existing cracks in the old pavement layer reflect through the new asphalt layer because of the daily temperature fluctuations during winter months. With the pre-bituminised S&P grids, existing cracks are covered before the new pavement layer is applied . Various asphalt grids were tested by the Belgian Road Research Center. Figure 2 shows the test set-up. A new asphalt pavement of 7 cm thickness was applied to an old cracked pavement layer (cracking is simulated by milling). Various asphalt reinforcements were applied between the old and new asphalt layers. Crack opening as a result of temperature fluctuations was simulated with a liquid which freezes and thaws again. The results (figure 3) show that with correct interlayer shear bonding of the placed prebituminised S&P meshes (S&P Glasphalt / S&P Carbophalt) crack reflection can be prevented. Crack reflection could not be prevented by standard meshes made of polyester with a tensile strength of 50 kN/m at 12 % extension, or by SAMI non-woven inlays.

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Figure 2: Test set-up, Belgian Road Research Centre

Figure 3: Test results, Belgian Road Research Centre

The test set-up was modelled using the Lusas finite element program. Modelling of the unreinforced model confirmed that the stresses in the asphalt layer rose to 46.8 N/mm2. However, asphalt can take a maximum stress of 3.5 N/ mm2. The cracking is correspondingly reflected in the non-reinforced asphalt layer on the surface. Modelling of the reinforced model (figure 4) revealed that a slight detachment occurred at the boundary of the crack. This enabled the forces to be directed into the reinforcement. In the reinforced model the stresses in the top asphalt were less than 3.5 N/mm2. Thus the crack reflection can be stopped. The modelling shows that the stress in the new asphalt layer can be reduced by 25 to 40 % at a test temperature of -10 C due to the CF reinforcement.
1 LOAD CASE = Delta T = -10 1 RESULTS FILE = STRESS CONTOURS OF SX -7.63461E3 -5.08974E3 -2.54487E3 0 2.54487E3 5.08974E3 7.63461E3 10.1795E3 12.7243E3 15.2692E3 17.8141E3 20.359E3 22.9038E3 25.4487E3 27.9936E3 30.5384E3 Max 0.3174E+05 at Node 4 Min -8979. at Node 151

Figure 4: Resulting stresses in the top asphalt in a model with six vertical cracks (crack length 0.06 m) because of the expansion of the water enclosed in the crack (existing asphalt). The maximum tensile stress at the tips of the cracks amounted to x = 3.4 N/mm2. 3. S&P CARBON FIBRE GRIDS AGAINST FATIGUE CRACKS Two-layer CF-reinforced and non-reinforced bituminous pavement specimens were tested under permanent loads (figure 5) at EMPA CH. In order to simulate the compliance of the sub-base, the specimens were applied to a rubber base layer and subjected to 500,000 wheel
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traverses in the rutting apparatus at a temperature of 25 C. The S&P carbon fibre mesh was placed in at various positions.

Figure 5: Test arrangement at EMPA Dbendorf, Switzerland Specimen K1: two layer asphalt concrete without asphalt reinforcement Specimen K3: two layer asphalt concrete, S&P Carbophalt placed at a depth of 4 cm Specimen K4: two layer asphalt concrete, S&P Carbophalt placed at a depth of 3 cm Specimen K5: two layer asphalt concrete, S&P Carbophalt placed at a depth of 4 cm (sub-base milled) The specimens were provided with strain gauges. The results of the experimental tests were modelled by EMPA CH using a finite element calculation. Table 1: Results of the experimental studies Position of CF reinforcement None 4 cm depth 3 cm depth 4 cm depth (milled) Average deformation in strain gauges (underside of rut) 0.04325 0.02509 0.02867 0.02203 Reduction of strain in % 100 - 24 - 13 - 33

Specimen K1 K3 K4 K5

Figure 6: Results of numerical studies (model with CF reinforcement)

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Explanation: In the reinforced asphalt specimen (stiffer system) the tensile stresses are taken up in a concentrated way by the CF reinforcement. The calculated results coincided quantitatively with the experimental results. The strain in the asphalt layer was reduced by 24 respectively 33 %, due to the S&P CF reinforcement (specimen K3/5). Roughening of the underlying pavement course improved the interlayer shear bond. It could be shown that a higher interlayer bond increases the effectiveness of the C fibre reinforcement. 4. CF REINFORCEMENT REDUCES THERMAL CRACK REFLECTION IN MASTIC ASPHALT At EMPA CH a two-layer poured mastic asphalt application was made over a joint in a concrete sub-base (figure 7). One sample was reinforced with the S&P CF reinforcement; the second sample was not reinforced.

Figure 7: Sketch of specimen (longitudinal section/dimensions in mm) The concrete joint was opened and closed periodically to simulate the temperature cycles. The stresses in the mastic asphalt were measured using strain gauges. The CF reinforcement increased the initial stiffness of the mastic asphalt layer by 25 to 30 %. In effect, at the test temperature of -5 C, 25 to 30 % higher stresses could be absorbed due to the CF reinforcement.

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5. SUMMARY Table2: Summary of the results Reduction due to reinforcement with S&P Carbophalt 25 to 40 % stress reduction 25 to 30 % elongation reduction 24 33 % (strain) elongation reduction

Temperature - 10 C - 5 C + 25 C

Cold test on asphalt concrete (Belgian Road Research Center) Cold test on mastic asphalt (EMPA CH) Permanent load on asphalt concrete (EMPA CH)

Results from experiments as well as the numeric modelling carried out at different test institutes show that due to the S&P CF reinforcement the stresses and the elongation in asphalt concrete and mastic asphalt layers can be reduced by 25 40 %. These reductions in stress and elongation were determined under normal temperature fluctuations (-5 to +25 C). Figure 8 shows that the damage to the asphalt pavement increases in proportion to the wheel loading. The S&P CF grid can reduce the stress peaks under high wheel loading, and thereby significantly reduce the damage to the asphalt pavement. This is shown in increased durability, prolonged renewal cycles, and reduced maintenance work. Due to the reduction in traffic congestion there are additional economic benefits. Although these costs are difficult to calculate, they are without any doubt significant.

Figure 8: Influence of wheel loading on damage to the bituminous layers. REFERENCES Test Reports Netherlands Pavement Consultants, NL. Test Reports Belgian Road Research Centre, B. EMPA Congress Asphalt Reinforcements with Inlays, May 2007. Modelling Ingenieurbro Heierli AG, Zrich.
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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

High Tenacity Acrylic Fibres in Bituminous Mixtures

B. Pereira & J. Contreiras
Fisipe S.A, Portugal Bruno.pereira@fisipe.pt jmcontreiras@fisipe.pt

A. Teixeira
CICCOPN, Portugal Adriano.teixeira@ciccopn.pt

M. Azevedo
CAeMD mcazevedo@caemd.pt

ABSTRACT: The increase demand of innovative and long lasting road surfaces has taken us to research new ideas and technologies for the development of new materials to be used in pavements. The use of acrylic fibres in the manufacture of asphalt is an innovative solution for usage in high performance road pavements. The present work summarizes the method of high tenacity acrylic fibre manufacturing, as well as presents behaviour and how it can contribute to achieve a pavement with better performance, therefore more durable and with better quality. KEY WORDS: Pavement, Roughness, Deformations, Fatigue, Cracks, Specifications, Acrylic fibres. 1. INTRODUCTION Increased road traffic in recent years has led to the study of safer pavements, with higher quality and thus more durable. To solve this problem researchers have been trying to find materials that when introduced in bitumen mixtures improve its performance while maintaining the characteristics of flexibility of the pavements. The objective is to improve the mechanical aspects and durability, enhancing behaviour to permanent deformations and to cracking from traffic and thermal variations. Hence after the successful introduction of acrylic fibres in mixtures with hydraulic binders, mainly in mortar, attempts are now made to study the effect of introducing this type of fibres in the bituminous mixtures used in paving roads. 2. ACRYLIC FIBRES Acrylic fibres have been mainly used in the textile sector. However, in recent years new areas to apply for these fibres have been investigated. Fisipe has sought new areas of application

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and developed fibres with suitable properties for each sector. In the area of bituminous mixtures, Fisipe is the pioneer in implementing these solutions, having undertaken a study in Barcelona in 2003 (CEDEX, 2003).

Figure 1: Fisipe Plant

2.1. Manufacturing Process The high-tenacity acrylic fibres manufactured by Fisipe are produced in the form of tow and staple, from a continuous polymerization of acrylonitrile and other co monomers. The monomers are blended in mixing tanks. Into reactors under controlled conditions and in the presence of various additives a polymer is obtained. The polymer slurry from the reactors is then subject to vacuum distillation, filtered and washed. The wet polymer resulting from the filtration is sent to a dryer. The polymer in the shape of a fine powder is then pneumatically transported to storage silos. Subsequently it follows to the dope preparation area. In this area the polymer is continuously mixed with a solvent to produce a suspension and a dope. The dope is finally pumped into the spinning area. From this area it is extruded through spinnerets to coagulation baths. The coagulated filaments are grouped into bands and then stretched, washed and dried on roller dryers and finally collected in containers. Once the production of the fibre is completed, it is directed to the area of cutting and packaging. The high tenacity fibre is the new type of staple fibre with the suitable properties to constitute an additive to bituminous mixtures. 2.2. Properties The acrylic fibres are, among the synthetic fibres available in the market, the best suited for appliance in hot bituminous mixtures, as they are the ones that better resist to high manufacturing temperatures, acids and alkalis. The manufacturing temperatures of bituminous mixtures produced in hot range between 160-180 C, depending on the type of bitumen. The acrylic fibres keep there mechanical properties almost unchanged up to 230C. Apart from resistance to high temperatures, the acrylic fibres have a good affinity with bitumen, because chemical bonds between acrylonitrile and bitumen (Gonzlez, 2004). On top of all the above mentioned natural characteristics of acrylic fibres, the fibres developed for appliance in bituminous mixtures have better mechanical properties than the ones used in the textile area
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and a special finishing that enables an easy dispersion on the aggregates, thus creating a more even mixture of the several components: bitumen, aggregates and fibre. Acrylic fibres used in bituminous mixtures are high tenacity fibres, without crimp and short staple (usually 6mm).

Figure 2: Short cut Acrylic fibre (6mm) 2.2.1. Properties of the Fibre The fibre selected for the studies was a high tenacity synthetic fibre (acrylic origin), especially developed for incorporation into bituminous mixtures by Fisipe SA, with the following properties:
Type of Fibre Appearance Colour Section Cut (mm) Density (g/cm ) Fibre Count (dtex) Diameter (m) Number of filaments per gr Elastic Modulus (MPa)

Short-cut Raw white Kidney- Shaped 6 1,17 1,9 14,4 877200 > 12010

Figure 3: Acrylic fibre characteristics and cross section

3. BITUMINOUS MIXTURES WITH FIBRES The introduction of acrylic fibres in bituminous mixtures began in the 80s and it is recognized that its characteristics improve the functional and structural properties of certain types of bituminous mixtures. The introduction of acrylic fibres first appeared in Germany, having thereafter evolved to other European and Asian countries. In the literature there are only studies of acrylic fibres performance in surface layers. In this paper we will also present the behaviour in bituminous mixtures commonly used in base layer and quantify its performance.

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3.1 Mixtures for Surface Layers The incorporation of fibres appeared in mixtures of surface layers, like Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA) type and porous asphalt have the purpose of locking the bitumen, not allowing its drainage during the workability period of the mixture and reducing the appearance of ruts. However, the usage of acrylic fibres due to its properties further allows an improvement of the performance of the mixtures and consequently obtains better pavements. To evaluate the performance improvements a test protocol was designed for two different mixtures of surface layers: Porous asphalt and Gap graded asphalt concrete friction coarse. In the future, the mixture SMA will be object of study, with different percentages of fibres. 3.1.1 Porous Asphalt mixtures The porous asphalt mixtures are very convenient and safe for the drivers; however, they have a reduced average life time. The reason for the short life time of these mixtures is related to the desegregation of aggregate particles, losses which are produced by traffic and by the low cohesion between aggregates and bitumen in the mixtures due to the water. The way to overcome this problem involves the use of materials capable of increasing cohesion and reducing desegregation by increasing adhesion of mastic to the aggregate. Given its properties, acrylic fibres appear to be a material that can solve the problems above mentioned, because it is a material that is hydrophobic and does not suffer any alteration by action of water (Gonzlez, 2004). To verify the viability of acrylic fibres tests were carried out in order to analyse the resistance to disaggregation of the mixture. The bituminous concrete drainage to be studied is type PA 20 Surf PMB 25/55, with granite aggregates and polymer-modified bitumen. The method chosen for the formulation of the draining mixture was the Cantabro method in dry specimens and wet specimens, being that several bituminous mixtures were tested by varying the percentage of fibre incorporation in order to study the obtained effect.

Wear % Dry cantabro dry (%) Wet cantabro (%)

Without fibers (0%) 14,20 21,90

0,1% of fibers

0,2% of fibers

9,70 11,40

6,90 9,90

Figure 4: Cantabro Method results (Bruno, 2009) The cantabro method proved that the mixture with fibres have better performance than the mixture without fibres. 3.1.2. Gap graded asphalt concrete friction coarse The bituminous mixtures of the Gap graded asphalt concrete friction coarse type are also mixtures convenient to the drivers because they present an excellent friction conditions between the tires and the pavement, allowing an increase of safety conditions namely at high speeds even in wet conditions. However, they show a distinct behaviour from draining bituminous mixtures. Concerning the layers executed with Gap graded asphalt concrete
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friction coarse, the appearance of pathologies focuses mainly on the appearance of ruts and/or the appearance of cracks caused by fatigue. From bibliography and given the properties of the fibres it is known that the introduction of fibres makes mixtures more elastic (Gonzlez, 2004). By being more elastic, the mixtures substantially improve their behaviour to permanent deformations by increasing the life to fatigue and delaying the appearance of cracks due to traffic or thermal variations. To verify the viability of acrylic fibres, tests were done place to analyse the resistance to permanent deformations, stiffness and resistance to fatigue. The Gap graded asphalt concrete friction coarse to be studied is the type of asphalt concrete, AC 14, of the Gap graded asphalt concrete friction course type for appliance in wearing layers of pavements, manufactured with a polymer-modified bitumen, with the European designation AC14 Surf PMB 25/55 65 (BBr), with granite aggregates and a polymer-modified bitumen. The chosen method for the formulation of the mixture of the Gap graded asphalt concrete friction coarse type was the Marshall, having been tested in several bituminous mixtures by varying the percentage of fibres incorporation in order to study the obtained effect. Complementarily, its behaviour in terms of permanent deformations and quantification of stiffness and life to fatigue was assessed. The wheel tracking tests proved the fibre increases the resistance of permanent deformation (Figure 5).
Asphalt Concrete

Without Fibers Cat. ---

0,2% of Fibers Sample Sample Average 1 2 3,07 3,94 3,51 Cat. ---

0,3% of Fibers Sample Sample Average 2 1 2,83 2,88 2,86 Cat. ---

Deformations Sample Sample Average 1 2 Wheel tracking slope (mm) Proportional rut depth 5,60 5,48 5,54

0,12

0,10

0,11

WTsAIR 0,15

0,06

0,09

0,08

WTsAIR 0,10

0,06

0,05

0,06

WTSAIR 0,07

Figure 5: Wheel tracking tests (Bruno, 2009) 3.2. Mixtures for Base Layer The bituminous mixtures used in base layers are mixtures that should have a long life time, hence the need for good resistance to permanent deformation and to cracks caused by fatigue. However, these are layers of great thickness, requiring the use of large quantities of material. The need for thick base layers puts some problems in rehabilitation works, as there are not always available the space that allow its execution, reason for why in many cases the designers are forced to predict the usage of low thickness base layers, therefore with high rigidity. 3.2.1. Bituminous Macadam The most used base layer bituminous mixture in Portugal is the bituminous macadam type. The objective of introducing these fibres in this type of mixture is to obtain a bituminous mixture with better performance towards fatigue and therefore enable the reduction of this
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layers thickness, minimizing environmental impacts by reducing the consumption of aggregates and bitumen and achieving a reduction in energy consumption. In addition, one seeks to allow for the usage of this type of mixture in rehabilitation works, keeping the good performance of the layer for lower thicknesses. To verify the viability of acrylic fibres tests were made to analyse the resistance to permanent deformation, stiffness and resistance to fatigue. Asphalt concrete, AC 20, of the bituminous macadam type, made with a 35/50 bitumen, for appliance in base layers, connection or arrangement of pavements with the European designation AC 20 base 35/50 (MB sieve A), AC 20 bin 35/50 (MB sieve A), or AC 20 reg. 35/50, with granite aggregates and a conventional bitumen. The method chosen for the formulation of the mixture of the bituminous macadam type was Marshall, having been tested several bituminous mixtures by varying the percentage of fibres incorporation to study the obtained effect. Complementarily, the performance in terms of permanent deformation and quantification of stiffness and life to fatigue was assessed. Also in mixtures for base layer, more properly in bituminous macadam the wheel tracking tests proved the improvement of formation of ruts in mixtures with fibres (Figure 6).
Asphalt Concrete EN 12697-22, 60C , small size device Wheel tracking slope (mm) Proportional rut depth

Without Fibers Sample Sample 2 Average 1 10,40 7,45 8,93

0,2% of Fibers Category Sample 1 Sample 2 Average Category

--WTSAIR 0,4

2,00

2,70

2,35

--WTSAIR 0,05

0,51

0,24

0,38

0,04

0,05

0,05

Figure 6: Wheel tracking tests (Bruno, 2009)

4. CONCLUSIONS The constant demand for innovation in pavement building, with the objective of building safer and more durable pavements, has led to the systematic demand for materials that can be applied in bituminous mixtures. The acrylic fibres have proven over the years to be a material capable of improving the performance of different types of bituminous mixtures. With the introduction of fibres, the bituminous mixtures improve their properties, particularly the resistance to permanent deformations and delaying the appearance of cracks by fatigue. Fisipe has developed a fibre called L60 1,9dtex 6mm for appliance in bituminous mixtures. Several tests are currently underway in different types of bituminous mixtures to validate the appliance of these fibres in bituminous mixtures. The mixtures under trial are of the types: porous asphalt, Gap graded asphalt concrete friction coarse and bituminous macadam. There are plans for the execution of a study in the SMA-type mixture, being the mixtures where the acrylic fibres are thought to have better performance. Fisipe SA, a company characterized by its strong innovation component, carries on developing new fibres with different properties aiming at further enhancing the performance of bituminous mixtures.
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This study will continue with the analysis of laboratory results and experimental passages allowing the assessment of the situations for which the bituminous mixtures with fibreintroduction are more advantageous. REFERENCES Azevedo, M. C., 1994, Caractersticas Mecnicas de Misturas Betuminosas para Camadas de Base de Pavimentos, Tese de Doutoramento, UTL/IST. Lisboa. Azevedo, M. C., 2007, Aplicao de Fibras Acrlicas em Misturas Betuminosas. Caderno de Encargos. Especificaes do Protocolo de Ensaios Laboratoriais, CAeMD, Almada. Azevedo, M. C., 2008, A Southern European Approach,. Seminar Is Europe in Harmony How the Harmonised Asphalt Standards Are Being Implemented Across Europe. SCI, London, Reino Unido. Bruno P., 2009, Fibras acrlicas de alta tenacidade em misturas betuminosas. XV CILA. Lisboa. Portugal. Cedex, 2003, Study of Bituminous Mixtures Containing Dolanit Fibres; Fisipe Barcelona, S.A.. Teixeira A., 2001, Caracterizao da Resistncia Fadiga de Misturas Betuminosas em Equipamento Servopneumtico, Tese de Mestrado, FEUP, Porto. Gonzlez D., 2003, Mezclas bituminosas reforzadas com fibras acrlicas. III Congresso Mexicano del Asfalto. Ciudad de Mxico Gonzlez D., 2003, Mezclas bituminosas con fibras acrlicas: Comportamiento a fatiga y deformaciones permanentes. XII Congresso Rodovirio Brasileo. Gonzlez D., 2004, Influencia de las fibras acrlicas en las mezclas porosas y en las mezclas convencionales. Revista Carreteras Ene-feb/2004. Silva H., 2008, Study on the use of bituminous mixtures modified with acrylic fibres in road pavement overlays, 1st ICTI, China.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Studies of Bituminous Mixtures with Acrylic Fibers

A. Teixeira
CICCOPN and ISEP, Portugal adriano.teixeira@ciccopn.pt; amt@isep.ipp.pt

B. Pereira & J. M. Contreiras

Fisipe S.A, Portugal bruno.pereira@fisipe.pt jmcontreiras@fisipe.pt

M. C. Azevedo
CAeMD, Portugal mcazevedo@caemd.pt

ABSTRACT: The use of fibers for the production of bituminous mixtures has been known for long and they are widely employed as a way to improve the performance of certain types of bituminous mixtures. The introduction of acrylic fibers in bituminous mixtures may represent yet another contribution for achieving a better final performance from road pavements. This paper presents studies currently under development in Portugal, in which there is an evaluation of the advantages of using acrylic fibers as a way to obtain longer-lasting road pavements. KEY WORDS: Pavement, Acrylic Fibers, Asphalt mixtures, Tests, Specifications. 1. INTRODUCION The technological development, associated with the increase of consumption and the improvement of the purchase power of developed and developing nations has lead to a very significant increase in the volume of light and heavy road traffic. This fact has contributed to a significant increase in the number of roads and highways all over the world, Portugal being a good example of the effort from central and local authorities to endow the country with modern road infrastructures capable of integrating the European road network. The growth of the road network and the improvement of the vehicles characteristics have lead to an increase of the requirements on the part of the drivers, especially of those using toll highways, compelling the entities who explore these highways to ensure the road pavements meet the users requirements in terms of safety, comfort and durability. In the last two or three decades, hundreds of kilometers of roads of great economical and social importance have been built in Portugal, and it has been detected that the pavements under study dont always comply with the previously defined requirements, namely those relating to durability. This issue is very important not only because it implies high financial commitments from the entities exploring the highways, but also because it causes constrains to the normal

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circulation of road users resulting from the constant interventions needed to restore the characteristics of the pavement. Thus, it becomes necessary to invest in the development of new products and solutions that improve the performance of the materials and to find more durable solutions. This effort has been achieved in recent years with the appearance of new materials and mainly with the incorporation in the bituminous mixtures of materials usually used for other products. This work intends to study the ways in which acrylic fibers can contribute to improving the performance of bituminous mixtures (CEDEX, 2003) in order to obtain pavements which are more resistant to the stress from traffic and to the influence of the weather, consequently getting more durable pavements. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGIES USED IN THIS STUDY 2.1. Types of mixtures under study In order to study the performance of different kinds of asphalt mixtures normally used in Portuguese pavements, with different percentages of acrylic fibers, three different asphalt mixtures were studied in laboratory: AC 20 base 35/50, usually named Asphalt Macadam in Portugal and used as base layer; AC 14 surf PMB 25/55-65 Gap Graded Asphalt Concrete Friction Coarse, used as surface layer; PA 14 surf PMB 25/55-65 Porous Asphalt, used as surface layer. 2.2. Materials used in the study In this study nine different-sized natural granitic aggregates from the north of Portugal were used, as well as lime filler, 35/50 bitumen from PETROGAL, polymer-modified 25/55-65 bitumen from PROBIGALP and L60 1,9dtex 6 mm acrylic fibers from FISIPE, SA (Masson 1995). 2.3. Design methods for the mixtures The dense mixtures AC 20 base 35/50 and AC 14 surf PMB 25/55-65 were produced according to the Marshall method, whereas the Cantabro method was used to define the composition of the PA 14 surf PMB 25/55-65 porous asphalt. The design of the asphalt mixtures began with the study of the aggregate size distribution, aiming to obtain mixtures complying with: The European requirements for the AC 20 base 35/50 and AC 14 surf PMB 25/55-65 mixtures, according to EN 13108-1, including the National annex, and EN 13108-7; The APORBET (APORBET 1998) requirements for the PA 14 surf PMB 25/55-65 mixture. Using those methodologies, the optimum binder content was calculated for each asphalt mixture. The study was carried out using fiber-free mixtures. The performance of these mixtures was then compared with that of other mixtures with the same composition but with the addition of acrylic fibers in different percentages.

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3. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FIBER-FREE BITUMINOUS MIXTURES 3.1. Asphalt concrete AC 20 base 35/50 Tables 1, 2 and 3 represent the size distribution of the aggregate mixtures used in the three asphalt mixtures and the size distribution requirements included in the standard EN 13108-1, including the National annex, and APORBET publication. The nine different aggregates used were as follows: AC 20 base 35/50: 14/20; 10/14; 6/12 e 0/4; AC 14 surf PMB 25/55-65: 10/15; 5/10 0/4 and filler; PA 14 surf PMB 25/55-65: 10/14 D; 6/12 D; 0/4 and filler Table 1: AC 20 base 35/50 particle size distribution and European requirements Sieves (mm) Aggregate mixture European Requirements 31.5 100 100 20.0 99 90-100 12.5 78 57-86 4.0 41 34-49 2.0 33 26-41 0.5 18 12-26 0.125 8 4-14 0.063 4,8 2-7

Table 2: AC 14 surf PMB 25/55-65 particle size distribution and European requirements Sieves (mm) Aggregate mixture European Requirements 20.0 100 100 14.0 99 90-100 10.0 72 62-78 4.0 35 30-40 2.0 27 22-30 0.5 16 12-21 0.125 9 7-13 0.063 6,5 4-9

Table 3: PA 14 surf PMB 25/55-65 particle size distribution and Portuguese requirements Sieves (mm) Aggregate mixture Portuguese Requirements 19.0 100 100 12.5 95 80-100 9.5 60 50-80 4.75 23 15-30 2.0 14 10-22 0.85 11 6-13 0.075 5 3-6

Based on the results of the studies, the optimum binder content was fixed for each asphalt mixture. Specimens were made using the binder contents defined and the mixtures were compacted in the moulds with the impact compactor. The properties of the mixtures are presented in Tables 4, 5 and 6.

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Table 4: Volumetric characterization and Marshall test results - AC 20 base 35/50 Bitumen content (%) 4.7 Bulk Density (Mg/m3) 2.386 Maximum Density (Mg/m3) 2.481 Voids (%) 3.8 Marshall Stability (kN) 17.8 Deformation (mm) 2.6

Table 5: Volumetric characterization and Marshall test results - AC 14 surf PMB 25/55-65 Bitumen content (%) 5.3 Bulk Density (Mg/m3) 2.397 Maximum Density (Mg/m3) 2.493 Voids (%) 3.8 Marshall Stability (kN) 17.1 Deformation (mm) 3.6

Table 6: Volumetric characterization - PA 14 surf PMB 25/55-65 Bitumen content (%) 4.7 Bulk Density (Mg/m3) 1.998 Maximum Density (Mg/m3) 2.499 Voids (%) 20.0

4. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ASPHALT MIXTURES 4.1. Methodologies used in the study In order to evaluate the performance of the asphalt mixtures with addition of fibers, different laboratory tests were performed using asphalt fiber-free mixtures and asphalt mixtures with two different contents of acrylic fibers, thus allowing the comparison of the results obtained. Different fiber contents were studied: 0.2%, 0.3% and 0.4% for the dense asphalt mixtures AC 20 base 35/50; 0.2% and 0.3% for the AC 14 surf PMB 25/55-65 mixtures. Slabs with dimensions of 1.0 x 0.6 m2 were compacted and then specimens were prepared for tests to evaluate the performance in terms of permanent deformation, according to the small size device on air described in the EN 12697-22 standard (Bruno 2009). Stiffness and resistance to fatigue were also studied by performing tests with a four-point bending test procedure (Teixeira 2001), according to EN 12697-30 and 12697-24 standards. For the PA 14 surf PMB 25/55-65 mixture, two different fiber contents were studied: 0.1% and 0.2%. For the performance of the Cantabro tests, according to the NLT 362 standard, cylindrical specimens were prepared using the Marshall impact hammer according to EN12697-30. To produce the mixtures in laboratory, a large capacity blender was used, introducing the aggregates first and then the acrylic fibers. The bitumen was added only after the complete dispersion of the fibers in the aggregates. The mixture was then compacted within the mould using a roller compactor, according to the procedure defined in the EN 12697-33 standard.

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4.2. Asphalt concrete AC 20 base 35/50 and AC 14 surf PMB 25/55-65 4.2.1. Rutting behavior The performance of the mixtures in terms of permanent deformations was studied by tests according to EN 12697-22 wheel-tracking, small size device on air at a temperature of 60 C, which is represented in table 7 and figure 1. Table 7: Rutting behavior of the AC 20 base 35/50 and AC 14 surf PMB 25/55-65 mixtures Rut depth - RDair AC 20 base 35/50 AC 14 surf PMB 25/55-65 Wheel-tracking slope WTSair (mm/1000 cycles) AC 20 base 35/50 AC 14 surf PMB 25/55-65 (mm) Fiber-free 8.93 5.54 Fiber-free 0.38 0.11 0.2% fibers 2.35 3.51 0.2% fibers 0.05 0.08 0.3% fibers 2.40 2.86 0.3% fibers 0.05 0.06 0.4% fibers 3.93 --0.4% fibers 0.11 ---

Rut depth

Wheel-tracking slope

AC 20 base 35/50

AC 14 surf PMB 25/55-65

Figure 1: Variation of the rut performance according to fiber content The results obtained show a significant increase of the resistance of the mixtures to rutting when acrylic fibers were introduced to the mixture. This effect is greater with the AC 20 base 35/50 mixture than with the AC 14 surf PMB 25/55-65 one, which may be explained by the fact that this last mixture already uses a polymer-modified bitumen. A content of only 0.2% of acrylic fibers in the AC 20 base 35/50 mixture is enough to obtain a wheel-tracking slope of about 10% when compared to the same mixtures without acrylic fibers. By comparing the results obtained in the laboratory tests we may conclude that the use of acrylic fibers can contribute for obtaining more resistant asphalt mixtures in terms of permanent deformations, therefore more adequate for use in bases of pavements submitted to high temperatures and in conditions of heavy traffic and low circulation speeds.

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4.2.2. Stiffness and resistance to fatigue Tests are presently being developed to study the stiffness and the fatigue life of the asphalt mixtures with and without fibers. Some of the tests carried out reveal that the stiffness of the mixtures are practically the same, with a small increase of the stiffness with higher percentages of acrylic fibers in the AC 14 surf PMB 25/55-65 mixture (Gonzlez 2003). Table 8 describes the average stiffness values calculated for the AC 14 surf PMB 25/55-65 mixture with the four-point bending test described in the EN 12697-26 standard. Table 8: Stiffness of the AC 14 surf PMB 25/55-65 mixture
Frequency (Hz) Fiber-free 0.2% fibers 0.3% fibers 0.2 2228 2488 2706 0.5 3586 3837 4032 1.0 4755 5171 5252 2.0 6445 6840 7117 5.0 8303 8780 9086 10.0 10235 10631 10792

4.3. Porous asphalt PA 14 surf PMB 25/55-65 For the porous asphalt PA 14 surf PMB 25/55-65 mixture, cylindrical specimens were prepared to perform the Cantabro tests according to the NLT 362 standard. A bitumen content of 4.6% was used and three specimens were compacted by means of an impact compactor applying 50 blows to each face: one fiber-free mixture and two others with addition of 0.1% and 0.2% of fibers. The results of the Cantabro tests are presented in table 9 and figure 2. Table 9: Results of the Cantabro test obtained for the PA 14 surf PMB 25/55-65 mixture
Cantabro weight loss (%) Dry test specimens Wet test specimens Fiber-free 14.2 21.9 0.1% fibers 9.7 11.4 0.2% fibers 6.9 9.9

Dry test specimens

Wet test specimens

Figure 2: Variation of the performance of the porous mixture PA 14 surf PMB 25/55-65 with and without fibers

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The tests performed reveal that: The mixture with addition of fibers presents a much better performance than the fiberfree mixture, reducing the weight loss to almost half the value when 0.1% of fibers was used;
We dont get a significant improvement when the fiber content in the mixture is increased from 0.1% to 0.2%.

The affinity between aggregate and bitumen is increased when we use a very low acrylic fibers content in the porous mixture, resulting in an asphalt mixture more resistant to the loss of aggregate particles on account of traffic. 5. CONCLUSIONS The results of the laboratory tests performed define some situations in which the use of acrylic fibers improves the performance of the asphalt mixtures: The resistance to rutting is considerably increased, making this technique very interesting in countries with high temperatures and in pavements submitted to very intense, heavy and slow traffic; The affinity between bitumen and aggregate is improved. Therefore, the use of acrylic fibers in porous mixtures contributes to increasing the durability of the mixture; The inclusion of acrylic fibers in asphalt mixtures results in an improvement of the properties not only in mixtures for surface layers but also for base layers (SILVA 2009). REFERENCES APORBET (1998). Misturas Betuminosas. Contribuio para a Normalizao do Fabrico e da Aplicao. Lisboa. Portugal. Bruno, P. (2009). Fibras acrlicas de alta tenacidade em misturas betuminosas. XV CILA. Lisboa. Portugal. CEDEX (2003). Estudio de Mezclas Bituminosas com Fibras Dolanit. Centro de Estudios y Experimentacin de Obras Pblicas. Informe nico y definitivo tomo nico. Clave CEDEX 31-502-5-083. Madrid. Gonzlez, D. (2003). Mezclas bituminosas con fibras acrlicas: Comportamiento a fatiga y deformaciones permanentes. XII Congresso Rodovirio Brasileo. Silva, H. (2009). Study on the Use of Bituminous Mixtures Modified with Acrylic Fibers in Road Pavements Overlays. 1st ICTI, China. Teixeira, A. (2001). Caracterizao da Resistncia Fadiga de Misturas Betuminosas em Equipamento Servopneumtico. FEUP, Porto. Masson, J. (1995). Acrylic Fiber Technology and applications. New York, USA.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Comparative Study of a Mechanistic Resilient Modulus Predictive Equation for Unbound Materials
C. Cary & C. Zapata
Department of Civil, Environmental and Sustainable Engineering, Arizona State University, United States of America ccary@asu.edu czapata@asu.edu

ABSTRACT: Pavement performance is highly influenced by environment climatic conditions and externally applied loads. The state of the art methodology currently available to evaluate the pavement performance and in particular, the resilient modulus of unbound materials, makes use of empirical correlations rather than fundamental stress state analysis. An extensive literature review performed by the authors revealed that some of the proposed models follow an effective stress approach for unsaturated soils as proposed by Bishop in 1959; while some others, like the one currently implemented in the M-EPDG, incorporate the effects of moisture variations and those induced by external stresses in an uncoupled model. Recently, the authors proposed a mechanistic model that incorporates matric suction as a fundamental stress state variable. The objective of this paper is to compare models found in the existing literature accounting for moisture content variation to the model developed by the authors. Advantages and limitations of the model are discussed in light of the comparison and relevant conclusions are presented. KEY WORDS: Resilient Modulus, Unsaturated Soil, Matric Suction, Unbound Materials. 1. INTRODUCTION It has been widely recognized that the extent and severity of damage in flexible pavements is highly dependant on the resilient response of unbound granular materials. Since its conception in the early 60s, several factors affecting the resilient modulus (MR) of unbound granular materials have been identified: the stress state, moisture content, dry density, number of loading repetitions, compaction energy and soil thixotropy (Seed et al., 1962). Recently, with the implementation of the new AASHTO Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG) the fundamental role that environmental factors play in pavement performance has been demonstrated (Zapata et al., 2007; Zapata et al., 2009) and in particular, the importance of soil moisture variation in the resilient modulus prediction. One third of the earths surface is considered arid or semi-arid and therefore soils in these regions are rarely saturated. Even though several models have been proposed to predict the MR, they have primarily been expressed in terms of total stress analysis and usually neglect moisture variations when the soil is unsaturated. The moisture flow is dictated by the variation in matric suction or pore water pressure build-up within unsaturated and saturated soils, respectively. Matric suction gradients can be

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defined as negative pore water pressure gradients when the pore air pressure gradients are neglected. Therefore, seasonal changes in the MR should be related to a matric suction gradient, fundamental variable within the stress state of unsaturated soils, and not simply to the moisture content of the soil. The MR in unsaturated soils can be viewed as a function of three stress variables (Fredlund and Rahardjo, 1987):
M R = f [( 3 u a ), (u a u w ), ( 1 3 )]
(1)

where, ua is the pore air pressure, uw is the pore water pressure, (3-ua) is the net confining pressure, (uauw) = m is the matric suction, and (1-3) is the deviator stress. The widely known Universal Model developed by Uzan and Witczak (Witczak and Uzan, 1988) considers the aforementioned stress variables through the use of two stress invariants: bulk stress () and octahedral shear stress (oct), but fails to incorporate matric suction. An enhanced version of the Universal Model has been developed by the authors in 2008 (Cary, 2008; Cary and Zapata, 2010). This model incorporates matric suction as a fundamental state stress variable. The objective of this paper is to compare models found in the existing literature accounting for moisture content variation to the model developed by the authors. The response of the selected models is discussed and limitations encountered in their application are commented. 2. BACKGROUND The full stress state dependant model recently suggested by the authors as well as the models selected from an exhaustive literature review for comparative studies are presented as part of the background of this study. 2.1. Matric Suction Dependant MR Model In 2010, Cary proposed a model that includes matric suction as a fundamental variable within the stress state of unsaturated soils (Cary, 2008; Cary and Zapata, 2010). The model is a variation to the Universal Model and considers a smooth transition from unsaturated to saturated conditions in the soils. The model is expressed as follows: If saturation < 100%:

M R = k '1 p a net p a
If saturation is = 100%

k '2

oct + 1 p a

k '3

m0 m + 1 pa

k '4

(2a)

MR

3 u w sat = k '1 p a net pa

k '2

oct + 1 p a

k '3

(1)

k '4

(2b)

Where: pa = atmospheric pressure; k'1 0, k'2 0, k'3 0 and k'4 0 are regression constants; net = -3ua is the net bulk stress; is the bulk stress; ua is the pore air pressure; uw-sat is the build-up of pore water pressure under saturated conditions; oct is the octahedral shear stress;
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mo is the initial matric soil suction; m is the relative change of matric soil suction with respect to mo. In this model, the use of the net bulk stress (net), instead of the total bulk stress (), in the first factor of the model, is due to the use of the axis translation technique that should be applied for MR testing of unsaturated soils. As the condition of the soil goes from an unsaturated state to a saturated state, ua will approach zero and the net will be equal to . Therefore, the model defaults to the Universal Model when the degree of saturation is 100%. The purpose of the third factor in the equation is to capture the contribution of the matric suction to the overall resilience response of the material under unsaturated conditions. The use of the m variable is intended to capture the variations of the matric suction under undrained conditions. The drained conditions are effective when the m value approaches zero. Then, the results will reflect the resilience response of the material when pore water pressure is allowed to dissipate. 2.2. Models Selection for Comparison Three different approaches were found among the attempts to incorporate the effects of matric suction in the MR prediction (Zapata and Cary, 2009). The first approach, which is the more fundamental, is based on the concept of MR as a function of three stress variables, one of them being the matric suction, as shown in Equation 1 (Fredlund and Rahardjo, 1987). In this case, the matric soil suction is one of the components of the stress tensor. Even when the full stress state for unsaturated soils was only partially used, attempts found in the literature leaded by Fredlund et al. in 1977, and Parreira and Goncalves in 2000 are considered under the first approach (Fredlund et al., 1977; Parreira and Goncalves, 2000). The equation developed by the authors also falls under the category of models that follows a full stress state for unsaturated soils approach. Therefore, models corresponding to the two remaining approaches are to be selected to perform comparative studies. The second approach employs a parameter that takes into account the contribution of matric suction independently from the contribution of the externally applied stress. This parameter could be either the moisture content or the degree of saturation. The most relevant model found for this approach was introduced by Witczak et al. in 2000 (Witczak et al., 2000). This model, which is currently utilized by the AASHTO M-EPDG, reads as follows:

M R = 10

a+

ba 1+ EXP + k S S S opt

))

k1 p a oct + 1 p p a a

k2

k3

(3)

In the previous equation, S is the degree of saturation, Sopt is the saturation at optimum conditions, is the bulk stress, oct is the octahedral stress, pa is the atmospheric pressure,k1, k2, k3 are regression constants obtained from fitting the data (corresponding to optimum conditions) to the original Universal Model, and a, b, ks are regression constants. The location parameter is equal to lne(-b/a). This model uses an environmental factor to account for the contribution of moisture content variation to the MR. It should be recognized that the contribution of moisture changes is uncoupled from the stress state variables. Similar models can be found in the literature using either moisture content or degree of saturation as a predictive variable. However, only the AASHTO M-EPDG (referred to as the uncoupled approach from now on) was included in this study as it is considered to be the most important of its kind. In a third approach, the MR is defined as a function of matric suction by translating the concept of effective stress for saturated soils to unsaturated soils as proposed by Bishop
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(Bishop, 1959). The models presented by Yang et al. and Liang et al. in 2005 and 2008 respectively, can be considered under the last approach (Yang et al., 2005; Liang et al., 2008). Liang et al. model, which explicitly incorporates the effect of both the externally applied stress and matric suction on the MR by using the Bishops effective stress for unsaturated soils (Bishop, 1959), was selected to represent the third approach. Similar to the model suggested by the authors, Liangs model was conceived as a variation of the original Universal Model. This common root made of Liangs model the best alternative to the authors for model performances comparison. Liang et al. model reads as follows:

( + m m ) oct M R = k1 p a + 1 pa pa
k2

k3

(4)

Where is the bulk stress, oct is the octahedral stress, pa is the atmospheric pressure, and k1, k2, k3 are regression constants. 3. COMPARISON OF MODEL PERFORMANCES The data utilized in the comparisons was obtained from MR tests performed at the Arizona State University Geotechnical Laboratory. Two materials were evaluated: a granular base material denoted as GB and a clayey sand denoted as SG. The AASHTO soil classification for the materials is A-1-a and A-4 respectively. Data from both drained and constant water content (sometimes referred as undrained) MR tests was available for the GB material. Only drained MR tests data was available for the SG soil at the time of the preparation of this document. The statistical parameters used to assess the goodness of fit in this study were the standard error ratio or relative accuracy (Se/Sy) and the adjusted coefficient of determination (R2adj). 3.1. Full Stress State Approach versus Uncoupled Approach For this first comparison, Equation 3 was applied to predict the MR of both GB and SG materials. The regression was performed in three steps: firstly the k1, k2, k3 regression constants for the Universal Model were obtained at optimum conditions; then the results were used to compute the reference moduli at different stress states; and finally the results from the second step were used for the final regression to obtain the a, b, ks regression constants. The same data was fitted to the model proposed by the authors. The results showed that in contrast to the results obtained by following the uncoupled approach, the R2adj improved when using the full stress state approach from 0.86 to 0.91 for the GB material (Figure 1, a and b) and from 0.83 to 0.92 for the SG soil (Figure 2, a and b); while the Se/Sy dropped from 0.37 to 0.31 and from 0.42 to 0.29 for the GB and SG materials respectively. These numbers indicate an important improvement on the MR prediction. 3.2. Full Stress State Approach versus an Equivalent Effective Stress Approach for Unsaturated Soils For this comparison, Equation 4 was used to predict the MR of both GB and SG materials. The computation of the m parameter was achieved in the same way as Liang et al.; that is, by applying the Khalili and Khabbaz methodology (Khalili and Khabbaz, 1998). The results of the comparison suggest an improvement on the statisitics of the full stress state model when

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1,200 Predicted M R (MPa) 1,000 800 600 400 200 0 0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200
n = 302 S e /S y = 0.308 R
2 adj

k 1 '=1992.89 k 2 '=0.628 k 3 '=-0.294 k 4 '=0.180

= 0.906

Measured MR (MPa)

(a) Full stress state approach (Eq. 2)

1,200 Predicted M R (MPa) 1,000 800 600 400 200 0 0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 Measured MR (MPa)
n = 302 S e /S y = 0.371 R
2 adj

= 0.863

(b) Uncoupled approach M-EPDG (Eq. 3)

1,200 Predicted M R (MPa) 1,000 800 600 400 200 0 0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200
n = 302 S e /S y = 0.390 R
2 adj

k 1 =1578.31 k 2 =0.863 k 3 =-0.504

= 0.849

Measured MR (MPa)

(c) Effective stress approach for unsaturated soils (Eq. 4) Figure 1: Comparison of model performances for the GB (A-1-a) material
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700 Predicted M R (MPa) 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 0

k 1 '=1480.32 k 2 '=0.420 k 3 '=-2.982 k 4 '=1.650

n = 91 S e /S y = 0.291 R
2 adj

= 0.918

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

Measured MR (MPa)

(a) Full stress state approach (Eq. 2)

700 Predicted M R (MPa) 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 Measured MR (MPa)
n = 91 S e /S y = 0.420 R
2 adj

= 0.825

600

700

(b) Uncoupled approach M-EPDG (Eq. 3)

700 Predicted M R (MPa) 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 Measured MR (MPa)
k 1 =2849.3 k 2 =0.615 k 3 =-2.767

n = 91 S e /S y = 0.942 R
2 adj

= 0.131

(c) Effective stress approach for unsaturated soils (Eq. 4) Figure 2: Comparison of model performances for the SG (A-4) soil

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compared to the statistics of the effective stress for unsaturated soils approach for both GB and SG materials. The R2adj improved when using the full stress state approach from 0.85 to 0.91 for the GB material (Figure 1, a and c) and from 0.13 to 0.91 for the SG soil (Figure 2, a and c); while the Se/Sy dropped from 0.39 to 0.31 and from 0.94 to 0.29 for the GB and SG materials respectively. 4. DISCUSSION ON THE SHORTCOMINGS OF APPROACHES USED TO PREDICT RESILIENT MODULUS FOR UNSATURATED UNBOUND MATERIALS The analysis presented in the previous section provides a strong statistical support to affirm that a model following the full stress state approach provides accurate predictions. Some considerations regarding the difference found between the prediction results offered by the proposed model and the two approaches used to compare the model follow. As previously mentioned the uncoupled approach represented by the M-EPDG model does not directly consider the matric suction as a fundamental stress variable but rather indirectly incorporates its effect by using the degree of saturation. Even though the M-EPDG approach and an enhanced version suggested by Cary and Zapata in 2010 are adequate for practical purposes; by using suction directly, the margin of uncertainty in MR predictions can be reduced (Cary and Zapata, 2010). The shortcomings faced by the models following the effective stress approach for unsaturated soils are of a different kind. Although it seems the volume change and the strength behavior of unsaturated soils are controlled by an effective stress (different that the total stress), the formulations encountered in the literature that couple total stresses and suction together into a single equivalent effective stress are uncertain (Mitchell and Soga, 2005). Models that use the effective stress approach combine the response of two independent stress state variables: matric suction and the external stress component (bulk stress), within a single factor. However, it is well known that any increase in matric suction will always favor the resilient response of unbound materials. On the other hand, either stress hardening or softening is experienced depending on whether the material tested is coarse- or fine-grained. Therefore, it would not be recommendable to combine them within the same term to avoid imposing a single powering for both matric suction and externally applied stresses. The estimation of the m Bishops parameter (Bishop, 1959) represents another uncertainty in this type of models. Different methods to estimate m have been presented but none of them have been widely adopted by the research community, due to several reasons including: difficulties in the evaluation of the parameter, its dependence on saturation, and its dependence on soil type. Furthermore, since saturation is related to matric suction, it is possible that m depends on suction as well. Finally, most of the methods proposed for m estimation require the use of the material air entry value (i.e. Khalili and Khabbaz, 1998) which is obtained out of the soil water characteristic curve (SWCC) geometric properties. Thus, inappropriate SWCC testing practices may condition the accuracy of the m estimation and therefore introduce more uncertainty to the MR predictions. Even if the use of the effective stress approach to predict the MR were widely accepted, inconsistencies in the prediction of m would remain.

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5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSSIONS A preliminary study of the feasibility of a mechanistic model to predict resilient modulus of unbound materials was evaluated in this study. The results of a testing program were used to fit models following three different approaches: a full stress state approach (proposed model), an uncoupled stress approach and an equivalent effective stress for unsaturated soils approach. The statistical analysis revealed that the full stress state model proposed by the authors is promising. In general, the full stress state model overcomes the limitations or shortcomings of the other two approaches. Given that measuring suction and its variation under applied dynamic load is still a challenging task, the capability of measuring a full stress state MR is currently viable just to research institutions. However, the authors believe that as such testing capabilities are implemented into the state of the practice and a larger database is developed, the full stress state model is by far the best model available to predict resilient modulus response. Given the need to overcome testing limitations, further research is being conducted at Arizona State University not only to explore alternative ways to measure but also to model suction variations during the MR test as function of loading patterns and soil types. The development of a large database of measured MR response with controlled/measured suction will provide practitioners with predictive models when suction variation measurements are not possible or desired.

REFERENCES Bishop, A. W., 1959. The Principle of Effective Stress. Tecknisk Ukeflad, 106(39), pp. 859-863. Cary, C. E., 2008. Resilient Modulus Testing for Unsaturated Unbound Materials. Master thesis, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona. Cary, C. E. and Zapata, C. E., 2010. Resilient Modulus Testing for Unsaturated Unbound Materials. Transportation Research Board annual meeting, January. Annual Meeting DVD. Cary, C. E. and Zapata, C. E., 2010. Enhancement of the Model for Resilient Response of Soils due to Seasonal Environmental Changes Implemented in the M-EPDG. In Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board. In print. Fredlund, D. G. and Began N. R., 1977. Stress State Variables for Unsaturated Soils. ASCE Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering Division, Vol. 103, No. 5, pp. 447-466. Fredlund, D. G. and Rahardjo, H., 1987. Soil Mechanics Principles for Highway Engineering in Arid Regions. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No 1137, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C., pp. 1-11. Fredlund, D. G.; Began, A. T. and Wong, P. K., 1977. Relation between Resilient Modulus and Stress Conditions for Cohesive Subgrade Soils. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No 642, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C., pp. 73-81. Khalili, N., Khabbaz, MH., 1998. A Unique Relationship for for the Determination of the Shear Strength of Unsaturated Soils. G eotechnique, 48(5), pp. 681687. Liang, R. Y.; Rababah, S. and Khasawneh, M., 2008. Predicting Moisture-Dependent Resilient Modulus of Cohesive Soils Using Soil Suction Concept. ASCE Journal of Transportation Engineering, Vol. 134, No. 1, pp. 34-40.

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Mitchell, J. K. and Soga, K., 2005. Fundamentals of Soil Behavior. New Jersey: Jhon Wiley & Sons Parreira, A. B. and Goncalves, R. F., 2000. The Influence of Moisture Content and Soil Suction on the Resilient Modulus of a Lateritic Subgrade Soil. Presented at GeoEng - An International Conference on Geotechnical & Geological Engineering, Melbourne, Australia. Seed, H. B.; Chan, C. K. and Lee, C. E., 1962. Resilience Characteristics of Subgrade Soils and their Relation to Fatigue Failures in Asphalt Pavements. In Conference Proceedings: International Conference on Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements, Vol. 1, Ann Arbor, USA, pp. 611-636. Witczak, M. W. and Uzan, J., 1988. The Universal Airport Design System, Report I of IV: Granular Material Characterization. Department of Civil Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park. Witczak, M. W.; Andrei, D. and Houston, W.N., 2000. Resilient Modulus as Function of Soil Moisture Summary of Predictive Models. Development of the 2002 Guide for the Development of New and Rehabilitated Pavement Structures, NCHRP 1-37 A, Inter Team Technical Report (Seasonal 1). Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona. Yang, R. R.; Huang, W. H. and Tai, Y. T., 2005. Variation of Resilient Modulus with Soil Suction for Compacted Subgrade Soils. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No 1913, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C., pp. 99-106. Zapata, C. E.; Andrei, D.; Witczak, M. W. and Houston, W. N., 2007. Incorporation of Environmental Effects in Pavement Design. International Journal of Road Materials and Pavement Design, Vol. 8, No 4, pp. 667-693. Zapata, C. E.; Perera, Y. Y. and Houston, W. N., 2009. Matric Suction Prediction Model Used in the New AASHTO Mechanistic Empirical Pavement Design Guide. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No 2101, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C., pp. 53-62. Zapata, C. E. and Cary, C. E., 2009. A New Generation of Resilient Modulus Characterization of Unbound Materials. In Contemporary Topics in Ground Modification, Problem Soils, and Geo-Support, Geotechnical Special Publication No. 187: Selected papers from the 2009 International Foundations Congress and Equipment Expo, American Society of Civil Engineers. Orlando, Florida, March, pp. 377-384.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Effects of the Rheological Properties of Mastics on the Creep Performance of Asphalt Concretes
H.M. Zelelew
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Minnesota Duluth, MN, USA hzelelew@d.umn.edu

A.T. Papagiannakis
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA at.papagiannakis@utsa.edu

ABSTRACT: Asphalt concrete (AC) pavements are complex heterogeneous materials consisting of air voids, binders, mineral fillers and aggregates. The performance of asphalt pavements greatly depend on the distribution, proportion, and interaction of these phases as well as the rheological properties of asphalt binders and mastics. In this paper, the effects of rheological properties of asphalt mastics on the creep performance of ACs are presented. A total of nine AC cores were analyzed, by combining three different mix designs and three different aggregate types. The mix designs were a Coarse Matrix High Binder Type C (CMHB-C), Porous Friction Course (PFC), and Superpave Type C (Superpave-C). The three aggregate types used included Hard Limestone (HL), Granite (G), and Soft Limestone (SL). The binder grade used for all these samples was a PG 76-22. Experimental uniaxial creep tests were performed on these AC mixtures. Oscillatory tests using a Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR) were performed to investigate the plastic deformation resistance behavior of asphalt mastics. The rheological properties of asphalt mastics were calculated from the resulting shear stress-strain curves using various rheological models. The Bingham, Herschel-Bulkley, and Casson models were utilized to estimate yield stress (i.e., the minimum shear stress required to initiate flow). The plastic viscosity (i.e., a measure of the resistance to flow) was estimated by the Bingham and Casson models. In general, AC mixtures prepared from mastic samples retaining high yield stress and plastic viscosity demonstrated better deformation resistant potential. KEY WORDS: Mastics, Yield Stress, Plastic Viscosity, Asphalt Concretes, Creep Performance.

1. INTRODUCTION Asphalt concrete (AC) pavements are complex heterogeneous materials consisting of air voids, binders, mineral fillers and aggregates. The performance of asphalt pavements greatly depend on the distribution, proportion, and interaction of these phases as well as the physical/shape properties of aggregates and the rheological properties of asphalt mastics. Asphalt mastics are blends of asphalt binder and mineral filler passing sieve No. 200 (i.e.,

157

sieve size 75m). The rheological properties of asphalt binders and mastics under an imposed shearing stress are time and temperature dependent and play a significant role in AC mechanical response. The rheological properties of engineering materials such as soils, concretes, and asphalts have been studied for many decades. The workability of fresh concrete has been characterized through Bingham and Herschel-Buckley models (Ferraris et al., 2001; Rahman and Nehdi, 2003; and Nehdi and Rahman, 2004). Numerous studies also investigated the properties of asphalt binders and mastics using viscoelastic rheological models (Kim and Little, 2004; Abbas et al., 2005; and Zelelew 2008). Huang and Zeng (2007) characterized the aging effect on rheological properties of asphalt filler systems. Rheological models can be used to predict the plastic deformation properties of asphalt binders and mastics using relationship between shear stress and rate of shear strain. In this paper, three rheological models, namely the Bingham model, Herschel-Bulkley model, and Casson model were utilized to characterize the yield stress and the plastic viscosity of asphalt mastics. Moreover, their effects on AC deformation resistance behavior were investigated. 2. OBJECTIVE The primary objective of this paper is to characterize the rheological properties of asphalt mastics using Bingham, Herschel-Bulkley, and Casson models. It capitalizes on the estimation of the yield stress and plastic viscosity of asphalt mastic samples tested under oscillatory tests using a Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR) device and investigates their effects on creep performance of AC mixtures. 3. RHEOLOGICAL MODELS Asphalt binders and mastics exhibit features of viscous and plastic fluids. Rheological models can describe the behavior of asphalt binders and mastics across a wide range of shear strain rates, shear stress levels, and temperatures and therefore largely simulate the real conditions in the field. Among other, mixture composition and test devices influence the selection of rheological models used to describe the flow behavior of binder and mastic samples. This paper presents the most commonly used rheological models in asphalt and cement industries, namely the Bingham model, Herschel-Bulkley model, and Casson model. Using these models, the yield stress (i.e., the minimum shear stress required to initiate flow) and the plastic viscosity (i.e., a measure of the resistance to flow) properties of asphalt binders and mastic samples can be mathematically determined. The relationship between shear stress and shear strain rates for these models can be expressed as: Bingham model Herschel-Bulkley model Casson model [1] [2] [3]

where, , , , , and represent the shear stress, yield stress (i.e., the minimum shear stress required to initiate flow), plastic viscosity (i.e., a measure of the resistance to flow), shear rate, and consistency (i.e., measures the structural strength to deformation), respectively.

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Equations 1 to 3 can be used to estimate the yield stress and the plastic viscosity property can be quantified using Equations 1 and 3. 4. MATERIALS 4.1. Sample preparation A total of nine mastic samples were produced, each involving a combination of three different mix designs and three different aggregate types. The mix designs included are Coarse Matrix High Binder Type C (CMHB-C), Porous Friction Course (PFC), and Superpave Type C (Superpave-C). Three aggregate types were used, namely Hard Limestone (HL), Granite (G), and Soft Limestone (SL). The binder grade used for all these samples was a PG 76-22. Sieve analysis was performed on dried aggregates to obtain the percentage of fines passing sieve No. 200 (i.e., sieve size 75 m). Table 1 presents the binder and filler volume fractions used to prepare mastic samples. Table 1: Mastic sample proportions Fine Aggregate Mixture ID HL CMHB-C G CMHB-C SL CMHB-C HL PFC G PFC SL PFC HL Superpave-C G Superpave-C SL Superpave-C
+

Binder Content (%) 9.749 11.954 12.956 10.284 12.845 13.734 9.340 11.041 11.963

Mastic (%) 16.984 17.717 18.330 14.780 14.341 15.416 16.808 17.388 17.837

Content + (%) 7.235 5.763 5.374 4.496 1.496 1.682 7.468 6.347 5.875

Fines Passing Sieve No. 200 (or Sieve Size 75 m) HL: Hard Limestone; G: Granite; SL: Soft Limestone 4.2. Mixing and fabrication of samples The PG 76-22 binder was preheated at mixing temperature of 1630C to ensure complete fluidity and then sufficiently stirred to homogenize and remove the air bubbles before pouring to the proportions of the fines. Rolling Thin Film Oven (RTFO) binder tests were performed on original PG 76-22 binder in accordance with AASHTO T240/ASTM D2872 specification procedures (the unaged binder was aged using testing temperature of 1630C and air flow of 4000 ml/min for 85 minutes). The RTFO-aged binder was used to prepare the mastic samples in order to resemble the short-term aging that takes place during mixing and construction and characterize the formation of rutting at early stage of the pavement life, typically 3-5 years. The mastic samples were fabricated manually for each filler volume and poured into the standard rubber mold that can hold at least 2 mm thick sample for DSR rheological testing.
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5. RHEOLOGICAL TESTS DSR is a conventional testing method worldwide in industries and research centers used to characterize the rheological properties of fluid-like materials such as asphalt binders and mastics. In this study, the SmartPaveTM DSR shown in Figure 1 was used to perform oscillatory rheological tests on mastic samples. The special features of this DSR device include: torque range 0.5 to 125000 Nm; speed range 0.0001 to 3000 rpm; frequency range 0.0001 to 100 Hz. It has heating/cooling temperature control, automatic temperature calibration and gap setting system. The data acquisition system provides a record of several shear stress and shear strain response parameters. It has also robust software called RheoplusTM that generates different rheological parameters supported by three-dimensional graphical representations. Oscillatory rheological tests namely, the Frequency Sweep Tests (FSTs) are commonly performed to investigate the plastic deformation resistance behavior of asphalt binders and mastics. FSTs show the changes in the rheological behavior of the material under the application of shear stress/strain and therefore can be used to examine the time-dependent behavior of asphalt binders and mastics. In other words, the short- and long-term behavior of these materials that simulate the low- and high-traffic conditions respectively can be characterized. For this study, FSTs were performed by inputting variable angular frequency of 0.01 to 100 rad/sec at constant shear strain amplitude of 10%. The shear stress and shear rate data obtained from FSTs can be used to determine the yield stress and plastic viscosity of mastic samples as described below.

Figure 1: SmartPaveTM DSR 6. CREEP TESTS ON AC MIXTURES The Superpave gyratory compacted AC core samples, which measured 150 mm in diameter by 165 mm in height were drilled to 100 mm diameter and trimmed to a height of 150 mm. After trimming, the cores were subjected to uniaxial creep load under a constant vertical stress of 207 kPa at a chamber temperature of 60C. The regression parameters (i.e., intercept and slope) of the creep curve steady-state region were used to characterize the rutting or permanent deformation behavior of AC mixtures (Table 2). As illustrated in this table, the mixture type CMHB-C demonstrated higher resistance to rutting following mixture type Superpave-C and PFC mixtures are found to be less resistant to rutting.
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Table 2: Axial strain steady-state region regression parameters Intercept Mixture ID HL CMHB-C G CMHB-C SL CMHB-C HL PFC G PFC SL PFC HL Superpave-C G Superpave-C SL Superpave-C x10-6 (mm/mm) 3820 4160 4240 5720 8500 5450 3700 2850 3300 Slope x10-7 (mm/mm)/sec 2.62 3.83 5.80 3.97 8.37 8.89 1.47 2.01 2.98

HL: Hard Limestone; G: Granite; SL: Soft Limestone 7. ANALYSIS 7.1. Yield Stress and Plastic Viscosity Figure 2 illustrates the variation of yield stress of the mastic samples as estimated by the rheological models described earlier. The Bingham model estimated the highest yield stress followed by the Casson and the Herschel-Bulkley models. This is probably due to different emphasis placed on the shear rate by these models. In general, mastic samples with aggregate type Hard Limestone (HL) provided higher yield stresses followed by the Granite (G) and Soft Limestone (SL). Figure 3 illustrates the variation of plastic viscosity estimated using Equations 1 and 3 (i.e., Bingham and Casson model, respectively). Comparing to the Casson model, the Bingham model estimated higher plastic viscosity for all the mastic samples. Mastics with Hard Limestone (HL) provided higher plastic viscosity followed by the Granite (G) and the Soft Limestone (SL). Overall, the Superpave-C mastic samples measured higher yield stress and plastic viscosity values followed by CMHB-C and PFC.

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300 Bingham 250 Herchel-Bulkley Casson

Yield Stress (Pa)

200

150

100

50

pa ve

PF C

ve Su pe rp a
ve

Su pe r

SL

Figure 2: Yield stress of mastic samples estimated by rheological models

8 Bingham Plastic Viscosity (kPa.s) 6 Casson

0
e M H B M H C M H pa v Su pe rp a pa ve Su SL pe r PF C PF C B B PF C

Su pe r

SL

SL

Figure 3: Plastic viscosity of mastic samples estimated by rheological models

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SL

Su

pe rp av e

C M H

M H B

M H

SL

PF C

PF C

7.2. Effect of Rheological Properties of Mastics on Creep Performance To investigate effects of the rheological properties of asphalt mastics on the creep performance of AC mixtures, the axial strain steady-state region regression parameters (i.e., intercept and slope) were correlated to yield stress and plastic viscosity properties (Figures 4 to 7). It is shown that AC mixtures prepared from high strength mastic samples (i.e., retaining high yield stress and plastic viscosity) demonstrated better deformation resistant potential. This is because the internal friction resulting from the combined effects of cohesion and adhesion improved the creep performance of ACs. The limitation of this study is that the relationship between creep curve regression parameters and the estimated rheological properties of mastics were derived using nine AC/mastic samples (i.e., using three mixture types, three aggregate type, and one binder grade) and three rheological models (i.e., Bingham, Hershcel-Bulkley, and Casson models). The future work of this study is to develop a statistical correlation between the mastic rheological properties derived from various models and AC deformation performance parameters using several mixture compositions. Moreover, the viscoplastic contact models of mastics can be utilized to model/simulate AC creep behavior using numerical simulation techniques.
10000 Bingham Herchel-Bulkley 8000
Intercept x10-6 (mm/mm)

Casson

6000

4000

2000

0 0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15 Yield Stress (kPa)

0.20

0.25

0.30

Figure 4: Relationship between yield stress and intercept of steady-state axial strain.

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10 Bingham Herchel-Bulkley 8 Casson

Slope x10-7 (mm/mm/Sec)

0 0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15 Yield Stress (kPa)

0.20

0.25

0.30

Figure 5: Relationship between yield stress and slope of steady-state axial strain.
10000 Bingham 8000 Casson

Intercept x10-6 (mm/mm)

6000

4000

2000

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Plastic Viscosity (kPa.sec)

Figure 6: Relationship between plastic viscosity and intercept of steady-state axial strain.

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10 Bingham 8 Casson

Slope x10-7 (mm/mm/Sec)

0 0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

6.00

7.00

Plastic Viscosity (kPa.sec)

Figure 7: Relationship between plastic viscosity and slope of steady-state axial strain

8. CONCLUSIONS This paper presented an estimation of the rheological properties of asphalt mastics (i.e., yield stress and plastic viscosity) using three alternative models, namely Bingham, HerschelBulkley, and Casson models and investigate their effects on creep performance of ACs. A total of nine AC cores were produced, each involving a combination of three different mix designs and three different aggregate types. The mix designs included Coarse Matrix High Binder Type C (CMHB-C), Porous Friction Course (PFC), and Superpave Type C (Superpave-C). Three aggregate types were used, namely hard limestone (HL), granite (G), and soft limestone (SL). The binder grade used for all these samples was a PG 76-22. The Superpave gyratory compacted samples were subjected to uniaxial creep testing under a constant vertical stress of 207 kPa at a chamber temperature of 60C. The creep curve regression parameters (i.e., intercept and slope) of the steady-state region were used to characterize the permanent deformation behavior of AC mixtures. Oscillatory rheological tests were performed to investigate the plastic deformation resistance behavior of asphalt mastics. Mastic samples with aggregate type Hard Limestone (HL) provided higher yield stress and plastic viscosity followed by the Granite (G) and Soft Limestone (SL). In general, AC mixtures prepared from mastic samples retaining high yield stress and plastic viscosity demonstrated better deformation resistant potential. The findings presented in this paper can be used to develop a statistical correlation between mastic rheological properties derived from various models and AC deformation performance parameters using several mixture compositions.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT Sincere thanks are expressed to Dr. Nazarian of the University of Texas-El Paso and Dr. Masad of Texas A&M University for supplying the AC laboratory test results.

REFERENCES Abbas, A.; Papagiannakis, A.T.; Masad, E. and Shenoy A., 2005. Modelling Asphalt Mastic Stiffness using Discrete Element Analysis and Micromechanicsbased Models. The International Journal of Pavement Engineering, 6(2), pp. 137-146. Ferraris, C. F., 2001. The influence of mineral admixtures on the rheology of cement paste and concrete. Cement and Concrete Research 31 (2), pp. 245255. Huang, S. and Zeng, M., 2007. Characterization of aging effect on rheological properties of asphalt-filler systems. International Journal of Pavement Engineering, Vol. 8 (3), pp. 213-223. Kim, Y. and Little D., 2004. Linear Viscoelastic Analysis of Asphalt Mastics. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 16 (2), pp. 122-132. Nehdi, M. and Rahman, M. A., 2004. Estimating rheological properties of cement pastes using various rheological models for different test geometry, gap and surface friction. Cement and Concrete Research 34, pp. 19932007. Rahman, M. A. and Nehdi, M., 2003. Effect of geometry, gap and surface friction of test accessory on measured rheological properties of cement pastes. ACI Mater. J. 100 (4), pp. 331339. Zelelew, H. M., 2008. Simulation of the Permanent Deformation of Asphalt Concrete Mixtures using the Discrete Element Method (DEM). PhD Thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Washington State University.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Asphalt Concrete with Low-Viscosity Modifier

M. Iwaski & G. Mazurek
Kielce University of Technology Department of Civil Engineering, Poland iwanski@tu.kielce.pl, gmazurek@tu.kielce.pl

ABSTRACT: In order to ensure the proper compaction of asphalt concrete in the autumn season the decreasing of the viscosity of asphalt is needed. However, this process cannot cause the decline of bitumens viscosity in the summer season. The purpose of this research project was also the determination of the influence of the low-viscosity modifier (hard synthetic wax) on adhesion and Fraass breaking point temperature. The modifier was added to the bitumen 35/50 in the amount of 1,5% to 4,0% with changes every 0,5% at variable compaction temperature. It was proven that the use of this kind of a modifier has a beneficial effect on asphalt concrete properties such as stability, void fraction content, and stiffness. It also was found that optimal amount of low-viscosity modifier did not cause drastic worsening of the adhesion. On the basis of the research results, using mathematical optimizing algorithms, the asphalt concrete composition was obtained, which provides higher operational parameters and lower production and compaction temperature. This temperature was reduced up to 30C in comparison to asphalt concrete with traditional road bitumen 35/50 without modification. KEY WORDS: Pavements, Asphalt Concrete, Optimization, Models 1. INTRODUCTION Asphalt pavements are subject to various defects as a result of the combined impact of traffic and climatic factors, which cause constant changes in the values of stress, deformations, temperature and humidity (Judycki et al. 1999). It has an impact on the bitumen viscosity range, in which the proper efficiency of coating of aggregate grains and the required amount of energy for asphalt concrete compaction are ensured (Gawe et al., 2001). The temperature also changes conditioning forces of aggregate binder phases (Stefaczyk and Mieczkowski 2008). When temperature falls the binder and asphalt concrete become stiffer. In order to ensure the required durability of the pavement the proper compaction of asphalt concrete to the level, where the amount of void fraction is optimal, is required (Nowoci Zagranicznej Techniki Drogowej Nr 196, 2006). Properly compacted asphalt concrete should also meet other functionality criteria, for example fatigue crack, thermal crack, and workability during compaction processes (Iwaski and Dobrowolski, 1994) (Radziszewski et al., 2003). According to practice the recommended temperature of asphalt concrete which is delivered to the building site should be approximately 145C. With no doubt it depends on the kind of bitumen. In the summer season, when the temperature of surroundings is greater than 25C, there are conditions for proper compaction of asphalt concrete. However it often happens, that

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asphalt layers are performed in the period of the late autumn, when the air temperature is low. In consequence, the hot mix asphalt quickly cools down. Such a situation brings about a void content to higher level and decreases the durability of asphalt concrete. One of the methods of solving these technological and ecological problems of the asphalt concrete technology as well as other kinds of mineral and bitumen mixes produced with the hot technology is their application in the production of low viscosity bitumen. To the framework composition other components (hard crystalline paraphines) have been added, which lower viscosity in higher temperatures. These components are aliphatic hydrocarbons of long chains. Parraphines which was received in Fisher-Tropsch process contain microcrystalline long chains of carbon atoms in the range of 40 to 115, while in natural paraffin there were maximum 45. Such a situation ensures getting the increased temperature of growing and the reduced penetration of asphalt with the addition of paraffins of this type. Moreover, bitumen modified by this kind of wax has much higher softening point and lower viscosity at 25oC in comparison to traditional bitumen (Danowski 2007). The modifier, because of its structure, is a hydrophobic, strong non-polar substance and well soluble in high temperature in bitumen environment (Stefaczyk and Mieczkowski 2008). But synthetic waxes in high concentration, crystallizing on the surface of the aggregate, disturb the adsorption process on this surface of polar-aromatic elements which prevent forming bonds on the phases of bitumen-aggregate (Gawe et al. 2001)and thereby they bring about the decreasing of adhesion and mechanical properties. Therefore, at this domain of study we tried to find the proportion temperatures and amounts of the modifier which will result in getting the increase in mechanical properties without excess reduction in breaking point temperature, deterioration of the adhesion and establishing of void content at the level which will not decrease the mechanical properties. 2. EXPERIMENTAL TEST ON THE LOW-VISCOSITY BITUMEN The tests of the impact of the low viscosity modifier on changes of the bitumen properties were conducted for the traditional 35/50 road bitumen from Petrochemia Pock (Poland) which served as a binder. The selected type of binder was modified with low-viscosity modifier (only Fisher-Tropsch wax) at the very beginning in the range of 1,5% to 4,0% with changes every 0,5% in proportion to the amount of the bitumen. The changes of the basic rheological properties such as penetration, softening point and Fraass breaking point temperature have been presented in figure 1.

Figure 1: The impact of the low-viscosity modifier content on the penetration, softening point and Fraass breaking point temperature.

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The analysis of test results shows that the content of the low-viscosity modifier had a significant impact on the selected rheological properties of the binder. At the concentration of the modifier up to 0,5% the impact of the modifier on the bitumens properties was insignificant. At the modifier content of up to 1% the level of changes was low, but the contrast of changing properties to the previous content was revealed, particularly in softening point temperature. At higher concentrations of the modifier, it was possible to observe, considerable change in penetration and the softening point. The impact of the modifier became weaker as its concentration reached about 3,5% with regard to penetration, as opposed to the softening point, which still constantly increase. A favorable impact of the 2-2,5% modifier content ensures an advantageous hardening of asphalt. It also enables to obtain the softening point which is higher than the operational value of about 60C. The intensifying process of the increase in breaking point temperature can indicate, by given bulk of crystal of paraffin, large amount of crystal waxes which worsens the resistance to the low temperature. 3. THE EXAMINATION OF ADHESION OF BITUMEN TO THE AGGREGATE One of the elements of assessment of the impact of the low-viscosity modifier on the asphalt concrete properties was analysis of the effect of the amount of the low-viscosity modifier on changes of the adhesion. The examination was conducted with the help of the boiling test. To make a comparison the same binder 35/50 with and without F-T wax was used. The test result states the visual readout. However, at the presented work the way of receiving the result was modified by using digital analysis of the image of the photograph. Because of the fact that the result of single photograph can provide unreliable evaluations, to examine one sample series photographs of sample aggregate without bitumen, aggregate binded with asphalt and of the sample after the boiling test were used. It was revealed that to receive the average, at confidence level of 95% and required dispersion level of test results at permanent conditions for the examination, the experiment required not more than 20 repetitions of the photograph. Such a situation guaranties receiving the measurement uncertainty not exceeding 10%. The research which concerns changes of the adhesion depending on the amount of the low-viscosity modifier was performed on the gabbro aggregate, which was applied to prepare asphalt concrete, and comparatively on quartzite aggregate. Results of the conducted tests were presented in figure 2.

Figure 2: The impact of the low-viscosity modifier content on adhesion

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One should pay attention to the influence of the amount of the low-viscosity modifier on adhesion depending on the kind of aggregate. Results of the one-way analysis of variance with Duncan grouping, revealed the lack of the significant effect of the content of lowviscosity modifier on adhesion with reference to the gabbro aggregate (p-value = 0.2465)).Test results of the one-way analysis of variance, where acid quartzite aggregate was applied, pointed out small affinity to the bitumen, and revealed a significant influence of amount of low-viscosity modifier on adhesion (p-value < 0,001). In samples with the quartzite aggregate the change of the amount of the low-viscosity modifier in the amount about 1% caused the drop of the adhesion no less than 5% and dynamically progressing as content of low-viscosity modifier was increased in bitumen composition. Analysis results of adhesion investigation with applying both kinds of aggregate proved that dosage the modifier in the amount up to 2% did not change significantly the amount of dewashed bitumen. Also value 3% did not cause drastic worsening of the adhesion, with reference to quartzite aggregate where the drop of the adhesion was up 13%. One should notice that the drop of the adhesion correlates with a rise in breaking point temperature which lowers the performances of asphalt concrete in the autumn-winter period. In order to get an objective assessment of adhesion a two-way analysis of variance was used. Analysis contained two factors: kind of aggregate, amount of the low-viscosity modifier. Results, on significance level equal 0.05, revealed the significant influence of amounts of the low-viscosity modifier on changes of adhesion (p-value < 0,001) as well as kind of aggregate (p-value < 0,001). It also proved significant interaction between both factors (changing of adhesion), what indicates that impact of both factors generates a different effect than the situation when these factors would react separately. 4. DESING PROJECT OF ASPHALT CONCRETE In order to determine the impact of the low viscosity modifier content on the properties of asphalt concrete the tests were conducted on asphalt concrete whose grading was 0/12,8 mm which is used to produce the wearing coarse of transit roads pavements. Asphalt concrete with the main gabbro aggregate, which was 50%, was designed. A dolomite mix 0/4 in the amount of 23% and granite fractured sand in the amount of 24% were used to increase fraction contents. The modification of bitumen was carried out by addition of low-viscosity modifier in the range of 1,5%, 2,0%, 2,5%, 3,0%, 3,5%, 4,0% in proportion to the bitumens mass 35/50 from which the future asphalt concrete was produced (Product Information 2009). Tests of asphalt concrete were compacted beginning in the range of 115C to 145C with changes every 5C. The required bitumen content in the designed asphalt concrete was determined basing on the strength measurements according to Marshall methodology. 5. TEST RESULTS ANALYSIS The domain of study comprised: Determination of significance of the influence of the amount of low-viscosity modifier and temperature of compaction of different configurations, Optimization of the content of low-viscosity modifier and level of temperature of compaction in aspect of the best mechanical parameters. In order to assess the impact of the modifier and temperature of compaction on the asphalt concrete properties the following parameters were tested: indirect tensile strength (ITS),
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stiffness according to Marshall methodology (Sz) and void fraction content (Wp). The stiffness feature was determine as a relation between stability and flow number received during the Marshall test. During the tests the basic physical and mechanical properties of asphalt concrete were determined. An assessment of the uniformity of the conducted tests was an important element of the project. The measurements were taken only for samples whose void fraction content ranged between (V - 2s; V + 2s), where: V is a mean void fraction content value in asphalt concrete in the given group, while s standard deviation. The experiment was realized according to the research program within the confines of twofactorial design of experiment type of 22. During evaluation of impact the modifier and temperature of compaction on asphalt concrete properties it was revealed that to assess their variation the quadratic regression model was adequate (Piasta and Lenarcik, 1998) (Montgomery, 2001).The regression formula model can be write down as a following equation:
2 y =b o +b1 x1 + b2 x2 +b 3 x2 x1 + b4 x12 + b5 x2

Where: x1 = temperature of compaction [C], x2 = amount of low-viscosity modifier [%], bo b5 = values of experimental coefficients. Visual character of the course of the changeability of stiffness feature and indirect tensile strength with regression models of responses surface were described in figure 3 and figure 4.

Figure 3: The impact of the low-viscosity modifier content on the stiffness

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Figure 4: The impact of the low-viscosity modifier content on the indirect tensile strength Analyzing the received results of features such as stiffness, indirect tensile strength and void fraction content, at first the assessment of Pearson's correlation coefficient R2 and significance of influence of the factors, with the aid of variance analysis, was needed. The evaluation of Pearson's correlation coefficient and significance of influence of given factors was presented in table 1. Table 1: Pearson's correlation coefficient and evaluation of the significant influence of the content of the low-viscosity modifier and temperature of compaction on the features ITS and stiffness Feature Stiffness [kN/mm] ITS [kPa] R2 0,70 0,93 Low-viscosity modifier <0.0001 <0.0001 Compaction temperature 0.088 <0.0001

In the analyzed case mathematical models of influences of the factors can be written in the form: for stiffness feature Sz:

2 2 S = -21.423926 + 0.344602 TEMP + 1.11547 L _ V 0.001310 TEMP 0.001066 L _ V TEMP 0.107635 L _ V

for indirect tensile strength feature ITS:

2 2 ITS = -84.93163+ 2.15811 TEMP + 33.2316 L _ V 0.00436 TEMP 0.14653 TEMP L _ V 0.78571 L _ V

Where: TEMP = temperature of compaction [C], L_V = amount of low-viscosity modifier [%], Analyzing the received regressive response surfaces it should be pointed out that stiffness increased as concentration of low-viscosity modifier increased (Figure 4). As the concentration of the amount of the modifier falls in between 3-4% and at the temperature of compaction 145C it is possible to notice lowering average values of the stiffness. The existing fact is connected with the reduction of void fraction content to the level, where asphalt concrete characterizes strong consolidation. It results in the fact that a too thin
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binder film forms on grains of aggregate and the contents of free bitumen is increased. As the temperature of compaction was going down the asphalt concrete got more stiff and at the same time it reached optimum void fraction content guarantying good covering of aggregate. The highest stiffness of asphalt concrete was obtained in the temperature of compaction between 125 and 130C. As the temperature of compaction was lowered, the effect of too heavy compaction was minimize to the benefit of the increase in the stiffness. The average value of stiffness decreases constantly in the regressive model as amount of low-viscosity modifier was decreased. These values violently diminish in the temperature below 115C. In existing situation the solidification of hard crystalline paraffin has a favorable impact at temperature of 100C. In perspective of permanent lowering the temperature of compaction, it can make compaction process difficult or impossible. However, in spite of decreasing the stiffness in progress of lowering the temperature, the amount of the modifier indeed affects the increase the values of average stiffness. To sum up, to the increase in mechanical properties marked by the stiffness apart from the temperature (Table 1) the amount of the low-viscosity modifier will have the most significant influence. This situation is connected with hardening of bitumen in the process of the modification with raising the Ring and Ball temperature and with increasing the viscosity in the temperature of 60C. With reference to the parameter of the resistance to indirect tensile strength the temperature and the low-viscosity modifier both influence changing of ITS feature (Figure 4). Maximum values were achieved in interaction of the high temperature and amount of the modifier. It is connected with the range of the viscosity which enables more efficient covering aggregates and tighten up the mineral mix by filling it with bitumen. Visual character of the course of the changeability of void fraction contents feature with regression models of responses surface were described in figure 5.

Figure 5: The impact of the low-viscosity modifier content and temperature of compaction on the void fraction content The evaluation of Pearson's correlation coefficient and significance of influence of given factor Wp was presented in table 2. Table 2: Pearson's correlation coefficient and evaluation of the significant influence of the content of the low-viscosity modifier and temperature of compaction on the feature Wp. Feature Wp [%] R2 0,84 Low-viscosity modifier 0.01
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Compaction temperature <0.001

In the analyzed case mathematical models of influences can be written in the form: for void fraction contents feature Wp:

2 2 W p = 33.40312 0.38697 TEMP 1.12586 L _ V 0.00122 TEMP + 0.008591 TEMP L _ V 0.041207 L _ V

Analyzing the received models of the regression of the Wp feature (figure 5) it is possible to notice that both the temperature of compaction and the amount of low-viscosity modifier have a significant influence on the tested parameters. The largest content of void fraction was reached for the minimal content of the modifier of 1.5% and close to the temperature of solidification of hard crystalline paraffin within the limit of 115C. The effect of insufficient compaction level in temperatures below 130C is possible to be minimized by a slight increase in the amount of the low-viscosity modifier, however, the influence of the temperature on the distribution of the Wp feature will remain most significant. One of tested aspects was searching the certain range in which such a configuration of factors existed as: the low-viscosity modifier and the temperature of compaction could provide the most beneficial mechanical properties. In the performed examinations there is no perfect solution for essential criteria because solving for one criterion immediately is not the best solution for the second criterion. In order to make the objective assessment the desirability function was used as the standardization in the range of <0,1>. The task of this function is the estimation of influence of all factors, with a view to find the most beneficial level of features, by means of the one parameter. As acceptable the range was selected, which performed parameters according to obligatory standards, particularly mechanical properties especially represented by stiffness (Sz). The good and the bad criterion are relative value and correspond to accepted value in Poland .Each criteria were connected with non-negative weights of observation, in addition the sum of weights must be equal (table 3). Table 3: Ranges of acceptable value and assigned weight of features Feature Wp [%] Sz [kN/mm] ITS [kPa] Ranges of acceptable value Bad value Good value 4,5 2,5 2,2 5 600 1200 weight 0,25 0,5 0,25

Desirability function, which was proposed by Harrington, can be written in following form (Montgomery, 2001):

m U III = exp wi exp i =1

Where:

y ( i ) y ( i )G y L ( i ) yG ( i )

y(i) = value receives directly from experiment, y(i)G = value correspond to bad requirement, y(i)L = value correspond to good requirement,

If we substitute any value from the range represented the bad and good values, we will receive a range of desirability function from 0.37 to 0.63. This range is define as accepted.

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However, it was found that such a region of examined factors in which values of the desirability function are close to 0.8 values indicates on a very good compromise of the level of factors in the aspect of mechanical features. Values which were used in the optimization process were extracted from mathematical models of response surfaces from each factors. Results of desirability function were presented in figure 6.

Figure 6: The impact of the low-viscosity modifier content and temperature of compaction on desirability function Proportion with the most beneficial values of interaction of factors was obtained. The most beneficial content of the low-viscosity modifier, with reference to low-viscosity modifier, was received in range of 3 4%, and for the adequate factor the temperature of compaction the best range fall in between 125 130 C. It should be noted that in the received region of the optimum of the low-viscosity modifier, with respect to obtain beneficial mechanical properties, there is a value in which the beginning of the deterioration of adhesion and temperature of breaking point takes place. The lack of the adverse impact of waxes in the amount of 3%, as well as influence of low temperatures was presented at research works (Edwards et al. 2006 a) (Edwards et al. 2006 b). Consequently, at lowering the temperature by about 20 C and adding 3% of low-viscosity modifier, it is possible to produce asphalt concrete which is marked by higher mechanical properties and maintaining acceptable level of the adhesion in comparison with traditional bitumen. 6. CONLUSIONS Basing on the analysis of the test results of asphalt concrete the following conclusions can be drawn: the 35/50 bitumen with the low viscosity modifier has higher softening point and lower penetration in comparison to the traditional bitumen, by the level of the amount of the low-viscosity modifier greater than 4% an improvement in the adhesion of bitumen will be required, dominating influence for changes of mechanical parameters i.e. the stiffness of asphalt concrete was the content of the low-viscosity modifier, however, the effect of temperature of compaction had the most significant influence on the void fraction contents, the rise in the amount of the low-viscosity modifier indeed had a significant influence on the increase of indirect tensile strength,
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during application bitumen with the low-viscosity modifier has the lower limit of temperature of compaction of the asphalt concrete corresponding to the temperature of about 110 115 C. Below this temperature the low-viscosity modifier deteriorates the compactibility of asphalt concrete, The amount of the low-viscosity modifier should be set in relation to the properties of asphalt concrete which is not subject to modification.

REFERENCES Danowski, M., 2007 Application of hot mix asphalt of low-term consolidation german experiences, Nowoci Zagranicznej Techniki Drogowej 196: 12-35. Edwards, Y.; Tasdemir, Y.; Isacsson U., 2006a. Influence of commercial waxes and polyphosphoric acid on bitumen and asphalt concrete performance at low and medium temperature, Materials and Structures 39: 725-737. Edwards, Y.; Tasdemir, Y.; Isacsson U., 2006b. Effect of commercial waxes on asphalt concrete mixtures performance at low and medium temperature, Cold Regions Science and Technology 45: 31-41. Gawe, I.; Kalabiska, M.; Piat, J. 2001. Asfalt drogowy [Road bitumen], WK, Warsaw. Iwaski, M., Dobrowolski, A., 1994. Impact of long-term action on the properties of asphalt concrete, Drogownictwo 8. Judycki, J.; Jaskua, P., 1999. Badania oddziaywania wody i mrozu na betony asfaltowe o zwikszonej odpornoci na deformacje trwae [Examining the influence of water and frost on asphalt concrete of increased resistance to permanent deformations], Drogownictwo, 12: 367-371. Montgomery, D. G. 2001. Design and Analysis of Experiments, 5th Edition, John Wiley and Sons. Piasta, Z.; Lenarcik, A., 1998: Methods of statistical multi-criteria optimisation, [in:] A. M. Brandt (red.), Optimization Methods for Material Design of Cementbased Composites, E & FN Spon, London, New York, pp. 45-59. Radziszewski, P.; Kalabiska, M.; Piat, J. 2003. Technologia materiaw i nawierzchni asfaltowych, Badanie odpornoci na nisk temperatur [Technology of materials and asphalt pavements, Investigation into resistance of low temperature]: 309-311, Warszawa. Stefaczyk, B., Mieczkowski, P., 2008. Bitumen and aggregate mixes information of performance and research,WK, Warsaw.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Innovative Technologies for the Determination of the Density of Bituminous Mixtures

F.G. Pratic & A. Moro
DIMET Department, Mediterranea University, Reggio Calabria, Italy filippo.pratico@unirc.it, antonino.moro@unirc.it

ABSTRACT: The density of the bituminous mixes is an important factor in Quality Control and Quality Assurance (QC/QA) procedures. In fact, mechanical and functional characteristics and performance (life cycle) depend on HMA (Hot Mix Asphalts) density. The relation between in-site density (as a quality measure) and pavement service life has been investigated both on a theoretical and experimental point of view. According to many contracts, the density measured on cores must be at least 95-97 % of the laboratory density obtained, for example, through gyratory (100 gyrations for Dense-Graded Frictions Courses (DGFCs) or 50 gyrations for Porous European Mixes (PEMs)) or Marshall compaction (75 blows per face DGFCs or 50 blows per face PEMs). In other contracts, the relative density (bulk on maximum specific gravity) is the key-factor both in predicting the performance and in controlling the construction. The determinations of density carried out in laboratory (dimensional, parafilm, vacuum sealing, saturated surface dry, etc), though quite reliable and accurate, present the drawbacks of low-speed surveys (coring, etc). As a consequence, many research and technological efforts were carried out on nuclear and non-nuclear portable devices. In particular, though non-nuclear density gauges were evaluated under many projects, more specific problems arise in their use: reliability in the case of mixes very open or very dense, possible deflection or modification of the electromagnetic field when micro-layers of water stand beneath the surface layer, temperature effects, etc. In the light of the above facts, the main object of the paper was confined into the study of eventual factors affecting the variance and bias both for PEMs and DGFCs. In-lab and on-site experiments were designed and performed. Six methods for the determination of the density of HMAs were used. Recommendations were made for practical applications, pointing out limitations, reliability and perspectives. KEY WORDS: Density, Non-nuclear portable device, DGFC, PEM. 1. PROBLEM MODELING It is well known that bulk specific gravity, Gmb, measures the specific gravity of a compacted Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) sample and affects life cycle costs, contract requirements, and Quality Control/Quality Assurance procedures. As a consequence many studies focused on the factors impacting HMA density. Compaction temperature (Diefenderfer et al., 2007), asphalt binder viscosity (Faheem et al., 2007), compaction pressure, asphalt binder content, influence of Superpave specification
177

on compaction levels (Scherocman, 2006), HMA lift thickness (Cooley et al., 2006) are all well-recognized factors. It is important to point out that literature on how to properly measure in-lab or on-site specific gravity, based on the various boundary conditions which can appreciably affect results and QC/QA procedures, calls for further improvement. Many different ways to determine Gmb can be used (Montepara and Virgili, 1996; Cooley et al., 2002; Crouch et al., 2003; Brown et al., 2004; Spellerberg and Savage, 2004; Mohammad et al., 2005; Williams et al., 2005). In this study, we formalize a model to evaluate differences between procedures and research information on the transportability of Gmb values from one procedure to another. The model is based on the hypothesis of material homogeneity. Under such hypothesis, the variations between Gmb values of a given sample depend from the difference between the osculatory external volume (V0) and the mix bulk volume (Vmb) (Pratic et al., 2009), here termed the roughness volume R. Vmb is the mix bulk volume, V0 is an osculatory (external) volume (Dimensional Method), RBS is Bottom Surface Roughness, RL refers to Lateral Surface Roughness, whereas RUS corresponds to Upper Surface Roughness. Thus,

Vmb = V0 R
where R = RBS + RLS + RUS By referring to the bulk specific gravity, it results:

(1) (2)

Gmb =

Pmb = F ( V0 , R ) Vmb w

(3)

where Gmb is the bulk specific gravity, Pmb represents the (dry) mass of the bituminous mix, w is the density of water at the same temperature, and F is a function. Under homogeneity hypotheses, when R is small, the internal voids tend to be negligible, and, then:

lim Vmb V0
R 0

(4) (5)

lim Gmb Gmm

R 0

where Gmm is the maximum theoretical specific gravity:

Gmm =

Pb + Pa [Vb + Va ] w

(6)

In this equation Pb and Vb are the mass and volume of asphalt binder respectively. Note that Pa and Va refer to aggregates. Equations 4 and 5 suggest to consider the tendency toward a restriction of the variability zone when Gmb increases. Table 1 summarizes the six procedures used in the following. P is a density estimated through a non-nuclear portable device, applied on the tested surface (Williams, 2008; Pratic et al., 2008a; Pratic et al., 2008b; Rao et al., 2007; Kvasnak et al., 2007). An electrical current is transmitted from the transmitter (T) through an asphalt concrete pavement (HMA), in a given location, and is detected by the receiver (R see figure 1). Note that the current cannot flow through the isolation ring (IR). As a consequence the dielectric constant (dimensionless) is derived. The dielectric constant of the HMA is used to estimate the density.

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Table 1: Main procedures for density

Lab/Field 1. Lab Indicator Gmbdim (dimensional) Gmbfilm (parafilm) GmbCOR (VSD) GmbFIN (paraffin) GmbSSD (Saturated Surface Dry) P Algorithm
A VDIM w

Standard AASHTO T 269 EN 12697-6:2003 ASTM D 1188 (abs>2%) ASTM D 6752/ AASHTO T 331 BU N40-1973 /AASHTO T 275-A (abs>2%) EN 12697-6:2003 AASHTO T 166/ ASTM D 2726 (abs<2%) EN 12697-6:2003 ASTM D 7113 / AASHTO TP68

Main devices Caliber

2.

Lab

A D' A D' E' F

Parafilm, WS Corelok device, WS Paraffin, WS Towel, WS Electromagnetic device

A B' A B' E' Ft

A D' E' D' A Fp

3.

Lab

4.

Lab

5.

Lab

A B C

6.

Field

P = F(DA, DAG, DBIT, DW)

Legend: A = mass of the dry specimen in air; abs>2%: absorption more than 2%; B = mass of saturated-surface-dry specimen in air; B = mass of dry and sealed specimen; C = mass of HMA sample in water; D= mass of the dry, coated specimen; DA, DAG, DBIT, DW = dielectric constant of air (A), aggregates (AG), bitumen (BIT), water (W); E = mass of sealed/coated specimen under water; F = specific gravity of the coating determined at 25C; Gmb = Bulk Specific Gravity; Fp = specific gravity of the paraffin at 25C; Ft = apparent specific gravity of plastic bag; VDIM = geometric volume of HMA sample; VSD = Vacuum Sealing Device (Corelok); WS = weighing station; w = density of water. Note that, as is well-known, Gmb is dimensionless, while P can be expressed in g/cm3. Anyhow, all the results can be easily interpreted in terms of g/cm3 (Gmbw), i. e. density. Note: DW > DAG ~ DBIT > DA .

2. EXPERIMENTAL PLAN Figure 1 illustrates the schematic of the experimental plan. DGFCs (Dense-Graded Friction Courses) and PEMs (Porous European Mixes) were tested and five methods were used for Gmb in-lab determination (see table 1). In-site, the parameter P, density estimated through a non-nuclear portable device, was measured (see table 1). On the extracted cores, five laboratory procedures were considered for the determination of the bulk specific gravity. On the extracted cores, the following parameters were determined: b (%) = asphalt binder content as a percentage of aggregate weight (B.U. CNR n.38/73; ASTM 6307; EN 12697-1: 2006); G = aggregate gradation (B.U. CNR n. 4/53; EN 12697-2: 2008); g = aggregate apparent specific gravity (B.U. CNR n. 63/78; AASHTO T85: 2004).

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ON-SITE EXPERIMENTS (DGFC & PEM)

5 1 4

2 3

Density P (ASTM D 7113 /AASHTO TP68)

Coring Process LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS

PEM

DGFC

DIMESIONAL METHOD AASHTO T 269 EN 12697-6:2003

PARAFILM METHOD ASTM D 1188

PARAFFIN SSD VSD METHOD METHOD METHOD BU N40-1973 ASTM D 6752 AASHTO T 166 AASHTO T 331 ASTM D 2726 AASHTO T 275-A EN 12697-6:2003 EN 12697-6:2003

Figure 1: Schematic of the experimental plan 3. RESULTS Tables 2 and 3 and figures 2 to 12 summarize the results. Table 2 shows that the mixes had different aggregate gradations (NMAS was 10 for DGFCs and 19 for PEMs, while the sand content was higher for DGFCs than for PEMs), and a different asphalt binder content was used (higher for DGFCs than for PEMs). Figures 2 to 12 refer to three sets of data (DGFC, PEM, ALL DATA) and six density measurements (one on-site and five in-lab as described in table 1).

180

Table 2: PEM and DGFC composition

PEM (NMAS=19mm) Sieve (mm) 25 15 10 5 2 0.425 0.18 0.075 %b g (g/cm3) NMAS (mm) P200 (%) S (%) (0.075/2) Compaction Gmm Passing (%) 100.00 87 35 16 13 9 7 5 4.9~6.1 2.724 10 3.9~5.0 28.0~33 in site 2.488~2.525 DGFC (NMAS=10mm) Passing (%) 100 100.00 95 58 35 14 6 4 4.5~5.7 2.827 19 4.4~6.0 6.5~8.5 in site 2.584~2.624

Note: % b = asphalt binder content with respect to aggregate weight; g = aggregate apparent density; P200 (%) = filler content; S (%) = sand content; NMAS = Nominal Maximum Aggregate Size.

Table 3 summarizes the ranking of values according to the six different methods investigated (linear regressions). Table 3: Methods outputs Range of values Ranking low SSD > FIN > VSD > P** > FILM > DIM middle SSD > P** > FIN > VSD > FILM > DIM high P** > DIM* > VSD FILM > SSD* FIN*
* suspect, due to data set; ** biased due to other effects (water, surface effects, etc).

DGFC
2.40 2.30

DGFC
2.40 2.30

GmbFILM

GmbDIM

2.20 2.10 2.00 1.90 1.80 1.80

y = 1.156x - 0.423 R2 = 0.874

2.20 2.10 2.00 1.90 1.80 1.80

y = 0.909x + 0.152 R2 = 0.966

1.90

2.00

2.10

2.20

2.30

2.40

1.90

2.00

2.10

2.20

2.30

2.40

GmbVSD

GmbVSD

Figure 2: GmbVSD vs. GmbDIM (DGFC)

Figure 3: GmbVSD vs. GmbFILM (DGFC)

181

DGFC
2.40 2.30 y = 0.728x + 0.647 R2 = 0.945

DGFC
2.40 2.30 y = 0.815x + 0.434 R2 = 0.961

GmbSSD

2.10 2.00 1.90 1.80 1.80

GmbFIN

2.20

2.20 2.10 2.00 1.90 1.80 1.80

1.90

2.00

2.10

2.20

2.30

2.40

1.90

2.00

2.10

2.20

2.30

2.40

GmbVSD

GmbVSD

Figure 4: GmbVSD vs. GmbSSD (DGFC)

DGFC
2.40 2.30

Figure 5: GmbVSD vs. GmbFIN (DGFC)

PEM
2.30 2.20

2.10 2.00 1.90 1.80 1.80

GmbDIM

2.20

y = 1.627x - 1.332 R2 = 0.864

2.10 2.00 1.90 1.80 1.70 1.70 y = 1.305x - 0.765 R2 = 0.730

1.90

2.00

2.10

2.20

2.30

2.40

1.80

1.90

2.00

2.10

2.20

2.30

GmbVSD

GmbVSD

Figure 6: GmbVSD vs. P (DGFC)

PEM
2.30 2.20

Figure 7: GmbVSD vs. GmbDIM (PEM)

PEM
2.30 2.20

GmbFILM

2.10 2.00 1.90 1.80 1.70 1.70

y = 1.231x - 0.524 R2 = 0.978

2.10 2.00 1.90 1.80 1.70 1.70

y = 0.365x + 1.203 R2 = 0.244

1.80

1.90

2.00

2.10

2.20

2.30

1.80

1.90

2.00

2.10

2.20

2.30

GmbVSD

GmbVSD

Figure 8: GmbVSD vs. GmbFILM (PEM)

Figure 9: GmbVSD vs. P (PEM)

182

ALL DATA
2.30 2.20 y = 1.383x - 0.912 R2 = 0.946 2.30 2.20

ALL DATA
y = 1.128x - 0.319 R2 = 0.984

GmbDIM

2.10 2.00 1.90 1.80 1.70 1.70

GmbFILM

2.10 2.00 1.90 1.80 1.70 1.70

1.80

1.90

2.00

2.10

2.20

2.30

1.80

1.90

2.00

2.10

2.20

2.30

GmbVSD

GmbVSD

Figure 10: GmbVSD vs. GmbDIM (ALL)

ALL DATA
2.30 2.20 2.10 2.00 1.90 1.80 1.70 1.70 y = 1.243x - 0.516 R2 = 0.876

Figure 11: GmbVSD vs. GmbFILM (ALL)

1.80

1.90

2.00

2.10

2.20

2.30

GmbVSD

Figure 12: GmbVSD vs. P (ALL) Based on results, two classes of anomalies were detected: the first class simply addresses the considered data set and the violation of disequalities ranking only in extreme ranges (see table 3, *); the second class deals with the role of moisture and/or other effects in affecting the value of P (on-site measures). Two types of correlations were observed: weak positive (GmbVSD vs. P for PEMs, see Fig. 10) and good positive (all the remaining regressions). Slopes were always positive and in the range 0.6~1.4 with exception of GmbVSD vs. P (slope = 0.365). Intercepts were always in the range -0.9~0.9 except that for the same case illustrated in Fig. 9 and that for the correlation GmbVSD vs. P (Fig. 6). The coordinates of the intersections with the equality line (dotted lines in Figs. 2-12) ranged from 1.7 up to 2.7. Only in four cases on 11 the intersection had abscissa lower than 2.3 and in three of them the indicator P was involved (on-site measures). This fact brings out that the hypothesis of convergence towards a common value Gmm (eq.5), although generally consistent with in-lab methods, cannot be supposed to work when the innovative technology herein investigated is used (see Figs 6, 9, 12). More precisely, although the correlations involving P were good (when ALL DATA were considered, see Fig. 12), a quite clear tendency to diverge far from the equality line towards higher values was noted (see Figures 6 and 12).
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Importantly, this behaviour was observed also with reference to the vacuum sealing method (VSD), whose reliability is usually very high (Cooley et al., 2002). 4. MAIN FINDINGS Based on modeling and results, the following conclusions can be drawn: 1. The assumption stated through the formalized model in which the higher the density the lower the bias between two different methods seems to be partly validated for all the traditional, in-lab methods investigated; 2. The model seems not to work when non-nuclear portable devices are involved. In such cases, in fact, a tendency to diverge was observed. As a matter of fact, while in-lab procedures utilize water role in weighting stations, in the case of the non-nuclear portable device, moisture influence becomes a key-factor which calls for further research; 3. Regression curves, based on one or more methods, as suggested by literature and standards, can be very useful when non-nuclear portable devices are used. They can provide suggestions for practical benefit of the work. The observed inconsistencies (relationships between different couples of methods) call for further research. Future research will focus on the research into the causes of the observed issues and inconsistencies. REFERENCES Brown, E. R.; Hainin, M.R.; Cooley, A. and Hurley, G., 2004. Relationship of Air Voids, Lift Thickness, and Permeability in Hot Mix Asphalt Pavements. NCHRP Report 531, National Center for Asphalt Technology - Auburn University, Auburn, AL, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C.. Cooley, L. A. Jr.; Prowell, B. D.; Hainin, M. R.; Buchanan, M. S. and Harrington, J., 2002. Bulk specific gravity round-robin using the corelok vacuum sealing device. National Center for Asphalt Technology Report 02-11, FHWA-IF-02-044. Cooley, L.A, 2006. Evaluation of HMA Lift Thickness. http://rip.trb.org/browse/dproject. asp?n=12300 Crouch, L. K.; Badoe, D. A.; Cates, M.; Borden, T. A.; Copeland, A. R.; Walker, C. T.; Dunn, T.; Maxwell, R. A. and Goodwin, W. A., 2003. Bulk specific gravity of compacted Bituminous mixtures: finding a more widely applicable method. Final Report, State of Tennessee, Department of Transportation, July. Diefenderfer, S.; McGhee, K. and Donaldson, B., 2007. Installation of Warm Mix Asphalt Projects in Virginia. FHWA/VTRC 07-R25; VTRC 07-R25. Faheem, A. F.; Kamel, N. and Bahia H., 2007. Compaction and Tenderness of HMA Mixtures: A Laboratory Study. Transportation Research Board 86th Annual Meeting, 2007. Report No. 07-1007. Kvasnak, A. N.; Williams, C.; Ceylan, H. and Gopalakrishnan, K., 2007. Investigation of electromagnetic gauges for determining in-place HMA density. IHRB Project TR-547, CTRE Project 05-233, Final Report, Iowa State University, Ames; Iowa Department of Transportation. Mohammad, L. N.; Herath, A.; Wu Zhong and Cooper, S.A., 2005. Comparative study of factors influencing the permeability of hot-mix asphalt mixtures. Volume 74E Electronic Journal 2005, AAPT Publications.
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Montepara, A. and Virgili, A., 1996. La determinazione della massa volumica e dei vuoti nei conglomerati bituminosi aperti. Atti Convegno S.I.I.V. Ancona. Pratic, F. G.; Moro, A. and Ammendola, R., 2009. Modeling HMA Bulk Specific Gravities: A Theoretical and Experimental Investigation. International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology 2/3 (2009) 115-122. ISSN: 1997-1400. Pratic, F. G.; Moro, A. and Ammendola, R., 2008a. New and old technologies fort the determination of density of HMAs. 3rd European pavement and asset management conference, Coimbra, Portugal. Pratic, F. G.; Moro, A.; Ammendola, R. and Dattola, V., 2008b. A study on the reliability of new technologies for High-speed measurement of longitudinal joints density in HMA. First International Conference on Transport Infrastructure (ICTI 2008), Beijing, China. Rao, C.; Von Quintus, H. L. and Schmitt, R., 2007. Calibration of Non-nuclear Density Gauge Data for Accurate In-Place Density Prediction, Session 596. 86th TRB annual meeting, Washington D.C., January. Scherocman, J., 2006. Compaction of stiff and tender asphalt concrete mixes. Transportation Research E-Circular, E-C105: 69-83. Spellerberg, P. and Savage, D., 2004. An investigation of the cause of variation in HMA Bulk Specific Gravity test results using non-absorptive aggregates. National Cooperative Highway Research Program Web Document 66 (Project 9-26 (Phase 2)). Williams, R. C.; Williams, B.; Stanton, B.; Kvasnak, A. and Van Dam, T., 2005. Development of acceptance criteria of compacted hot mixture asphalt bulk specific gravity based on vacuum sealed specimens. Final report, Michigan Department of Transportation, Construction and Technology division, Lansing, Mi, US, October. Williams, S. G., 2008. Non-Nuclear Methods for HMA Density Measurements. MBTC 2075, Final Report, University of Arkansas, June.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

A Theoretical Investigation on the Dependence of Gmb Measurements on Boundary Conditions

F.G. Pratic & A. Moro
DIMET Department, Mediterranea University, Reggio Calabria, Italy filippo.pratico@unirc.it, antonino.moro@unirc.it

ABSTRACT: Bulk specific gravity, Gmb, is very relevant in quality control and quality assurance (QC/QA). It is well known that a number of methods are available to determine the bulk specific gravity of a compacted HMA (Hot Mix Asphalt) and an appreciable variance of results can be observed. As a consequence in this study a model was formalized for modelling HMA bulk volumes according to four different procedures. Thickness, radius and surface texture influence were considered in the model set out. Many experiments were carried out according to four different methods. Results were analysed and interpreted in the aim to validate the conceptual framework set out. Theoretical and practical consequences in terms of boundary conditions influence and optimization were derived. KEY WORDS: Bulk specific gravity, Hot mix asphalts, Quality Control/Quality Assurance (QC/QA). 1. INTRODUCTION It is well known that a number of methods are available to determine the bulk specific gravity Gmb of a compacted HMA (Hot Mix Asphalt) and several authors attempted to study in deep the correlations among the different procedures (Montepara and Virgili, 1996; Crouch et al., 2003; Cooley et al., 2002; Spellerberg and Savage, 2004; Mohammad et al., 2005; Kvasnak et al., 2006; Brown et al., 2004, Pratic et al., 2009). On the other hand, due to the enormous financial and scientific relevance, comparability is a crucial factor in terms of quality requirements in order to make data obtained from one study or report comparable to data from other studies. In the light of the above facts it becomes more and more important to investigate on some unresolved issues in this field. It is well known that, despite the dimensional method (AASHTO T 269, usually used for PEMs, Porous European Mixes), in which the volume is estimated through a caliber, in the vacuum sealing method, developed to address HMA mixtures that contain open or interconnected voids (Williams et al., 2007), it results:
D' A 1 V mb = D' E' F w

(1)

where A is the mass of the dry specimen in air, D is the mass of the dry, coated specimen, E is the mass of sealed/coated specimen under water, F is the specific gravity of the coating
187

determined at 25C (ASTM D 6752), while w is the unit mass of water at the same temperature. On the contrary, in the case of the paraffin method, the bulk volume is estimated through the following formula (BU N40-1973 / AASHTO T 275-A): D' A 1 (2) V mb = D' E' Fp w where Fp is the specific gravity of the paraffin at 25C. The above-mentioned standards and the corresponding contract specifications do not specify nor the thickness neither the diameter influence on results and thresholds and several issues call for further research both in the field of Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QC/QA) and in acceptance and verification testing of HMAs (Jackson and Czor, 2003; Sholar et al., 2005). Table 1 summarizes several provided dimensional information, reported in European or U.S. standards. Table 1: Information on specimen diameter and thickness Method 1. AASHTO T 269 2. ASTM D 6752 Diameter Thickness NA NA 100 or 150 Greater or lower than mm 50 mm 3. AASHTO T 275-A NA NA 4. BU CNR 40/73 > (MAS/4) + NA 10; mm 5. Colorado Procedure 44 - > 4 MAS > 1,5 MAS 07 6. AASHTO T 331 D > 4 MAS NA 7. WAQTC/IDAHO TM NA Separation required 11-07 8. Kentucky Method 64- 4 in < D < 6 NA 442-03 in 9. UNI EN 12697-6 NA 20 mm; 2 MAS.
LEGEND D = Diameter; MAS = Maximum Aggregate Size; NA = Not Available;

2. MODELLING The model set out in this paper is based on a conceptual framework in which the differences among the different Gmbs of a given sample originate from the difference between the osculatory external volume (V0) of the sample and the mix bulk volume (Vmb), as an effect of roughness volume T, as below specified. In the model, T stands for extended texture (voids related to), Vmb stands for mix bulk volume, V0 is an osculatory (external) Volume, according to the Dimensional Method, TBS refers to Bottom Surface Roughness, TL refers to Lateral Surface Roughness, while TUS refers to Upper Surface Roughness. Given that, it results:
Vmb = V0 T

(3) . (4)

where

T = TBS + TLS + TUS

188

Each of the above-described three components (volumes) Ti, can be splitted into three subcomponents: Positive (P), Negative (N) and HyperNegative (HN):
Vmb = V0 TBS TLS TUS = V0 [TBSP + TBSN + TBSHN ] TUSP + TUSN + TUSHN TLSP + TLSN + TLSHN

][

].

(5)

Theoretically, the differences above-recalled among the measurement methods can be explained through the following equation:
Vmb = V0 [TBSP + TUSP + TLSP ] TBSN + TUSN + TLSN TBSHN + TUSHN + TLSHN

] [

(6).

It results:
Gmb = Pmb = F ( V0 ,T ) Vmb w

(7)

where Gmb is the bulk specific gravity, Pmb stands for the (dry) mass of the bituminous mix and F stands for function. When T tends to be negligible, due to homogeneity considerations, also the internal porosity tends to be negligible, then it results: (8) lim Vmb V0 Vb + Va
T 0

T 0

lim Gmb Gmm

(9)

where Gmm is the maximum theoretical specific gravity:

Gmm = Pb + Pa [Vb + Va ] w

(10)

In this equation Pb, Vb are mass and volume of asphalt binder, while Pa and Va refer to aggregates. In particular, as far as the dimensional method is considered, the following expression can be considered (see figure1):
2 VDIM = RDIM H DIM

(11)

where VDIM, RDIM, HDIM refer to bulk volume, radius and height of the HMA specimen.

Figure 1: Dimensional (DIM, left) and Vacuum sealing (COR, right) methods In order to take into account for the effect of the specimen radius, it is again necessary to split the roughness effect into three parts, each one related to a different surface, upper (US), bottom (BS), and lateral (LS).
189

The following expression for Vmb can be considered, for example, for the vacuum sealing method (COR, see figure 1):
2 2 2 VCOR = R COR H COR SHUS RCOR SH BS RCOR SH LS 2 RCOR (H COR SHUS SH BS )

(12)

where VCOR, RCOR, HCOR refer to bulk volume, radius, height, while SHUS, SHBS, SHLS are the values of Sand Height, and , , are calibration parameters in the range (0,1). From the previous formulae the following expressions can be derived:
2 2 2 VCOR GmbDIM RCOR H COR SH US RCOR SH BS RCOR SH LS 2 RCOR (H COR SH US SH BS ) = = 2 VDIM GmbCOR RDIM H DIM

(13) (14)

2 2 SH US RCOR SH BS RCOR SH LS 2 RCOR (H COR SH US SH BS ) VCOR GmbDIM R2 H = = COR COR + + + 2 2 2 2 VDIM GmbCOR RDIM H DIM RDIM H DIM RDIM H DIM RDIM H DIM

Finally, when RCOR RDIM R it results:

VCOR GmbDIM H SH US SH BS SH LS 2 (H COR SH US SH BS ) = COR V DIM G mbCOR H DIM H DIM H DIM R H DIM

(15)

Moreover, if HCOR SHBS - SHUS HCOR HDIM H, and RCOR RDIM R then it results:
SH US SH BS SH LS 2 VCOR GmbDIM = 1 H H R VDIM GmbCOR

(16)

In particular, when cores are concerned, for example the possibility of a conical rupture at the bottom surface can be considered. This fact can be expressed through the following formula, where stands for a calibration factor:
HDIM=Hcor+R

(17)

From the above equations (14) and (17) it follows (for Rcor Rdim R):
2 2 2 GmbDIM RCOR (H DIM R ) SHUS RCOR SH BS RCOR SH LS 2 RCOR (H DIM R SH BS SHUS ) = + + + 2 2 2 2 GmbCOR RDIM H DIM RDIM H DIM RDIM H DIM RDIM H DIM

(18) (19)

(H DIM

R ) SH US SH BS SH LS 2 (H DIM R SH BS SH US ) + + + H DIM H DIM H DIM R H DIM

The same analysis procedure can be used for the comparison dimensional vs. paraffin (FIN), dimensional vs. parafilm and dimensional vs. saturated-surface-dry (SSD):
GmbDIM (H DIM R ) SHUS SH BS SH LS 2 (H DIM R SH BS SH US ) + + + GmbFIN H DIM H DIM H DIM R H DIM

(20) (21)

GmbDIM (H DIM R ) SHUS SH BS SH LS 2 (H DIM R SH BS SHUS ) + + + GmbSSD H DIM H DIM H DIM R H DIM

where , , and take into account for method specificity. Finally, the following algorithm can be used to derive from one of the abovementioned specific gravities, the air voids content, AV:
100 b b * + AV = 100 Gmb b g

(22)

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where G*mb is Gmbw (dimensional), w is the water density (dimensional), b is the bitumen content (%, by weight of the mix), g is the aggregate density (dimensional), b is the bitumen density (dimensional). 3. EXPERIMENTS AND DISCUSSION The experiments were designed as reported in table 2. Mixes were tested according to four methods used for Gmb determination: parafilm (FILM), vacuum sealing (COR), SSD (Saturated surface dry) and paraffin coated (FIN). A sub-set of specimens of each set was used for composition analyses (asphalt binder content CNR n.38/73-EN 12697-1:2006, aggregate grading CNR n.4/53-EN 12697-2:2008, aggregate apparent specific gravity CNR n. 63/78-EN 12697-5:2008, see table 2). Table 2: Factorial plan of the experiments
Number of mixes 7 Nominal diameter (mm) 100 ( 10) 150 ( 15) Height (mm) 50 50 Method GmbFILM10 GmbCOR10 GmbFIN10 GmbSSD10 GmbFILM15 GmbCOR15 GmbFIN15 GmbSSD15 Gmb range 2.12.4 NMAS (mm) 10 %b 4.95.7 g 2.712.84 Compaction In-site Note FILM = Parafilm method (ASTM D 1188); COR = Vacuum sealing method (ASTM D6752/ AASHTO T 331); FIN = Paraffin method (BU 40/73-AASHTO T275A); SSD = Saturated Surface Dry method (AASHTO T 166/ ASTM D 2726 /EN 12697-6:2003)

Another subset (nominal diameter = 100mm) was used for determining specific gravities of the 10-type (i.e. GmbFILM10, etc). Further, on a third subset of specimens, specific gravities of the 15-type were determined (e.g. GmbFILM15). Figures 2 to 5 summarize the results. R-square values ranged from 0.51 (parafilm method) to 0.99 (paraffin method). First derivatives ranged from 0.52 to 1.17 while intercepts ranged from -0.42 up to 1.05. In figures 2 to 5 Gmb10 (x-axis, diameter=100mm) is plotted against Gmb15 (y-axis, diameter=150mm), for the methods FILM, COR, SSD and FIN. Usually it resulted:
GmbFILM10 > GmbFILM15 GmbCOR10 > GmbCOR15 GmbSSD10 > GmbSSD15 GmbFIN10 > GmbFIN15

(23) (24) (25) (26)

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2,4

GmbFILM15

2,3

2,2
y = 0,518x + 1,052 R2 = 0,506

2,1 2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4

GmbFILM10

Figure 2: GmbFILM10 vs. GmbFILM15

2,4
y = 0,874x + 0,281 R2 = 0,948

GmbCOR15

2,3

2,2

2,1 2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4

GmbCOR10

Figure 3: GmbCOR10 vs. GmbCOR15

2,4
y = 0,774x + 0,519 R2 = 0,838

GmbSSD15

2,3

2,2

2,1 2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4

GmbSSD10

Figure 4: GmbSSD10 vs. GmbSSD15

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2,4
y = 1,170x - 0,421 R2 = 0,989

GmbFIN15

2,3

2,2

2,1 2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4

GmbFIN10

Figure 5: GmbFIN10 vs. GmbFIN15

Such disequalities seem to be consistent with equations 4 to 7, where upper surface (US) and bottom surface (BS) texture approach values very different from that of lateral surface (LS) texture. This fact seems to be confirmed trough visual observations (see figure 6). Under such hypothesis, on can suppose a convergence of equality lines and regression curves towards a common point located in the area of high densities on the equality line (see figure 7). Data seem to confirm rigorously this hypothesis only for the paraffin method (figure 5). Note that some samples did not follow the abovementioned disequalities (dotted squares in figures 2 to 4). This fact calls for further research. More data will be needed.

US

LS
Figure 6: US and LS of typical cores

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2.5 2.4

Gmb15

2.3 2.2 2.1 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5

Gmb10

Figure 7: Hypothesis of convergence Under the abovementioned hypothesis of convergence (from below), finally table 3 summarizes error potential. Table 3: Error potential Method FILM COR SSD FIN Max distance point Y X 2.212 2.147 2.220 2.206 2.315 2.301 % 3.00 0.63 0.61

Errors ranged from 0 to 3% for the parafilm method, from 0 to 0.6% for the vacuum method and for the SSD method. Note that for dense-graded bituminous mixes an error of 3 % in specific gravity can yield an error of around 40 % in terms of air voids (see eq. 22), this latter being of vital importance in acceptance procedures and pay adjustment assessment. 4. CONCLUSIONS Based on the above mentioned facts the following conclusions can be drawn: - Higher diameters yield usually lower specific gravities. The convergence of equality line and regression curves towards a common value was supposed. Biases from this trend were observed. Consequent deviations were recorded and approached usually negligible values. This point calls for further research and for a more robust experimental plan. - Based on the theoretical model, lateral surface texture resulted to be a crucial factor. The role of the lateral surface of specimens (after coring them from the pavement) calls for further theoretical and experimental research. The results provided findings for practical benefit of the work. Future research will aim at gaining a better understanding of model reliability.

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REFERENCES Brown, E. R.; Hainin, M. R.; Cooley, A. and Hurley, G., 2004. Relationship of Air Voids, Lift Thickness, and Permeability in Hot Mix Asphalt Pavements. NCHRP Report 531, National Center for Asphalt Technology - Auburn University, Auburn, AL, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C.. Cooley, L. A. Jr.; Prowell, B. D.; Hainin, M. R.; Buchanan, M. S. and Harrington, J., 2002. Bulk specific gravity round-robin using the corelok vacuum sealing device. National Center for Asphalt Technology Report 02-11, FHWA-IF-02-044. Crouch, L. K.; Badoe, D. A.; Cates, M.; Borden, T. A.; Copeland, A. R.; Walker, C. T.; Dunn, T.; Maxwell, R. A. and Goodwin W. A., 2003. Bulk specific gravity of compacted Bituminous mixtures: finding a more widely applicable method. Final Report, State of Tennessee, Department of Transportation, July. Kvasnak, A.; Williams, C. R.; Williams, B. and Stanton, B., 2006. Evaluation of methods used to determine bulk specific gravity of Hot Mix Asphalt. ICAP10th International Conference on Asphalt Pavements, Canada. Jackson, N. M. and Czor, L. J., 2003. 100-mm-Diameter Mold Used with Superpave Gyratory Compactor. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, Volume 15, Issue 1 (January/ February). Mohammad, L. N.; Herath, A.; Wu Zhong and Cooper, S. A., 2005. Comparative study of factors influencing the permeability of hot-mix asphalt mixtures. Volume 74E Electronic Journal 2005, AAPT Publications. Montepara, A. and Virgili, A., 1996. La determinazione della massa volumica e dei vuoti nei conglomerati bituminosi aperti. Atti Convegno S.I.I.V. Ancona. Pratic, F. G.; Moro, A. and Ammendola, R., 2009. Modeling HMA Bulk Specific Gravities: A Theoretical and Experimental Investigation. International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology 2/3 (2009) 115-122. ISSN: 1997-1400. Sholar, G. A.; Page, G. C.; Musselman, J. A.; Upshaw, P. B. and Moseley, H. L., 2005. Investigation of the corelok for maximum, aggregate, and bulk specific gravity tests. Transport research record. Spellerberg, P. and Savage, D., 2004. An investigation of the cause of variation in HMA Bulk Specific Gravity test results using non-absorptive aggregates. National Cooperative Highway Research Program Web Document 66 (Project 9-26 (Phase 2)). Williams, B. A.; Bausano, J. P. and Williams, R. C., 2007. Criterion Test for Method Selection in Determining the Bulk Specific Gravity of Hot-Mix Asphalt. Journal of ASTM International (JAI), Volume 4, Issue 1 (January).

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Effect of Oil Palm Fiber on Properties of Asphalt Binders

S. Anwar Vijaya, M. Karim & H. Mahmud
Center for Transportation Research, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya

ABSTRACT: Use of fibers in bituminous mixes has been widely studied by researchers to determine whether any of the properties of the mixes could be enhanced. Cellulose fibers, for example, have been found to reduce binder drainage in porous asphalt, thus allowing higher bitumen content to achieve better durability. Glass fiber was also found to help increase the resistance to cracking and permanent deformation, thus improving the fatigue life of the pavement. This paper aims to discuss the findings in a study that investigated the effects of oil palm fiber on certain properties of the asphalt binder. The basic rheological properties of the oil palm fiber modified bituminous binder were investigated using the Brookfield viscosity test and the DSR test in addition to the softening point. The findings from the study appear to suggest that the use of oil palm fiber enhances the rheological properties of the modified binder which in turn would improve some of the mechanical properties of the asphalt mixes. KEY WORDS: Oil palm fiber, Modified asphalt, Binder rheology, Durability

1. INTRODUCTION Durability of bituminous pavements is usually attributed to the aging of the bitumen binder used to hold the aggregates within the pavement mix. The process of aging which normally occurs at the bitumen surface will propagate inwards till the bitumen layer hardens and brittle failure occurs. One mitigating measure is to increase the binder film thickness while minimizing binder drain-down. Bituminous road pavements depend very much on the characteristics of the bituminous binder in order to perform the task of maintaining its integrity under the traffic loads. The bituminous binder which is a visco-elastic material will not only bind the aggregates in a firm interlocking structure but also ensures that it contributes to the durability of the pavement as a whole. The durability of the pavement is very much dependent on the durability of the bitumen binder. Bitumen binder in service is subjected to the process of aging which cause the bitumen to harden and eventually led to brittle failure and cracking. One of the ways to enhance the durability of the bituminous pavement is to increase the film thickness of the bitumen binder which is attached to the aggregates. The thicker the bitumen film thickness the greater would be the aging resistance, hence, increasing the durability of the bituminous pavement. The bitumen film thickness could not be increased by merely adding more bitumen to the asphalt mix because at high temperatures the bitumen will just flow and drain-down may occur. In order to prevent drain-down the bitumen can either be modified with certain additives and polymers to increase its viscosity or alternatively the binder viscosity can be increased by incorporating suitable fibers. In one study, the fibers
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improved the service properties of the SMA mixes by forming micromesh netting in the asphalt mix to prevent drain down of asphalt and at the same time improve the stability and durability of the pavement mix (Muniandy et.al., 2008). There are many additives available in the market. However, some of these manufactured additives are quite expensive making them rarely used in road projects in certain countries (Setiadji, 2005). Fibers may be grouped into two categories in which the first category is the high modulus of elasticity fibers such as glass, asbestos and carbon fibers while the other is the low modulus elasticity fibers. This second category fibers such as natural and synthetic fibers are more versatile as it can be easily dispersed in a variety of mixes (Muniandy et.al., 2008). Wu et.al. (2006) reported that fiber modifiers had a better effect on drain-down reduction than that of polymer modifiers. It was also reported that polyester fibers would be used if the strength reinforcement of bitumen-fiber mastics was needed at higher temperatures. Mahrez et.al. (2005) reported that glass fiber has the potential to resist structural distress that occur in road pavement as a result of increased traffic loading, thus improving fatigue life by increasing the resistance to cracking and permanent deformation. Fibers have been used in asphalt mixtures to improve performances of pavement and fiber changes the visco-elasticity of the mixture, improves dynamic modulus, moisture susceptibility, creep compliance and rutting resistance, while reducing the reective cracking of asphalt mixtures and pavements (Huaxin et.al., 2009). In addition to the growing environmental concerns, the use of waste materials is also due to the assumption that these materials may replace certain existing materials in an engineering project in order to reduce cost and/or improve mechanical properties of the composite structure, such as road pavement (Behbahani et.el, 2009). In general, current research and previous experiences showed that the use of some waste materials (such as fibers, crumb rubber, and reclaimed asphalt pavement) has proven to be cost-effective, environmentally sound, and successful in improving some of the engineering properties of asphalt mixtures (Foo et.al., 1999; Shen et.al., 2006; Xiao et.al., 2007; Anurag et.al., 2009). 2. MATERIALS The ordinary 80/100 penetration grade bitumen commonly used in Malaysia has been chosen as the binder in this study. No attempt is made in this preliminary study to use commercially available premium binders as this would be rather costly and any changes to binder properties attributed to the effect of the oil palm fiber may not be easily recognized and quantified. The type of fiber chosen for this study is the oil palm fiber (OPF) which is considered a waste material from oil palm plantations in the country. Oil palm industry has grown widely for the past several years and now it is the largest agricultural plantation sector in Malaysia. There are 7.0 million tons of oil palm trunks, 26.2 million tons of oil palm fronds and 23% of empty fruit bunch (EFB) per ton of fresh fruit bunch (FFB) process in oil palm mills. The use of oil palm waste will obviously help to reduce the environmental burden. Oil palm fiber is available in abundance and it can be further processed to certain sizes and easily dried in order to be used in bituminous mixes. 3. LABORATORY INVESTIGATION In this preliminary study the focus is on lab investigation on the effect of incorporating the OPF in the bitumen binder with respect to some of the basic rheological properties of the binder.
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3.1. Specimen preparation Oil palm fiber (OPF) that has already been processed was further sieved to obtain the sizes needed and to remove any impurities. The fiber was heated at 80C in an oven until constant weight to ensure that it is dried to the minimum possible moisture content. The fiber need to be dried to a minimum moisture content to ensure adequate adhesion by the bitumen binder and avoid any possibility of stripping due to the presence of moisture. The amount of OPF to be used in the binder has been chosen as 1%, 2%, and 3% 4% and 5% by the weight of the bitumen binder. The OPF was added manually into the bitumen binder and stirred accordingly for each test that was conducted. 3.2. Binder tests The binder tests employed were the softening point test (ASTM, 2000a), Brookfield viscosity test (ASTM, 2000b), and Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR) test (ASTM, 2000c). As for the DSR test, the oscillation chosen is 1.59 Hz (10 radians/sec) as this is meant to simulate the shearing action corresponding to a traffic speed of about 90 km/hr (55 mph). The ring and ball softening point test is used to evaluate the consistency and temperature susceptibility of the bituminous binder. The test consists of placing a 9.53mm diameter steel ball on a binder sample placed in a steel ring and immersed in a water bath. Heat is applied to the water and its temperature is raised until a value is reached when the test sample is sufficiently soft to allow the ball, envelope in binder, to fall through a certain height. The Brookfield rotational viscometer test measures the torque required on a constant rotational speed (20 rpm) of a cylindrical spindle while submerged in an asphalt binder at a constant temperature. The torque is then converted to viscosity. High temperature viscosity measurements are meant to stimulate binder workability at mixing and lay down temperature. The basic idea is to ensure that the asphalt binder is sufficiently fluid for pumping and mixing. The DSR test uses a thin asphalt binder sample sandwiched between two plates. Asphalt binder in the medium to high temperature range behaves partly like an elastic solid and viscous liquid. By measuring G* and , the DSR is able to determine the total complex shear modulus as well as its elastic and viscous components. The complex shear modulus can be considered the samples total resistance to deformation when repeatedly sheared, while phase angle is the lag between the applied shear stress and the resulting shear stain. 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Results of tests conducted on the series of OPF-modified bitumen were analysed and compared with the results of the control bitumen sample. 4.1. Effect of OPF on softening point The effect of OPF on the softening point of the modified bitumen binder is shown in Figure 1. There is obviously a linear increase in the softening point of the OPF-modified bitumen as the amount of OPF used in the blend increases. The rate of increase in softening point which is represented by the slope of the graph indicates an increase of 10C for every 1% increase in OPF content (within this range of OPF content).

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Figure 1: Effect of OPF on Softening Point This result indicates that the addition of OPF in increasing amounts reduces the binders temperature susceptibility and would enhance the ability of the OPF-modified bitumen binder to resist flow at a particular temperature. A bitumen binder with a higher softening point is less susceptible to permanent deformation such as rutting. The high softening point of OPFmodified bitumen binder also indicates that it is less prone to experience bleeding in hot weather. 4.2. Effect of OPF on viscosity Viscosity of bitumen binder is known to be dependent on temperature. The viscosity value at any temperature is important particularly in ensuring adequate mixing of the aggregates as well as adequate compaction of the pavement mix. The effect of temperature on binder viscosity (for different OPF amounts) is shown in Figure 2. The viscosity of asphalt binder increases with increasing OPF. The amount of viscosity increase is greater towards the lower temperature end. The negative exponential curve is found to be the general trend for the decrease in viscosity as the temperature increases. The test results also indicate that the viscosity-temperature curves shifted upwards as the OPF content increases, with a greater shift at the lower temperature end as compared to the higher temperature end.

Figure 2: Effect of Temperature on Binder Viscosity

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Another important implication is that when a desired viscosity is determined for mixing with aggregates or compaction, the appropriate temperature must be found (from the viscositytemperature curves) for the particular OPF content used in the blend.

Figure 3: Effect of OPF on Binder Viscosity As the OPF content increases the binder viscosity also increases in a second order polynomial curve trend. According to earlier discussion, for any specific OPF content the binder viscosity will increase as the temperature decreases (Figure 3). As such, one has to be aware of the appropriate mixing and compaction temperature for any particular OPF content so that the corresponding binder viscosity is achieved. 4.3. Effect of OPF on some basic rheological properties Results of DSR tests conducted to study the rheological properties of asphalt binder with various fibers indicate that the rutting resistant properties of asphalt binder with fiber could be improved to a large extent (Behbahani et .al, 2009). At any combination of time and temperature within the linear range, the visco-elastic behavior is usually characterized by the shear modulus, G* which is calculated as the ratio of the maximum shear stress to the maximum shear strain (Wu et.al., 2008). The complex modulus, G* is a unique property of the particular binder which relates to its stiffness and the ability to resist deformation. In general, the higher the value of G* the higher will be the resistance to deformation.

Figure 4: Effect of Temperature on G*

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As shown in Figure 4, the OPF content does affect the value of G*. The results indicate that the addition of OPF will enhance the resistance to deformation up to a certain level. Lower slope of complex shear modulus (G*) means that the asphalt is softer, also higher complex shear modulus have benefit since it reduce rutting problems in the asphalt (Mahrez and Karim, 2003). The in-phase component of G* is defined as the storage modulus (G) and is the ratio of the stress, in phase with the strain. It is also called elastic modulus because of the amount of energy stored and released elastically in each oscillation. The out-of-phase component is defined as the loss modulus (G). It can also be shown that G is the ratio of the stress, 900 out of phase with the strain, to the strain. G describes the average energy dissipation-rate, associated with the viscous effects, and thus is called the viscous modulus (Lu et.al., 1997).

Figure 5: Effect of Temperature on G

Figure 6: Effect of Temperature on G As shown in figure 5 and figure 6 as the temperature increases the G and G decreases. Nevertheless, the addition of increasing amounts of OPF do not significantly affect the G*, G and G of the fiber modified binder except at the lower temperature regime. At the higher temperature range the values do not seem to differ significantly.

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Figure 7: Effect OPF on Complex Modulus The complex modulus plot against fiber content is shown in Fig. 7. The results indicate that the complex modulus increases with the increase in the fiber content. This implies that the addition of OPF would cause a slight increase in resistance to flow/deformation of the binder. Another measure that has been used to gauge the rutting resistance is the G*/Sin, which is G* divided by the sine of the phase angle. The results shown in Fig. 8 indicate that the addition of OPF also improves slightly the rutting resistance of the pavement mix.

Figure 8: Effect OPF on Rutting Resistance 5. CONCLUDING REMARKS Based on the experimental results, it may be concluded that the temperature susceptibility of the OPF-modified binder will decrease with increasing addition of oil palm fiber in the binder as indicated by the softening point values. The addition of oil palm fiber also increases the viscosity of the modified binder. While this is an advantage in terms of enhancing pavement durability, the equi-viscous temperature for different fiber contents need to be established to ensure adequate mixing and compaction is achieved. Results from basic rheological tests also indicate that there is a slight increase in complex modulus of the modified binder as the amount of OPF increases implying that the addition of OPF may offer an increase in rutting resistance of the asphalt mix.
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REFERENCES Anurag, K.; Xiao, F. and Amirkhanian, S. N., 2009. Laboratory investigation of indirect tensile strength using roofing polyesterwaste fibers in hot mix asphalt, Construction and Building Materials 23 (2009) 2035-2040. ASTM, 2000a, Test Method for Softening Point of Bitumen (Ring-and-Ball Apparatus), D3606, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 04.04, Easton, MD, USA, 2000. ASTM, 2000b, Test Method for Viscosity Determinations of Unfilled Asphalts Using the Brookfield Thermosel Apparatus, D4402-87, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, vol. 04.04, Easton, MD, USA, 2000. ASTM, 2000c, Determining the Rheological Properties of Asphalt Binder for Specification Purposes Using a Dynamic Shear Rheometer, D-4 Proposal P246, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, vol. 04.03, Easton, MD, USA, 2000. Behbahani, H.; Nowbakt, S.; Fazaeli, H. and Rahmani, J., 2009. Effects of Fiber Type and Content on the Rutting Performance of Stone Matrix Asphalt. Journal Applied Sciences 9(10): 1980-1984, 2009. Foo, K. Y.; Hanson, D. I. and Lynn, T. A., 1999. Evaluation of roofing shingles in hot mixture asphalt. J Mater Civil Eng 1999; 11: 15-20. Huaxin, C.; Xu, Q.; Chen, S. and Zhang,Z., 2009. Evaluation and design of fiber-reinforced asphalt mixtures, Materials & Design, vol. 30, Issue 7, August 2009, pp. 2595-2603. Lu, X. and Isacsson, U., 1997. Rheological characterization of styrene-butadiene-styrene copolymer modified bitumens. Construction and Building Materials, vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 23-32, 1997 Mahrez, A.; Karim, M. R. and Katman, H. Y., 2005. Fatigue and deformation properties of glass fiber reinforced bitumen mixes. Journal of the eastern asia Society for Transportation Studies, vol. 6, pp. 997-1007, 2005. Mahrez, A. and Karim, M. R. 2003. Rheological evaluation of ageing properties of rubber crumb modified bitumen. Journal of the Easten Asia Society for Transportation Studies, vol. 5 (2003). Muniandy, R.; Jafariahangari, H.; Yunus, R. and Hassim, S., 2008. Determination of Rheological Properties of Bio Mastic Asphalt American J. of Engineering and Applied Sciences 1 (3): 204-209, 2008. Setiadji, B. H, 2005. Use of Waste Materials for Pavemenmt Construction in Indoensia. Journal of the Instution of Engineer, Singapore, vol. 45, Issue 2, 2005. Shen, J. N.; Amirkhanian, S. N. and Xiao, F. P., 2006. HP-GPC characterization of aging of recycled CRM Binders containing rejuvenating agents. Transportation Research Board, No. 1962; 2006. pp. 21-27. Wu, S. P; Liu, G.; Mo, L.T.; Chen, Z.;Ye, Q.S., 2006. Effect of fiber types on relevant properties of porous asphalt. Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China, Volume 16, Supplement 2, June 2006, s791-s795. Wu, S. P.; Qunshan, Ye Q. and Li, N., 2008. Investigation of rheological and fatigue properties of asphalt mixtures containing polyester fibers. Construction and Building Materials 22 (2008) 2111-2115. Xiao, F. P.; Amirkhanian, S. N. and Juang, C. H., 2007. Rutting resistance of rubberized asphalt concrete pavements containing reclaimed asphalt pavement mixtures. J. Mater. Civil Eng. 2007; 19: 475-83.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Prospect of Using Waste Cooking Oil as Rejuvenating Agent for Aged Bituminous Binder
M. R. Karim & H. Asli
Center for Transportation Research, Faculty of Engineering, University of MalayaMalaysia

ABSTRACT: In line with the current concern over the detrimental effects of road and transportation development on the environment, more efforts are geared towards reducing the negative impacts by incorporating more sustainable and environmentally friendly approaches, one of which is to utilize recycled asphalt pavements (RAP). Road pavements which experience distresses such as rutting or cracking of the asphalt layers may be milled and reused in the new overlay that is to be placed on the existing road. Since the aged pavement would have the bituminous binder in an aged condition, a suitable rejuvenating agent is usually added to make the aged bituminous binder resume some of the properties of an unaged binder, especially its viscosity and penetration value. This paper aims to discuss the findings in a study that investigated the suitability of using waste cooking oil as a rejuvenating agent for aged bituminous binder. In this study, the ordinary bitumen was subjected to various degrees of aging in the laboratory to simulate the aging in the field. Waste cooking oil of various proportions were blended with the aged bituminous binders and the properties of the rejuvenated binders were then determined accordingly. Apart from the penetration and softening point values, the binder rheology was also characterized using the Brookfield viscosity test and the DSR test. The findings from this study appear to suggest that waste cooking oil may be a good alternative to existing rejuvenating agents to be used in asphalt pavement recycling. KEY WORDS: Waste cooking oil, Recycling, Rejuvenating agent, Binder rheology 1. INTRODUCTION Bitumen is one of the most important constituents of an asphalt mixture and asphalt pavement. The quality, characteristics, performances and properties of bitumen is highly dependent on the chemical composition of bitumen, which is mainly controlled by the crude oil and production process. For areas with hot and wet climate such as Malaysia, the most important performance requirements for asphalt pavement are resistance to permanent deformation (rutting) and resistance to surface cracking induced by ageing. The bitumen has a great influence on these performance requirements. The response of bitumen to stress depends on the temperature and loading time. At low temperatures and/or short loading times bitumen behaves predominantly elastic. At high temperature and/or long loading times bitumen behaves like a viscous liquid. For typical pavement temperatures and load conditions bitumen generally exhibits both viscous and elastic behaviour. Physical properties of bitumen are usually related with the characterisation of the rheological (flow) behaviour of bitumen. A large number of test methods have been
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developed to characterise bitumen. Most of these tests are empirical, i.e. the determined properties are not necessarily directly related to the performance of the bitumen. The rheological properties of bitumen also change with time (i.e. bitumen becomes harder and more elastic) due to ageing. The amount and rate of ageing depend on many factors such as temperature, exposure to oxygen, chemical composition and structure of the bitumen, etc. Basically, there are four mechanisms of bitumen hardening which are oxidation, loss of volatiles, physical hardening and exudative hardening (Whiteoak, 1990). There are several methods developed to simulate short-term and long-term oxidative ageing of bitumen. The four most used methods to simulate ageing of asphalt binder (shortterm ageing) are the Thin Film Oven Test (TFOT) and Rotating Thin Film Oven Test (RTFOT), Pressure Aging Vessel (PAV) for long-term ageing and STOA (short-term oven aging) of asphalt mixtures that are designed to simulate ageing during the construction of hot mix asphalt (HMA) pavements (Lee et.al, 2009, Srivastava & Rooijen, 2000). According to Wu et al. (2009), the influence of ageing on the evolution of structure, morphology and rheology bitumen binder can be investigated by Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR), Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) and Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR). In this research, an unconventional method which uses propeller mixer as the equipment for the ageing simulation process is utilised. Different grades of aged bitumen are achieved by varying the reaction time and the speed of the mixer. Decreasing supplies of locally available quality aggregate in many regions around the world, growing concern over waste disposal, and the rising cost of bitumen binder have resulted in greater use of reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) for road construction. Recycling Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) is the process in which reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) materials are combined with new materials (the virgin aggregates and asphalt binder) and a rejuvenating agent to produce HMA mixtures. Recycled HMA mixtures, properly designed, must have similar properties to those of conventional HMA, fulfilling the same technical prescriptions that are demanded for conventional ones. Experience has indicated that the recycling of asphalt pavements is a beneficial approach from technical, economical, and environmental perspectives (Shen et al. 2007 and Romera et al. 2006). This research work will investigate the possibility of using waste cooking oil as recycling/rejuvenating agent to restore the aged bitumen to a condition that resembles that of the virgin bitumen. A rejuvenating agent that is commonly used is a low viscosity product obtained from crude oil distillation. The use of waste cooking oil is sought to provide an alternative rejuvenating agent, and to provide an agent that is considered as a natural waste product. Incorporating a waste product instead of a petroleum product offers a potentially more sustainable product, and may lead to price and supply advantages. 2. LABORATORY INVESTIGATION The initial phase of the study has been focused on a lab scale investigation on the possibility and prospect of using waste cooking oil from domestic and other sources as rejuvenating agent for aged bitumen. Although waste cooking oil may also be recycled in other ways (Van Kasteren and Nisworo, 2007, Banerjee and Chakraborty, 2009) preliminary observations have shown that waste cooking oil does physically react with bitumen and this phenomenon warrants a laboratory investigation to explore another use for waste cooking oil. The approach undertaken in this study is to age the bitumen through accelerated aging process in the lab to varying the degree of aging and thereafter adding various percentages of waste cooking oil to the aged bitumen. Certain basic properties of the rejuvenated bitumen were then determined and compared with the basic properties of the original un-aged bitumen.

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2.1. Materials The bituminous binder used is the 80 penetration grade bitumen commonly used in Malaysia for flexible pavement surfacing and binder course. Previous experiences in evaluating asphalt samples from aged bituminous pavements have shown that the degree of aging of the bituminous binder varies as shown by the penetration value. As such, instead of searching for aged asphalt samples from mill waste, it was decided that aged bitumen samples would be produced in the lab. The lab accelerated aging process was carried out using a special container with a known weight of bitumen binder, heated in an oven at 1600C for two hours. The container was then transferred on to a hot plate and the binder continuously heated at 1600C for several hours. A propeller moving at 300-350 rpm is used to stir the binder while being heated. Samples of the aged binder are taken at different times after differences in weight as compared to the initial weight are found. The penetration values of the aged bitumen binders were determined using the standard penetration test. The aged bitumen binders were then grouped into several categories depending on their degree of aging, namely, 60-70, 50-60, 40-50, and 30-40 penetration grades. Waste cooking oil used in the study was obtained mainly from domestic sources. In order to maintain some level of consistency, only waste cooking oil from vegetable oils were chosen. The waste cooking oil was physically filtered to remove debris and minute particulate matter. Varying amounts of waste cooking oil (1% to 5% by weight) were added to each sample of aged bitumen at 160C for 30 minutes. A propeller mixer is used to continuously stir the materials during blending. 2.2. Binder Tests Basic properties of the original bitumen and the rejuvenated bitumen binder were determined and compared. The binder tests employed were the penetration test, softening point test (ringand-ball), Brookfield viscosity test, and Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR) test. The main aim of the binder tests on the waste cooking oil rejuvenated bitumen binders is to ascertain whether some of the basic properties of the original bitumen binder could be attained by the rejuvenated bitumen binder. As for the DSR test, the oscillation chosen is 1.59 Hz (10 radians/sec) as this is meant to simulate the shearing action corresponding to a traffic speed of about 90 km/hr (55 mph). 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The binder tests mentioned above were conducted on the original bitumen sample as well as the waste cooking oil rejuvenated bitumen binders. Initial results from these binder tests are as discussed in the following. 3.1. Effect of waste cooking oil on penetration value The consistency of the rejuvenated bitumen binders was determined using the penetration test (ASTM, 2000). A set of four aged bitumen binders were rejuvenated with waste cooking oil at 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% by weight of binder. The influence of the waste cooking oil on the penetration value of the rejuvenated bitumen binder is shown in Figure 1.

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It was observed that there is an almost linear increase in penetration value of the aged bitumen binder as the amount of waste cooking oil is increased. The rejuvenated bitumen binder managed to attain the penetration value of the original bitumen binder when a certain percentage of the waste cooking oil is added. For example, the aged bitumen pen-grade 40/50 binder managed to attain the penetration value of the original bitumen binder when 2.8% waste cooking oil by weight of binder is added to it (see Figure 1). Similarly, with the addition of 3.8% waste cooking oil by weight of binder to the aged bitumen pen-grade 30/40 binder, the penetration value of the original bitumen can be attained. Thus, as far as the consistency and the hardness of the bitumen binder is concerned, the addition of the waste cooking oil to the aged bitumen can help rejuvenate the properties of the original bitumen binder. This indicates that the waste cooking oil may be used as an alternative rejuvenating agent for the aged bitumen in the reclaimed asphalt pavement.

Figure 1: Influence of waste cooking oil on penetration value 3.2. Effect of waste cooking oil on softening point value The temperature susceptibility of bitumen may be determined using the conventional ringand-ball softening point test (ASTM, 2000b). In this study, the softening point of the original bitumen binder was 460C. The aged bitumen binders have a range of softening point values depending on the degree of aging. As waste cooking oil is added in varying the proportions to the aged bitumen the softening point values also began to change in an almost linear relationship as shown in Figure 2.

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Figure 2: Influence of waste cooking oil on softening point value From the test results, the aged bitumen pen-grade 40/50 binder managed to attain the softening point value of the original bitumen binder when about 2.3% of waste cooking oil by the weight of binder is added to it (see Figure 2). Similarly, with the addition of about 3.7% waste cooking oil by the weight of binder to the aged bitumen pen-grade 30/40 binder, the softening point value of the original bitumen can be attained. Thus, as far as the temperature susceptibility of the bitumen binder is concerned, the addition of the waste cooking oil to the aged bitumen can help rejuvenate the properties of the original bitumen binder. This indicates that the waste cooking oil may be used as an alternative rejuvenating agent for the aged bitumen in the reclaimed asphalt pavement for the purpose of recycling the material in pavement reconstruction. 3.3. Effect of waste cooking oil on viscosity The binder viscosity is a very important parameter to be considered in various stages of the asphalt production process. For example, the binder has to be sufficiently fluid when being pumped and mixed in the hot mixing plants. The binder viscosity will usually determine the workability of an asphalt mix at a particular temperature of mixing to avoid problems of inadequate binder coating of the aggregates as well as excessive air voids after compaction. In this study the Brookfield viscosity test (ASTM, 2000c) was employed for temperatures ranging between 900C and 1700C. The influence of waste cooking oil on the viscosity of the aged bitumen over the temperature range is illustrated in Figures 3, 4 and 5.

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Figure 3: Viscosity-temperature profile for aged bitumen 50/60 pen-grade rejuvenated with 1% waste cooking oil

Figure 4: Viscosity-temperature profile for aged bitumen 40/50 pen-grade rejuvenated with 3% and 4% waste cooking oil

Figure 5: Viscosity-temperature profile for aged bitumen 30/40 pen-grade rejuvenated with 4% and 5% waste cooking oil
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From the examples of test results given in Figures 3,4 and 5 above it can be inferred that the addition of waste cooking oil to aged bitumen binders (for various degree of aging) does rejuvenate the viscosity of the aged bitumen to match the viscosity of the original binder particularly for temperatures above 1200C. For the lesser aged bitumen (Figures 3 and 4) the viscosity-temperature profiles almost overlap for the whole temperature range of 900C to 1700C. 3.4. Effect of waste cooking oil on binder rheology The bitumen binder rheology was investigated using the dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) apparatus (ASTM, 2000d). The tests were conducted in accordance to the superpave specification in which the sample is sandwiched between a fixed-base plate and an oscillating spindle plate. The stressstrain pattern is recorded. The angular frequency is fixed at 10 rad/sec as in the superpave specification, which can be attributed to the loading time within a pavement where vehicles travel at 90 km/h. It is known that as binders get older, they become more stiff and brittle and it is generally accepted that bitumen hardening in the field is mostly due to oxidation. The basic parameters observed include the complex modulus (G*), the storage modulus (G), the loss modulus (G) and the phase angle (). The influence of waste cooking oil on these basic parameters for aged bitumen (in this example, 40/50 pen-grade) for a temperature range between 300C and 800C are shown in Figures 6 to 9. It can be inferred from the results that the addition of certain amount of waste cooking oil to the aged bitumen does rejuvenate the basic rheological properties of the bitumen binder to match that of the original binder to some reasonable practical extent. This initial finding would support further detailed study on the prospect of using waste cooking oil as a rejuvenating agent for recycled asphalt pavement.

Figure 6: Complex modulus (G*) -temperature profile for aged bitumen 40/50 pen-grade rejuvenated with 2% and 3% waste cooking oil

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Figure 7: Storage (elastic) modulus (G) -temperature profile for aged bitumen 40/50 pengrade rejuvenated with 2% and 3% waste cooking oil

Figure 8: Loss modulus (G) -temperature profile for aged bitumen 40/50 pen-grade rejuvenated with 2% and 3% waste cooking oil

Figure 9: Phase angle -temperature profile for aged bitumen 40/50 pen-grade rejuvenated with 3% and 4% waste cooking oil

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4. CONCLUDING REMARKS In this preliminary study, the prospect of using waste cooking oil as a rejuvenating agent in recycling aged bituminous pavement has been explored. The study has been confined to several laboratory investigations on some of the basic properties of the rejuvenated bitumen binder (using waste cooking oil as rejuvenating agent) for aged bitumen of by varying the degree of aging. Tests results have indicated that the use of waste cooking oil have successfully rejuvenated some of the basic properties of the aged bitumen, namely, penetration value, softening point, viscosity, complex modulus, storage modulus, loss modulus, and phase angle to match that of the original bitumen to a significant extent. This would necessitate further detailed study to determine the aging characteristics of the rejuvenated binder as well as the performance of the new recycled asphalt pavement which utilizes waste cooking oil as a rejuvenating agent. Nevertheless, at this juncture the preliminary lab findings would support further work to ascertain conclusively on the prospect of using waste cooking oil as a rejuvenating agent in reclaimed/recycled asphalt pavement. REFERENCES ASTM, 2000a, Standard Test Method for Penetration of Bituminous Materials, D5-97, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 04.03, Easton, MD, USA, 2000. ASTM, 2000b, Test Method for Softening Point of Bitumen (Ring-and-Ball Apparatus), D3606, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 04.04, Easton, MD, USA, 2000. ASTM, 2000c, Test Method for Viscosity Determinations of Unfilled Asphalts Using the Brookfield Thermosel Apparatus, D4402-87, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 04.04, Easton, MD, USA, 2000. ASTM, 2000d, Determining the Rheological Properties of Asphalt Binder for Specification Purposes Using a Dynamic Shear Rheometer, D-4 Proposal P246, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 04.03, Easton, MD, USA, 2000. Banerjee, A. and Chakraborty, R., 2009. Parametric sensitivity in transesterification of waste cooking oil for biodiesel productionA review. Resources, Conservation and Recycling 53 (2009) 490497 Lee, S. J.; Amirkhanian, S. N.; Kim, K W., 2009. Laboratory evaluation of the effects of short-term oven aging on asphalt binders in asphalt mixtures using HP-GPC. Constr Build Mater 2009; 23: 3087-3093. Romera, R; Santamaria, A; Pena; J. J.; Munoz, M. E.; Barral, M.; Garcia, E.; Janez, V., 2006. Rheological aspects of the rejuvenation of aged bitumen. Rheol Acta 2006; 45: 474-478. Shen, J.; Amirkhanian, S.; Tang, B, 2007. Effects of rejuvenator on performance-based properties of rejuvenated asphalt binder and mixtures. Constr Build Mater 2007; 21: 958964. Srivastava, A. and Rooijen, R. V., 2000. Bitumen performance in hot and arid climate. Pavement Seminar for the Middle East and North Africa Region, Innovative Road Rehabilitation and Recycling Technologies. 24-26 Oktober 2000; Amman, Jordan. Van Kasteren, J. M. N.; Nisworo, A. P., 2007. A process model to estimate the cost of industrial scale biodiesel production from waste cooking oil by supercritical transesterification, Resources, Conservation and Recycling 50 (2007) 442-458 Whiteoak, D., 1990. The Shell bitumen handbook. UK: Shell Bitumen; 1990. Wu, S. P.; Pang, L.; Mo, L.T.; Chen,Y. C.; Zhu, G. J., 2009. Influence of aging on the evolution of structure, morphology and rheology of base and SBS modified bitumen. Constr Build Mater 2009; 23: 1005-1010.

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Effect of the Adhesion between Layers of Airport Pavements in their Structural Behavior
L. Silva
Department of Civil Engineering & GEOBIOTEC, University of Aveiro, Portugal luisf@ua.pt

P. Cachim
Department of Civil Engineering & LABEST, University of Aveiro, Portugal pcachim@ua.pt

A. Benta
Department of Civil Engineering & GEOBIOTEC, University of Aveiro, Portugal pcachim@ua.pt

ABSTRACT: Airports are very important for global economic development by allowing the communication of people and cargo around the world quickly and efficiently. In this context it is necessary to ensure that airport pavements are sufficiently resistant to acting loads that are mainly caused by aircraft. To know the actual structural capacity of a pavement it is necessary to take into account the characteristics of their constituent layers and materials and simultaneously to take into account the intensity and diversity of actions, direct and indirect that may apply throughout their lifetime. The interaction between the layers of pavement and existing discontinuities are also important for understanding the behavior of pavements. The aim of this work is to contribute to the understanding of the effect of the connection between layers of airport pavements in their structural behavior. To achieve this goal, several sections of a semi-rigid pavement were modeled using a finite element program. A parametric study was performed where the influence of pavement structure, the load position and the connection between the layers were investigated. The pavements structures have a crushed rock layer, a concrete layer and an asphalt concrete layer. Different pavement types are considered by changing the position of the layers. The obtained results show the influence of the connection between layers in the overall performance of the pavement. KEY WORDS: Pavement, Concrete, Asphalt.

1. INTRODUCTION The global economical development caused the increase of not only the ground traffic, but also air traffic. This type of traffic needs sufficiently resistant pavements able to allow the safe landing and takeoff of aircraft. Thus, the analysis of rigid, flexible and semi-rigid solutions for airports and roads pavements has become an essential theme of development. Currently, due to existence of the vast infrastructure of air and road transportation and due to financial and environmental constraints, it is essential to study, not only new solutions for pavements, but also solutions for maintenance and rehabilitation. In this context, this study will be directed to the airport pavements as regards the design and the study of reinforcement solutions.
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2. TYPOLOGY AND CONSTITUITION OF PAVEMENTS The function of a pavement is to make a free and unwrapped surface to allow the circulation of vehicles in a safe, comfortable and inexpensive way. Road pavements or airport pavements are considered multi-stratified systems. They are formed by several layers of finite thickness supported in their foundations, constituted by natural soil (semi undefined massif which should have a better quality on top). The pavements, in accordance with its constitution materials can be rigid, flexible or semi-rigid. The designation of flexible pavements was established by the Asphalt Institute in 1960 to designate pavements made with one or more asphalt mixture layers placed directly over the granular layers (Minhoto 2005; Moreira 2006). To support them, there is a semi-undefined massif, named foundation. Rigid pavements can be made with simple concrete, pre-stressed concrete, concrete fiber mix, compacted roll concrete or high strength concrete. They can be supported on soil foundations, coarse subbase, or older pavements (FAA 1995; Oliveira 2000; Branco, Ferreira et al. 2006; FAA 2008). Semi-rigid pavements are formed by a wearing course overlayer, which are made of asphalt material placed on base layers with structural functions. These bases could be made with granular material treated with hydraulic cement or with concrete cement slabs. The asphalt layer can have a reduced thickness, less than 10 cm or achieve greater thicknesses. 3. PAVEMENTS DESIGN The role of design criteria is to avoid a structural degradation of the pavement before its predicted end of life. The damage status/degradation models considered in the design are: permanent and excessive deformations, such as rutting in flexible pavements, stepping in rigid pavements and leaks caused by the excessive work of the asphalt or hydraulic layers. The designer of road and airport pavements should select a less expensive structure for the pavement, considering the working conditions as well as the material and technologies available for its construction, in order to guarantee the acceptable structural and functional conditions until the end of their days (Domingos 2007). It is shown in the Figure 1 a representative scheme of the methodology used in the design of empiric and analytic method. Nowadays, sometimes the design methodologies dont consider the evolution that pavement materials and structures may suffer throughout the years, so most of them only consider the initial characteristics of the materials on the standard service temperature over the foreseen traffic. The best way to calculate the residual life of the pavement is to take into account the changes that may occur in the structure during their useful life to estimate its remaining life time. However, its difficult to measure exactly the changes of the pavement integrity, so it becomes difficult to define the right models that can simulate the evolution of weather characteristics (Fontul 2004). The methodology that is presented for COST 333 considers a set up process that takes in to account the deterioration of some elements of the pavement structure in traffic/climate cycles throughout its life. In this incremental method the entries for an answer model and for the deterioration laws are updating with the structure changes and in properties of the materials in time. The incremental method consists of deterioration estimative that occurs for short time increments (t) which belong to the entire pavement life. Besides the weather increments, the mechanism of deterioration can be considered in an incremental way, or in other words, by damage increments (i). For each factor that can damage the pavement, its necessary to

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calculate them separately, in steps one with the other and the weather increments simultaneously. At the end of the increment, the pavement model is updating according to the other deterioration factors that have already occurred. The damages are summed up until reach the end of the pavement life (COST-333 1999; Fontul 2004).
Pavement Geometry Traffic Loads Climatic Actions Climatic Conditions of Calculation Models of Behavior of Materials

Response Models of Pavement Structural Analysis (Calculation of and )

Geometric and Materials Type Alteration No Strength Evaluation (Wheelsets Admissible)

Ruin Limit

Degradation Models (design criteria) N = f( , )

Yes Analysis of the Project Economic Criteria Construction Procedures

Figure 1: Analytical-empirical design method (Domingos 2007) 4. AN ANALYSIS OF SEMI-RIGID PAVEMENT The design models commonly used in a structural analysis of pavements present many restrictions when we want to study rigid and semi-rigid pavements. This is due to specific features such as the existence of discontinuities (joints, for example), reinforcing materials, devices load transfer between slabs, and the joint behavior of materials with different properties (Silva 2009). With the purpose of trying to understand a semi-rigid airport pavement behavior before changes in the properties of their materials, namely, for different conditions of adhesion of the various layers, several sections of semi-rigid pavements were modeled, using the finite element program SAP 2000. Both sections were obtained by placing the same layers of the pavement at different positions (granular layer, bituminous layer and cement concrete layer). Thus, the structure considered is composed of 20 cm of asphalt material, 30 cm of cement concrete, 20 cm of crushed aggregate and soil foundation with 250 cm depth. Concrete cement is present in the form of rectangular slabs of 5 meters in length, without reinforcement and without load transfer bars. The characteristics of the used materials, Young's Modulus, E, and Poisson's Ratio, , are presented in Table 1. Table 1: Materials Properties Hot Mix Asphalt 5000 Mpa 0.40 Concrete 30000 MPa 0.20 Crushed Rock 500 MPa 0.35 Subgrade Soil 100 MPa 0.35

Young's Modulus, E Poisson's Ratio,

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The loading considered for this analysis was equivalent to that is applied by the Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD), i.e. a load of 150 KN into a circular area with 45 cm in diameter. For the model adopted, it was considered that the 150 KN were uniformly distributed over 45 cm. To understand the effect of loading at the joint between slabs of concrete, some load positions, centered and immediately adjacent to the joint, were tested, with variations of 0.3 meters. Thus, as regards the position, eight different loads were considered (Figure 2). In addition, two different connections between layers of bituminous layer, cement concrete and crushed aggregate were tested. Thus, virtual spring elements with two different strengths characteristics to simulating the good connection (spring stiffness = 100000 N / mm) or poor connection (spring stiffness = 10 N / mm) between layers were used (Figure 2).
C7 C5 C3 C1

C8

C6

C4

C2

0,45

0,3

0,3

Layer 1 Layer 2 Layer 3 Layer 3

Layer 4

Ci = 150 KN Layer i

cm 2,5 R2

5,0cm
15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

5,0cm

5,0cm

Layer i+1

45,0cm

Figure 2: Loading pattern and interfaces 4.1. Vertical positions of pavement layers The vertical distribution of the considered layers was divided into four groups, each one representing a finite element analysis. In both groups the same materials were used, with differences in the vertical position of layers of bituminous layer, cement concrete and crushed aggregate (Figure 3).

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0,0cm

Load FWD (Falling Weight Deflectometer)

0,2

Hot Mix Asphalt Layer (E=5000 MPa) Concrete Layer (E=30000MPa) Concrete Layer (E=30000 MPa) Crushed Rock Layer (E=500 MPa)

0,3

0,2

Analysis 1
2,5

Subgrade Soil (E=100 MPa)

0,2

Concrete Layer (E=30000MPa)

Concrete Layer (E=30000 MPa)

0,2

Hot Mix Asphalt Layer (E=5000 MPa)

0,3

Crushed Rock Layer (E=500 MPa)

Analysis 2
2,5

Subgrade Soil (E=100 MPa)

0,2

Hot Mix Asphalt Layer (E=5000 MPa) Crushed Rock Layer (E=500 MPa) Concrete Layer (E=30000MPa) Concrete Layer (E=30000 MPa)

0,3

0,2

Analysis 3
2,5

Subgrade Soil (E=100 MPa)

0,2

Concrete Layer (E=30000MPa)

Concrete Layer (E=30000 MPa) Crushed Rock Layer (E=500 MPa)

0,3

0,2

Hot Mix Asphalt Layer (E=5000 MPa)

Analysis 4
2,5

Subgrade Soil (E=100 MPa)

Figure 3: Sections of pavement analyzed

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4.2. Finite element mesh For modeling the pavement, was used the finite element program SAP 2000, using a 5 cm square mesh for all layers. It was considered that all layers were connected by spring elements, simulating a good or bad connection between layers (Figure 4).

Finite Element Mesh (5x5cm)

Joint between concrete slabs

Connection between Layers

Figure 4: Finite element mesh, concrete slab joint and spring elements 4.3. Results of finite element modeling In order to understand what the most unfavorable load position is, multiple placements of loading were carried out for the Analysis 1. It was found that the most unfavorable load position for the Bituminous layer is closest to the joint between concrete slabs. In effect, in this load position the damage is maximum. On the other hand, for the concrete slab, the highest tensions are located away from the joint between slabs. Regarding the influence of proximity to joint loading, it appears that for distances between the joint and the load exceeding 1.2 m the variation of stress is minimal (Figure 5).

Figure 5: Effect of load position (from the joint)

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After the above analysis only loading C2 was considered, as it produces the maximum stress of the asphalt layer. Because the asphalt layer is the less resilient layer, it is conclude that the C2 position is the most unfavorable (loading at 0.3 m from the joint). It was also found that highest horizontal tensile stress at the asphalt layer occurred in the area surrounding of the joint between concrete slabs. After fixing the most unfavorable position of the loading, finite element modeling of all section (analysis 1 to 4) were carry out considering the C2 load position. The following tables show structural behavior of the pavement and the values of maximum stresses for the various analysis.

Figure 6: Maximum tensile stresses (+) and compression stresses (-) on the underside of Hot Mix Asphalt layer (Analysis 1)

Figure 8: Maximum tensile stresses (+) and compression stresses (-) on the underside of Hot Mix Asphalt layer (Analysis 3)

Figure 7: Maximum tensile stresses (+) and compression stresses (-) on the underside of Hot Mix Asphalt layer (Analysis 2)

Figure 9: Maximum tensile stresses (+) and compression stresses (-) on the underside of Hot Mix Asphalt layer (Analysis 4)

From Figure 6 to Figure 9 we conclude that there is a strong relationship between layers adhesion and structural behavior of the pavement. Except in the Analysis 4, the maximum tensile stress at the bituminous layer is about double for the poor connection between layers. The similar stress distribution, with or without good adhesion, verified in Analysis 4 is related to the presence of crushed rock between the layers connected, in this layer the adhesion is always weaker.

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Figure 10: Maximum tensile stresses (+) and compression stresses (-) on the top of Concrete layer (Analysis 1)

Figure 12: Maximum tensile stresses (+) and compression stresses (-) on the top of Concrete layer (Analysis 3)

Figure 11: Maximum tensile stresses (+) and compression stresses (-) on the top of Concrete layer (Analysis 2)

Figure 13: Maximum tensile stresses (+) and compression stresses (-) on the top of Concrete layer (Analysis 4)

From Figure 10 to Figure 13, about the stresses on the top of the concrete slab, we could conclude there is also a negative effect on the structural behavior of the pavement at the presence of weak bond between layers. Again, this behavior is not so evident in Analysis 4.

Figure 14: Maximum tensile stresses (+) and compression stresses (-) on the underside of Concrete layer (Analysis 1)

Figure 15: Maximum tensile stresses (+) and compression stresses (-) on the underside of Concrete layer (Analysis 2)

Figure 16: Maximum tensile stresses (+) and compression stresses (-) on the underside of Concrete layer (Analysis 3)

Figure 17: Maximum tensile stresses (+) and compression stresses (-) on the underside of Concrete layer (Analysis 4)

For the slab of cement concrete the maximum tensile stresses are equivalent to the Analysis 1, 3 and 4. In Analysis 2 it appears that the variation of link between layers from good to bad implies an increase of maximum tensile stress more than double. This may be related to the lack of granular layer between the layer of cement concrete and asphalt layer (Figure 15 to 17).

Figure 18: Maximum tensile stresses (+) and compression stresses (-) on the top of Crushed Rock layer (Analysis 1)

Figure 20: Maximum tensile stresses (+) and compression stresses (-) on the top of Crushed Rock layer (Analysis 3)

Figure 19: Maximum tensile stresses (+) and compression stresses (-) on the top of Crushed Rock layer (Analysis 2)

Figure 21: Maximum tensile stresses (+) and compression stresses (-) on the top of Crushed Rock layer (Analysis 4)

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From the modeling results, as expected, that the granular layer did not provide any tensile stresses. In this case the compressive stress values were low and identical for poor and good connection between layers. To better understand the behavior of a pavement layer that includes flexible and rigid layers is very important a semi-rigid pavement model (Figure 18 to 21). 5. CONCLUSIONS The knowledge of means for evaluating airport pavements is essential for the safe movement of aircraft. Therefore this study has presented methodologies in order to structurally and functionally evaluating the various types of Pavements. To better understand the behavior of a pavement that includes flexible and rigid layers a semi-rigid pavement is modeled. From this analysis it was found that the level of maximum tensile stresses and compression is far more damaging to insufficient connection between layers than the reduction of deformability of these modules. Regarding the connection between layers, it is important to note that in the links to the granular layers there is a high uncertainty because they, unlike the bonded layers, have no resistance to traction. REFERENCES Branco, F.; P. Ferreira, et al. (2006). Pavimentos Rodovirios. Coimbra, Almedina.
COST-333 (1999). Development of new bituminous pavement design method. Final report of the Action.

Domingos, P. M. G. (2007). Reforo de Pavimentos Rgidos: Modelao do Comportamento Estrutural. Instituto Superior Tcnico. Lisboa, Universidade Tcnica de Lisboa. FAA (1995). Airport Pavement Design and Evaluation. Advisory Circular N. 150/5320-6D F. A. Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation. FAA (2008). Airport Pavement Design and Evaluation. Advisory Circular N. 150/5320-6E: DRAFT FOR PLANNING PURPOSES. F. A. Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation. Fontul, S. (2004). Strutural Evaluation of Flexible Pavements Using Non-Destrutive Tests. Departamento de Engenharia Civil Faculdade de Cincias e Tecnologia. Coimbra, Universidade de Coimbra. Dissertao para obtenao do grau de Doutor em Engenharia Civil. Minhoto, M. J. D. C. (2005). Considerao da temperatura no comportamento reflexo de fendas dos reforos de pavimentos rodovirios flexveis. Escola de Engenharia. Guimares, Universidade do Minho. Obteno do grau de Doutor em Engenharia Civil. Moreira, J. P. M. V. e (2006). Contribuio para a reutilizao de material fresado em camadas estruturais de pavimento. Departamento de Engenharia Civil. Guimares, Universidade do Minho. Dissertao para a obteno do grau de Mestre em Engenharia Rodoviria. Oliveira, P. L. de (2000). Projecto estrutural de pavimentos rodovirios e de pisos de concreto. Escola de Engenharia de So Carlos. So Paulo, Universidade de So Paulo. Dissertao para obteno do grau de Mestre em Engenharia de Estruturas. Silva, L. F. A. (2009). Pavimentos Aeroporturios: Anlise de Solues Rgidas e de Solues Flexveis. Departamento de Engenharia Civil. Aveiro, Universidade de Aveiro. Dissertao para a obtenao do grau de Mestre em Engenharia Civil.

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Experimental Comparative Analysis of Laboratory Compaction Methodologies for Stabilized Soils

G. Dondi, C. Sangiorgi, C. Lantieri, R. Cancellieri & P. Viola
DISTART Roads, University of Bologna, Italy

ABSTRACT: In pavement construction, major issues in recycling and reuse, are related with the materials showing poor mechanical characteristics and being strongly affected by water and frost. Hydraulic stabilization is a well known solution for most of these problems. However, the laboratory design of mixtures and the consequent verifications on the production are still time-consuming and, for this reason, frequently omitted. This study focuses on the mix design of clayey soils treated with lime, that is traditionally performed following the Proctor procedure; many authors have noticed a little correlation between this technique and the in situ roller compaction while, on the other hand, more analogies have been proven to exist with the Gyratory Compactor procedure (GC). This paper presents a comparison between these two compaction methodologies carried out on clayey lime stabilized materials, focusing on the volumetric compaction parameters and static and dynamic mechanical characteristics of dense samples. In particular, the resonant column is adopted as piece of equipment for assessing the dynamic mechanical characteristics of mixtures. KEY WORDS: Soil, Lime, Bound mixtures, Proctor Compaction, Gyratory Compaction, Resonant Column. 1. INTRODUCTION The limited availability of aggregates from quarries, their overall costs and the environmental restrictions to the excavations are casting more and more light on the need of employing, in the construction process, the pre-existing natural materials most of which, not complying to the required characteristics, would be discarded. This would bring several advantages as the reduction of landscape spoiling and the abatement of the work-zone trucks traffic. Most of the soil lack of conformity are related with their poor compactability, low bearing capacity, elevated deformability and high susceptibility to the presence of water. The use of hydraulic binders, such as cement, lime and fly ash, are known to carry a number of benefits to the natural materials and can modify their characteristics to achieve a permanent stabilisation of the soil and totally different materials suitable for construction. Since their recognised engineering applications at the beginning of the last century, the design of these treatments was always conducted in a laboratory by means of the well known Proctor methodology (1937) for compaction, together with various tests for the mechanical characterization of the obtained mixtures. However, the simple Proctors idea of aiming to a
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laboratory soil densification, this being representative of the on site essential conditions for a proven foundations strength, has major diversities when the real roller compaction generated strains are considered. Roller compactors, in fact, generates vertical and tangential actions by virtue of their weight and of the possible vibrations given to the drum during the compaction progressing. The impulsive compaction, typical of the Proctor methodology, anyway, is not able to reproduce, in the mould, the combination of these actions that recent studies have identified into the gyratory compaction effort, instead (Lee et al., 2007, Uddin, 1998). The study here presented moves from the aforementioned aspects and aims to evaluating the densification of lime stabilised materials performed with the Gyratory Compactor (GC) in substitution of the Modified Proctor procedure (MP). The GC method was chosen because of its continuous measurement of compaction and quickness. The investigation adopts the D,MP as comparison parameter and seeks to attain the same MP volumetric conditions by means of GC. A final testing phase focuses on verifying if the compaction modalities, starting from the same initial conditions, influence the samples mechanical behaviour. The influence of the mixture water/binder ratio either on the volumetric and the mechanical characteristics of specimens is assessed. This was conducted supporting the traditional quasi-static tests with a series of shear stiffness investigations made with the Resonant Column (ReCo) apparatus, a dynamic equipment that submits cylindrical specimens to cyclic loads. 2. MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME The natural soil adopted in this research was classified as A7-6 by means of the Italian standard UNI 10006/02. It contains a large percentage of fines (< 2m) and it is very sensible to the moisture variations that, when excessive, may lead to the decay of the mechanical characteristics, even when in conditions of optimum density. The UNI-EN 14227-11:2006 prescribes a series of preliminary tests to evaluating the characteristics of the materials to be treated with lime. In particular, the carried out tests where those to classifying the natural material and those necessary to studying the physical and chemical properties of its fine and very fine particles. Table 1: Soil material characteristics: preliminary tests.
Soil classification (UNI 10006:2002) Particle size distribution (CNR BU 23/71) Passing 0.075 mm sieve 85.18% Atterberg Limits (CNR 10014:1964) Liquid Limit (LL) 41.26% Plasticity Index (PI) 17.05% Sand Equivalent Value (UNI EN 933-8:2000) Sand equivalent (SE) 1.35% Methylen blue testing (UNI EN 933-9:2000) Methylen blue value (MB) 26.6 g/kg Contents of organic matter (UNI EN 1744-1/15:1999) Organic matter not present Contents of sulphate (UNI EN 1744-1/12:1999) Sulphate (SO3) 0.010% Soil-Lime proportion (ASTM D 6276 99a:2006) Minimum percentage of quick lime 3% Maximum dry density (D,max, MP) 1.864 Mg/m3 Optimum moisture content (wopt, MP) 11.41%

Physic characterization of fine-grained fraction

Chemical characterization of fine-grained fraction

Compactability Analysis (CNR BU 69/72)

Table 1 collects the obtained results, being included those related with the evaluation of the minimum lime percentage needed for producing a complete reaction of the clayey fraction of

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the soil. It can be inferred that the natural clayey soil can be conveniently treated with a minimum quantity of 3% of lime over the material weight. This value was taken as reference for the successive manufacturing of the experimental programme mixtures. Table 2 shows the characteristics of the employed quicklime: Table 2: Characteristics of the hydraulic binder
CO2 (CaO + MgO) SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 + SO3 Maximum particle size Passing to 200 m sieve 5% 90% 5% 2 mm 85%

The experimental programme after the preliminary characterization phase counts for other two phases (figure 1). Phase 2 required the comparison of the compaction efforts developed by the MP and the GC procedures. This was done adopting the Proctor maximum dry density (D,max,MP) as confrontation parameter. The GC compaction effort is considered to be equivalent to the MP one when the dry density from the gyratory procedure corresponds to D,max,MP. The third phase aims to assess the mechanical characteristics of the compacted samples; thus a number of MP and GC compacted specimens were prepared with the verified effort and subjected, after 7 days of curing, to static and dynamic mechanical testing.
1 Characterization of materials: soil and lime (Table 1, 2) Comparison of MP and GC compaction effort for lime treated soils 18 +18 specimens Evaluation of the mechanical characteristics of treated and compacted soil Static tests: CBR, compression Dynamic tests: resonant column 36 specimens 12 specimens

Figure 1: Scheme of the experimental programme. 3. COMPACTION EVALUATION As mentioned the two compaction methodologies considered are the Modified Proctor (MP) and the Gyratory Compaction (GC): table 3 summarises the aspects of each method being the compaction effort given to the tested portions different. The MP operates with an impulsive compaction and the material is inserted in the mould in 5 consecutive portions each one compacted with 56 rammer blows falling from a fixed height. The GC works as a press that densifies the material in the mould by means of a kneading action produced by its rotation around the vertical axis of the press. It should be noticed how the MP specimens are compacted to a constant volume varying the material mass, whereas in the GC the material mass is fixed and the final volume depends on its compactability. The Proctor maximum dry density (D,max,MP) and the correspondent optimum water content (wopt) shall be worked out to compare the volumetric samples properties and to evaluate the influence of water on the compactions.

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Table 3: Comparison of the two compaction modes (Sangiorgi et al., 2010).

Characteristics CONDITIONS OF SAMPLE PRODUCTION INPUT OF MATERIAL IN THE MOULD LAYERS COMPACTION MODE COMPATION EFFORT MOULD SIZES 5 impulsive 56 blows D = 152.4 mm H = 116.7 mm Single addition Gyratory PV (to be evaluated) N (to be evaluated) D = 150.0 mm H = different @ each gyration PROCTOR (AASHTO Mod.) MASS = variable VOLUME = constant GYRATORY COMPACTOR MASSA = defined VOLUME = variable

Previous studies by the Authors (Sangiorgi et al., 2010) have shown how, for natural siltclayey soils, the equivalence of D,max,MP and D,max,GC can be achieved, with good approximation, compacting the trial portion by means of 90 gyrations and a vertical pressure of 800 kPa. This was to be assessed also for the lime stabilised material. For this purpose the study of the needed number of GC gyrations on wopt,MP humid samples, was repeated with three distinct mixtures, containing different initial quantities of lime. Three lime percentages were employed: 3, 4 and 5% measured on the dry soil mass and equal mixing waters (Wnomin). The three Mwet masses of humid materials to be introduced in the GC mould were obtained by the net weight of MP compacted portions at the optimum conditions: compaction curves were prolonged up to 220 gyrations at 800 kPa. Studying the GC compaction curves of dry density vs. number of gyrations, it was calculated that, the aforesaid number of 90 gyrations needed to get an acceptable MP equivalent compaction, was still valid for lime-stabilised materials. Table 4 shows the summary of results. With the Unibo criterion the GC range of revolutions comprised between 90 and 120 was up to produce samples compacted to densities less than 1.6% lower than the maximum MP ones. This difference was reduced to 1.3% at 120 gyrations. Following the US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE, 1962) method, that considers the N revolutions as attainment of final compaction when, during the succeeding 100 revolutions, an increment of density lesser than 0.016 Mg/m3 is recorded, the defined GC effort range was corroborated. The number of gyrations satisfying the USACE criterion for the three mixtures were 89 for the 3% lime mix, 114 for the 4% and 103 for the 5%. The Unibo criterion confirms that, for lime stabilised soils, the GC effort needed to reach densities equivalent to the MP optimum ones, requires to compact the specimens with a number of revolution ranging between 90 and 120 at a vertical pressure of 800 kPa. For the following experimental phase a set of mixture water contents was selected among those more likely to exist during a real compaction process: values of nominal moisture content between 11.5% and 20.5% were adopted for each percentage of added lime. Table 4: Analysis of MP and GC compaction results. Unibo and USACE methods.
Mod. PROCTOR CaO Wnomin D,max, MP [Mg/m ] 1.876 1.875 1.873
3

GYRATORY COMPACTION UNIBO D, GC, 90 [Mg/m ] 1.846 1.850 1.843

3

USACE % [%] -1.28% -0.85% -1.17% Gyrations D, GC N 89 114 103 [%] 1.846 1.857 1.848 % [Mg/m3] -1.60% -0.96% -1.33%

% [%] -1.60% -1.33% -1.60%

D, GC, 120 [Mg/m ] 1.852 1.859 1.851

3

[%] 3 4 5

[%] 14.50 15.00 15.50

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4. STATIC MECHANICAL CHARACTERIZATION CBR and compression test on cylindrical samples were performed on a total of 36 specimens. The adoption of quasi-static destructive test was intended for assessing whether the different compaction method was, somehow, affecting the macro-mechanical behaviour of the compacted materials. CBR and vertical unconfined compression were chosen as representative tests for lime-stabilized materials. Figure 2 plots the CBR and Rc results versus the ratio between the moisture content prior compaction (Wcomp%) and the percentage of lime computed over the dry mass of soil (CaO%). Wcomp is measured 5 minutes after mixing at room temperature, when the lime-soil reaction has already progressed. The use of Wcomp%/CaO% is mainly related to the different contribution to the specimen strength that water and lime have; similarly to the water/cement ratio for the concrete mixtures, the increase of the water/lime ratio renders lower strengths. Nevertheless, here water plays a role both for the best compaction, and the lime/soil reaction, whereas for the cement concrete it is used either to increase workability and take part to the cement curing. With reference to the graphs of figure 2, it can be stated that both CBR and Rc diminish with the increase of the water/lime ratio. The number of specimens does not lead to the evidence of an optimum water/lime content for the strength, as it may be expected for water quantities that are balanced around the optimum for the soil compaction (maximum dry density). Anyhow, the Proctor compacted specimens exhibit the same trends of strength as the Gyratory compacted ones, for all the employed CaO percentages. In particular, both compaction methods let arise the water/lime ratios influence on strength. Nevertheless, the influence of the CaO percentage on the specimens mechanical characteristics is observable.
250
3%Proctor

4.0
3%Proctor

3.5 200
3%Gyratory 3%Gyratory

3.0
4%Proctor

4%Proctor 4%Gyratory 5%Proctor 5%Gyratory

150

2.5
4%Gyratory 5%Proctor 5%Gyratory

100

Rc [MPa]
7.00

CBR%

2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5

50

0 2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

6.00

0.0 2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

6.00

7.00

w comp%/CaO%

w comp%/CaO%

Figure 2: CBR and Rc values versus the water/lime ratio for Proctor and Gyratory samples For a general discussion of the macro-mechanical behaviour of Proctor and Gyratory compacted specimens it is convenient to plot tests data on a normalised scale, independently from the amount of CaO in the mixture. For the three lime percentages, the highest water/lime ratio is used for normalisation. Figure 3 shows how data are distributed in the CBR% or Rc versus the normalised Wcomp%/CaO% ratio plane. A substantial equivalency in trends confirms that, from the traditional mechanical standing point, the two compaction methodologies are producing equivalent samples. The mechanical behaviour is not sensible to the method used to achieve the target density, even though a different sample homogeneity is likely to exist.

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250 Proctor 200 Gyratory

4.00 3.50 3.00

Proctor Gyratory

150

2.50

Rc [MPa]
0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00

CBR%

2.00 1.50 1.00

100

50 0.50 0 0.50 0.00 0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

0.90

1.00

w comp%/CaO%norm

w comp%/CaO%norm

Figure 3: CBR and Rc versus normalised Wcomp%/CaO% ratio 5. DYNAMIC MECHANICAL CHARACTERIZATION To deepen the samples mechanical characterization a number of dynamic tests were performed by means of the Resonant Column apparatus; this is a widely used laboratory method for the dynamic characterization of soils and rocks at low and medium strain levels. 5.1. Theoretical introduction The basic test consists into applying with a torsional cyclic load the upper part of a cylindrical specimen either solid or hollow. The method is based on the one-dimensional wave equation deriving from the linear elastic vibration theory and the reference model is the fixed-free scheme where the gauge is clamped at the base and left free to rotate at the top edge (figure 4). The cyclic torsion, with a constant load amplitude, is applied varying the excitation frequency and the specimen response is measured in terms of rotations and, thus, of shear strains. The lowest frequency at which the maximum shear strains are attained corresponds to the resonant frequency of the sample related to its first vibration mode. The resonant frequency is therefore a function of the soil stiffness, of the geometry of the model and of the characteristics of the device (Padilla, 2004).

Figure 4: fixed-free scheme for Resonant Column testing. The speed of shear wave propagation Vs is calculated at the resonant frequency by the following relationship:

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(1) where Im is the moment of inertia of the acting system, Is is the moment of inertia of the specimen, is the natural pulsation of the system and h is the specimen height. When Vs is calculated the shear modulus G can be worked out by means of the following: (2) where is the specimen density. The shear strain yields from the following equation: (3) where req is the equivalent radius factor that takes into account for the shear strain variation across the radial direction (conventionally req = 2/3r for solid specimens), h is the specimen height, max is the maximum angle of torsion, s is the length of the swept arc measured by the sensor and rs is the distance of the sensor by the rotational axis. The damping ratio value D can be obtained using the free vibration decay method.

Figure 5: Calculating D with the free vibration decay method. The free vibration decay is based on the theory of free oscillations of a viscous-elastic mean at a single DoF. The damping ratio is worked out as: (4) where is defined as logarithmic decrease and it is calculated as a function of the ratio of two peak values in the recorded curve. For every specimen the torsional cyclic load amplitude is increased by successive steps and the results, in terms of shear modulus ratio G/G0 (where G0 is defined as the shear modulus calculated at the minimum strain) and damping ratio D, are recorded with reference to the various related strain levels , for the description of the constitutive law of the material.

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5.2. Resonant Column testing results The resonant column (ReCo) tests were conducted on cylindrical solid specimens with a 70 mm diameter. Compaction heights were left unvaried. To produce the samples 12 compacted cylinders were subjected to coring and extrusion procedure.

Figure 6: Coring and extrusion procedure and a resonant column specimen Table 5 shows the characteristics of the 12 specimens that differs on the compaction method, amount of lime and amount of water in the mix. From a nominal quantity of water introduced in the mixing phase, a subsequent decrease in water content is expected either prior compaction (Wcomp) because of the lime-soil reactions and evaporation, and after 7 days of curing, just before the ReCo tests (WReCo). The initial water contents were calibrated to get the hydration of lime and produce Wcomp in the range of the optimums for both the MP and the GC methods. ReCo tests were carried out with a confinement pressure 3 of 5 kPa. Table 5: Resonant column specimenscharacteristics.
Compaction methodology PROCTOR (AASHTO Mod.) Specimen MP 1 MP 2 MP 3 MP 4 MP 5 MP 6 GC 1 GC 2 GC 3 GC 4 GC 5 GC 6 CaO % 3 4 5 3 4 5 3 4 5 3 4 5 Wnomin (%) 14.5 15.0 15.5 16.0 15.0 14.0 14.5 15.0 15.5 16.0 15.0 14.0 Wcomp (%) 14.15 12.44 12.73 15.69 13.37 11.62 13.89 12.79 12.85 15.51 14.18 12.16 WReCo (%) 12.67 12.22 12.60 13.69 12.51 11.24 13.05 12.15 12.49 13.12 11.82 11.84 WReCo%/CaO% 4.22 3.06 2.52 4.56 3.13 2.25 4.35 3.04 2.50 4.37 2.96 2.37

The following figures 7, 8 and 9 plot the records obtained from the ReCo tests in terms of G/G0 and D versus the shear strains , for the three lime percentages. The G0 value for each specimen was taken at the shear strain of 0.0001%. Similarly to the static mechanical characterization, here ReCo results are analysed referring to the influence that the amount of lime and the residual water at testing have on the specimen dynamic behaviour. In particular, the WReCo%/CaO% ratio between the water content prior testing and the percentage of added lime was adopted as variable to read the stiffness and damping trends among the test data. For the seek of legibility results are here presented in separate graphs. Legend shall be used for understanding comments.
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GYRATORY COMPACTOR

Figure 7: G/G0 and D versus shear strain for specimen with 3% CaO.

Figure 8: G/G0 and D versus shear strain for specimen with 4% CaO.

Figure 9: G/G0 and D versus shear strain for specimen with 5% CaO. It can be inferred that, the increase in the WReCo%/CaO% ratio leads to the decrease in shear stiffness for each lime percentage. At the same lime content and shear strain level, in fact, higher shear moduli are recorded for lower water/lime ratios, thus for reduced water contents. These trends are confirmed by the D curves as the damping ratios are lower, higher stiffness, for minor water/lime ratios. Likewise the static characterization, the number of curves is not sufficient to distinguish a clear optimum trend for the water/lime ratio for each CaO%. Nevertheless, it is evident that WReCo water plays an important role especially for the 4% and 5% amounts of lime; the damping ratio curves with higher percentages of lime are more susceptible to the water content differences. The most relevant comment is related with the independency of results from the adopted compaction methodology; more precisely, where samples have similar water contents (Wnomin, Wcomp, WReCo) and close WReCo%/CaO% ratios, the ReCo curves from both MP and GC

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compactions are coupled. This is somehow confirming the conclusions of the traditional mechanical tests, that is a substantial mechanical equivalency of the specimens produced with the Proctor and the Gyratory compactions, starting from similar mixture conditions. 6. CONCLUSIONS The aim of producing reliable mix designs for lime-stabilised soils have led to the realisation of the presented study. The opportunity of adopting the gyratory compactor for the compaction of soils, in substitution of the modified Proctor, have been investigated by several researchers worldwide. This study extends the application of GC to the lime-stabilised soils, identifying a consistent methodology for producing GC samples with volumetric and mechanical characteristics equivalent to the MP compacted ones. The target dry density for GC corresponds to the MP maximum one, although the way of reaching it is different, trying to reproduce in the laboratory, the in situ compaction strains as it happens for asphalts. Static and dynamic mechanical tests are indirectly showing that, among the traditional and the innovative test for characterizing the designed mixtures, a substantial equivalency is obtained for GC and MP compacted samples. Moreover, analogous trends of susceptibility to the variation of water/lime contents are recorded, proving that the use of GC does not alter the overall possibility of refining the lime-stabilised soils mixtures design process. The future work will encompass the extension of the proposed comparison to the in situ compacted soils; keeping the Proctor-Gyratory compactor substitution as primary objective, the aspects of either the effective compaction moisture content and the maximum dry density, will be investigated by means of the same static and dynamic tests. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Authors are grateful to the R&D section of Tecnotest Srl and to Dott. Biagio Tranquillo and Dott. Daniel Del Negro of C.G.G. Geotechnical Analysis srl for arranging the RC testing sessions. Many thanks to Dott. Marco Abbondanza for performing most of the tests. REFERENCES Lee, K.; Prezzi, M. and Kim, N., 2007. Subgrade design parameters from samples prepared with different compaction methods. Journal of Transportation Engineering, Vol. 133, No.2. ASCE, ISSN 0733-947X/2007/2-82-89, February. Sangiorgi, C.; Lantieri, C. and Cancellieri, R., 2010. Experimental Comparative Analysis of Laboratory Soils Compaction Methodologies. 16th International Road Federation World Meeting, Lisbon, May. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1962. Gyratory Compaction Method for Determining Density Requirements for Subgrade and Base of Flexible Pavements. Miscellaneous Paper No. 4-494, Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi, May. Padilla, J. M., 2004. GCTS Resonant Column device, Internal technical note, GCTS, 6103 South Maple Avenue, Tempe, USA. Uddin, W., 1998. Characterization of pavement materials and soil using gyratory shear test. Geotechnical Special Publication No 85, Application of Geotechnical Principles in Pavement Engineering, Proceedings of Sessions of Geo-Congress, pp. 59-68. UNI EN 14227-11:2006. Hydraulically bound mixtures - Part 11: Soil treated by lime.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

The Use of Steel Fibers as a Reinforcement Material in Cement Concretes

C.A. Kiremitci, S. Iyinam, A. F. Iyinam & M. Ergun
Department of Civil Engineering, Technical University of Istanbul, Turkey kiremitci@itu.edu.tr, siyinam@ins.itu.edu.tr, afiyinam@ins.itu.edu.tr, ergunmur@gmail.com

ABSTRACT: Recent studies demonstrated that the addition of steel fibers into cement concrete provides reduced thickness of several slabs, such as runways and taxiway pavements, bus stations, car parks, and cement concrete pavements. The cement concrete slab is the main structural component of the road. It transmits loads to the sub-base. Instead of using conventional cement concrete, Steel Fiber Reinforced Cement Concretes (SFRCC/ SFRC) can be used in the cement concrete road construction. Usage of steel fibers allows greater joint spacing in road constructions; they have a significant positive effect on both fracture energy and flexural strength of cement concrete. The real advantage of using of fibers in cement concrete can be seen after matrix cracking. While matrix reaches cracking stresses, the ductile fibers in a fiber-reinforced cement concrete continue to carry stresses beyond the matrix cracking. Many types of steel fibers are used to reinforce cement concrete. Steel fibers content, type, aspect ratio (length/diameter), and strength may affect fracture energy and flexural strength of cement concrete as highway pavement or road base. The main aim of this study is to analyze the effects of the usage of steel fibers in cement concrete, which are used as pavement or road base. In the first part of this study information about different fiber types is given. In the second part SFRCC with various variations of steel fibers (types, aspect ratios, and strength and volume fractions) are compared with conventional cement concrete. In the last part of this paper, applications of SFRCC in the world are investigated. As a result it is demonstrated that using steel fibers in cement concrete increases the fracture energy and flexure strength of concrete when compared to plain concrete. Also it is shown that when aspect ratio or volume fraction of steel fibers increases these properties of concrete increases. KEY WORDS: Concrete, Pavement, Steel fiber, Fracture, Flexure. 1. INTRODUCTION The addition of steel fibers into concrete provides reduced thickness of several slabs, such as aircraft and industrial pavements, bus stations, loading bays, petrol stations, car parks, and highways. In city centers, a typical cross-section of a pavement from the outer layer to the inner layer can be arranged as follows (Knapton, 1998): 1. Pavement surface 2. Road-base (structural slab), 3. Sand layer, 4. Sub-base, 5. Sub-grade.

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Conventionally plain cement concrete or bituminous materials are used as pavement and road base. Such materials may cause high level of surface irregularities under heavy traffic conditions, especially in the city centers. Using of steel fiber reinforced cement concrete as road base allows a part of tension stress to be transmitted across the cracks. Steel fibers allow greater joint spacing in road construction; they have a significant effect on both fracture energy and flexural strength of concrete positively, which are very important for cement concrete roads in heavily trafficked situations. One of the greatest benefits to be gained by using steel fiber reinforcement is improved long-term serviceability of a structure. Steel fiber reinforced cement concrete roads under heavy traffic load situations offer (Bayramov et. al., 2004): 1. Excellent ductility, 2. Enhancement of the edges against failure, 3. Reduction in the shrinkage of concrete, 4. Eliminating of mistakes in conventional reinforcing, 5. Shorter construction periods compared to traditional ones, 6. Increased tensile and flexure strengths, equal in all directions, 7. Easy crack control and high absorbed energy after matrix failure. Based on industrial sources, the amount of fibers used worldwide at present is about 300,000 tons per year. In North America, the growth rate has been placed at 20% per year. However, it should be pointed out that Steel Fiber Reinforced Cement Concretes remains a small fraction of the amount of concrete used each year in the construction industry (Li, 2002). Steel Fiber Reinforced Cement Concretes have been used in many structural applications like in pavements and overlays, bridge decks, rock stabilization, industrial floors, tunnels, wall claddings, swimming pools, dams, canals, other hydraulic and marine structures, repairing and rehabilitation works, strengthening of existing concrete structures, and other civil engineering construction projects (Barros and Figueiras, 1999). 2. STEEL FIBER REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETES Steel fiber reinforced cement concrete is a concrete mix that contains short discrete fibers that are uniformly distributed and randomly oriented. The most significant effect of fiber addition to the brittle cementitious matrix is the enhancement of toughness. The addition of steel fibers, especially those with hooked-ends, into the concrete significantly improves many of the engineering properties, especially the mechanical and fracture properties, such as impact strength, toughness, earthquake resistance, resistance to cracking and ductility (Bayramov et. al., 2004). For a better understanding of the fracture behavior of concrete structures, knowledge of the post-cracking behavior of concrete material is essential. While matrix fails in a brittle manner at the occurrence of cracking stresses, the ductile fibers in a fiber-reinforced concrete continue to carry stresses well beyond the matrix cracking, which helps to maintain structural integrity and cohesiveness of the material. If they are properly designed, after matrix cracking, randomly distributed and short fibers arrest micro cracks, bridge these cracks, and limit crack propagation (Banthia and Trottier, 1995; Kurihara et. al., 2000). Fracture energy of the material is calculated with the use of area under the load-deflection curve, behavior of Steel Fiber Reinforced Cement Concretes and plain concrete can be seen in Figure 1.

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25000

20000 SFRC with macro fibers

Load (N)

15000 SFRC with micro fibers 10000

5000 Plain concrete 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Deflection (mm)

Figure 1: Comparison of load-deflection curves of plain concrete and Steel Fiber Reinforced Cement Concretes (Kiremitci et. al., 2008) After cracking, the fibers spanning the crack will provide a residual load-carrying capacity. The capacity can be considerable, depending on the content and type of fiber used. Pullout strength of steel fibers significantly improves the post-cracking tensile strength of concrete. As a Steel Fiber Reinforced Cement Concrete beam specimen is loaded, steel fibers bridge the cracks (Figure 2). Such bridging action provides the Steel Fiber Reinforced Cement Concrete specimen greater impact resistance, flexural and tensile strengths, ductility, and fracture toughness (Gebman, 2001). C: Compressive zone T1: Uncracked tensile zone T2: Aggregate and fibre bond bridging zone T3: Fiber pull-out zone T4: No resistance from fibers Figure 2: Flexural behavior of SFRC (Neocleous, 2008) 2.1. Types of steel fibers Many types of steel fibers are used to reinforce cement concrete which is a quasi-brittle material (Figure 3). In general, the factors related to steel fibers that influence the behavior of SFRCC can be expressed as follows: Fiber content, Fiber aspect ratio (length/diameter of the fiber), Shape, cross section and deformation of fiber, Tensile strength, Orientation of fibers.

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Figure 3: Some types of steel fibers (Bayasi and Soroushian, 1991). 2.2. Factors affecting the behavior of SFRCCs Banthia and Trottier (1995) investigated the effect of type of steel fibers on performance of concrete. The 4 types of fibers are used with a concrete of having 52 MPa compressive strength, and loaded up to a deflection of 2 mm. Using hooked end steel fibers showed the highest toughness (Figure 4).
25 20 Load kN 15 10 I IV III II
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Deflection, mm Figure 4: The effect of fiber type on load-deflection curve (Banthia ve Trottier, 1995).

Figure 5: The effect of fiber volume ratio on load-deflection curve (Wafa and Ashour, 1992).

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Similarly Gao et al. (1997) investigated the effect of aspect ratio and fiber volume fraction on concrete. The research demonstrated that with the increase of aspect ratio (length/diameter) or volume fraction fracture toughness improves (Figure 6). A shortcoming of using steel fibers in concrete may be a reduction in workability. Especially when longer fibers are used, this problem becomes more apparent. Workability of Steel Fiber Reinforced Cement Concrete is generally affected by fiber aspect ratio and volume fraction. To avoid unworkable mixes, the fiber volume fraction (VF) is limited to 2 % and aspect ratio (L/d) to 100. To overcome the workability problems super plasticizer can be used (Gebman, 2001).

40 I 30 II 20 III 10 V IV

I. Vf = % 2, L/d = 70 II. Vf = % 2, L/d = 58 III. Vf = % 1, L/d = 70 IV Vf = % 1, L/d = 58

V. Vf = % 0 (plain concrete)

0,5

1,0 Deflection, mm

1,5

2,0

Figure 6: The effect of aspect ratio on load-deflection curve (Gao et al., 1997) 3. SFRCC APPLICATIONS Steel fibers have been used in different construction areas, anywhere with high loads and harsh conditions, all kind of airport pavements such as runways, taxi routes, heavy loaded motorway pavements, roundabout junctions, logistic park areas, ports, industrial slab-on grounds, tunnel linings, blast-resistance and impact-resistance surfaces (Elsaigh et. al, 2005). SFRC pavements behave similar to reinforced concrete, though the effective amount of reinforcement is much less, and hence also require non-linear analysis for predicting their behavior (Jafarifar, et al., 2009) The addition of small amount of fiber will also reduce the thickness of the pavement slab. For C30 concrete thickness saved in construction with SSFRC is 41%, for C35 concrete thickness saved with SSFRC is 38% and for C40 concrete thickness saved in SSFRC is 33%, which is economical when compared to plain concrete (Table 1). Also, the mechanical properties of the concrete are increased by increasing the proportion of the steel scrap up to 1.5%. From 1.5% to 2.0%, it shows slight decrease in mechanical strength. At 2.0% of steel proportion, there is considerable reduction in the mechanical strength of SSFRC (Niranjana, et. al., 2008).

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Table 1: Comparison of plain concrete and SFRC (Niranjana, et al., 2008). Concrete Class C30 C35 C40 Description Plain concrete SFRCC Plain concrete SFRCC Plain concrete SFRCC Abrasion (% Loss in weight) 0,12 0,04 0,98 0,035 0,85 0,012 Flexural Strength (MPa) 4,56 7,67 4,89 7,89 5,26 8,27 Slab Thickness (cm) 31 22 29 21 28 21

It has been shown from both laboratory and field specimen testing that fiber reinforcement has the potential to impart improvements on CRCP performance. While most hardened properties are not changed, the increases in toughness that fibers provide are likely to decrease crack widths, improve load transfer across cracks, and lead to improved long-term spalling resistance. Toughness was found to be highly dependent on fiber type and/or dosage. Steel fibers were also found to typically provide greater improvements in toughness for the same volume replacement, compared to synthetic fibers. Spalling, even in poor-performing pavements, takes time to appear. (Folliard et al., 2006). Steel fiber also can be used for Roller Compacted Concretes. RCC is a relatively stiff mixture of aggregates, cementitious materials and water that is compacted by vibratory rollers and hardened into concrete, with zero slump and no need for formwork. Steel fibers may be added to RCC to obtain better post cracking behavior and increased joint spaces. Fiber dispersion in the mix and fiber spring behavior after compacting are the challenges to be solved (Figure 7). After adding up to 150 kg of fibers per m3, successful dispersion of fibers is observed, after compaction of concrete fibers did not spring back (Neocleous, 2008) .

Figure 7: Successfully dispersed fibers and concrete after compaction (Neocleous, 2008) A SFRSCC project was conducted at bus station pavement in Taipei City. Due to the heavy traffic and exposure to severe environmental conditions, the top pavement layer of bus station used the SFRSCC mixture with a fiber volume ratio of 0.5% and a fiber length of 30 mm. But the bottom pavement layer was made with only self-consolidating concrete (SCC). The concrete selection was made to meet the requirement of JRCP and to satisfy the design requirements, as shown in Table 2. Due to the combined usefulness of steel fiber and pozzolanic material, the flexural strength of the SFRSCC mix designs at 28 and 56 days are respectively higher by 102% and 115% than the specified (required) value shown in Table 3. After 5 years of exposure to heavy vehicular traffic, the road pavement in Taipei city is

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observed to be performing well without fracture, abrasion, shrinkage crack, or any other defects with limits of normal maintenance routines (Tsai et al., 2009). Table 2: Requirement for bus station pavement of SFRCC in Taipei City (Tsai et al., 2009) Property Slump (mm) Slump Flow (mm) Compressive Strength (MPa) Flexural Strength (MPa) Time Up to 45 min. Up to 45 min. 3 day 28 day 56 day 28 day 56 day SCC 250 20 600 50 28 49 70 4.5 5.0 SFRSCC 230 20 500 50 28 49 70 4.5 5.0

Table 3: Flexural strength of SFRSCC in bus station pavement (Tsai e. al., 2009) Age 28 56 Flexural Strength (Mpa) 8.3 10.0 9.9 11.5 Average Required Ave/Req. 9.1 10.75 4.5 5.0 2.02 2.15

In another application of SFRCC precast High Performance Road Deck Panel (HPRDP) elements of dimensions 1 m 2 m 150 mm and 1 m 3 m 150 mm with SFRSCC were designed to replace the traditional steel road deck panel having 50 mm concrete topping. A mixture with a water/cement ratio of 0.25, a fiber volume ratio of 0.5% and fibers with a length of 30 mm is used for this project. The initial crack load of HPRDP is four times more than the initial designed value 12 ton (Figure 8). It was found that the HPRDP made with SFRSCC has higher energy absorption capacity, higher flexural strength, and higher impact strength. Figure 9 shows the demonstration of the field abrasion test conducted by a 50-ton bulldozer. No abrasion or scratches were observed after the test (Tsai et. al., 2009).

Figure 8: Deflection of a Precast HPRDP (Tsai et al., 2009)

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Figure 9: Field abrasion test of a precast HPRDP element (Tsai et al., 2009) 4. CONCLUSION The use of steel fibers as a reinforcement material in cement concretes will provide: Uniform multi-directional concrete reinforcement Increased crack resistance, Increased ductility, Increased energy absorption or toughness of concrete, Improved impact resistance, Improved fatigue endurance, Improved shear strength of concrete, Increased ultimate load-bearing capacity which allows possible reduction of concrete slab thickness, Less labor to incorporate into concrete than conventional reinforcement, Economical concrete reinforcement solutions with greater project scheduling accuracy, Ideally suited for hand or vibratory screeds, laser screeds and all conventional finishing equipment REFERENCES Bayasi, Z. and Soroushian P., 1991. Fiber type effects on the performance of steel fiber reinforced concrete, ACI Materials Journal, 88, 129-134. Barros, J.A.O. Figueiras, J.A., 1999. Flexural Behavior of SFRC: Testing and Modeling, Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, Vol.11 (4), pp. 331-339. Bayramov, F., Aydoner, T, Ilki, A. And Tasdemir M.A., 2004. SFRCs for Concrete Roads in Heavily Trafficked Situations, Proc. 9th Int. Symposium on Concrete Roads, Istanbul. Banthia, N. and Trottier, J. F., 1995 Concrete Reinforced with Deformed Steel Fibers. Part II: Toughness Characterization, ACI Materials Journal, Vol. 92(2), pp.146-154.

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Elsaigh, W. A.; Kearsey, E. P.; Robberts, J. M., Steel Fiber Reinforced Cement Concrete for Road Pavement Applications, Proceeding of 24th Southern AfricanTransport Conference, 13-15 July, 2005, Pretoria, South Africa. Folliard, K. J.; Whitney, D. P.; Sutfin, D. and Turner, R., 2006. Fibers in Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavements: A Summary. Project Summary Report 0-4392-S, Center for transportation research, the university of Texas, Austin, March. Gao, J.; Sun, W. and Morino, K., 1997. Mechanical properties of steel fibre-reinforced, highstrength, lightweight concrete, Cement and Concrete Composites, 19, 307-313. Gebman, M., 2001. Application of Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete in Seismic Beam-Column Joints, MSc Thesis, San Diego State University, San Diego. Jafarifar, N.; Pilakoutas, K. and Neocleous, K., 2009. Steel-Fibre-Reinforcement and Increasing the Load-Bearing Capacity of Concrete Pavements. Article No. 7 Intersections/ Intersecii, Vol.6, No.3. Kiremitci, C. A.; Tasdemir, M.A.; Arslan, G. and Ozalp, F., 2008. Mechancal Behaviour Of Ultra Hgh Performance Steel Fiber Reinforced Concretes, 86-95, Beton 2008 Ready Mxed Congress And Internatonal Concrete, pp. 86-95, Istanbul, Turkey. Knapton, J., 1998. Fibre Reinforced Concrete Roads Surfaced with Concrete Paving Stones, Proc. 8th Int. Symp. on Concrete Roads. PIARC - Associao Tcnica da Indstria de Cimento, pp. 442-450, Lisbon. Kurihara, N.; Kunieda, M.; Kamada, T.; Uchida, Y. and Rokugo, K., 2000. Tension Softening Diagrams and Evaluation of Properties of Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete. Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Vol. 65, pp. 235-2453 Li, V. C., 2002. Large Volume, High-Performance Applications of Fibers in Civil Engineering. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Journal of Applied Polymer Science, Vol. 83, pp. 660-686. Neocleous, K., 2008. Steel fiber-reinforced roller compacted Concrete. Economical and sustainable pavement infrastructure for surface transport, Industry Seminar, Romania. Niranjana, G.; Mathew, S. and Jayabalan, P., 2008. Structural Strength Enhancement of Rigid Pavement Using Scrap Steel Fibre Reinforcement. NBMCW (New Building Materials & Construction World), May. Tsai, C.; Li, L.; Chang, C. and Hwang, C., 2009. Durability design and application of steel fiber reinforced concrete in Taiwan, The Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, Volume 34, Number 1B. Wafa, F. F. and Ashour, S. A., 1992. Mechanical properties of high-strength fibre reinforced concrete, ACI Materials Journal, 89, 449-455.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Rheology of Fractionated Cornstover Bio-oil as a Pavement Material

Mohamed Abdel Raouf
Graduate student, Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA maraouf@iastate.edu

R. Christopher Williams
Associate Professor, Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA rwilliam@iastate.edu

ABSTRACT: Most bituminous binders that are used for pavements are derived mainly from fossil fuels. Due to the availability of large quantities of biorenewable sources, there are virtuous technical and economic benefits in utilizing them to produce bio-binders. Recently, through the application of scientific research and development, a range of different vegetable oils have been investigated to determine their physical and chemical properties to study their applicability to be used as bio-binders. Bio-binders can be used in three different ways; a direct alternative binder (100% replacement), a bitumen extender (25% to 75% bitumen replacement), or a bitumen modifier (<10% bitumen replacement). Recently, according to Superpave specifications, the design of pavement material should be based upon mitigating pavement distresses. Hence, investigating the rheological properties of a pavement binder is very important to predict and evaluate pavement performance. In this paper, the rheological properties of cornstover bio-oils have been investigated to determine the applicability of developing bio-binders to be utilized as a direct alternative (100% replacement). In addition, three different polymer modifiers, two polyethylenes and an oxidized polyethylene have been blended with the bio-oils to study their effect on the rheological properties of the bio-oils. The results show that the Arrhenius model displayed the relationship between viscosity and temperature and the Power law model demonstrated the relationship between viscosity and shear rate. Based on the Arrhenius and Power law models, it can be concluded that temperature is the main contributor to change in the viscosity of the polyethylene modified cornstover bio-oil in comparison to shear rate. As an overall conclusion, the rheological properties of cornstover bio-oils are similar and comparable to bitumen binders and represent a viable renewable alternative to petroleum derived asphalt binders. KEY WORDS: Bio-binders, Bio-oils, Cornstover, Power-law model, Arrhenius-type model.

1. INTRODUCTION The United States is making substantial advancements toward the establishment of a biobased economy, which is to generate energy from renewable organic matter rather than fossil fuels (Abdel Raouf and Williams, 2009b, and Demirbas and Balat, 2006). Biofuels have many advantages over fossil fuels as they are renewable, environmentally friendly, provide energy security, and present a great economic opportunity for the United States (Abdel Raouf and Williams, 2009a, Boateng et al., 2006, Demirbas and Balat, 2006, and Goyal et al., 2006).
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Bio-fuels are produced from biomass, which includes plant matter and residues, such as agricultural crops, municipal wastes and agricultural and forestry co-products (Demirbas and Balat, 2006, and Mohan et al., 2006). Depending upon the process of converting plant matter to bio-fuels, different co-products are produced, such as solids, liquids (bio-oils), and gases. Some of these co-products are not utilized in any other industry; therefore, more effort should be placed to discover new uses and applications for these co-products (Abdel Raouf and Williams, 2009c). Utilizing the co-products is crucial for the success and profitability of the bio-fuel production industry (Bothast and Schlicher 2005 and Van Dam and DeKlerk-Engles 2005). Nearly all bituminous binders used for pavement materials are derived mainly from fossil fuels through refining of crude petroleum. Due to the availability of large quantities of biorenewable sources such as triglyceride oils, proteins, starch and other carbohydrates from different organic sources, there are virtuous technical and economic benefits in utilizing them to produce bio-binders. Recently, through the application of scientific research and development, a range of different vegetable oils have been investigated to determine their physical and chemical properties to study their applicability to be used as bio-binders (Abdel Raouf and Williams, 2009a, 2009b and 2009c). Therefore, investigating the rheological properties of a pavement binder is very crucial in order to determine the pavement distresses and hence to predict and evaluate pavement performance. In order to decrease the demand for bituminous binders derived from fossil fuel production, bio-binders can be used in three different ways: a direct alternative binder (100% replacement), a bitumen extender (25% to 75% bitumen replacement), or a bitumen modifier (<10% bitumen replacement) (Abdel Raouf and Williams, 2009a, 2009b, and 2009c). In this paper, the applicability of developing biobinders from cornstover bio-oils to be utilized as a direct alternative (100% replacement) has been investigated through studying rheological properties. As reported by Abdel Raouf and Williams, 2009c, Airey et al., 2008, and W.S. Wan Nik et al., 2006 rheological properties play a crucial role in describing and predicting the behavior of bio-oils. Ingram et al., 2008 reported the difficulty of determining accurately the viscosity and the rheological properties of bio-oils due to the complex multiphase nature of the bio-oils. Yet, many researchers stated that temperature is the main contributor in affecting the viscosity and, hence the rheological properties, as changes in temperature changes the phase behavior of the bio-oils (Abdel Raouf and Williams, 2009a and 2009b, and Ingram et al., 2008). Abdel Raouf and Williams, 2009c, and W.S. Wan Nik et al., 2006 investigated the shear rate dependence on the viscosity of the bio-oils using the power law model shown in equation [1]. On the other hand, the temperature dependence of the bio-oils was studied using the Arrhenius-type model (equation [2]) in order to determine the activation energies (Ea) at different shear rates. Equation [1] Equation [2] Where and T are viscosities at the tested shear rate (Pas), and at infinite-temperature (Pas), respectively. Ea is the activation energy (N.m.mol-1), n is the flow behavior index (dimensionless), K is the consistency index (Pasn), is the shear rate (s-1), R is the universal gas constant (N.m.K-1mol-1) and T is the temperature in Kelvin. For the effect of shear rate on viscosity of the bio-oils, the power law was employed to determine the flow behavior index n to evaluate the Newtonian level of the bio-oils. Precisely, low n (less than unity) represents non-Newtonian behavior (pseudo-plastic), high n (more than unity) represents non-Newtonian behavior (shear thickening), and n equal to
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unity indicates Newtonian behavior. W.S. Wan Nik et al., 2006 reported that although the increase in the shear rate is not significant on changing the viscosity of the bio-oils, its contribution should not be ignored especially in the case of high shear rates. In addition, the authors concluded that the flow behavior index n values were calculated to be less than unity, which indicates that the bio-oils follow pseudo-plastic behavior. Moreover, the authors concluded that heating the bio-oils leads to improved Newtonian behavior (Abdel Raouf and Williams 2009b and 2009c, and W.S. Wan Nik et al., 2006. As the consistency index K increases, the bio-oils tend to be more viscous. Therefore, heating the bio-oil would lead to a better Newtonian behavior (Abdel Raouf and Williams, 2009b and 2009c, and W.S. Wan Nik et al., 2006). For the effect of temperature on the viscosity of the bio-oils, the Arrhenius-type model was employed to determine the activation energy Ea. According to Abdel Raouf and Williams, 2009b and 2009c, and W.S. Wan Nik et al., 2006 the activation energy Ea of the bio-oils indicated the strong temperature dependence of the viscosity of the bio-oils. In other words, a low Ea value represents strong temperature independence effect, while a high Ea value shows a strong temperature dependence effect. Generally, the viscosity temperature profile shows that the viscosity of the bio-oil is exponentially decreasing with increasing temperature. Therefore, temperature plays a major role in changing the viscosity of bio-oils and its effect is more significant as compared to shear rate. As reported by W.S. Wan Nik et al., 2006 the applied temperature not only provides sufficient energy to rapidly break down the internal structure within the bio-oils by reducing attraction forces between molecules, however, it promotes molecular interchange. On the other hand, the shear rate did not provide sufficient energy to break down the internal structure and to promote molecular interchange. As a result, this could justify the reason behind the significance of temperature on the viscosity of the bio-oils compared to the shear rates as deduced by W.S. Wan Nik et al., 2006. 2. OBJECTIVES The main objectives of this research are twofold. First, the rheological properties, i.e. temperature and shear dependence of bio oil derived from cornstover, were studied using power law and Arrhenius-type models. Moreover, the effect of polymers on the rheological properties of cornstover bio-oil was studied. Second, the rheological properties were compared to commonly used bitumen binders. 3. METHODOLGY The rheological properties of cornstover bio-oil have been investigated and compared to some bitumen binders used in the United States. Notably, the temperature and shear dependencies were studied through measuring the viscosity of the bio-oils at different temperatures and shear rates. The materials used, the experimental plans designed, and the procedures followed during testing will be discussed in the ensuing sections. 3.1. Experimental materials 3.1.1. Bio-oils In this research, an existing 25kWt fast pyrolysis system, developed at Iowa State University by the Center for Sustainable Environmental Technology CSET, was used to produce biooils from biomass (cornstover).
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3.1.2. Bitumen binders Two bitumen binders, AAD-1 and AAM-1, were used in this study to be as means of reference and comparison as their properties and chemistry are well documented and are representative of binders commonly used in the pavement industry. These two binders were obtained from the Federal Highway Administrations Materials Reference Library (MRL) in Sparks, Nevada. One binder is a PG 58-22 California Costal asphalt referenced as AAD. The other binder is a PG 64-16 West Texas Asphalt given the designation AAM. 3.1.3. Polymer modifiers In this bio-binder study, three types of polyethylene provided by Honeywell International, Inc, which are classified as thermoplastics, were blended with bio-oils and their properties are summarized in Table 1. Table 1: Properties of polymer modifiers used
Property Drop Point, Mettler (C) Density (g/cc) Viscosity @140C (cps) Bulk Density (kg/m3) Polyethylene 1 (P1) 101 0.91 180 563 Oxidized Polyethylene (P2) 108 0.93 250 536 Polyethylene 2 (P3) 115 0.93 450 508

3.2. Experimental Plan Based on the conclusions and recommendations of previous investigations conducted by Abdel Raouf and Williams, 2009a, 2009b and 2009c, the bio-oils without upgrading or pretreatment could not be used as a direct alternative binder (100% replacement) in the pavement industry due to the presence of water and volatile materials. Therefore, the experimental plan was concerned about determining the rheological properties of the cornstover bio-binders after heat pre-treatment. Other than the two bitumen binders (AAM and AAD), seven bio-oil blends (blends 15 to 21) were tested with different types of polymer modifiers and blending percentages. The polymer modifiers types were P1, P2 and P3 as previously described. The blending percentages were: 1. the control (100% bio-oil), 2. 98% bio-oil + 2% polymer modifier, and 3. 96% bio-oil + 4% polymer modifier. Table 2 lists the different blends used in this study with the corresponding description. Table 2: Description of different blends used in this study
Blend # AAM AAD Blend 15 Blend 16 Blend 17 Blend 18 Blend 19 Blend 20 Blend 21 Binder Type Bitumen Polymer Type None Control Cornstover Bio-oil P1 P1 P2 P2 P3 P3 2 4 2 4 2 4 Blending Percentage None

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3.2.1. Shear dependency or susceptibility Roberts et al., 1996, defines the shear susceptibility as the rate of change of viscosity with the rate of shear. In other words, for Newtonian fluids, since the viscosity is independent of shear rate, the fluid will not have shear susceptibility. On the other hand, for non-Newtonian fluids, the fluid will have shear susceptibility as the viscosity increases with increasing the shear rate. Importantly, shear susceptibility does not depend significantly on the viscosity of the aging material, but it depends on the rate of gain in shear susceptibility with respect to the increase in viscosity (Roberts et al., 1996). It is well established that relatively lower gain in shear susceptibility relative to the increase in viscosity is associated with better pavement performance (Roberts et al., 1996). Although studying the shear dependence using the power law model is a significant factor to be studied for bitumen binders in the asphalt industry, there is no well established specification or limitation for the activation energy Ea found in the literature review. In this study, the shear dependence was studied using a power law model (shown in equation [1]). 3.2.2. Temperature dependency or susceptibility Temperature susceptibility, as defined by Roberts et al., 1996 is the rate at which the consistency of a binder changes with a change in temperature. The temperature susceptibility of a binder is a very crucial property to be studied as binders having high dependency or susceptibility to temperature are not desired for two reasons. First, at high temperatures, their viscosity can be very low resulting in mixing and compaction problems. Second, at low temperatures, their viscosities can be very high resulting in low temperature shrinkage cracking. Due to this range of behavior, asphalt binder is an excellent adhesive material to be used as a paving material. Studying the temperature dependency of bitumen binders using the Arrhenius-type-relationship is not a common method in the asphalt pavement industry; therefore, there is no well established specification or limitation for the behavior index n and the consistency index K found in the literature. In this research, the temperature dependence was studied using the Arrhenius-type model (shown in equation 2). 3.3. Experimental Procedure The experimental procedure consisted of heat pre-treatment of the cornstover. Then, the polymer modifiers were blended with the bio-oils using a high-speed sheer mill that was set to approximately 6000 rotations per minute for 30 minutes. Once the bio-oil and polymer modifier were thoroughly blended, the blends immediately underwent viscosity testing. The rotational viscometer procedure was carried out according to ASTM D 4402, 2006. The viscosity test temperature ranged between 40 and 160C depending on the tested blend. For each temperature, the motor was set to operate at different speeds; 2.0, 4.0, 10, 20, 50 and 100 rpm. 4. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS Table 3 lists the Ea and values while Table 4 and Table 5 summarize the n and K values for all blends, respectively. Figure 1 displays the viscosity measurements versus temperature for all blends at 20 rpm. Figure 2 shows the viscosity measurements versus shear rate for all blends at 100C and 110C for bitumen and bio-oil blends.

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Table 3: Ea and values for all blends

Blend # AAM AAD Blend 15 Blend 16 Blend 17 Blend 18 Blend 19 Blend 20 Blend 21 Ea Ea Ea Ea Ea Ea Ea Ea Ea Ea 2 3.88E+03 2.45E-10 4.00E+03 6.07E-11 4.15E+03 1.59E-12 4.03E+03 5.64E-11 4.44E+03 1.38E-12 4.06E+03 4.53E-11 4.46E+03 8.40E-12 4.51E+03 1.90E-12 4.23E+03 3.53E-12 4 3.83E+03 3.18E-10 3.89E+03 1.18E-10 3.98E+03 4.49E-12 3.97E+03 7.80E-11 3.88E+03 3.98E-11 4.03E+03 5.21E-11 4.38E+03 1.31E-11 4.41E+03 3.43E-12 4.23E+03 3.40E-12 Log Shear Rate (rpm) 10 20 3.61E+03 3.64E+03 1.10E-09 9.14E-10 3.65E+03 3.65E+03 4.71E-10 4.77E-10 3.69E+03 3.65E+03 2.67E-11 3.33E-11 3.69E+03 3.41E+03 3.95E-10 1.80E-09 3.85E+03 3.76E+03 4.15E-11 6.77E-11 3.76E+03 3.54E+03 2.26E-10 7.80E-10 4.53E+03 4.42E+03 5.09E-12 9.28E-12 4.33E+03 4.33E+03 4.81E-12 4.59E-12 4.11E+03 3.80E+03 6.78E-12 4.71E-11 50 3.41E+03 3.09E-09 3.33E+03 2.90E-09 3.54E+03 6.08E-11 3.11E+03 9.23E-09 3.62E+03 1.36E-10 3.65E+03 3.79E-10 4.12E+03 4.71E-11 3.93E+03 4.61E-11 3.58E+03 1.57E-10 100 3.29E+03 5.97E-09 3.23E+03 5.06E-09 3.38E+03 1.61E-10 3.27E+03 3.16E-09 3.40E+03 4.59E-10 3.46E+03 1.04E-09 3.91E+03 1.49E-10 3.87E+03 6.23E-11 3.55E+03 1.86E-10

Based on the results in Table 3, the following observations were noted. First, for the activation energy Ea values, cornstover bio-binder showed the same trend as the bitumen in the sense of increasing the shear rate led to a decrease in the Ea values. Second, the Ea values for the bio-binders in comparison to the corresponding values in bitumen were -in generalhigher which indicated that the bio-oils were more susceptible to temperature than bitumen. Third, it was noted that increasing the shear rate led to increasing the values for some of the bio-binders and bitumen (e.g. AAM, AAD, 15, 17, and 20), but the influence cannot be described as one that had a well-defined pattern. Fourth, no clear trend could be observed for the effect of the addition of polymer modifiers on the Ea and values. In general, the temperature susceptibility of cornstover bio-binders was -in general- higher, but still comparable to bitumen. Table 4: n Values for all blends
T (C) 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 AAM AAD Blend 15 Blend 16 Blend 17 Blend 18 Blend 19 Blend 20 Blend 21 0.95 0.95 0.97 0.98 0.98 0.94 0.96 1.00 0.99 0.99 1.00 0.98 0.99 1.05 1.05 1.05 0.84 0.76 0.94 0.96 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.96 0.97 0.96 0.93 0.87 0.91 0.93 0.93 0.96 0.85 0.76 0.87 0.77 0.82 0.85 0.91 0.96 0.90 0.97 0.91 0.92 0.89 0.90 0.91 0.94 0.89 0.90 0.93 0.85 0.92 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.97 0.91 0.94 0.90 0.92 0.93 0.92 0.98 0.88 0.87 0.90 0.94 0.94 0.96 0.92 1.00 0.93 -

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Table 5: K Values for all blends

T (C) 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 AAM AAD Blend 15 Blend 16 Blend 17 Blend 18 Blend 19 Blend 20 Blend 21 12.31 5.76 2.99 1.49 1.02 0.69 0.39 0.26 6.49 2.97 1.49 0.95 0.49 0.26 0.17 0.12 38.18 14.72 3.64 1.54 0.77 0.40 0.24 0.13 0.08 37.14 15.51 8.40 2.90 1.62 0.81 0.56 0.60 13.10 4.34 3.64 1.12 0.60 0.27 0.16 0.14 38.16 14.75 6.28 3.29 1.57 1.04 0.55 0.42 63.29 41.88 21.55 8.50 4.03 2.00 1.10 0.52 34.31 13.31 4.63 2.13 1.09 0.55 0.26 0.27 10.19 3.27 1.34 0.82 0.54 0.21 0.10 0.12 -

From Table 4 and Table 5, the following observations are made. First, the behavior of the cornstover bio-binders did not change with changing the temperature, e.g. increasing the temperature did not lead to a Newtonian behavior because all n values were below unity. Second, all the cornstover bio-binders at low and high temperatures had a pseudo-plastic behavior (their n values were less than unity). On the other hand, for the consistency index K, it was observed that increasing the temperature led to a decrease in the viscous behavior of all cornstover bio-binders.

Figure 1: Viscosity versus temperature for cornstover bio-binders at 20 rpm Based on Figure 1, the following conclusions could be established. First, the relationship between viscosity and temperature was the same for all the cornstover bio-binders and the bitumens (AAM and AAD) studied. Specifically, the viscosity measurements were decreasing exponentially with increasing temperatures. Second, the temperature ranges for this exponential relationship were different. Third, the addition of polymer modifiers may be the main reason for the change in the temperature range; the same exponential relationship was observed but shifted to the left side. For example, the behavior of cornstover bio-binders, e.g. blends 16, 18 and 20 (the modified bio-binder with polymers 1, 2 and 3, respectively) were shifted which led to an increase in the low and high temperatures. Precisely, the low temperature changed from 40C to 70C and the high temperature increased from 120C to
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140C. Fourth, increasing the blending percentage of polymer modifier from 2% to 4% did not lead to a significant difference in the temperature ranges for cornstover bio-binders.

Figure 2: Viscosity versus shear rate for cornstover bio-binders at different temperatures Based on Figure 2, the following observations could be noted. First, the change in viscosity relative to the change in shear rate had -in general- the same trend as the bitumen binders. In other words, at low shear rates, the viscosity decreased as the shear rate increased, and then becomes constant at high shear rates. Second, it was observed that the viscosity of some cornstover bio-binders were lower than the viscosity of the bitumen binders (AAM); however, some of the cornstover bio-binders showed higher viscosity than bitumen binder (AAD); therefore, no clear trend or relation could be established between the viscosity of the bitumen binders and cornstover bio-binders. Third, the change in viscosity with changing the shear rate was insignificant for the bitumen binders (blends AAM and AAD). In other words, the shear susceptibility was very minimal. However, some blends of the cornstover bio-binders, e.g. blends 16 and 18, showed significant shear susceptibility which indicated that the viscosity changed when changing the shear rate. Therefore, it is worth noting that the addition of the polymer led to an impact on the shear susceptibility, but the degree of impact depends upon the type of the polymer and the blending percentage. Based on Table 6, it can be concluded that Arrhenius-type and Power law models demonstrated accurately the relationship between viscosity and temperature and shear rate, respectively, for different blends. Table 6: Coefficient of correlation of Power law and Arrhenius-type models
Blend # AAM AAD 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Power Law Model R2 value 0.9401 (110) 0.6282 (110) 0.9709 (80) 0.9657 (110) 0.9419 (110) 0.9534 (110) 0.9761 (110) 0.8805 (110) 0.8585 (100) Arrhenius-type Model R2 value 0.9935 0.9935 0.9958 0.9633 0.9918 0.9887 0.9973 0.9869 0.9754

*correlation coefficient was measured at the temperature between the brackets in C

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5. KEY FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS In the light of the scope and based on the materials used, the following conclusions are made: The bio-oil blends generally show the same behavior as the bitumen binders studied in the sense of increasing the temperature led to a decrease in the viscosity for all blends. The temperature ranges for the bio-oil and bitumen blends were different. Bitumen binders had temperature ranges of 90 to 160C, while bio-oil blends had temperature ranges of 40-120C and 70-140C depending upon the usage and type of polymer modifier. For the behavior index n, all the cornstover bio-binders at low and high temperatures had a pseudo-plastic behavior (their n values were less than unity). For the consistency index K, it was observed that increasing the temperature led to a decrease in the viscous behavior of all cornstover bio-binders. Based on the Arrhenius and Power law models, it can be concluded that the temperature is the main contributor to the rheological properties of the bio-binders. The Arrhenius-type and Power law models demonstrated accurately the relationship between viscosity and temperature and shear rate, respectively, for bitumen binders and cornstover bio-binders. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors would like to thank the Iowa Energy Center for the support for the work contained in this paper as well as Bill Haman at the Iowa Energy Center for working with us on the administrative portion of the project. REFERENCES Abdel Roauf, Mohamed and R. Christopher Williams (2009a). Temperature and Shear Susceptibility of a Non-Petroleum Binder as a Pavement Material. Paper accepted for Proceedings and Journal of the Transportation Research Board 2010, Washington D.C., January 2010. Abdel Roauf, Mohamed and R. Christopher Williams (2009b). Rheology of Fractionated Biooil as a Pavement Material. Paper submitted for review to Journal of Road Materials and Pavement Design, 2009. Abdel Roauf, Mohamed and R. Christopher Williams (2009c). General Rheological Properties of Fractionated Switchgrass Bio-oil as a Pavement Material. Paper accepted for proceedings of EATA08 and accepted for publishing in Journal of Road Materials and Pavement Design, 2009. Airey, Gordon D. and Musarrat H. Mohammed (2008). Rheological properties of polyacrylates used as synthetic road binders. Rheological Acta, V.47, pp. 751-763. ASTM D 4402 (2006) Standard Test Method for Viscosity Determination of Asphalt at Elevated Temperatures Using a Rotational Viscometer, Annual Book of ASTM Standards 4.04, West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International. Boateng, A. A.; P. H. Cooke and K. B. Hicks (2006). Microstructure development of chars derived from high-temperature pyrolysis of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) hulls. Fuel, V. 86, pp. 735-742. Bothast, R. J. and M. A. Schlicher (2005). Biotechnological Processes for Conversion of Corn into Ethanol. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, V. 67, pp. 19-25.
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Demirbas, M. F. and M. Balat (2006). Recent Advances on the Production and Utilization Trends of Bio-fuels: A Global Perspective. Energy Conservation and Management, V. 47, pp. 2371-2381. Goyal, H. B.; Diptendu Seal and R. C. Saxena (2006). Bio-fuels from thermochemical conversion of renewable resources: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, V. 12, pp. 504-517. Ingram, Leonard; Dinesh Mohan; Mark Bricka; Philip Steele; David Strobel; David Crocker; Brian Mitchell; Javeed Mohammad; Kelly Cantrell and Charles U. Pittman Jr. (2008). Pyrolysis of Wood and Bark in an Auger Reactor: Physical Properties and Chemical Analysis of the Produced Bio-oils. Energy Fuels, V. 22 (1), pp. 614-625. Mohan, Dinesh; Charles, U. Pittman and Phillip H. Steele (2006). Pyrolysis of Wood/Biomass for Bio-oil: A Critical Review. Energy and Fuels, V. 20 (3), pp. 848-889. Roberts, F. L.; P. S. Kandhal; E. R. Brown; D.Y. Lee and T.W. Kennedy (1996). Hot Mix Asphalt Materials, Mixture, Design, and Construction. Lanham, Maryland: National Asphalt Pavement Association Research and Education Foundation. Van Dam, E.G. and B. De Klerk-Engles (2005). Resource Supplies for Changing Market. Products, V. 21, pp. 129-144. Wan Nik, W. S.; S. G Eng Giap; H. H. Masjuki and H. B. Senin (2006). Application of Modified Power Law and Arrhenius Relationship in Studying Rheological Behavior of Bio oils. Materials Science Forum, V. 2006, pp. 147-152.

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Re-Capsulation of Styrene Butadiene Styrene (SBS), Styrene Butadiene (SB) with X-Linking Agent for Asphalt Modification
G. Zamora
Dynasol, LLC, Altamira, Mexico ghernandez@dynasol.com.mx

G. Memon
Phaltech Corporation, Ashburn, Virginia, USA gmemon@msn.com

ABSTRACT: Polymer modification of asphalts (PMA) with SB and SBS polymers is picking up speed worldwide at a growth rate of 5-7% annually. This raises interesting points concerning world manufactures ability to produce sufficient SB and SBS quantity to meet the demand in the paving market and secondly, the economic effects of PMA manufacturing cost. Phaltech Corporation has developed and produced a world-class x-linking additive for SB & SBS. The combing of PhalTechs x-linking agent with SB and SBS generates storage stable PMA with compatible and non-compatible asphalts utilizing compatible/non-compatible polymers. PMA manufacturing typically is a four-step process: 1) addition of SB or SBS 2) dispersion of SB or SBS 3) addition of the x-linking additive 4) stabilization. Each step plays a part in increasing the costs of PMA production and decreasing the production rate. If some how any of the processing steps can be eliminated or improved, then the PMA production process can be made more economically viable. This will give the PMA producer a distinct market advantage i.e. lower manufacturing/production costs, this process lowers 35% time in manufacturing PMA that means increases in production rate. PhalTechs novel new approach will put the PMA manufacturing company ahead of the competition in his market. This new method has been designed and checked by PhalTechs and Dynasols technical team in the laboratory and proved that it will reduce one full step of the PMA manufacturing process as well increase production rate of PMA by 35%. It also helps on the second step i.e. faster dispersion of polymer. It also helps to acquire the desired rheological and PG plus properties faster as compared to normal PMA process. This novel new method is known as the recapsulation (RC) of SB or SBS with the x-linking agent. KEY WORDS: Polymer modified Asphalt, Modified polymer, Modified asphalt, PG Graded asphalt, Cross-linked asphalt, Storage stable asphalt 1. INTRODUCTION Polymer modification is well known in the asphalt industry. Different types of polymers including ethylene propylene rubber (EPDM), styrene isoprene styrene (SIS), styrene

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butadiene styrene (SBS), styrene butadiene rubber (SBR), styrene butadiene (SB) block copolymer and the like are used to modify asphalt for paving applications. Recently, styrene butadiene back bone polymers have gained momentum in the polymer modification of asphalt. As PMA with SBS, SB, and SBR polymers continues to grow, the ability to produce sufficient quantities of polymer modified asphalt at a reasonable cost becomes more important. Keeping economics in mind Kulttz & Stephen1 developed a new polymer (di-block) having one mol of mono vinyl aromatic hydrocarbon and one mol of conjugated diene, the di-block co-polymer so made has higher vinyl content and the author claimed that higher vinyl content helps to avoid the use of x- linking agent to cross-link polymer molecule with asphalt molecule. This will results in a storage stable polymer modified asphalt (PMA) without the use of x-linking agent. Barnlard, Deruelle, Giraud & Martin2 have invented Cross-linking of polymers like polyimide, polyester etc., which provides very efficient method for water permeable and impermeable coatings by water-in-oil silicone emulsions x-linkable into elastomer. Modified asphalts including polymer modified asphalt is very well known in the art of asphalt modification, as reported by Memons patent No.6,444,731 B1, issued on Sept. 03, 20023. In the said patent it was disclosed that furfural or vegetable oil was used to the asphalt modifier material like butadiene back bone polymers or crumb rubber to form a treated material dispersed quickly into asphalt. As the quick dispersion of these modifiers help the PMA manufacturers to produce PMA at an economical price, because lesser time of dispersion is equivalent to increase in production rate and reduction in the overhead cost. In the second step the state of the art was to generate a homogenous PMA. Modified asphalt including polymer modified asphalt is well-known in the patented prior art as evidenced by the Memon US patent Nos. 6,444,731 and 7,371,7944. The 731 patent teaches the use of furfural or vegetable oil as a cross-linking agent with asphalt modifier material such as butadiene back bone polymers or crumb rubber to form a treated material which is quickly dispersed into asphalt. This increases the rate of production of polymer modified asphalt and also reduces the cost of production. The 794 patent teaches the use of a partitioning agent in the manufacture of polymer modified asphalt to prevent reagglomeration of polymer by itself or in the asphalt material. The resulting product is more homogeneous with improved low and high temperature rheological properties. Memon5, has developed a state of the art carrier and activated material to make the xlinked polymer modified. While the prior methods operate satisfactorily, there is a need for polymer modified asphalt production technique which has a reduced reaction and dispersion with an increased production rate time. The present invention was developed in order to provide such a technique as well as a method for making a polymer modifier material which is easily transportable to an asphalt production facility. The present research relates to the re-capsulation of synthetic rubber polymer with a crosslinking agent. The cross-linking agent is a low melt chemical which assists the dispersion of the synthetic rubber polymer into asphalt more quickly. This reduces the time required to manufacture polymer modified asphalt. 2. MATERIAL AND METHOD Accordingly, it is a primary objective of this research to provide a method for making a modified polymer where a cross-linking agent is mixed with particles of synthetic rubber material to form a mixture of polymer (SBS or SB) and cross-linking agent together. The mixture of modified polymer so formed is then added onto a hot asphalt under a

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continuous stirring mode between 163-1800C. The high sheer mixer with a speed of around 5000 rpm (Silverson L4 R high sheer mixer) was used to cross-link the modified polymer with asphalt functional groups. In this method we are combining both dispersion of polymer followed by cross-linking of polymer with asphalt functional groups into a single step of cross-linking. The high sulfur (PG 64-22), medium sulfur (PG67-22) and low sulfur (PG 52-34) asphalts were used and three different types of polymers SBS (Dynasol), SB (Dynasol) was used in this study for the impact of modified polymer on the modification of asphalt. The modified asphalts so obtained were then subjected for further rheological including PG Plus and other related testing as follows: 1. High temperature stiffness by Dynamic Sheer Rheometer (DSR)6. 2. Low temperature rheological properties by Bending Beam Rheometer (BBR)7. 3. Homogeneity or separation characteristics by PP5-938 and by Fluorescent Microscopy method. 4. Viscosity by Brooke Field Viscometer9. 5. Elastic Recovery by ductilometer10 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In this research the primary objective was to develop a re-capsulated polymer which will help to reduce the time of PMA manufacturing, increase the production rate, reduce the processing cost as is shown in figure 1 & 2 from three step PMA (first step is the addition of polymer followed by its dispersion, second step is addition of cross-linking agent under controlled conditions of elevated temperature in a continuous stirring under high or low shear mode and final and the third step is cross-linking the polymer molecule with asphalt molecule using cross linking agent to create a polymer net work into asphalt in such a way that polymer molecule is no more free polymer molecule but it is part of asphalt) process to two step PMA process (first step is the addition of re-capsulated polymer followed by its dispersion, and the second step is cross-linking of re-capsulated
Activator Feed Step II
Polymer Feed Step 1

Asphalt Wetting Tank Pump

Pump

Cross-linking Step III Storage

High Shear

Pump

Storage

Figure 1: Normal Three Step PMA Schematic polymer molecule with asphalt molecule to create a polymer net work into asphalt in such a way that polymer molecule is no more free polymer molecule but it is part of asphalt). Figure 1 is three step process of making the PMA without using the re-capsulated polymer, whereas, Figure 2 is a two step process of making PMA with the re-capsulated polymer.

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Asphal

Re-Capsulated Polymer Step I

Pum

Pum
High Shear Mixer

Cross-Linking Step II

Storage

Pum

Storage

Figure 2: Modified Two Step PMA Schematic Figure 3 is showing the performance grade of neat (high sulfur content asphalt) or virgin asphalt, PMA using both modified/re-capsulated and un-modified/un-re-capsulated SBS (as modifier) and PMA using modified/re-capsulated or un-modified/un-re-capsulated SB (as modifier). The PG improvement simultaneously for both low and high temperature rheological properties was observed i.e. stretches the PG box into both high and low temperature rheological properties. Normally when the polymer net work is formed i.e. SBS is no more free SBS but is part of asphalt or cross-linked completely, shows this kind of rheological behavior. Therefore high sulfur content asphalt is showing good compatibility towards the modified polymer or re-capsulated polymer to achieve the desired rheological properties similar to that of non-re-capsulated polymer.
100 80 60

79-24 64-22

77-

79-24 77-23

Temperature C

40 20 0 -20 -40 Neat Asphalt PMA-RC SBS PMA-RC PMA-SBS PMA-SB SB

Figure 3: Cont. or True PG Grades for Neat & its PMA using RC and non-RC, SBS Figure 4 is showing the performance grade of neat (medium sulfur content asphalt) or virgin asphalt, PMA using both re-capsulated and un-re-capsulated SBS (as modifier) and PMA using re-capsulated or un-re-capsulated SB (as modifier). The PG improvement simultaneously for both low and high temperature rheological properties was observed i.e. stretches the PG box into both high and low temperature rheological properties. Normally
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100 80 60

67-22

78-24

77-

78-24 77-23

Temperature C

40 20 0 -20 -40 Neat Asphalt PMA-RC SBS PMA-RC SB PMA-SBS PMA-SB

Figure 4: Cont. or True PG Grades for Neat & its PMA using RC and non-RC, SBS when the polymer net work is formed i.e. SBS is no more free SBS but is part of asphalt or cross-linked completely, shows this kind of rheological behavior. Therefore medium sulfur content asphalt is showing good compatibility towards the re-capsulated polymer to achieve the desired rheological properties similar to that of non-re-capsulated polymer.
100 80 60

80-36 54-35

77-

80-36 77-35

Temperature C

40 20 0 -20 -40 Neat Asphalt PMA-RC SBS PMA-RC SB PMA-SBS PMA-SB

Figure 5: Cont. or True PG Grades for Neat & its PMA using RC and non-RC, SBS Figure 5 is showing the performance grade of neat (low sulfur content asphalt) or virgin asphalt, PMA using both re-capsulated and un-re-capsulated SBS (as modifier) and PMA using re-capsulated or un-re-capsulated SB (as modifier). The PG improvement simultaneously for both low and high temperature rheological properties was observed i.e. stretches the PG box into both high and low temperature rheological properties. Normally when the polymer net work is formed i.e. SBS is no more free SBS but is part of asphalt or cross-linked completely, shows this kind of rheological behavior. Therefore low sulfur content asphalt is showing good compatibility towards the re-capsulated polymer to achieve the desired rheological properties similar to that of non-re-capsulated polymer. Figure 6, 7 & 8 are showing the separation or homogeneity or stability of Neat and its corresponding PMA made by both with re-capsulated as well non-re-capsulated polymers (SBS and SB). All the separation results for neat as well as four PMAs made from three
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different kinds of asphalt i.e. high sulfur content, medium sulfur content and low sulfur content asphalts as well as re-capsulated and non-re-capsulated polymer (SBS & SB) are storage stable and also shows the polymer networking in the PMA system. All the PMAs made are within the limit of 5% or lower separation protocol set by AASHTO PP5-93. The separation or homogeneity of the modified asphalt is very important from the stability point of view for both storage in the asphalt tank as well as in the pavements. The separation results are falling between 3.00 to 3.5 % for all the PMAs, which is completely different then the un-cross-linked polymer modified asphalt 17.0011.The separation characteristic of PMA is very close to that of the neat or virgin asphalt, which suggests that the polymer molecules are properly linked with the asphalt molecule both in re-capsulated and un-re-capsulated PMA. This type of product is storage stable and shows consistent rheological properties from top to the bottom of the truck or tank. Modified asphalts with a non-homogenous system (i.e. different concentrations of the polymer vary at different places in the asphaltic system because of non-linkage between the polymer [modifier] and the asphalt molecule), will result in different rheological properties between asphalt at the top and the bottom of the tank or truck, which results different life of the pavement at different places.
7 6 5

Separation %

4 3 2 1 0 Neat Asphalt PMA-RC SBS PMA-RC SB PMA-SBS PMA-SB

Figure 6: Stability Behavior of Neat & its PMA using RC and non- RC, SBS
7 6 5

Separation %

4 3 2 1 0 Neat Asphalt PMA-RC SBS PMA-RC SB PMA-SBS PMA-SB

Figure 7: Stability Behavior of Neat & its PMA using RC and non-RC, SBS

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7 6 5

Separation %

4 3 2 1 0 Neat Asphalt PMA-RC SBS PMA-RC SB PMA-SBS PMA-SB

Figure 8: Stability Behavior of Neat & its PMA using RC and non-RC, SBS The stability was further confirmed by fluorescent microscopy. Figure 9 and 10 are the fluorescent microscopic pictures of polymer modified asphalt

Figure 9: Un-linked/Storage un-Stable PMA with re-capsulated polymer at 0 minute (un-linked/storage unstable PMA) and 150 minutes (linked/storage stable PMA) respectively. The zero minute picture is showing the fluorescent light in it, which is due to the double bond of butadiene of the polymer and the fluorescent light is a proof that the polymer molecule have not formed the net work with the asphalt molecule that means this kind of PMA will show heavy separation between the polymer and asphalt or in other words this kind of PMA is not storage stable.

Figure 10: Linked/Storage Stable PMA However, Figure 10 shows no fluorescent light that means the double bond of the butadiene is completely broken and allow the polymer molecule to get it linked with the asphalt molecule. This will generate polymer network in the system and resulting a storage stable with no separation in the PMA having enhanced rheological properties for both high and low temperature as well as improved elastic behavior achieved due to polymer net work.
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Figures 11, 12 & 13 are for the elastic recovery (ER) comparison of neat and its corresponding PMAs made with three different kind of asphalts (High sulfur, medium sulfur and low sulfur content) with both re-capsulated and un-re-capsulated polymers (SBS & SB). ERs for both kind of polymers in three different kind of shows similarities and are following the same trend of improvement. The ER shows that the PMA made from the re-capsulated SBS or SB is as good as the PMA made from the un-re-capsulated polymers.
70 60

Elastic Recovery %

50 40 30 20 10 0 Neat Asphalt PMA-RC SBS PMA-RC SB PMA-SBS PMA-SB

Figure 11: E. R. for Neat & its PMA using re-capsulated and non-re-capsulated SBS
70 60

Elastic Recovery %

50 40 30 20 10 0 Neat Asphalt PMA-RC SBS PMA-RC SB PMA-SBS PMA-SB

Figure 12: E.R. for Neat & its PMA using re-capsulated and non-re-capsulated SBS
70 60

Elastic Recovery %

50 40 30 20 10 0 Neat Asphalt PMA-RC SBS PMA-RC SB PMA-SBS PMA-SB

Figure 13: E. R. for Neat & its PMA using re-capsulated and non-re-capsulated SBS
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4. CONCLUSIONS 1. Re-Capsulated polymer reduces one full processing step 2. Reduction of full processing step helps to increase the production rate with the same over head. 3. PMA made with Re-capsulated polymer will reduce maintenance cost. 4. Re-Capsulated polymer shows similar rheological, Stability & PG Plus performance as un-re-capsulated polymer upon polymer mod. of asphalt. 5. Re-capsulated polymer forms polymer network in the PMA. 6. Improves the raveling characteristics of the asphaltic pavements.

REFERENCES Kluttz, R. Q.; Stephen K. E., Process for preparing a bituminous binder composition, USPTO 524059000, May 07, 2007 Branlard, P.; Deruelle, Martial; Giraud, Y.; Martin, N., Use of a crosslinkable siliconebased inverse emulsion for producing breathable water proof coatings, USPTO 20080293876, Nov..27, 2008 Memon, G. M., Modified Asphalt, USPTO#6,444,731 B1, issued on September, 03, 2002. Memon, G. M., Modified Asphalt with Partitioning Agent, USPTO#7,371,794, issued on May 13, 2008 Memon, G. M., Modified Asphalt with carrier and activator material, USPTO# 6,818,687, issued on November 16, 2004. The AASHTO Standard Test Method, no. TP5-93, Method for Determining the Rheological properties of Asphalt Binder, using a Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR). The AASHTO Standard Test Method, no. TP1-93, Method for Determining the Flexural Creep Stiffness of Asphalt Binder, using the Bending Beam Rheometer (BBR). The AASHTO Standard Test Method, no. PP5-93, Practice for the Laboratory Evaluation of Modified Asphalts (for separation). The ASTM Method no. D4402, using Brookfield Thermosel Apparatus, pp 185-86, V 04.04, 1999. The AASHTO Standard Test Method no.T300-301, Ductility and Elastic Recovery, 2001. Memon, G. M.; Franco, C., Polymer modified asphalt (PMA) using proton donation & electron accepting technology, mairepav4 paper # 105, 2005, Belfast, Northern Ireland.

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Laboratory Investigation of Moisture Movement in Asphalt Concrete

D. Bateman & R. Tarefder
Department of Civil Engineering, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA tarefder@unm.edu

ABSTRACT: Water within pavement layers is one of the main causes of pavement deterioration. Water-related problems are thus considered responsible for decreased pavement life and increased costs of maintenance. A literature review on moisture damage testing of asphalt concrete provided studies that prove moisture shortens the service life of asphalt concrete (AC) mixtures. Traditionally, strength testing on wet and dry AC mixes is done and the results are compared to determine the amount of moisture damage. However, very few studies deal with moisture movement within AC. In this paper, the movement of moisture in both coarse and fine AC mixtures is investigated using non-traditional laboratory tests such as hanging column and pressure plate test methods. Moisture characteristic curves (wet and dry) of AC samples are presented, which describe the behavior of moisture in AC as it goes from a saturated to an unsaturated state, and vice versa. The porosity of the AC samples varies from 7 to 18.5%. The moisture characteristic curves suggest that AC has a hydrophobic nature and will resist moisture infiltration unless positive pressure (head) is applied. The saturated hydraulic conductivity of each sample is also presented with measurements varying from 4.74x10-06 to 3.28x10-04 cm/s. There is no previous moisture retention test data for these AC mixes so results cannot be compared. Although the saturated hydraulic conductivity values seem high, they are similar to that of well-graded sand. Results from this study can be useful in understanding the movement of moisture within field pavements. KEY WORDS: Asphalt Concrete, Moisture Movement, Moisture Characteristic Curves, Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity, Hanging Column, Pressure Plate. 1. INTRODUCTION Moisture infiltrates perpetual pavements in two ways; from the surface (top-down infiltration) and from beneath the pavement (bottom-up infiltration). Top-down moisture infiltration is attributed to causing moisture damage of the HMA layers due to loss of the cohesive bond within the asphalt binder and/or the loss of the adhesive bond between the aggregate and binder. Many researchers have studied the effect of moisture on asphalt concrete (AC) mixes using traditional laboratory tests. For example, measured wet and dry strength values of AC mixes are compared to determine the effect of moisture on AC performance. However, very little information on how moisture moves within field AC pavements is available. Moisture movement can cause some damage, especially if it becomes trapped within a pavement system. As more and more moisture is retained, damage accumulates and AC strength is reduced. Water movement and accumulation within field pavement sections is difficult to predict for a number of reasons, including three-dimensional permeability, partially saturated

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flow, complex boundary conditions due to precipitation, evaporation, and non-uniform distribution of moisture due to layered system. However, laboratory testing would be extremely beneficial in understanding the movement of moisture in an AC pavement. Moisture characteristic curves and unsaturated hydraulic conductivity functions are commonly used to describe a materials unsaturated hydraulic characteristics. In addition to this, numerical simulation of moisture movement within pavement sections can also be performed using data provided from this study. Bottom-up infiltration may occur due to high groundwater table and capillary rise of water in the natural subgrade. Subgrade resilient modulus is highly dependent on water content, which can vary significantly with a number of environmental factors. High subgrade water content, with the resulting decrease in subgrade strength and stiffness, is detrimental to roadway pavement response. Because of difficulties in modeling infiltration through a pavement system, changes in subgrade modulus are often assumed to occur only as a result of changes in the water table elevation, ignoring infiltration. This infiltration can also lead to problems in the structural performance due to loss of stabilized subgrade strength as well as interface de-bonding. Recently, a new mechanistic-empirical pavement design guide has employed an Integrated Climatic Model (ICM) to simulate changes in unbound material properties due to moisture infiltration. The ICM determines the water distribution in a pavement system by taking into account the factors that cause changes in the moisture content, such as climate data, groundwater levels, and drainage properties. The ICM then relates these changes in moisture content to changes in the resilient modulus (MR). This is extremely beneficial when estimating the change in MR from the initial as-constructed condition to the equilibrium condition. However, no such program is available in determining the changes in AC properties due to moisture infiltration. Therefore, the movement of moisture within the AC layers and how it changes AC properties is discussed herein. 2. OBJECTIVES The objective of this study is to: (i) determine the moisture characteristic curves (wet and dry) of AC mixes (coarse and fine), (ii) determine the properties and hydraulic conductivities of saturated AC cores, and (iii) determine the effect of moisture on AC pavement performance. The scope of this study uses AC mixes akin to those used in the state of New Mexico (SP-B, SP-C and a modified SP-III mix). Laboratory testing of moisture movement in AC samples is done using hanging-column and pressure plate methods in accordance with ASTM D6836. 3. LITERATURE REVIEW At present, there is no integrated system that accounts for moisture damage in AC. The use of moisture characteristic curves of AC in pavement design methods is the most promising option. Such an integrated system has the potential to allow moisture movement to be considered in flexible pavement performance models. Several researchers have done permeability studies on AC. However, permeability is only one parameter of moisture movement. If the media is hydrophobic, and there is not sufficient positive pressure applied, moisture will not move. The unsaturated behavior is therefore essential in determining moisture movement within AC. Current permeability test methods used by pavement engineers rely on measuring vertical permeability. However, the majority of HMA pavements have anisotropic and heterogeneous internal pore structure, which has a

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direct influence on the magnitude of permeabilities in different directions. Three-dimensional numerical modeling of fluid flow is a viable alternative to study the water transport characteristics of HMA pavements. Independent studies using numerical simulations conclude that the horizontal permeability is much higher than the vertical permeability because of the anisotropic and heterogeneous nature of air void distribution (Kutay et al. 2007). Moisture infiltration is critical in understanding moisture damage in perpetual pavements and associated premature failure. From the literature reviewed, it is has been recognized that asphalt concrete has a wide range of hydraulic conductivities. Asphalt concretes with air voids above the range of 5 to 8% can possess a substantial saturated hydraulic conductivity due to interconnected void structure. Field measurements of the hydraulic conductivity of some asphalt concrete pavements with air voids greater than 8% indicate values well in excess of 10-4 cm/s, which is similar to sandy soils (Schmitt et al. 2007). Below the surface, asphalt layers are not always saturated or dry. Infiltration, evaporation, and water retention within the surface layer all depend to some extent on the unsaturated state of the near-surface materials. The moisture characteristic curve and the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity function are commonly used to describe a materials unsaturated hydraulic characteristics, and can be used to evaluate near-surface water movement. Measuring and applying unsaturated hydraulic characteristics of soils is well established, but there is very little information available as to the unsaturated hydraulic properties of asphalt concrete. Numerical analysis of water movement in pavement sections has assumed the asphalt concrete to be impermeable, with water entering via discrete cracks (imnek et al. 2008).However if asphalt is considered a porous material rather than impermeable, the hydraulic properties of asphalt can play a major role in the design and performance of asphalt pavements. For instance, surface and sub-surface drainage can be designed based on the amount of moisture entering (infiltration + storage) and leaving (run-off + drainage) a pavement system. In this way, a more accurate prediction of pavement design life can be provided that accounts for moisture damage due to water retained within the asphalt. 3.1. Moisture Movement in Porous Media The mathematical model developed by van Genuchten (1980) describes water retention properties and unsaturated hydraulic conductivity, based on a relationship presented by Mualem (1976) which relates relative hydraulic conductivity to the moisture characteristic curve. van Genuchten (1980) related the volumetric moisture content to the pressure head with the equation: ( )) (1)

where r = residual moisture content, s = saturated moisture content, = curve fitting parameter, n = curve fitting parameter, m = (1 - 1/n), = volumetric moisture content, h = pressure head, and the hydraulic conductivity to the moisture content is as follows: (2) where K = hydraulic conductivity, Ksat = saturated hydraulic conductivity, Rwc = reduced water content, is: =( ) (3) These relationships predict the hydraulic conductivity for any given pressure head or moisture content, if the parameters r, s, , n (referred to here as the van Genuchten parameters), and Ksat are known for that material.
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4. LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF MOISTURE MOVEMENT IN AC 4.1. AC Mixtures Types In this study, three mixes are evaluated. Three Superpave mixes were collected from a local plant in cooperation with the New Mexico Department of Transportation (NMDOT). Mixes were selected to cover both fine and coarse mixes used in New Mexico. Figure 1 is an aggregate distribution chart for the three mixes used in this study. Maximum density lines are plotted for both maximum aggregate sizes present. It is shown in Figure 1 that mix SP-C has a smaller maximum aggregate size than mixes SP-B and SP-III. Mix gradations that plot above the maximum density line tend to be fine mixes, while gradations below the maximum density line tend to be coarse mixes. The maximum density lines for maximum aggregate sizes of 3/4 in and 1 in are plotted in Figure 1. SPC has a maximum aggregate size of 3/4 in where as mixes SP-B and SP-III have a maximum aggregate size of 1 in. Mixes that plot above the maximum density line are generally fine mixes while mixes that plot below the maximum density line are generally coarse mixes. Superpave mixes SP-B and SP-C plot above their respective maximum density lines and mix SP-III plots below its respective density line. Therefore, mix SP-III is a coarse mix and mixes SP-B and SP-C are fine mixes. Of the fine mixes, SP-B is coarser than SP-C.

Figure 1: Aggregate Gradation for Superpave mixes SP-B, SP-C, and SP-III 4.1.2. Sample Preparation Asphalt concrete samples were prepared in accordance with NMDOT mix compaction specifications. To prepare matrix samples for testing, loose mix material is heated at 160C for just enough time so that the mix material is separable into its constitutive coated aggregate sizes. Once heated, the mix is agitated on a flat surface by hand until the mix cools below a temperature at which the binder is sufficiently liquid enough to result in binding of the aggregate. The mix is then shaken over a customary U.S. sieve of size designation #4 (0.187 in). All of the loose mix material passing the #4 sieve cumulatively is defined as the matrix of the asphalt concrete mix. Specimens are compacted using a Marshall compactor in the laboratory. Each of the mixes is compacted into 4 in. diameter cylinders. Next, using a watercooled laboratory saw, three one-inch thick discs are sliced from the center of each cylinder in an attempt to acquire samples with uniform air voids. The height of the fourth sample is 2 in. Figure 2 shows an example of compacted and sliced AC samples.
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(a) (b) Figure 2: AC Sample preparation steps; (a) compacted AC cores, and (b) AC samples cut from AC cores 4.2. Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity Testing AC samples were tested for coefficient of saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat) in accordance with ASTM D5084, Method C (falling-head, rising tail water). The AC samples were sandwiched between filter paper and porous stones. Flexible membranes were used to prevent preferential side-wall flow. Saturation of the AC samples was done using backpressure heads of approximately 475.7 kPa (69 psi). Measuring the saturation of the AC samples was done using B-value testing (ASTM D5084). B-value testing provides the ratio of increased pore pressure of a sample to the increased cell pressure and B-values of 0.95 or greater indicate saturation. 4.3. Moisture Retention Testing Moisture retention testing of AC samples is done using hanging-column and pressure plate methods in accordance with ASTM D6836. Moisture characteristic curves describe the relationship between suction and volumetric water content, gravimetric water content, or degree of water saturation. They are also referred to as water retention curves, water release curves, or capillary pressure curves. 4.3.1. Hanging Column Test The hanging column apparatuses consisted of plates, with fine porous stones, hydraulically connected to reservoirs (calibrated burettes) by flexible tubing (see Figure 3). The hanging column test is suitable for applying suctions or negative pressure in the range of 0 to 15 kPa.

Porous Plate

AC Sample

Patm Water Column

Figure 3: Schematic of Hanging Column Test Set-Up

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The test set up includes one bar porous plate and two 3 in. diameter Buchner funnels. Twenty-four hours prior to testing, the Buchner funnels and bar pressure plates are placed under water so as they are saturated. The water content and dry density of the samples should be known prior to placement on porous plate or in Buchner funnels. The AC samples are weighed initially and recorded. Each sample is placed on a porous stone (porous plate and Buchner funnels) and the attached reservoirs are raised to a height equal to the top of the AC samples. A thin layer (< 0.1 in.) of diatomaceous earth was applied between the AC samples and the porous plate, so as to provide hydraulic contact between the pores of the plate and the samples. Matric suction (negative water pressure head) was introduced to the porous plates by lowering of the burette to a new height, distance H, below the top of the plate, as shown in Figure 3. By the equilibrium principle, water will flow from the samples through the ceramic plate to the reservoir until the total water potential of the system is constant. Matric suction ranged from 0.0 cm of water, measured from the midheight of the sample, to approximately -182 cm of water. Equilibrium was determined when the outflow of water into the burette (reservoir) ceased. Time required for equilibrium to be attained varied from 5 to 9 days for each increase in negative pressure head. After equilibrium at each pressure head, the sample weight (which can be reported as gravimetric moisture content and interpreted as volumetric moisture content) was recorded for each sample. Before weighing, any diatomaceous earth adhered to the AC samples was removed. 4.3.2. Pressure Plate Test After the nearest measurement to -183 cm of pressure head in the hanging column apparatuses was complete, the samples were transported into pressure plate cells and subjected to -339.6 and -1020 cm of water ( and 1.0 bar, respectively) pressure head. Figure 4 presents a schematic of the pressure plate test set-up. The pressure plate consists of an airtight chamber enclosing a porous ceramic plate connected on its underside to a tube that passes through the chamber to the open air. Saturated AC samples are placed in contact with the ceramic on the top side. A thin layer of diatomaceous earth is applied to the top of the porous plate to provide a hydraulic contact between the plate and the AC samples. The chamber is then pressurized (positive pressure), which causes water to flow from the asphalt concrete pores through the ceramic and into the calibrated burette. The pressure in the chamber is monitored using a pressure gauge.
=-P AC Sample

Porous Plate

Water Filled Tube Patm

P =

+ P

Figure 4: Schematic of a Pressure Plate Test Set-Up Once the system reaches equilibrium, flow through the tube will cease. When equilibrium is reached, the chamber may be depressurized and the sampled weighed. In this method an assumption is made that the matric potential of the sample does not change as the air pressure is lowered to atmospheric. Since these plates have a very high flow resistance, a substantial
270

time may be required to remove water from the samples. In this case, it took approximately 14 days to reach equilibrium. Samples were removed from the pressure plate and weighed, to determine moisture content. A final measurement of negative pressure head and water content was taken using a relative humidity box. Relative humidity testing was in accordance with the method proposed by Klute (1986). The relative humidity box subjected the samples to -851,293 cm of water pressure head. The sample was removed from the relative humidity box and weighed to determine moisture content. Equilibrium was assumed once the weight of the samples became consistent. Equilibrium was achieved after approximately 1 week. 5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 5.1. Moisture Characteristics of AC Table 1 presents the properties of HMA cores after saturation. The saturated hydraulic conductivity varied from 4.74e-06 to 3.28e-04 cm/s. These values are similar to those expected for clayey or sandy soils. Therefore, it can be said that the AC mixes (saturated) from this study are as conductive as clayey soil or a well-graded sandy soil. AC samples 2 and 3 did not achieve B-values greater than 0.95, so saturation of these samples could not be confirmed. Hydraulic conductivity (at or close to saturation) values for the four AC samples ranged from 1.71x10-04 to 4.74x10-06 cm/s. Table 1: Properties of AC Samples after Saturation
Sample Dry Wet Volumetric Moisture BSat. Hydraulic Conductivity ID Weight (g) Weight (g) Content () Value (Ksat) (cm/sec) 1 467.04 477.40 0.052 0.95 1.82 E-04 2 449.25 461.90 0.064 0.83 4.74 E-06 3 502.01 519.50 0.076 0.80 1.71 E-04 4 900.43 930.43 0.066 1.00 3.28 E-04 Note: Average value at 20C and ASTM D5084 requires B-values 0.95 to confirm saturation.

Table 2 presents sixteen data points have been collected from the moisture retention testing. The first eight data points describe the dry moisture characteristic curve. The dry moisture characteristic curve represents the amount moisture in asphalt as it dries. The wet moisture characteristic curve of the asphalt samples is developed by reducing the suction from 1 bar to a positive pressure of 10 cm. Table 2: Moisture Retention Data for Dry and Wet Characteristic Curves
Date Checked 5-Feb 11-Feb 18-Feb 25-Feb 4-Mar 10-Mar 19-Mar 24-Mar 31-Mar 7-Apr 15-Apr 22-Apr 28-Apr Time 10:55 AM 10:00 AM 10:30 AM 9:15 AM 10:38 AM 10:39 AM 11:00 AM 10:55 AM 11:35 AM 12:35 AM 11:00 AM 11:47 AM 10:18 AM H Hanging H Pressure Sample 1 + Sample 2 + Sample 3 + Sample 4 + Col. (cm) Plate (bars) Membrane (g) Membrane (g) Membrane (g) Membrane (g) 0 483.1 465.9 522.1 936.8 -2.2 482.2 466.4 522 932 -7.2 480.5 465.9 520.5 928.4 -30 480.1 465.6 519.7 929.8 -100 479.8 465 519 927.2 -179 479.7 464.8 518.8 926.6 0.333 479.38 464.3 517.97 925.38 1 479.3 464.1 517.47 924.65 0.333 479.27 464.04 517.34 924.18 -182 479.1 463.8 517.3 924.1 -102 479 464 517.4 924 -32 479 464.2 517.7 924.3 -14 479 464.6 518.1 924.5 271

7-May 10:10 AM 15-May 11:24 AM 22-May 3:45 PM 28-May 3:45 PM 28-May 10:45 AM 3-Jun 11:45 AM

-8 -2 4.3 10 -

479.1 465.4 518.5 480.6 466.8 519.6 485 469.2 526.6 484.6 470 527.4 Relative Humidity Box Data (minus membrane wt.) 477.4 463.4 517.4 472.4 457.6 509

922.8 922.7 955.6 952.7 925.4 905.3

Figure 5 presents the moisture characteristic curves of the dry and wet AC samples. Figure 5(a) shows that HMA samples 1 and 4 lost a lot of moisture initially, but very little moisture was removed as the negative pressure (suction) was increased. Figure 5(b) shows that the relative steepness of the wetting curves indicate that the asphalt samples remained dry until positive pressure (suction) was applied as seen in samples 2, 3, and 4. This suggests that asphalt has a hydrophobic nature and will resist moisture infiltration unless positive pressure (head) is applied.

(a)

(b)

Figure 5: Moisture Characteristic Curves for (a) Dry AC Samples and (b) Wet AC Samples 5.2. Effect of Moisture on Pavement Performance. The modulus of the unconditioned AC mixes, as well as the retained modulus after conditioning, could be used in the pavement response models to determine the impact of moisture movement on developed distresses (rutting and fatigue cracking). An example of this application is presented here for a study done in conjunction with NMDOT (Tarefder and Bateman 2010). Measured moduli of different AC layers were first used as input in a mechanistic-empirical pavement design guide (MEPDG). Analysis was done by reducing E* values by 30% in this study. A 50-yr design life was considered for analysis. The pavement structure used for this analysis is shown in Figure 6.
3

SP-IV Mix SP-II Mix

PG 76-22 PG 76-22

5% AC, 6% AV 4% AC, 6% AV

SP-IV Mix

PG 64-22

5% AC, 3% AV

6 12

Crushed Gravel

20000psi

A-5 Materials

8000psi

Figure 6: Pavement layer information used as input with ME-PDG for performance prediction

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Table 3 indicates how pavement distress predictions such as rutting and fatigue cracking are influenced as a result of reduction in the modulus for the particular pavement structure and input used in this analysis. It can be seen here that 70-percent retained modulus (assumed after conditioning) showed an increase in rutting from 0.625-1.97 in., with fatigue cracking increasing from 1.58-11.6%. The significance of the impact of modulus on the results is evident considering the models used in the ME-PDG. These results highlight the significance in ignoring the presence of retained moisture in flexible pavement design where design reliability is almost certainly reduced. Table 3: Effect of Reduced E*on Predicted Pavement Performance
Performance Criteria Terminal IRI (in/mi) Longitudinal Cracking (ft/mile): AC Bottom-Up Cracking (%): AC Thermal Fracture (ft/mi): Permanent Deformation (AC Only) (in): Permanent Deformation (Total) (in): Target Distress 170 700 20 700 0.25 0.75 Damage (Dry E*) 231 0.42 1.58 0 0.625 1.623 Damage (Wet E*) 274 5530 11.6 0.9 1.97 2.57

7. CONCLUSIONS The findings presented from this study confirm that AC mixes used by New Mexico DOT are quite permeable. This suggests that moisture movement needs to be considered in NMDOT pavement design, either during HMA production or during the construction stage. In addition to these findings, it is recommended that further research be done to determine the effects of moisture on pavement performance and therefore reevaluate the pavement design process. Numerical simulation has shown to be a useful tool in determining the behavior of moisture in soil. However, current models of moisture movement in porous materials are not capable of adopting AC properties. A new and improved model is needed, which can use AC properties to predict the movement of moisture in AC pavements. In this way, we can determine the amount of much moisture stored within a pavement system at any given time. The conclusions from this study are as follows: Moisture retention testing of HMA mixes used in New Mexico show porosities varying from 7 to 18.5%. The saturated hydraulic conductivity varied from 4.74x10-06 to 3.28x10-04 cm/s,which is comparable to that of silty, sandy soils. This is contrary to the many pavement design methods which assume AC is impermeable. Moisture characteristic curves produced from laboratory testing suggest that asphalt has a hydrophobic nature and will resist moisture infiltration unless positive pressure (head) is applied. This suggests that AC pavements will resist moisture infiltration unless there is standing water on top of the pavement. MEPDG predicted results using 70% retained modulus (after conditioning) values yielded an increase in AC rutting of 1.4 in., and a 10% increase in fatigue cracking. These results suggest that by ignoring the presence of retained moisture in flexible pavement design, design reliability will almost certainly be reduced. REFERENCES ASTM D5084 - Standard Test Methods for Measurement of Hydraulic Conductivity of Saturated Porous Materials Using a Flexible Wall Permeameter. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.
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ASTM D6836 - Standard Test Methods for Determination of the Soil Water Characteristic Curve for Desorption Using a Hanging Column, Pressure head Extractor, Chilled Mirror Hygrometer, and/or Centrifuge. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA. Hansson, K.; Lundin, L. C. and Simunek, J. 2005. Modeling Water Flow Patterns in Flexible Pavements. Transportation Research Record - Journal of the Transportation Research Board 1936, National Research Council, Washington, D.C. pp. 133-141. Klute, A. 1986. Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 1, Physical and Mineralogical Methods, Second Edition. American Society of Agronomy, Inc. Madison, Wisconsin. Kutay, M. E., Aydilek, A. H. and Masad, E. A. 2007. Estimating Directional Permeability of HMA by Numerical Simulation of Microscale Water Flow. Transportation Research Record - Journal of the Transportation Research Board 2001, National Research Council, Washington, D.C. pp. 29-36. Mualem, Y. 1976. A new model predicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated porous media. Journal of Water Resources Research, Vol. 12, Issue 3, American Geophysical Union, pp. 513-522. Schmitt, R.; Owusu-Ababio, S.; Crovetti, J. and Cooley, A. L. 2007. Development of In-Place Permeability Criteria for HMA Pavement in Wisconsin. Technical Report SPR # 0092-0602, Wisconsin Highway Research Program, Wisconsin DOT, Madison, WI. imnek, J.; M. Sejna and M. Th. van Genuchten. 2008. HYDRUS-1D, version 4.03. Code for Simulating the One-Dimensional Movement of Water, Heat, and Multiple Solutes in Variably Saturated Porous Media. PC-Progress. Tarefder, R. A. and Bateman, D. 2010. Future Design of Perpetual Pavements for New Mexico, Final Report. Submitted to Research Bureau, New Mexico Department of Transportation. van Genuchten, M. T. 1980. A closed-form equation for predicting the hydraulic conductivityof unsaturated soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. Vol. 44, pp. 892-898.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Identification of a Fuel Contamination Problem in the Production of Warm Mix Asphalts

H. Silva, J. Oliveira & J. Peralta
Territory, Environment and Construction Centre C-TAC, University of Minho, Guimares, Portugal hugo@civil.uminho.pt joliveira@civil.uminho.pt joana@civil.uminho.pt

C. Ferreira
Construes Gabriel A.S. Couto S.A., Vila Nova de Famalico, Portugal cferreira@gabrielcouto.pt

ABSTRACT: A number of new processes and products that have the capability of reducing the temperature at which hot mix asphalt (HMA) is mixed and compacted, apparently without compromising the performance of the pavement, has become available. These technologies, usually referred as warm mix asphalt (WMA), can reduce the production temperature of bituminous mixtures by as much as 40 C. While there is a great deal of promise that comes along with lower temperatures, there are also concerns about some field performance characteristics of WMA mixtures. Thus, a thorough work was carried out in order to answer some questions that are still open about WMA performance in laboratory and in situ. Three bituminous mixtures were studied, namely a conventional HMA control mixture (AC 14 surf 50/70), and other two WMA mixtures with the same composition but using binders modified with different additives (a synthetic wax, Sasobit, and a surfactant, Cecabase). These mixtures were initially designed and characterized in the laboratory. Then, they were produced in an asphalt plant and laid down in a pavement trial in order to validate the good laboratory performance of the WMA mixtures in situ. The comparison between the laboratory and in trial performance showed that the rutting resistance of the studied mixtures was severely affected during their production in the asphalt plant. Some authors have referred that WMA mixtures have higher susceptibility to be contaminated with fuel, because it is difficult to adjust the burners with low production temperatures combined with low quantities produced, particularly in pavement trials. Therefore, additional tests were carried out with the studied mixtures and their binder (recovered with the rotary evaporator), thus being possible to conclude that the performance of the mixtures in situ was influenced by their contamination with fuel during the heating of the aggregates. KEY WORDS: Warm mix asphalt, Fuel contamination, Binder characteristics, Rutting.

1. INTRODUCTION Efforts to develop bituminous mixtures that require less natural resources and use less energy in the production process are providing results, when the industries are under pressure to reduce their levels of fuel consumption and CO2 production.
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Reducing the high temperatures used during the production of bituminous mixtures is one of the areas within the road construction industry, in which highest energy savings can be obtained. Nowadays, there are several technical and commercial solutions, easily available, which can be used in order to achieve this objective (Nynas, 2009). The typical range of production temperatures of warm mix asphalts (WMA) is between 120 and 140C, while hot mix asphalts (HMA) are usually produced between 150-180C, depending on the type of binder used to produce the mixture. According to the subdivision made by several authors (EAPA, 2007; Vaitkus et al., 2009), the WMA production technologies can be divided in the following four major groups: Organic additives; Chemical additives; Foamed bitumen with natural or synthetic minerals; Foamed bitumen with introduction of water. The WMA technologies applied in this work consisted in using organic (Sasobit) and chemical (Cecabase) additives. Thus, these technologies will be described in more detail. According to DAngelo et al. (2008), different types of organic additives can be used to decrease the viscosity of the binder at temperatures above the softening point of the waxes, which is nearly 90C. The type of additive should be selected carefully so that its softening point is higher than the expected in service temperatures (otherwise permanent deformation may occur) and to minimize the brittleness of the mixture at low temperatures. The organic additives, usually waxes and fatty amines, can be added to the mixture or the binder. FHWA (2008) referred that Sasobit is the organic additive mostly used in the world. Chowdhury and Button (2008) described Sasobit, a product of Sasol Wax (formerly Schumann Sasol) of South Africa, as a Fischer-Tropsch (FT) or synthetic wax produced by heating coal or natural gas with water vapour in the presence of one catalyst. The main feature of Sasobit is its very high softening point, with a range of variation between 70 and 114C. The penetration of the wax at 25C is almost zero (less than 1 dmm). The wax (melted) has a viscosity of only 12 mPa.s at 135C. The combination of Sasobit with bitumen, after the mixture cooling, results in the solidification of the wax in elongated and microscopic particles, distributed regularly. It is believed that this distribution amplifies the decrease of the viscosity of the binders modified with Sasobit at mixing and application temperatures in the pavement. Thus, the mixing and compaction temperatures of the WMA mixture can be reduced by 10-30 C (Sasol, 2004). According to Hurley and Prowell (2005), Sasobit is recognized to improve the compaction of the WMA, both in the gyratory and in the impact compactors. The mixture of this additive in the asphalt plant can be directly made in the mixer to the bituminous mixture, without any change in procedure of production, or it can be previously mixed with the bitumen in the bitumen container of the plant or in the refinery, without the need of an additional system of agitation. Incorporation rates typically vary between 0.8 to 4% on the weight of the binder. These values should not be exceeded due to the effects on the stiffness of the binder at low temperatures. The WMA production process based on the use of chemical additives or surfactants (i.e. surface active agents), is not based on reducing the viscosity of the binder, but in a different variety of mechanisms aimed at improving the coating of the aggregate by the binder, even at lower temperature (Hurley and Prowell, 2006). Cecabase is one of the products that belong to the category of chemical additives. According to information available in CECA (2008), this additive consists of a base of surfactants or surface active agents which, when mixed with bitumen, can reduce the compaction temperature of the mixture by approximately 45C.

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The same source referred that this additive, liquid and easy to use, has good storage stability for about ten days, and it does not require any changes in the asphalt plant during the production of the WMA. Indeed, it can be mixed in the amounts specified (typically 0.2 to 0.4%) in the bitumen container or in the production line, whatever was the bitumen range of penetration, without changing the binder fundamental properties and promoting the coating of the aggregates by the binder, including the fine particles. The reduction of the production and application temperatures of bituminous mixtures presents obvious benefits of sustainability at short, medium and long term, which can be grouped in social, economic and environmental benefits (Nynas, 2009): social benefits reduced emissions and less restrictions on road construction; economic benefits reduced consumption of fuel and higher rates of RAP incorporation in recycled mixtures; environmental benefits reduced emissions and better conservation of natural resources. In fact, innumerable potential benefits in the use of WMA has legitimated its emergent development, especially if considering the lower amount of energy necessary for the production of the mixtures, what implies significant reduction in the GHG emission values. In what respects to the application of the mixture on site, its lower production temperature allows for the compaction of the mixture at a lower temperature, without compromising the desired densities of the resulting layers. The reduction in the exposition to fumes by the workers is another important advantage of this type of mixtures (DAngelo et al., 2008). Warm mix asphalts also allow longer haul distances, a longer construction season and minimized oxidative hardening, since the mixes are produced closer to the operating temperatures. The several processes developed to reduce the temperature of production and compaction of bituminous mixtures apparently do not compromise their performance. However, Hurley and Prowell (2006b) referred that the use of lower compaction temperatures when producing warm asphalt may probably increase the potential for moisture damage. In this context, for the WMA mixtures to be accepted in the national and international market, it is essential that their performance can be compared to that of the conventional HMA mixtures and that the environmental benefits and the reduction in energy consumption can compensate the slightly higher costs of the WMA mixtures. One of the problems referred by some authors (Hurley and Prowell, 2008) was the higher susceptibility of the WMA mixtures to be contaminated with fuel, because it is difficult to adjust the burners with low production temperatures combined with low quantities produced, particularly in pavement trials. This paper corroborates the observations made by those authors, because some performance problems (rutting) were verified in a pavement trial build with WMA mixtures, almost certainly due to fuel contamination problems. In fact, some tests were carried out with the studied mixtures and their binder (recovered with the rotary evaporator), thus being possible to conclude that the performance of the mixtures in situ was severely influenced by their contamination with fuel during the heating of the aggregates. 2. LABORATORIAL STUDY OF WMA MIXTURES 2.1. Mix design In the present study, three bituminous mixtures were studied in order to evaluate the characteristics of WMA vs. HMA technologies. One of those was a conventional HMA (control mixture), typically used in Portuguese roads (AC 14 surf 50/70), while the other two were new WMA mixtures with the same composition but using binders modified with different commercial additives (Sasobit and Cecabase).
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The main idea of the chosen WMA technologies is to use an additive in order to reduce the production temperature. Thus, the additive content and the mixing/compaction temperature were the only variables evaluated. All other composition parameters (type of aggregates, grading curve, type of base bitumen, binder content) were maintained identical for the three studied mixtures. The voids content should also be maintained constant for all mixtures, but this volumetric parameter is very dependent on the temperature used to produce the WMA mixtures, and thus, it was used as a control value to select the optimum mixing temperature. Considering the previous statements, the mix design (selection of aggregates, bitumen, grading curve and binder content) was only carried out for the HMA control mixture, and the final results were used for all studied mixtures. Since these mixtures were also used to construct a pavement trial, the aggregates and the 50/70 grade bitumen were imposed by the road owner. Their characteristics are presented in Table 1. Figure 1 presents the grading envelope imposed for the HMA mixture, and the design grading curve obtained through the combination of the several aggregates and filler in order to fulfil the envelope limits. Table 1: Properties of the aggregates and bitumen
Evaluated properties Los Angeles abrasion (%) Flakiness index (%) Shape index (%) Particle density (g/cm3) Water absorption (%) Penetration at 25C (dmm) Ring & Ball temperature (C) Specifications max. 30% max. 25% max. 25% --max. 2% Aggregate Aggregate 8/14 4/10 Aggregates 27 14 25 2.53 1.0 --12 14 2.54 1.0 Washed Sand 0/4 ------2.58 1.0 52 51.9 Dust 0/5 ------2.52 1.9 Filler ------2.71 ---

Pen grade bitumen 50/70

Figure 1: Design grading curve used in the studied mixtures During the Marshall mix design, used in Portugal as standard mix design method, five mixing batches were prepared and specimens were compacted with 75 blows in each face and with different binder contents. The maximum density of the mixing batches was assessed and all the volumetric characteristics of the specimens (voids content, VMA and volume of bitumen and aggregates) were calculated. Finally, all specimens were tested, registering the load and deformation values. The optimum binder content obtained was 5.0%, being the characteristics of the designed mixture in conformity with the Portuguese specifications.
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2.2. Selection of additive content and mixing/compaction temperatures Silva et al. (2009) have already presented the procedure to select the optimum WMA additive content, which was based on the binder characterization (EN 12591). Six samples of modified binders were prepared in the laboratory for penetration (EN 1426), ring and ball softening point (EN 1427) and dynamic viscosity (EN 13302) characterization. These samples comprised the addition of three percentages of each additive to the 50/70 bitumen. Based on the recommendations of the additive producers, 2, 3 and 4% of Sasobit and 0.2, 0.3 and 0.4% of Cecabase were added. At typical in service temperatures, the addition of up to 0.4% of Cecabase to the original bitumen does not change its penetration and R&B temperature, while the addition of Sasobit significantly modifies those properties. At production and application temperatures, the addition of Sasobit reduces the dynamic viscosity of the binder, while the addition of up to 0.4% of Cecabase to the original bitumen barely changes its viscosity. After analysing the temperatures at the limit equal-viscosity line for mixing (0.2 Pa.s), it was concluded that the binder with 4% Sasobit presented the higher reductions (8C) and the addition of 0.4% of Cecabase allowed a reduction of less than 1C. Thus, the amount of Sasobit selected to continue the study was 4% which. The amount of Cecabase selected to continue the study was 0.3% based on the supplier suggestions. After analysing the viscosity results of 50/70 pen grade bitumen, the target production temperature of 160C (also defined in EN 12697-35) was selected for the HMA mixture. The mixing temperatures of the WMA mixtures produced with both additives were mainly chosen by means of EN 12697-10 compactability comparison with the HMA mixture (Silva et al., 2010), using as control parameter the voids content for the reference compaction energy. The compactability tests were carried out according to the EN 12697-10 standard, using the impact compactor and monitoring the thickness of each specimen during the compaction operation (by using an lvdt), and by recording the corresponding number of blows. Three different temperatures were used for the WMAs in order to determine the one that would result in an air voids content of the mixture closest to that of the HMA. The comparison between the voids content of the HMA control mixture and those of the WMA mixtures produced with Sasobit allowed concluding that it is possible to reduce the mixing temperature up to 20C. However, taking into account the viscosity result (maximum reduction of 8C), it was decided to reduce the mixing temperature by only 15C. Regarding the comparison between the voids content of the HMA control mixture and those of the WMA mixtures produced with Cecabase, it was concluded that the mixing temperature can be reduced up to 30-35C without varying significantly the compactability of the mixture. 2.3. Laboratorial characterization of the WMA and HMA mixtures After determining the amount of additive and the production temperature for the WMA mixtures, and based on the mix design carried out for the conventional mixture, an assessment of the properties of the final mixtures (water sensitivity and wheel tracking tests) was made to validate the lab results before starting the production in the asphalt plant. The water sensitivity tests were carried out according to the EN 12697-12 standard. This type of test comprises the assessment of the indirect tensile strength (ITS), carried out according to EN 12697-23, of two identical groups of specimens conditioned in different environments (dry and wet with the application of vacuum). The test procedure includes also the evaluation of the ratio (ITSR) between the average indirect tensile strength results of both groups of specimens (wet over dry), in order to assess the water sensitivity of the mixture.

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The determination of the resistance to permanent deformation was carried out using the Wheel-Tracking Test (WTT, according to EN 12697-22). The susceptibility of the mixtures to deform was assessed by measuring the rut depth formed by repeated passes of a loaded wheel at a temperature of 50C. The main parameter used to rank the permanent deformation performance of the mixtures is the wheel tracking slope in air (WTS air) measured between the 5000th and the 10000th load passes. The corresponding results are presented in Table 2. Table 2: Properties of the laboratory studied mixtures
Binder type Bitumen content (%) Voids content (%) WTS air (mm/103) ITSR (%) VMA (%) VFB (%) Standard EN 12697-1 EN 12697-8 EN 12697-22 EN 12697-12 EN 12697-8 EN 12697-8 50/70 5.0 3.0 0.08 47 14.5 79.3 50/70 with Sasobit 5.0 3.5 0.10 42 14.9 76.6 50/70 with Cecabase 5.0 3.0 0.11 52 14.5 79.3

Apart from the values of the ITSR, which are lower than expected (this can be explained by the type of aggregate used, which has poor binder aggregate adhesion), all the other values are similar and within the expected results (namely, the permanent deformation resistance and the volumetric properties). Therefore, knowing that the less satisfactory results were associated with the type of aggregate, which was imposed by the road owner, the following step was to start the asphalt plant production. 3. PAVEMENT TRIAL STUDY AND FUEL CONTAMINATION ANALYSIS 3.1. Production in the asphalt plant and pavement trial construction Due to restrictions in the time available for the construction, the pavement trial had to be constructed in the winter, at temperatures lower than that usually desirable for asphalt laying operations (on the trial construction day, the air temperature was between 10 and 15C). During the week before the construction of the pavement trial, some rain occurred in the area and, therefore, the aggregates were not completely dry. This was considered as a situation that could possibly occur in the production of WMAs, thus being possible to assess whether or not this kind of technology can be used in less favourable conditions. Based on the results previously obtained for the mixing temperature reduction, the temperature used for the production of the conventional HMA was 160C, while for WMA with Sasobit it was 145C. With the objective of testing the actual limits of Cecabase to reduce the production temperature, this WMA mixture was produced at 125C. The temperature reduction between the production and the application/compaction was not significant (the values observed were 10 to 15C between the asphalt plant and the site). Particular attention was paid to the temperature control, and the compaction effort (number of passes of each roller compactor) was maintained constant for the three mixtures. The pavement structure comprised a surface course (with the three mixtures under study applied over a length of about 400 metres each) over a bituminous binder course with 7 cm and a granular base with 20 cm. The thickness of the surface course was designed for approximately 5 cm, in order to allow the extraction of specimens for further mixture characterisation. The quality control procedures adopted resulted in consistent thickness over the length of the pavement trial (between 4.9 and 5.3 cm).

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3.2. Field characterization of the WMA and HMA mixtures applied in the pavement trial After the conclusion of the pavement trial, specimens were extracted from the three sections and their volumetric characteristics, water sensitivity and resistance to permanent deformation were determined. The results are presented in Table 3. Table 3: Properties of the mixtures applied in the pavement trial
Binder type Bitumen content (%) Voids content (%) WTS air (mm/103) ITSR (%) VMA (%) VFB (%) Standard EN 12697-1 EN 12697-8 EN 12697-22 EN 12697-12 EN 12697-8 EN 12697-8 50/70 5.0 2.4 0.25 85.8 14.0 82.8 50/70 with Sasobit 5.1 2.1 0.29 85.2 13.9 84.9 50/70 with Cecabase 5.3 3.4 0.69 67.0 15.5 78.0

Based on the presented results, it can be sated that the binder content is similar for the three studied mixtures, although the WMA with Cecabase shows a slightly higher value. The voids content and the VMA results obtained are generally low, except for the WMA with Cecabase. The VFB values are generally high, due to the low VMA of the mixtures or to the high binder content. The combination of these results may be responsible for the worse resistance to permanent deformation of the mixtures. The VFB results can also explain the higher ITSR values obtained for the conventional HMA and the WMA with Sasobit. Comparing these results with those obtained from the laboratory study is possible to highlight that the resistance to permanent deformation is approximately half of the lab results (Figure 2).
5,0 4,5 4,0
Deformao (mm)

HMA lab WMA Sasobit lab WMA Cecabase lab

HMA trial WMA Sasobit trial WMA Cecabase trial

3,5 3,0 2,5 2,0 1,5 1,0 0,5 0,0 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 N de passagens

Figure 2: Comparison between the WTT results in the laboratory and in the trial The particle size distribution of the three mixtures applied in the pavement trial is similar to that presented previously during the laboratorial mix design and, therefore, it is not responsible for any change in the performance of the mixtures. Thus, this can only be explained by the volumetric properties measured from the mixtures obtained on site, which may have resulted from their possible contamination with fuel during the heating of the aggregates (since this asphalt plant was used for the first time in the
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production of WMAs and the adjustment of the amount of fuel was not efficiently made). Hurley and Prowell (2008) have already referred that WMAs have higher susceptibility to be contaminated with fuel, because it is difficult to adjust the burners with low production temperatures combined with low quantities produced, particularly in pavement trials. This can be solved by using a different type of heating energy (e.g. natural gas). 3.3. Fuel contamination analysis In order to confirm the fuel contamination theory, and once several samples of binder had been collected in the asphalt plant (just after the bitumen tanks, and before entering the production line of the bituminous mixtures for the experimental trial), new slabs for the WTT were produced and compacted again in the laboratory with those samples of binder collected in the plant (necessarily using the same aggregates and grading curves). These new slabs were produced in order to evaluate/confirm the poor permanent deformation results obtained with the slabs collected from the experimental section. If these new results are better than those of the trial, it can be concluded that the problem was not caused by the binder used in the asphalt plant, thus confirming the fuel contamination justification given earlier. The results obtained with these new slabs are shown in Table 4. Table 4: Permanent deformation properties of mixtures produced in the laboratory with binders collected in the asphalt plant just before building the pavement trial
Binder type Voids content (%) WTS air (mm/103) Standard EN 12697-8 EN 12697-22 50/70 3.2 0.10 50/70 with Sasobit 3.1 0.12 50/70 with Cecabase 2.8 0.14

These results confirmed the values of validation in the laboratory, thus excluding a possible problem with the binders (e.g. problems when mixing the additive with the bitumen) used in the asphalt plant to build the pavement trial. In addition, these results are confirming the fuel contamination problems with the mixtures placed in the experimental sections. Finally, in order to check again what happened with the bituminous mixtures applied in the pavement trial of this study, the evolution of the properties of the different binders were analysed just before their use in the bituminous mixtures (collected at the exit of the bitumen tank in the asphalt plant) and after their recovery from the mixtures placed in the trial (by using the rotary evaporator method, in accordance with EN 12697-3). Usually, there is a significant short term aging of the binders during the production and application of the bituminous mixtures. It is expected that the use of lower temperatures in the production of WMAs could reduce the aging phenomenon, which can justify a better fatigue life. The final characterization of binders included penetration tests at 25 C (EN 1426) and softening point tests, also known as ring and ball tests (EN 1427). The results obtained in the characterization of binders are presented in Table 5. Table 5: Binder characterization before production and after recovery from mixtures
Property Penetration (0.1 mm) Ring and ball (C) Standard EN 1426 EN 1427 Before production After recovery Before production After recovery Before production After recovery 282 HMA 50/70 52 47 50 53 WMA 50/70 with Sasobit 33 58 88 52 WMA 50/70 with Cecabase 51 61 48 48

After analysing the properties of the binders before production and after recovery from the studied bituminous mixtures, it is not possible to establish any cause-effect relationship between the reductions of the production temperature (for WMA mixtures) and the aging of the corresponding binder. In fact, it was observed an increase in the penetration of the binders recovered from WMA mixtures, contrary to what would be expected due to aging. Again, the binder characterization results can only be explained by the presence of fuel in the binder (making the binder recovered from the mixtures softer than it was before being used) after the contamination of the aggregates/mixtures due to the excess fuel in the burner. 4. CONCLUSIONS The main conclusions drawn from this study are the following: by using 4% Sasobit with a 50/70 pen grade bitumen the binder properties are clearly modified, being possible to reduce the mixing temperature up to 15-20C; the use of 0.3% Cecabase in a 50/70 pen grade bitumen does not change the binder properties, but the mixing temperature can be further reduced up to 30-35C; the properties of the WMAs evaluated in the laboratory are similar to those of the HMA; the production and the compaction of the WMAs in the pavement trial were made without workability or coating problems; the rutting resistance performance of the WMAs evaluated in the trial was much worse than that previously observed in the laboratory, point out to a fuel contamination problems already referred by other authors; the fuel contamination problem was confirmed after additional tests to assess the permanent deformation of the studied mixtures, together with the analysis of the binders recovered from the mixtures applied in the pavement trial.

REFERENCES CECA, 2008. Green Road Formulation - Warm Mix Asphalt - Cecabase RT. Arkema Group. <http://www.cecachemicals.com/sites/ceca/en/business/bitumen_additives/warm_coated_ material/warm_coated_material.page> (Accessed on 4Nov08). Chowdhury, A., Button, J.W., 2008. A review of warm mix asphalt. Texas A&M University System. DAngelo, J.; Harm, E.; Bartoszek, J.; Baumgardner, G.; Corrigan, M.; Cowsert, J.; Harman, T.; Jamshidi, M.; Jones, W.; Newcomb, D.; Prowell, B.; Sines, R. and Yeaton, B., 2008. Warm-Mix Asphalt: European Practice. Federal Highway Administration, U.S. DoT, AASHTO, NCHRP, Report no. FHWA PL-08-007, Alexandria. EAPA, 2007. Environmental guidelines on best available techniques (BAT) for the production of asphalt paving mixes. FHWA, 2008. Warm Mix Asphalt Technologies and Research. Federal Highway Administration. U.S. DoT. Hurley, G. C.; Prowell, B. D., 2005. Evaluation of Sasobit for use in Warm mix asphalt. National Center for Asphalt Technology. Hurley, G. C.; Prowell, B. D., 2006. Evaluation of Potential Processes for use in Warm Mix. <http://www.warmmixasphalt.com> (Accessed on 10Jan09). Hurley, G.C., Prowell, B.D., 2006b. Evaluation of Potential Processes for Use in Warm Mix Asphalt. Journal of the Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, 75, pp. 41-90.

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Hurley, G. C.; Prowell, B. D., 2008. Warm Mix Asphalt: Best Practices. National Asphalt Pavement Association. 53rd Annual Meeting. Nynas, 2009. Asfalto templado, semi-templado y fro: el caso a favor de la sostenibilidad. Nynas Bitumen Magazine: Performance, issue 1. Sasol, 2004. The Bitumen Additive for Highly Stable Easily Compactable Asphalts. Sasobit Product Information 124, Sasol Wax GmbH, Hamburg. Silva, H. M. D.; Oliveira, J. R. M.; Ferreira, C. I. G.; Peralta, E. J., 2009. Evaluation of the rheological behaviour of warm mix asphalt modified binders. 7th RILEM Symposium on Advanced Testing and Characterization of Bituminous Materials, Rhodes, Greece. Silva, H. M. R. D.; Oliveira, J. R. M.; Zoorob, S. E.; Peralta, J., 2010. Optimization of Warm Mix Asphalts Using Different Blends of Binders and Paraffin Wax Contents. Int. Journal of Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 24 (9), pp. 1621-1631. Vaitkus, A.; Cygas, D.; Laurinavicius, A.; Perveneckas, Z., 2009. Analysis and evaluation of possibilities for the use of warm mix asphalt in Lithuania. The Baltic Journal of road and bridge engineering, 4(2), pp. 80-86.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Use of Lime-Bagasse Ash for Subgrade Soil Stabilization

T. Akram & A. Q. Khan
National Institute of Transportation, School of Civil & Environmental Engineering, National University of Sciences & Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan tayyebakram-nit@nust.edu.pk, aqkhakwani@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT: Pakistan is the fifth largest sugarcane producing country in the world. Annual production of sugarcane crop is over 52 million tons and approximately 81% of it is used in sugar industry. The sugar manufacturing process produces 11 million tons of bagasse with a capacity of generating over 0.26 million tons of sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA). The pozzolanic property of bagasse ash makes it an attractive material for clayey soil strength improvement. The strength behavior of low plastic subgrade clayey soils of Gujranwala Lahore section of National Highway-5 (N-5) with addition of lime and combination of limebagasse ash is examined. Results of unconfined compression test show an increase in soil strength of almost 50 times with lime and 64 times with combination of lime-bagasse ash. The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) increased by 3.5 and 4.5 times with lime and lime-bagasse ash combination, respectively. Swell potential of the soil reduced from 2.5 percent to almost zero. Bagasse ash with high silica and alumina contents reacts with calcium to form cementitious calcium silicate and aluminate hydrates. Therefore, use of bagasse ash in combination with lime significantly improves the strength and durability properties of low plastic clayey subgrade soils, and provides an environment friendly disposal of this agroindustry waste product. KEY WORDS: Subgrade soil, Stabilization, Bagasse ash, Soil-lime mix, Soil-lime-bagasse ash mix

1. INTRODUCTION Soil stabilization offers a technically feasible and economically viable solution to many engineering problems especially in highway construction. Comprehensive testing, to evaluate improvement in desired engineering properties such as strength, durability and volume stability are essential to suggest a feasible solution. Stabilizers such as lime and cement are commonly used to improve the soil strength properties. Industrial and agro-waste products such as fly ash, rice husk ash and bagasse ash possess pozzolanic properties and, therefore, can be used as stabilizing agents for soil. Lime is the most common stabilizing agent used for high-plasticity clays or fine grained soils. Since most soils contains silica and alumina in sufficient quantity, addition of quick lime (CaO) or hydrated lime (Ca(OH)2), in presence of water, initiates a chemical reaction and cementitious products i.e., calcium silicate and aluminate hydrates are formed. Chemical

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reactions taking place between soil and lime are cation exchange, flocculation/agglomeration and pozzolanic reactions. Cation exchange and flocculation/agglomeration are immediate reactions and result in change of soil texture, making it granular, thereby, reducing soil plasticity and susceptibility to moisture. Whereas, the pozzolanic reactions continue till the time calcium is available in the soil to react with silica and alumina, thereby, resulting in long term strength gain. Bagasse is the fibrous waste after extraction of sugar juice from cane. This fibrous waste is used as fuel for electricity generation and the resulting ash is termed as bagasse ash. SCBA is a pozzolanic material due to presence of high silica and alumina contents (Paya et al., 2002). The study by (Hernandez et al., 1998), highlight degree of silica crystallinity and presence of impurities in the ash as main factors affecting the reactivity of limeSCBA. (Abdullahi, 2007) reported that the physical and chemical composition of SCBA conform to the requirements of Class N fly ash as defined by ASTM C 618. Reactivity of fly ash depends largely on its fineness. A sizeable fraction of ash must be passing Sieve No. 200 for fly ash to be reactive. Little et al. [4] observed that fly ash having at least 75% passing Sieve No. 10, normally contain sufficient finer fraction to sustain suitable reaction. Paya et al., 2002 studied the reactive properties of SCBA with lime and cement, they reported high pozzolanic reactivity of SCBA despite high carbon content and crystallinity, and affirmed increase in strength when used as additive. Pakistan is an agro based country, ranked as the fifth largest sugarcane producing country in the world. The annual sugarcane produced is over 52 million tons (WADE, 2004). Approximately, 81% of the sugarcane is used in sugar industry (Akbar and Khawaja, 2006). Each ton of sugarcane produces approximately 26% of bagasse (at a moisture content of 50%) and 0.62% of residual ash (Corderio et al., 2004). Pakistan consumes approximately 42 million tons of sugarcane in the sugar manufacturing industry, and produces approximately 11 million tons of bagasse, with a capacity of generating over 0.26 million tons of bagasse ash. The pozzolanic nature of bagasse ash and its cheap availability makes it a suitable additive for increasing the strength properties of clayey soils. Such usage also provides an environment friendly disposal of this agro-industry waste product. This paper presents a laboratory study of improvement in strength and durability characteristics of low plastic subgrade clayey soil along Gujranwala-Lahore section of National Highway-5 (N-5), using lime and combination of lime-bagasse ash.

2. MATERIALS The soil in the area is poorly drained, mainly fine silty clay to clay with pockets of fine silty clay loam. Most of the soils in the area are non-calcareous but few areas in the association have saline alkali silty clays (Soil Survey of Pakistan, 1968). Soil samples collected from the field were brought to the laboratory for characterization and testing. The grain size distribution of the field soil samples was carried out as per ASTM D 422-63. Moisturedensity relationship was developed according to ASTM D 1557-02. Atterbergs limit tests were conducted as per ASTM D 431800. Unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests were performed as per ASTM D 5102-96. X-ray diffraction test and cation exchange capacity test were also conducted. The soil was found very weak and highly susceptible to loss of strength under moist conditions. The summary of soil characterization test results is presented in Table 1. Quick lime was used in the research was procured from a local lime kiln. Bagasse ash was procured from Premier Sugar Mills, Mardan. The ash was grounded to powder form using 286

Los Angeles Abrasion machine. 2500 revolutions were given to a 5kg sample of dried bagasse ash. The grounded ash was sieved through Sieve No. 100 and preserved in airtight polythene bags. Chemical analysis of bagasse ash was performed in the laboratory and the results are summarized in Table 2. Bagasse ash, by-product of Premier Sugar Mills, Mardan meets the requirements of ASTM C 618 and qualifies to be categorized as a Class N pozzolan. Table 1: Summary of Soil Properties
Soil Property Percent Passing Sieve No. 200 Plasticity Index Soil pH Organic Content, (%) Maximum Dry Density, (g/cm ) Optimum Moisture Content, (%) Cation Exchange Capacity Clay Minerals Unsoaked Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS), (psi) Soaked Dry of Optimum CBR (%) OMC Wet of Optimum Swell (%)
3

Value 78.8 17.5 9.2 0.3 2.02 10.98 14.9 Muscovite, Albite, Clinochlore 43 4.09 25 7.8 1.1 2.5

Table 2: Chemical Composition of Bagasse Ash

Constituent Silicon Dioxide, (SiO2) Aluminium Oxide, (Al2O3) Ferric Oxide, (Fe2O3) Calcium Oxide, (CaO) Magnesium Oxide, (MgO) Sulfur Trioxide, (SO3) Sodium Oxide, (Na2O) Potassium Oxide, (K2O) Moisture Content Loss on Ignition Percentage 62.44 6.74 5.77 6.16 2.97 0.72 3.15 6.87 2.86 2.58 Maximum 3% Maximum 10% Maximum 4% Minimum 70% ASTM C 618 Requirement

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3. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM The soil suitability for lime stabilization was meeting the criteria laid by the National Lime Association (NLA), 2006. Optimization of lime content was carried out as per ASTM D 6276-99a (Eades and Grims procedure), and came out to be 4% by weight of soil. The optimum lime content was further confirmed by UCS testing at 3.5, 4, 4.5 and 5% lime content. Samples for UCS testing were prepared in a specially fabricated mould of 3 inch diameter and 6 inch height. Density as per Modified Proctor (ASTM D 1557-02) was achieved by adjusting the number of 10 lb hammer blows. The adjusted blows per layer were 22 blows. Before preparing the samples for UCS testing, a moisture-density relation was developed for all lime content. Samples were prepared at 1% above respective OMCs and cured for 2 and 7 days before strength testing. Bagasse ash content was also optimized by UCS testing as per ASTM D 5102-96. UCS testing at optimized lime content and optimized lime-bagasse ash content was carried out after curing at 40oC for 2, 7, 14 and 28 days. After each curing period, two samples were tested immediately while remaining two samples were subjected to a capillary soak for 24 hours as required by National Lime Association (NLA), 2006 and tested. Average strength was reported in all the cases. CBR tests were conducted as per ASTM D 1883-99. The tests were conducted at three different moisture levels corresponding to 90% MDD on dry side of optimum, at OMC and 90% MDD on wet side of optimum.

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Figure 1 shows the changes brought about by lime and lime-bagasse ash to moisture-density relation of the soil. It was observed that addition of 4% lime by weight of soil reduced MDD by about 7% and increased the OMC by almost 20%. Where as the addition of bagasse ash resulted in an increase of almost 1.6% in MDD and a decrease of 8% in OMC. However, there is an overall reduction in MDD and Increase in OMC as compared to natural soil.
2.06 2.02 1.98 M D(g /cc) D 1.94 1.90 1.86 1.82 1.78 1.74 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 Moisture Content (%) Unstab Soil SL SLB

Figure 1: Moisture-Density relation of Unstabilized soil, SL mix and SLB mix The grain size distribution and consistency limits of both soil-lime (SL) and soil-limebagasse (SLB) mixes changed significantly after fourteen days. The plasticity index reduced 288

from 17.5 to 6 and 9 for SL and SLB mixes respectively. The fraction passing Sieve No. 200 also reduced to 62% and 70% for SL and SLB mixes respectively as compared to 79% of the unstabilized soil. As a result of these changes the classification of soil changed from CL to CL-ML in accordance with Unified Soil Classification System and from A-6 to A-4 in case of AASHTO soil classification system. Changes in grain size distribution are shown in Figure 2.
100

90

Percent Finer (%)

80

70

60

50 10 1 Particle Size (mm) Unstab Soil SL SLB 0.1 0.01

Figure 2: Grain size distribution of unstabilized soil, SL and SLB mixes after 14 days curing Results of Eades and Grims pH test indicated 4% lime by weight of soil as the optimum lime content. This was confirmed by UCS testing at other lime percentages in the vicinity of 4% as shown in Figure 3.
98 94 90 86 82 UCS (psi) 78 74 70 66 62 58 54 50 3.00

3.50

4.00 Lime (%) 2 Day Cure

4.50

5.00

5.50

7 Day Cure

Figure 3: Comparison of UCS at various lime contents Figure 4 shows the result of bagasse ash optimization process. Addition of 3% bagasse ash by weight of soil yielded maximum strength after 2 and 7 days curing at 40oC.

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125 115 105 95 85 75 65 0 1 2 3 4 5 Bagasse Content (%) 2 Days 7 Days

Figure 5 shows the variation in UCS with respect to time for SL mix. It can be seen that the rate increase in strength quiet high (almost 100%) in first two days and then from 14 to 28 days. From two to fourteen days, strength increased at a very slow rate. The unsoaked strength increased by almost 6 times and the soaked strength increased by almost 50 times after 28 days curing at 40oC.
280 240 200
U (psi) CS

UCS (psi)

Figure 4: Comparison of UCS at various Bagasse ash contents

160 120 80 40 0 0 4 8 12 16
Time (Days) Unsoaked Strength Soaked Strength

20

24

28

32

Figure 5: Variation in UCS with time Figure 6 shows the variation in UCS with respect to time for SLB mix. It was observed that the trend of strength gain remained similar to that of SL mix; however the magnitude of strength gain was much higher in this case. Here the unsoaked strength increased by almost 7 times whereas the soaked strength increased by 64 times. It was also observed that the soaked strength of SLB mix exceeded unsoaked strength of SL mix.

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300 275 250 225 200 U S (psi) C 175 150 125 100 75 50 25 0 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 Time (days) Soaked Unsoaked

Figure 6: Variation in UCS of SLB mix with time Durability of both SL and SLB mixes increased significantly as compared to unstabilized soil. The ratio of soaked to unsoaked strength increased from 0.09 to 0.58 after 2 days and 0.81 after 28 days in case of SL mix and from after 0.64 after 2 days and 0.86 after 28 days in case of SLB mix. Figure 7 shows that the comparison of soaked to unsoaked strength ratio of SL and SLB mixes. It is clear from the fig that durability of both the mixes increases with time. The comparison shows that SLB mix is more competent to handle additional moisture in the field and is therefore more durable.
0.90 Soaked / Unsoaked Strength Ratio 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50 2 7 Time (Days) SL SLB 14 28

Figure 7: Comparison of soaked to unsoaked strength ratio of SL and SLB mixes at various curing periods Behavior of soil at all moisture levels for both SL and SLB mix improved significantly. However, in this case also, SLB mix performed in a much better way as compared to SL mix. The most pronounced effect was observed on wet side of optimum where the CBR increased to 11.5% confirming the competency of SLB mix to cope with excess moisture in the field 291

due to any unexpected situation. Swell after 96 hours of soaking reduced from 2.5% to almost zero in both the cases. Comparison of CBR at different moisture levels for natural soil, SL mix and SLB mix is shown in Figure 8.
65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Dry of Optimum (90% MDD) Unstab Soil OMC Wet of Optimum (90% MDD) SL SLB

Figure 8: Comparison of CBR at different moisture contents Ultimate stress increased and ultimate strain is decreased substantially for both SL and SLB mixes. However, the ultimate strain for SL mix occurred at an average strain of 2% and that of SLB mix occurred at an average strain of 1.5% as shown in Figure 9 and Figure 10 respectively.
250

200

Stress (psi)

150

100

CBR (%)
50

0 0.000

0.005

0.010

0.015 Strain

0.020

0.025

0.030

2 Days

7 Days

14 Days

28 Days

Figure 9: Stress-Strain relation of SL mix at various curing periods

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300 250 200 150 100 50 0 0.000

Stress (psi)

0.005

0.010 Strain

0.015

0.020

0.025

2 day

7 day

14 day

28 day

Figure 10: Stress-Strain relation of SLB mix at various curing periods 5. CONCLUSIONS

Bagasse ash, by-product of Premier Sugar Mills, Mardan meets the requirements of ASTM C 618 and qualifies to be categorized as a Class N pozzolan. The test results show that lime alone significantly improves the behavior of soil, however, addition of bagasse ash with lime significantly improves both strength and durability properties of soil. Thus use of bagasse ash in conjunction with lime for soil stabilization is technically feasible. Both SL and SLB mixtures possess sufficient soaked strength after 7 days of accelerated curing. This accelerated curing condition corresponds to 28 days curing at ambient temperature (Little 1999). Therefore, curing of subgrade for 28 days at ambient temperature will yield sufficient strength for subsequent construction. SLB mix has more density and lesser OMC than SL mix. SLB mix is relatively more suitable to handle additional moisture in the field than SL mix. Addition of bagasse ash increases the strength and reduces the ultimate strain of lime treated soil.

REFERENCES Abdullahi, M., 2007. Influence of Compactive Effort on Bagasse Ash with Cement Treated Lateritic Soil. Leonardo Electronic Journal of Practices and Technologies, Issue 10, 7992. Akbar, N. M. and Khawaja A. M., 2006. Effluents from Selected Sugar Mills in Pakistan: Potential Environmental, Health, and Economic Consequences of an Excessive Pollution Load. Sustainable Development Policy Institute, Islamabad, Pakistan. Corderio, G. C.; Filho, R. D. T.; Fairbairn, E. M. R.; Tavares, L. M. M. and Oliveira, C. H., 2004. Influence of Mechanical grinding on the Pozzolanic Activity of Residual Sugarcane Bagasse Ash. Conference on the Use of Recycled Materials in Building and Structures, Barcelona, November. 293

Hernandez, J. F.; Middendorf, B.; Gehrke, M. and Budelmann, H., 1998. Use of Wastes of the Sugar Industry as Pozzolan in Lime-pozzolan Binders: Study of Reaction. Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 28, No. 11, 1525-1536. Little, D. N.; Thompson, M. R.; Terrell, R. L.; Epps, J. A. and Bahrenberg, E. J., 1982. Soil Stabilization for Roadways and Airfields. Engineering & Services Laboratory, Air Force Engineering & Services Center, Tyndall Air Force Base, Florida. National Lime Association (NLA), 2006. Mixture design and Testing Procedures for Lime Stabilized Soil. Technical Brief. Paya, J.; Monzo, J.; Borrachero, M. V.; Diaz-Pinzon, L. and Ordonez, L. M., 2002. Sugarcane Bagasse Ash (SCBA): Studies on its Properties for Reusing in Concrete Production. Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology, Vol. 77, Issue 3, 321-325. Soil Survey of Pakistan, 1968. Recconnaissance Soil Survey Sheikhupura Area. Government of Pakistan. WADE., 2004. Bagasse Cogeneration Global Review and Potential. World Alliance for Decentralized Energy (WADE), Edinburgh, Scotland.

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Applications of spaceborne and airborne remote sensing technologies

Remote Sensing and Geospatial Technologies for Inventory and Condition Monitoring of Transport Infrastructure Assets
Waheed Uddin
Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Mississippi, USA cvuddin@olemiss.edu

ABSTRACT: This paper presents remote sensing and geospatial technologies for inventory and condition monitoring of transportation infrastructure with specific examples for highways and airports. The ability to maintain pavement and non-pavement assets to the highest safety standards depend heavily upon monitoring and evaluation methods. The paper reviews the innovative remote sensing monitoring technologies for airport obstruction and terrain surveys, assessment of pavement integrity and maintenance needs, and environmental sustainability applications. Applications of airborne laser mapping, terrestrial mobile laser scanning, and spaceborne remote sensing data are presented. Integration of high resolution satellite imagery with geographical information system and geospatial mapping are also discussed for transportation inventory, landuse/landcover monitoring, and traffic volume data extraction. KEY WORDS: Geospatial, Remote Sensing, LIDAR, Traffic, Highway, Airports.

1. INTRODUCTION Adequate three dimensional (3D) terrain mapping data, condition monitoring data, and functional/structural evaluation are important for accurate geometric and structural rehabilitation design of highway and airport infrastructure including taxiway, runway, apron and other pavement assets. The use of modern remote sensing survey and mapping methods provide accurate terrain data and expedite nonintrusive in-service monitoring and evaluation. The georeferenced terrain data and high resolution imagery are readily used for geospatial analysis of planimetrics and other geographical information system (GIS) applications for effective infrastructure asset management (Al-Turk and Uddin, 1999; Uddin, 2008). Examples of mobile laser survey for 3D pavement mapping and assessing surface condition are presented for airport applications. This paper also reviews the latest developments and applications in airport obstruction and terrain surveying. An obstacle including a mobile object like a crane) is an obstruction to air navigation if it penetrates the imaginary obstacle identification surface (OIS) specified by the appropriate standards of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) of the Department of Transportation (DOT) in the U.S. or the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) in other countries. Obstacles may include hilly terrain, trees, cell towers, or other tall structures (Figure 1). Obstruction surveys are conducted when: (a) there is any change in the airport infrastructure and airport layout plan (ALP), (b) geodetic controls are needed for siting navigation aids and air traffic control tower, airport master planning, engineering design, and construction, (c) design of new instrument flight procedures and satellite based navigation
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require object and obstacle elevation data for analyzing potential penetration of OIS, and (d) airport managers need to develop landuse studies and analyze necessary actions to avoid or remediate impingements on airspace. Finally, innovative 3D visualization applications for infrastructure management are discussed with examples. 1.1 Objectives The paper addresses the following specific objectives: To discuss airport applications of LIDAR based survey methods and their benefits for GIS mapping with complementary use of high resolution remote sensing imagery To demonstrate geospatial analysis of high resolution satellite imagery for transportation infrastructure inventory and monitoring To show innovative visualization applications of feature extraction using high resolution imagery
Commercial Service, NonPrimary, 139

Total Airports = 2,092

GA, 1,565 Primary, NonHub, 248 Primary, Small Hubs, 73 Primary, Medium Hubs, 37 Primary, Large Hubs, 30

Figure 1: (Left) Examples of Tall and Thin Structures

Potential Obstructions

Figure 2: (Right) Inventory of commercial service and general aviation airports in the U.S. (source:http://www.faa.gov/airports_airtraffic/airports/planning_capacity/) 2. AIRPORT SURVEYING-GIS INTEGRATION INITIATIVE IN THE U.S. Aviation is a vital link in the global transportation chain. Aircraft is the only way to reach out to distant communities and supply humanitarian aid, especially when ground transportation infrastructure is destroyed by natural disasters (such as during the 2009 earth quake of Haiti, 2005 earthquake of northern Pakistan in the high mountainous region, and 2004 Asian tsunami). Air transportation is a vital part of the U.S. economy serving both traveling public and freight. The FAA Airports and Air Traffic lists an inventory of over 2000 airports (Figure 2), which includes 25% of commercial service airports. Figure 3 shows a geospatial map of hub airports in the U.S. The following recent advisory circular (AC) standards issued by the FAA and other guidebooks require all federally obligated airports in the U.S. to implement GIS for communicating layout plans and other survey, inventory, and condition monitoring data: AC 150/5300-16A, September 15, 2007. General Guidance and Specifications for Aeronautical Surveys: Establishment of Geodetic Control and Submission to the National Geodetic Survey

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AC 150/5300-17B, September 29, 2008. General Guidance and Specifications for Aeronautical Survey Airport Imagery Acquisition and Submission to the National Geodetic Survey AC 150/5300-18B, May 21, 2009. General Guidance And Specifications for Submission of Aeronautical Surveys to NGS: Field Data Collection And Geographic Information System (GIS) Standards Draft AC 150/5380-9, Guidelines and Procedures for Measuring Airfield Pavement Roughness Draft report on GIS Standards of Pavement Condition Survey Data; from ACRP 09-01 Project of the Airport Cooperative Research Program (ACRP). The first three ACs are the current standards in the U.S. for geodetic control, imagery acquisition, and airport surveys. These documents are available on the FAA web site. The AC 150/5300-18B document requires typical mapping grade accuracy for geospatial planimterics of airport features, such as runways, taxiways, etc. It also describes in detail geometrics of the imaginary OIS and airport airspace analysis (AAA) surveys for vertically guided airports and non-vertically guided airports. Table 2-1 of this comprehensive AC specifies the procedure for selecting the appropriate survey type.

Figure 3: Geospatial Distribution of Hub Airports in the U.S. 3. AIRBORNE LIDAR APPLICATIONS FOR TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE 3.1. Remote Sensing Sensors and LIDAR Accuracy Sensors used for airborne and spaceborne remote sensing utilize one or more bands of the electromagnetic spectrum and include: Multispectral scanners (passive sensors in visual and Infrared band) used to acquire satellite imageries: Landsat7 (15-m resolution), SPOT (5-m resolution), IRS 1-C (2-m resolution), IKONOS (1-m resolution), DigitalGlobe QuickBirdII (0.6-m resolution), GeoEye-1 (0.4-m resolution), and DigitalGlobe WorldView (0.5-m resolution). Thermal infrared (passive) sensors are also used in most satellite imageries.

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LIDAR (active sensor): Terrain mapping LIDAR (near Infrared band) and tunable LIDAR for pollution monitoring. The term LIDAR is an acronym that stands for "LIght Detection And Ranging." RADAR: RadarSAT (Canada), Star3i (Intermap, Inc.) The term RADAR is an acronym that stands for "RAdio Detection And Ranging." It operated in radio frequency range in all weather conditions. Active sensors (LIDAR and RADAR) operate day and night and send out pulses of energy. Unlike passive sensors, they are not dependent on illumination by solar energy. Aerial Photography A irborne L aser T errain Low Flying at 730 m above ground for high resolution M apping
H

Airborne LIDAR (Laser Scanner and Receiver/Discriminator) Low Flying at 500 m above Ground

D Figure 4: Remote Sensing Airborne Survey Methods; (Left) LIDAR and (Right) Photography

Traditional photogrammetry used for highway and airport survey applications relies on manual stereoscopic analysis of scanned aerial stereo aerial photographs. Airborne LIDAR (Figure 4) is increasingly used for terrain mapping (flood mapping and transportation corridors) and electric power transmission line corridors applications. Several studies have been carried out to assess accuracy of airborne LIDAR. In a highway alignment design study of a wooded site with steep slopes, elevation accuracy and cost effectiveness was established with respect to total station data (Uddin, 2008), as summarized below: This wooded terrain site had a maximum 45 m (150 ft) difference between the highest and lowest point of the study area. Centerline profiles and 15 cross-sections from three methods were compared and tested for a statistically significant difference. No significant difference was found in the mean elevation data at 95 % confidence level. LIDAR elevation accuracy: Average root mean square error (RMSE) of centerline profile was 13 cm when LIDAR data on the road center line and cross sections in wooded areas were replaced by total station data. The following key differences between LIDAR and photogrammetry must be recognized: Permanent photo record of the terrain is a clear advantage of traditional photography method. LIDAR needs a recent georeferenced imagery of the study area to identify the types of features and potential obstacles and verify the objects automatically extracted from computational analysis. LIDAR is not constrained by limitations of traditional photography method relative to nighttime and certain weather related operating constraints. Photogrammetry is more time consuming due to intensive manual effort for stereoscopic post-processing by well trained and experienced technicians.
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LIDAR survey provides millions of 3D points over the entire survey area, compared to the extraction of elevation and features on discreet locations by stereoscopic photogrammetry. LIDAR is computationally efficient and less time consuming considering it also requires special training. The above considerations make it important to take advantage of both remote sensing survey technologies by making complementary use. 3.2. Evaluation of LIDAR for Airport Obstruction Surveys A recent ACRP project 03-01, funded by the National Academy of Sciences/FAA, evaluated airborne LIDAR for obstruction surveys (ACRP, 2007). Concluded in December 2009, the study was conducted by the University of Mississippi Center for Advanced Infrastructure Technology (CAIT) in cooperation with the National Geodetic Survey (NGS) of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The study reviewed more than 24 airport projects where airborne LIDAR survey was conducted and found cost-effective LIDAR survey with complementary use of aerial imagery. The scanner configuration, flight parameters, and accuracy of LIDAR for obstruction mapping had been tested and established in previous NGS studies. Figure 5 shows the results of an airport project conducted by a commercial survey provider by dual-looking airborne LIDAR configuration with complementary use of aerial imagery. Additional highlights of the ACRP LIDAR evaluation project included: Requirements for use of LIDAR data in aeronautical obstruction surveys and ALP applications. Technical basis that could justify acceptance of LIDAR-based obstruction surveys by government agencies, airports, airlines, and other stakeholders. Limited cost data from some LIDAR projects indicated its viability in commercial survey applications. Recommended survey procurement specifications and procedures for future considerations by airports or other agencies to acquire and use LIDAR data.
LIDAR Intensity Image Millions of LIDAR Points Used for Obstruction Identification

http://www.optimalgeo.com/images/images/Airport%20Obstruction%20v.2.pdf

(courtesy of Optimal Geomatics, Inc)

Figure 5: Results of LIDAR Based Obstruction Mapping The sample survey specifications are posted on the NGS web site as airborne LIDAR statement of work (NGS, 2009). Airport survey using remote sensing methods and GIS

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integration also facilitates decision support system for airport infrastructure asset management. Further discussion is not provided due to brevity. 4. TERRESTRIAL LIDAR MAPPING A terrestrial mobile LIDAR is a nonintrusive fast method that can expedite collection of georeferenced 3D pavement surface and other terrain data of the entire study area in a matter of few hours with minimum disruptions to facility operations. In comparison a traditional manual topographic and distress survey is time consuming and a video and digital photo survey vehicle provides only raster images of the study area. A mobile terrestrial LIDAR vehicle such as the TITAN system collects laser scanning and multispectral digital imagery data (Uddin and Ward, 2009). The remotely collected LIDAR data provides: A dense 3D laser point cloud at 100-200 points per each sq m. A comprehensive 3D digital terrain model and topographic map of pavement and the surrounding terrain. A computationally efficient data analysis for generating 3D maps. Assessment of problematic deteriorated areas and use of LIDAR scan data for detailed accurate engineering analysis and geometric design. A permanent georeferenced LIDAR intensity image and photo record of the entire pavement and surrounding areas. Office analysis of georeferenced 3D point and imagery data to extract more visual distress data to supplement the sampled field distress survey. Computerized efficient workflow for importing 3D data into CADD software for other engineering analysis and design. Easy integration of the imagery and other vector products directly with the airport GIS.
LIDAR Point Cloud Video of Survey Area

(courtesy of David Ward) Figure 6: (Left) LIDAR scan data and (Right) Video Image of Runway Site For a typical runway project, about 10 overlapped passes of mobile LIDAR scanner are expected to cover the entire pavement and adjacent shoulder area in few hours with minimum disruptions to airport operations (Figure 6). The 3D point cloud data can be collected at a ground point density of 100-200 points per sq m (Uddin and Ward, 2009). It can also be used to collect 3D scan data for exteriors of buildings and a tripod mounted unit can scan building interiors and other difficult to access locations. Examples of numerous applications of 3D topographical and condition assessment data on pavements include:
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Densely spaced contours to use in engineering analysis and design Estimating uneven spots and maintenance quantities Selecting maintenance and rehabilitation strategies Identification of low areas with poor drainage Longitudinal and transverse profiles at selected intervals (research in progress) Cracking, rutting and other surface distresses to calculate pavement condition index (PCI) (research in progress) Introduction of water in increments to analyze drainage and show where pooling will occur (research in progress) 5. GEOSPATIAL ANALYSIS FOR INVENTORY, MONITORING, & VISUALIZATION 5.1 Geospatial Mapping of Infrastructure Inventory, Monitoring, and Traffic Demand The availability of cost-competitive archived high resolution spaceborne multispectral satellite imagery provides tremendous opportunity for conducting geospatial analysis of infrastructure inventory, landuse/landcover and condition monitoring, traffic volume data, and environmental and disaster assessment. These applications are particularly important for remote areas and developing regions where no such data are readily available. Uddin et al. (2009) presented some examples of road and landuse planimetric for site planning and a newly developed geospatial methodology to classify surface type before and after disaster. The % change in surface type area was successfully used for storm debris estimate in Gulfport area of Mississippi and I-10 interchange area northeast of New Orleans to quantify 2005 Hurricane Katrina damage and associated economic costs. Figure 7 shows an example of the 1-m IKONOS imagery of the Gulfport-Biloxi Airport area and surface classification results. Less than 3% difference from the groundtruth (right plot) indicates reasonable accuracy of the geospatial methodology for surface discrimination of constructed and open areas.
Asphalt Build/Conc Grass Tree Soil Water
Surface Class Area,% 1 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10%
B+C 8.1% A 15.2% Groundtruth 8.8% 14.8% BANS G 48.4% 46.5% 0.2% W 3.3% S T 24.9% 0.1% 2.3%

27.5%

3km

Figure 7: Gulfport-Biloxi Airport Feature Extraction; (Left) 1-m Imagery, (Center) Groundtruth Vector Map and Legend, (Right) BANS Classified Thematic Map and Accuracy As a part of a recent Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) project for Karachi in Pakistan comprehensive geospatial analysis has been conducted to create road network and landuse GIS using 0.6-m QuickBirdII satellite imagery (NAS, 2007). Figure 8 shows the imagery of Karachi port area, planimetric of road network and bridge feature extraction, and locations of traffic data collection samples. The traffic data collection methodology has also been applied using other imageries available from GoogleEarth for Mississippi and Karachi. Satellite imagery presents a snapshot of road traffic density during the imagery hour. Using a
303

2km

0%

linear speed-density model and knowledge of 24-hour volume distribution, average daily traffic volume for the sample road section is calculated from traffic density (Osborne, 2009). Based on statistically designed traffic sample sections, traffic volume maps are produced for the entire road network serving the 14-million population of Karachi (Headrick, 2010; Uddin, 2010). Further, geospatial analysis of archived imagery provides a unique opportunity for temporal evaluation of landuse changes, traffic demand trends, disaster impacts, and environmental sustainability.
P 14 15 16 P

(Right) Mauripur Road Bridge on Liyari River

1 km

(Left) Water Sewerage Treatment Plant

N 14

1 km

(Top Left) 0.6-m QuickBirdII imagery, (Top Right) Planimetrics and Feature Extraction
Total AADT for Karachi by Road Classification, 2007
5,759

1 km

15

1 km

16

6,000 5,500 5,000 4,500 4,000

Total AADT for Karachi = 9.339 million

3,216

Total AADT, (x 1000)

3,500 3,000 2,500 2,000 1,500 1,000 500 0 64 49 251

Road Classification

(Bottom Left) 0.6-m Karach-1 Imagery with Road Map, (Bottom Center) AADT Data Summary, (Bottom Right) Road Map with Traffic Sample Locations Figure 8: Geospatial mapping of Karachi imagery scenes and traffic data locatioons 5.2 Advanced Geospatial Visualization Applications for Infrastructure Management The traditional GIS program provides 2D maps with the possibility of color thematic maps for georeferenced vector data (such as elevations or polygons for landuse as shown in Figure 8) and for nongeographic attributes (such as population or daily traffic volume map). For comprehensive inventory and analysis of constructed structures it is desirable to create
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realistic 3D visualization models. The IAVOs GeoGenesis geospatial software provides this 3D modeling capability using the functionality of satellite imagery software and stereoscopic analysis of photogrammetry software (IAVO, 2009). Both stereoimagery from aerial photo and satellite imagery sources, as well as LIDAR elevation data, are used. The created 3D models can be exported to GoogleEarth for easy access and viewing. Figure 9 shows an example of 3D model created for Louisville International Airport in Kentucky (IAVO, 2010).

(courtesy of IAVO) Figure 9: (Left) GeoGenesis Interface, (Right) View of 3D Models of Airport buildings 6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMENDATIONS The use of LIDAR and imagery remote sensing data is discussed for layout plans, terrain mapping, obstruction mapping, and integration with geospatial analysis and GIS. The GIS implementation is required by the Federal Aviation Administration for all federally funded airports in the U.S. Most highway projects are also benefited by GIS implementation considering context sensitive design and value engineering applications. The use of LIDAR to expedite terrain surveying and construction is also presented. Geospatial applications of high resolution satellite imagery are presented for transportation inventory, landuse/landcover monitoring, and traffic volume data extraction. This process is fast, cost-effective, and efficient for remote areas or in locations where these engineering and traffic data are not readily available. Examples are presented for case studies in the U.S. and Pakistan. REFERENCES ACRP, 2007. Airport Cooperative Research Program (ACRP) Project 03-01, February 2007. http://144.171.11.40/cmsfeed/TRBNetProjectDisplay.asp?ProjectID=135 Accessed February 10, 2010 Al-Turk, E. and Uddin, W., 1999. Infrastructure Inventory and Condition Assessment Using Airborne Laser Terrain Mapping and Digital Photography. Transportation Research Record 1690, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Washington, DC, 1999, pp 121-125. Jessica, Headrick, 2010. Geospatial Analysis of Roadway Traffic Volume, Flow Simulation, and Air Pollution Impacts on the Built Environment. M.S. Thesis, University of Mississippi, May 2010.

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IAVO, 2009. IAVO Presents UM with $4.6 Million Software to Help Prepare Students, Enhance Research and Outreach. The University of Mississippi Foundation News, August 31, 2009. http://www.umfoundation.com/home/default.php?search=iavo IAVO, 2010. GeoGenesis. The IAVO Research and Scientific, Durham, North Carolina. http://geogenesis.net/geogenesis.htm http://www.iavo-rs.com/products.html Accessed April 14, 2010. NAS, 2007. National Academy of Science. Karachi ITS-Based Traffic Management Model Project. http://sites.nationalacademies.org/PGA/dsc/pakistan/PGA_052872 Accessed March 31, 2010. NGS, 2009. Airport LIDAR Survey Statement of Work (SOW). National Geodetic Survey, NOAA. www.ngs.noaa.gov/RSD/AirportSOW.pdf Accessed December 12, 2009. Osborne, Katherine, 2009. GIS-based Urban Transportation Infrastructure Management Using Spaceborne Remote Sensing Data. M.S. Thesis, University of Mississippi, December 2009. Uddin, W., 2008. Airborne Laser Terrain Mapping for Expediting Highway Projects: Evaluation of Accuracy and Cost. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, American Society of Civil Engineers, Volume 134, No. 6, pp. 411-420, June 2008. Uddin, W., 2010. Spaceborne Remote Sensing Data for Inventory and Visualization of Transportation Infrastructure and Traffic Attributes. 1st International Conference on Sustainable Transportation & Traffic Management, Karachi, Pakistan, July 1-3, 2010. Uddin, W. and Ward, David, 2009. Terrestrial and Airborne Remote Sensing LIDAR Surveys for Airport Infrastructure and GIS Applications. AAAE Airport GIS Conference, Chicago, March 15-18, 2009. Uddin, W., Wodajo, Bikila, Osborne, Katherine, and White, Mackenzie, 2009. Expediting Infrastructure Condition Assessment for Disaster Response and Emergency Management Using Remote Sensing Data. MAIREPAV6 - 6th International Conference on Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Pavements and Technological Control, Torino, Italy, July 8-10, 2009.

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Optimal utilization and allocation of resources for maintenance management

iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Natural and alternative Materials for Road Construction Environmental Optimization of Resources Management in a Territory
D. Franois, T. Martaud, C. Ropert, E. Rayssac & A. Jullien
Division for Sustainable Approaches in Civil Engineering, Laboratoire central des Ponts et Chausses, France denis.francois@lcpc.fr, thomas.martaud@lcpc.fr, christophe.ropert@lcpc.fr, erwann.rayssac@lcpc.fr, agnes.jullien@lcpc.fr

C. Proust
Institut des Sciences de la Techniques dOrlans, Universit dOrlans, France chantal.proust@univ-orleans.fr

ABSTRACT: Deriving from the wish to spare natural resources as well as to reduce landfills, the last decades have seen the growing interest for the use of alternative materials in road construction. Alternative materials range from waste of the road sector itself (e.g. reclaimed asphalt pavement), wastes from the building sector (e.g. crushed concrete) to wastes from various industries (slag, ashes ...). As most alternative materials are not inert, their assessment is necessary on both the mechanical and environmental points of view, in order to be sure of their right behaviour onsite, from the short to the long term. On that field, research has been initiated at international level for several years. Now, in order to judge of the net environmental benefice of reuse toward use of new materials, environmental costs of access to both kinds of resource must be taken into account, as well as possible differential maintenance costs of infrastructures. The research on that point has been undertaken recently, notably at LCPC. The assessment of the environmental cost of aggregate production can be achieved thanks to the MEG software, which is also able to consider alternative materials preparation to use. This point makes necessary to integrate data (energy, material) from the processes generating alternative materials. The assessment of alternative vs. new materials, must be carried out on a functional base, the four possible functions being: filler; graded aggregate (0/D); aggregate (d/D) and binder. Finally, the environmental gain from a material toward the other can be converted into a differential right of transport (equivalent energy and fallouts). From the environmental management point of view, this can be used to determine the maximum radius of dispatching of the different material stockpiles available in a given territory, in order to globally optimize their uses. KEY WORDS: Road, Material, Life cycle analysis, Energy, Indicator, Management. 1. INTRODUCTION From the annual production of aggregates in France, which amounts 400 million tons, half is consumed by the civil engineering sector for road construction and maintenance (Michel, 1997; UNPG, 2005). Besides, deriving from the wish to spare natural resources as well as to reduce landfills (METL and MATE, 2000), the two last decades have seen the growing interest for the use of alternative materials in road construction (Franois et al., 2009).
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The term alternative material covers the various by-products and wastes, from the road sector (reclaimed asphalt pavement, reclaimed concrete pavement), from the building sector (demolition concrete), from industry (mining wastes and residues from the processing of raw materials like slags) or from the management of wastes (municipal solid waste incinerator bottom ash, non reusable tires), as long as they can be substituted to classical natural road construction materials, as aggregate, filler or binder. Compared to natural materials extracted from geological layers, most alternative materials are very young and can be not totally stable on the physical and chemical point of view. They are thus rarely inert and their assessment for road construction must be carried out on both the mechanical and environmental point of view in order to be sure of their right behavior onsite, from the short to the long term. Research in those fields, with the aim to fill the gap between the prediction from laboratory tests and field behavior, has been undertaken several years ago (Reid et al., 2001). In France, as well as in many countries, a wide variety of alternative material stockpiles is potentially available for road construction. Different stockpiles are distributed over the territory depending on the regions industrial history and their demography. This makes difficult to assess the size of each material stockpile and to gather a common know-how at national level. Such situation, common to different countries as given rise to the development of dedicated databases (TEKES, 2000; NCHRP, 2000; CROW, 2001; Jullien et al., 2010), and to cooperative projects (OECD, 1997, Reid et al., 2001; Christensen et al., 2006). 2. AIM OF THE RESEARCH The research related to the assessment of the use possibilities of alternative materials in road construction shows that, as a whole, the alternative resource is polyvalent and that, subsequently, it would be wise, in a given territory, to manage this resource at the best of its potential (Franois et al., 2006). Today, economical criteria, such as the price of the material, as well as the costs of transport and processing, constitute the basis of the sector organisation. In the framework of a global environmental approach, the implementation of an efficient management of the alternative material resource must guarantee that the cost of provision of an alternative material does not exceed that of the natural material to which it substitutes. At the scale of a territory, material transportation plans must be optimizes considering transport costs i) from sources of production to gathering centres; ii) from gathering centres to use sites. The transportability of materials can be used to make rational the management of alternative materials and to define the best location for gathering and treatment centres. Transportability rules of natural and alternative materials can be incorporated in a software allowing the global environmental assessment of possible construction material sources, for a given infrastructure project. 3. THE MEG SOFTWARE 3.1. LCA approach The Life-Cycle-Analysis (LCA) method is a tool that provides information on products environmental impacts as input for decision-making (SETAC, 1993; Miettinen and Hmlinen, 1997). According to the LCA standard (AFNOR, 2006), the quarry can be

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considered as an environmental system with borders through which various matter and energy exchanges exist. These flows are indexed as raw material and energy consumption; atmospheric and aqueous emissions; and wastes. The MEG software (Module dElaboration des Granulats / Aggregate Elaboration Modulus) was initially developed in the aim to quantify global environmental pressures inferred by natural aggregate production: energy consumption; emissions and fallouts (Martaud, 2008). In such a LCA-based approach, the particle size is regarded as the reference parameter from which different production sites or conditions (different petrography of rocks, different energetic efficiency of quarries) can be compared. The environmental system considered to perform the Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) of aggregate grading is based on the paths followed by raw materials in the aggregate production process. During their processing, aggregates are transported into the system through the various typical stations of the quarry, thanks to continuous belt conveyors and/or by means of vehicles. All flows and operations generate environmental pressures. At that stage of development, the tool neither considers water flux (oppositely to the energy spent for pumping) nor waste production (e.g. wear parts). All the raw materials that are extracted from the ground in the extraction area are either placed on stockpiles - with no possible industrial use - or transformed within the plant into finer fractions. The environmental consumptions and impacts determined are allocated to the sold aggregates. 3.2. Modeling and indicators Before any calculation by means of the MEG software, each quarry site is described. This includes general information such as: the location of the quarry; the possible type and quantity of explosive used; the site equipment characteristics (crushing, sieving...) along with their electrical operating intensity; the quarry vehicle types (dumpers, loaders, wheelers) with the year of engines production; their running power, their running-in operation time each day. For calculation, all production lines composed of several equipments of the site must be identified, along with their respective aggregate flows, i.e. the fraction of the total production of the site (Figure 1). The tool allows assessing energy and impacts at the yearly scale, taking into account monthly changes of the production; hence total and monthly production can be assessed.
0/D (100%) Primary post
L1

Secondary post
L2a

Tertiary post
L2b

Production: 0/31.5 (19.8%)

Production: 0/6.3 (7.3%)

Production: 0/6.3 (31.2%) 6.3/10 (18.1%) 10/14 (23,6%)

L1: line of production 0/31.5 mm L2a and L2b: lines of production 0/6.3 mm

Figure 1: Principle of production lines identification

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Several models were defined in order to quantify the different environmental pressures. The impact categories derive from the classical onsite emissions used in LCA literature, namely: - Global warming potential (referred below as GWP) using CO2 as the reference chemical species (IPCC, 2001). - Photochemical ozone creation potential using C2H4 as the reference chemical species (Goedkoop, 1996). - Acidification potential using H+ as the reference chemical species (Goedkoop, 1996). - Eutrophication index using PO4 as the reference chemical species (Goedkoop, 1996). - Toxic and ecotoxic potentials using 1,4-dichlobenzen as the reference chemical species (Huijbregts et al., 2000). Regarding energy consumption (in kWh), specific indicators were developed considering the plant electrical equipments and the quarry vehicles (which use fuel and generate releases) separately. As regards energy costs, no indirect emission to air is taken into account (no consideration for primary energy production means of electricity or fuel). For each production line (i) composed of several electrical equipments (j), the electrical consumption (CESPi - Consommation dElectricit Spcifique de Production / Production Specific Electric Consumption) per ton (Qi) is provided by the formula:
CESPi = 1 Qi

(T .0.81.
j =1 j

3.I j .d j .h j )

(1)

With T, the tension (= 380 volts); the average power factor (cos ) chosen as 0.81; I, the intensity (in A); d, the number of days of production; and h, the average number of hours worked per day. The product (Tj.0.81.3.Ij) is the electrical power of a three-phase current engine. Then, within each line of production, the tool is able to assign to each product (d/D) a ratio of energy as a function of its mass ratio into the given line of production. Regarding fuel consumption, it is possible to calculate the energy used to produce one ton of aggregate of the given site, according to the following formula:
C= 1 n (Ci .9.91.di .hi ) Q i=1

(2)

With Ci, the consumption of vehicle i (in l/h); the calorific power of fuel equal to 9.91 (CITEPA, 2006); the number of production days (d) and the average number of hours per day (h). 4. CALCULATION OF MATERIAL PRODUCTIONS 4.1. Application to the production of natural materials Results relative to energy consumption (1 kWh = 3.6 MJ) and to GWP for three quarries of natural aggregates (N1 to N3) are presented in Table 1. The main characteristics of sites productions are also provided. The total energy consumption (Electricity + Fuel) is 5 MJ/t less for the rocky material (25.6 MJ/t) than for alluvial materials, mainly in relation to less fuel consumption. For all

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materials, the GWP is around 2 kg/t, although lesser for the rocky material. These are few preliminary results and analysis and comparison between sites can not be pushed further. Table 1: Examples of natural material production figures
Sites Nature of the material Production (t/year) Products (mm/mm) Main use Electrical energy (MJ/t) Fuel energy (MJ/t) GWP (Kg eq.CO2/t) N1 Rocky 180,000 0/6.3; 0/31.5; 0/4; 10/14; 4/6.3 Road (wearing course) 10.5 15.1 1.75 N2 Alluvial 178,000 0/2; 0/4; 2/6.3; 4/12.5 Concrete 11.4 20.0 2.18 N3 Alluvial 64,000 0/2; 0/4; 4/12.5 Concrete 6.7 24.9 2.38

4.2. Application to the production of alternative materials As most operations for alternative materials preparation are carried out with classical quarry equipments, the estimation of the environmental cost of their elaboration can also be led by means of the MEG software. For certain specific equipments, specific developments will be necessary in the future. Based on the general concepts and formulas of MEG, results relative to energy consumption and the GWP for two alternative material productions (A1 and A2) are presented in Table 2. The main characteristics of the sites production are also provided. Table 2: Examples of alternative material production figures
Sites Nature of the material Production (t/year) Products (mm/mm) Main use Electrical energy (MJ/t) Fuel energy (MJ/t) GWP (Kg eq.CO2/t) A1 Coal fly ash (Si-Al) 210,000 0/0.063 (Filler) Cement; Concrete; Road 24.7 2.1 2.3 10-1 A2 (v10) A2 (v20) Crushed concrete 60,000 0/31.5; 31.5/80 Road 0 75.2 7.9

0 57.8 6.0

Specific to alternative materials, as most of them, before elaboration as construction are issued from a pre-existing process which consumes energy and generate environmental pressures, the evaluation requires to define how much of these previous energy and pressures must be imputed (allocated) to the alternative material. Towards a process consuming a lot of energy as the steel industry, previous results have shown the extreme sensibility of the global balance sheet to the choice of allocation rules (Sayagh et al., 2010). In the case of the thermal power plants which have anyway the obligation to treat smokes to prevent the dispersal of fly ashes in the environment, the imputation of electro-filter construction and maintenance costs is nil. The unique specific equipments identified on Site A1 for coal fly ash management were a belt conveyor and a loader. The preparation of crushed concrete as road material usually requires the transportation of the raw material from the demolition site to a gathering platform equipped with crushers and sieves at least. Hence, the environmental cost of the raw material transport to the platform must be taken into account, as should be the deconstruction operation necessary to prevent mixing of materials (concrete, plaster, wood, plastics). In the case of Site A2, the average distance of routing was unknown by the platform manager. Nevertheless, considering the economic profitability of the transport of demolition
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concrete in urban context (low speed of traffic), the maximum harnessing radius was estimated at around 20 km. Such scenario (referred as Site A2 (v20)) was estimated. A medium size radius was also estimated (Site A2 (v10)). However, in the context of this study, it was not possible to obtain figures or make hypotheses regarding the deconstruction phase. The crushed concrete production on the gathering platform is only based on mobile equipments powered by fuel, which explains the nil electrical energy consumption on site A2. The 10 km-difference in the raw material pre-routing results in a energy consumption increase of 30% (fuel). This is the same regarding the GWP. The GWP of crushed concrete is far higher than for the previous natural materials (cf. Table 1), in relation with the transportation impact. The GWP of coal fly ash is by far the lowest ( 0.2 kg/t) in relation to the source of energy, mainly electrical as a result of the industrial process. 5. COMPARISON BETWEEN MATERIALS AND TRANSPORTABILITY The evaluation of the possible environmental gain allowed by the use of a material with regard to another has to be made on a functional base. The four possible functional roles of a road material are those of aggregate (d/D), graded aggregate (0/D), filler or binder). Hence, to allow comparison between alternative and natural materials, functional analogues must be identified, e.g. natural vs. alternative filler such as coal fly ash; natural graded aggregate vs. alternative such as municipal solid waste incinerator (MSWI) bottom ash When an environmental gain appears for a material towards another, such gain can be made profitable for a broader spreading of more environmental friendly material. The limit for such a higher spreading is defined as the transportability of the material. Hence, the transportability of a material is determined by the environmental gain obtained between two functional analogues at the end of the elaboration phase (material ready to be used). In the case of an alternative material elaborated on its place of birth (coal fly ash of a thermal power plant; MSWI bottom ash on the incineration plant site), this transportability is not amputated by the cost of pre-routing. In the case of materials requiring the passage through centres of grouping to constitute homogeneous deposits of sufficient size (e.g. reclaimed asphalt pavement, demolition concrete, tires, MSWI bottom ash in some cases) a part of the total transportability is consumed by the pre-routing. The environmental cost of transport depends on the means of transport of freight (road, train, boat) and on the density of materials. The evaluation of the relative transportability of the materials available in a given territory (distribution and production of sources of natural and alternative materials) must serve to rationalize the distribution of platforms of grouping and preparation for alternative materials for the preparation of which a pre-routing is necessary. This is also an element to be taken into account in the choice of environmental friendly construction materials, considering the distance from the source to the road work. However, as all the environmental indicators do not always vary in the same direction and with the same magnitude, the gain for a material toward another can depend on the chosen criteria (energy, GWP), with consequence on the transportability estimation, as illustrated in Figure 2. Hence, considering the energy of production, Material 1 is more environmental friendly than Material 2. The transportability gain (TEnergy) would be in favour of Material 1 spreading rather than Material 2. On the basis of GWP balance sheet (TGWP), the transportability would be in favour of Material 2. Considering both TEnergy and TGWP, the actual distance of transportation (maximum radius) would depend on the performance of the means of transport of freight regarding energy consumption and/or the GWP.
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Environmental costs relative scale

TEnergy

GWP

Energy

0 Material 1 Material 2

Figure 2: Principle of material transportability evaluation 6. CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVES This research aims at providing the rules necessary to the development of a rational management of the palette of construction materials available in a given territory both natural and alternative - for its various road projects. This answers to the objective assigned by the memorandum of February 2000 regarding the implementation of county plans for the management of wastes from building and civil engineering works in France (METL and MATE, 2000). The approach however is broader, considering the natural and alternative resources altogether as a unique limited global stock (Franois et al., 2009) which exploitation may create various environmental pressures that have to be minimized. Hence, the rules of material transportation must be so, that the environmental cost of transport toward processing centres and zones of use, does not cancel the environmental profit of the most environmental friendly materials. Considering the environmental profit of recycling at large, this requires in the next future to deal with major issues, which are i) the formalisation of rules of allocation regarding the origin process (probably on the basis of a typology of the systems of origin); ii) the estimation of the environmental cost of the taking of materials in the nature (i.e. depletion of natural mineral resources); iii) the estimation of the specific costs induced by the use of each material (implementation and induced road maintenance. REFERENCES AFNOR, 2006, Management environnemental Analyse du cycle de vie Principes et cadres, Norme ISO 14040, Paris. Christensen, J.; Piau, J. M.; Znidaric, A.; Franois, D.; Nicholls, C.; Nielsen, E.; Sinis, F.; Richardson, M.; Denari, E. and Woodward, R., 2006. SAMARIS Final Summary Report, Deliverable n 32 of the SAMARIS project, Contract n GRD2/2000/30228, May. CITEPA (Centre Interprofessionnel Technique dEtudes sur la Pollution Atmosphrique), 2006. Organisation et Mthodes des Inventaires Nationaux des Emissions Atmosphriques, Rapport, 790 p. CROW (Information and technology centre for transport and infrastructure), 2001. Recycled materials in road construction. Record 20, Ede, The Netherlands.

Energy

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GWP

TGWP

Franois, D.; Jullien, A. and Kerzreho, J. P., 2009. Use of alternative materials in road construction Framework for back-analysis, inventory and study practices, Sixth International Conference on Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Pavements and Technological Control, Torino, July. Franois, D.; Pihl, K. A.; Loorents, K. J.; Eighmy, T. T.; van der Sloot, H.; Volatier, L.; Delolme, C. and Hjelmar, O., 2006. Methodology for assessing alternative materials for road construction. Deliverable n16 of the SAMARIS project, Contract n GRD2/2000/ 30228, March. Goedkoop, M., 1996. The Eco-indicator 95: Description of the impact assessment methodology, NOH report 9514A, Amersfoort, NL. Huijbregts, M. A. J.; Thissen, U.; Guine, J. B.; Jager, T.; Kalf D. and van de Meent, D., 2000. Priority assessment of toxic substances in life cycle assessment. Part I. Calculation of toxicity potentials for 181 substances with the nested multimedia fate exposure and effects model USES-LCA. Chemosphere, 41, pp. 541-73. IPPC, 2001. Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control. Reference Document on best available Techniques in the Cement and Lime Manufacturing Industries, European commission report. Jullien, A.; Franois, D.; Lumire, L.; de Larrard, D. and Chteau, L., 2010. Alternative materials for roads - A national database to share knowledge, Road Materials and Pavement Design, 11, pp. 203-212. Martaud, T., 2008. Evaluation environnementale de la production de granulats naturels en exploitation de carrire indicateurs, modle et outils, Doctoral thesis, University of Orlans, France. METL and MATE (Ministre de lEquipement des Transports et du Logement, Ministre de lAmnagement du Territoire et de lEnvironnement), 2000. Ministry memorandum relative to the management of wastes from building and civil engineering works, Paris. Michel, F., 1997. Les granulats, UNICEM & Ministre de lEducation Nationale, Paris. Miettinen, P. and Hmlinen, R.,P., 1997. How to benefit from decision analysis in environmental life cycle assessment, European Journal of Operational Research, 102, pp. 279-294. NCHRP (National Cooperative Highway Research Program), 2000. Waste and Recycled Materials Use in the Transportation Industry. NCHRP 4-21 Information Database Users Manual. Chesner Engineering PC, Commack NY, USA. OECD (Organisation for the Economic Co-operation and Development), 1997. Recycling Strategies for Road Works, OECD, Paris. Reid J. M., Evans R.D., Holnsteiner R., Wimmer B., Gaggl W., Berg F., Pihl K.A., MilvangJensen, O.; Hjelmar, O.; Rathmayer, H.; Franois, D.; Raimbault, G.; Johansson, H. G.; Hkansson, K.; Nilsson, U. and Hugener, M., 2001. Alternative materials in road construction, Alt-Mat final report for the EU Commission, Contract n RO-97-SC.2238, January. Sayagh, S.; Ventura, A.; Hoang, T.; Franois, D. and Jullien, A., 2010. Sensitivity of the LCA allocation procedure for BFS recycled into pavement structures, Resource Conservation and Recycling, 54, pp. 348-358. SETAC, 1993, Guidelines for Life-Cycle Assessment: A code of practice, Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry and SETAC Foundation for Environmental Education, Pensacola, USA. TEKES (Technology Agency), 2000. By-products and recycled materials in earth structures Materials and applications. Technology Review 92/2000, Helsinki, Finland. UNPG (Union Nationale des Producteurs de Granulats), 2006. Le march des granulats en 2005, leaflet, Paris.

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Evaluation of Asphalt Plants in Terms of Performance: A Case Study for Turkey

F. Yonar, S. Iyinam, A. F. Iyinam & M. Ergun
Department of Civil Engineering, Technical University of Istanbul, Turkey fyonar@itu.edu.tr, siyinam@ins.itu.edu.tr, afiyinam@ins.itu.edu.tr, ergunmur@gmail.com

ABSTRACT: Main purpose of the asphalt plants is the production of standardized asphalt concrete rapidly in large amounts with high quality. To fulfil these purposes, two types of plants are produced and used worldwide. These are continuous (drum-mix) and batch type plants. As understood from their names, they differ from each other by their production methods. In continuous types; asphalt concrete produced continuously as the flow of aggregate. In batch types; asphalt concrete produced discontinuously, one batch at once. With technological developments, new processes and components are added to plants; however the main production processes have not changed. The main aim of this study is to evaluate the performance of asphalt plants and making comparison between a real application case in Turkey and in the World. To reach this aim, production steps of asphalt plants are explained and the main tasks of plants are introduced regardless of production method in the first section of this paper. In second section of this paper, the main tasks of asphalt plants are compared for continuous and batch type plants. Advantages and disadvantages of each kind of asphalt plant are introduced. The new production processes and components of each kind of asphalt plant are also investigated and given special examples about Turkey experience. Finally, the plant types compared in terms of production performance, quality of product, quality control processes, efficiency and environmental tasks within conditions of Turkey. Furthermore theoretical and real production capacities, costs, production and quality losses from various problems faced during applications are discussed. KEY WORDS: Asphalt Plants, Performance, Production, Quality.

1. INTRODUCTION First example of modern road construction with binder is seen in Nottingham in 1848 (Lincoln Road) where tar is used as binder. In 1858 bitumen is used as an overlay for cement concrete layers in Paris. Hot bituminous mixtures gained their present modern form with the beginning of 20th century. In this era, with the refining of petroleum, bituminous binder produced. Furthermore increasing popularity of automobiles made bituminous binder a cheap and inexhaustible resource for road construction.
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By the dense usage of bituminous binder in road construction, determination of physical properties and characteristics of binder is needed. For this purpose many tests and methods developed and pavement design procedures enhanced. Investigations about hot bituminous mixtures (asphalt concrete) show that the performance of the pavement is dependent on design, production and application. Production process of asphalt concrete basically consists of three steps. These are warming of binder and aggregate to mixture temperature, feeding materials with exact quantity to mixer and mixing materials to produce a uniform mixture (Yonar, 2006). First mixture production facility was consisting of shallow iron pans over coal burners. Mixing of materials uniformly was the main problem in these facilities. For this reason, first mechanical mixers used in 1854, Paris. Low standard of these mixers extended the production duration. First facility that can meet the main standards is produced by Cummer Company in America. Warren Brothers Company produced the first modern like plant in 1901. In 1910 cement concrete mixers modified to first drum dryer/mixers. In 1920 cold silos attached to facilities. Vibratory screens used in 1930s. With 1960s, stock silos built and plants have taken their modern form (Whiteoak, 2004). 2. MAIN FUNCTION OF ASPHALT PLANTS An asphalt plant consists of some electronic and mechanical equipment to dry aggregate and mix with binder to produce asphalt concrete. Asphalt plants can be classified by their capacity and production methods (Yonar, 2006). Basically plants classified in two types. These are Batch and Continuous (drum-mix) types. Main differences in these types are mixing, feeding style and production processes (Yonar, 2006). Production process of continuous plants, also known as drum-mix plants, is to feed aggregate continuously to dryer/mixer, dry aggregate in the drum and mix with binder in the drum (Yonar, 2006). Production process of batch type plants is to feed aggregate with conveyor system to dryer, dry aggregate, collect aggregate by its size in production tower, and mix it with binder properly with their weights. Production done in these facilities discontinuously, quantity of batch is dependent on capacity of the mixer (Yonar, 2006). A facility must have main functions in order to produce asphalt concrete, independent of its type. These are: 1. Storing and feeding raw materials and products. 2. Drying and heating materials. 3. Emission control. 4. Mixing binder and aggregate (Production) (Yonar, 2006). 2.1. Storing Raw Materials and Products Quality of asphalt concrete produced in plants is highly dependent on the materials used in production. Consequently correct storing and feeding of materials have high importance. Another important factor is to provide standard production and this is only possible by controlled, continuous feeding and enough storage in facility site (Yonar, 2006). As mentioned above, storage appropriate to capacity, correct storage and feeding is one of the main quality principles.

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Storage and Feeding of Aggregate: Aggregate is the first material that affects the quality. Aggregate gradation has a great effect on strength and behavior of the asphalt concrete. In batch type plants aggregate re-screened in production tower for this reason any change in gradation can be fixed. However in continuous types correction of gradation is not possible because of continuous and direct feeding to the drum. Problems affecting product quality in storage site are; contamination of aggregate, moisture accumulation in aggregate storage piles because of insufficient drainage systems, incorrect grouping in storage site, defects in crushing plants, cracking of aggregate grains by heavy axle load. Feeding is done by conveyor systems in both types of plants. Aggregate in bunkers proportionally loaded to bunker conveyor bands by bunker gates and feeding mechanisms on bunker gates. Aggregate transferred to drum or dryer conveyor band for drying and/or production. Storage and Feeding of Binder: To obtain discontinuous and standard production, adequate binder must be stored according to the production quantity in facilities. Horizontal and vertical tanks used for storage of binder. Commonly two tanks are used in plants. One of them is for actual production and the other is for storage. For the general quality of asphalt concrete; different types of binders must not be mixed in one tank, tanks must be cleared before storage of new binder, and oil leak must be prevented in order to minimize oxidation, balance vanes must always be in good condition. Storage and Feeding of Filler: Mineral filler is used in asphalt concrete to obtain adequate void percentage and to balance the viscosity of binder. Filler consists of small particles and hardens with moisture therefore must be stored separately. Feeding and storage of filler is also dependent to plants dust collection system. System collects filler from aggregate and returns it to the production circulation and clears tiny particles from gases given to the atmosphere. Storage of Asphalt Concrete: Facilities are equipped with storage silos or depots to minimize the effects on production because of problems in construction sites or transportation. These components are classified in to two types as long or short time storage. Storage silos or hot silos are for long time storage. These silos are isolated and could keep the mixture warm for about 24 hours. Their capacity may reach to 100 tones. Storage depots are for short time storage. In continuous plants storage depots are necessary components because of continuous production. 2.2. Drying and Heating Materials Asphalt concrete is produced in about 160 to 180oC in order to obtain adequate viscosity of binder and vaporize moisture of aggregate. Also produced asphalt concrete must be kept warm in silos and binder must have enough viscosity to be fed by pipe system to mixer (Yonar, 2006). Drying and Heating of Aggregate: As mentioned before aggregate taken from bunkers is directed to the dryer. In dryer, aggregate is warmed to the mixture degree, filler is collected and the moisture is vaporized. Dryer is a cylinder shaped component with a radius of 1,5 to 3 meters and a length of 6 to 12 meters. In order to provide flow of the aggregate to the exit of drum, an angle of 2 to 10o degrees is given in vertical plane. A burner at exit or entrance side warms the air to warm and dry the aggregate; a fan blows the air inside the drum to obtain combustion and a shaft takes gases and filler particles to dust collector system.

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A dryer consist of fins and channels in order to blend and infiltrate the heat to the aggregate. Length, radius, rotation speed of dryer and the number of fins and channels determines the staying time of aggregate in the dryer. There is two main types of dryers. These are named by the aggregate and air flow directions. Warming and drying principles are the same independent of dryer type. In parallel flow dryers; air and aggregate flow on the same direction. In opposite flow dyers; air and aggregate flow on opposite directions. Drying process is the most expensive phase of production because of high fuel consumption. Furthermore, staying time of aggregate in the dryer, affects the whole capacity of the plant. Capacity of the dryer is specified with a mean moisture percentage (generally %5). If the moisture percentage is higher than the specified rate, aggregate quantity must be decreased to provide full evaporation (Yonar, 2006). Heating System: Bituminous binder is a thermoplastic material and must be heated to 160180oC for adequate viscosity and also asphalt concrete stored in hot silos must kept warm. All these warming processes are done by hot oil pipe system. Oil is heated by electricity or fuel and directed to the pipe system. 2.3. Emission Control System Air flowing through dyer collects the tiny particles of aggregate and directs them to the shaft. The quantity of dust is a function of amount and size of drying material and air flow speed (Asphalt Institute, 2001). Emission control system is consisting of primary and secondary dust collectors. Dust collectors filter the air, coming from dryer and going out to atmosphere (Asphalt Institute, 2001). Primary Collectors: Main purpose of primary collectors is to filter and collect coarse particles in air flow. Typical primary collectors are; knock-out box and cyclone collectors. Knock-out Box: The most basic type of primary collectors is the knock-out box. As mentioned above, quantity of particles in air flow is a function of flow speed therefore to reduce the dust quantity; speed of air flow must be decreased. In knock-out box, air flow speed is decreased and its direction is changed. Consequently coarse dust particles are collected below the box. Gases with tiny particles are directed to the upper shaft (Asphalt Institute, 2001). Cyclone Dust Collectors: Cyclone collectors are more efficient than knock-out boxes. They use centrifuge principle for filtration. Gases rotate in the collector; particles that hit to the inner wall are collected below the unit. Also decrease of air flow speed and change of direction have an effect on filtration. Gases with tiny particles are directed to the upper shaft (Asphalt Institute, 2001). Secondary Collectors: Filtration of tiny particles is done by secondary collectors. Baghouse and wet scrubbers are the main types of secondary collectors (Asphalt Institute, 2001). Baghouse: A baghouse is a large, metal structure consists of many fabric filter bags. A typical unit includes about 800 filter bags. Working principle of baghouse is the same as a vacuum cleaner. Gases loaded with tiny particles move through filter bags and dust is catched. If used correctly baghouse unit may catch up to % 99 of tiny particles in air flow (Asphalt Institute, 2001). Wet Scrubbers: Purpose of wet scrubbers is to filter gases by water. Water is sprayed as small drops in to air flow. A sedimentation pool is necessary for the reuse of consumed water. Wet scrubbers provide a better filtration than baghouse units. However they have some

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problems in practice. Filler cannot be reused because of wet filtration, wet scrubbers consume large amounts of water, clearance and waste processes need extra effort (Asphalt Institute, 2001). 2.4. Mixing binder and aggregate Plant processes, mentioned above are all for the production of asphalt concrete. Asphalt concrete consists of aggregate, binder and chemicals if necessary. Production period shows differences in two types of plants. In continuous plants, binder and aggregate mixed in the drum. In batch types binder and aggregate mixed in mixer under the production tower. Production processes will be discussed in Production Processes of Asphalt Plants part (Yonar, 2006). 3. PRODUCTION PROCESSES OF ASPHALT PLANTS 3.1. Batch Type Asphalt Plants Batch types asphalt plants produce one batch of asphalt concrete in one time. Quantity of asphalt concrete is dependent to the capacity of mixer. In todays facilities amount of one batch is about 1800 kg to 7200 kg (Yonar, 2006). Aggregate stored in bunkers is directed to the dryer by conveyor system. Aggregate is dried and heated in dryer and loaded to elevator. By elevator aggregate is carried to the screening unit on the production tower. In screening unit, there are generally 3 to 4 different sized vibratory screens. Aggregate is regrouped and collected in hot bunkers, in the production tower (Yonar, 2006). Stored aggregate in hot bunkers is weighted in a bucket before added to the mixture. Weighing process is done cumulative for each bunker. Than appropriately arranged amount of aggregate is discharged to the mixer. Adequate amount of binder is weighed in another bucket and sprayed to the aggregate in mixer (Asphalt Institute, 2001). In mixer aggregate and binder is mixed by pug mill. In modern plants generally a twinshaft pug mill is used which consists of a lined mixing chamber with two horizontal shafts, on which several cross arms are mounted. At each end of the cross arms is a metal plate, commonly called a mixing paddle. These paddles are adjusted to avoid dead zones in the pug mill. Material level in mixer affects the performance of the product. In both low and high levels of material, mixture will not be uniform (Asphalt Institute, 2001). Another subject that must be discussed under batch type asphalt plants part, is the double unit batch type plants. In double unit types in addition to standard types second dryer, production tower and emission control components are inserted. A standard plant can be converted to a double unit facility. However in construction of the standard facility, site area extension and expected capacity increase must be taken in to consideration. Double unit type plants are enables flexible capacity. If the needed product amount is low then one unit is used. If the demand is increased than the second unit is activated in order to increase the capacity. Different types of mixtures can be produced in one time. 3.2. Continuous Type Asphalt Plants In continuous type plants asphalt concrete is produced in the end part of the dryer or in another drum. This is the comparatively basic production method of asphalt concrete. Dryer used in the continuous type plants looks like the same as in batch type plants. However in batch type, aggregate only heated and dried in the mixer, in continuous type in addition to
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same processes mixture is produced in the dryer. Screens, hot bunkers, weighing buckets and pug mill are not available in continuous types. Gradation of aggregate is controlled by the feeding system (Yonar, 2006). Aggregate directed to the dryer must be in correct gradation because of the screening unit absence. To avoid the performance loss because of the defects on gradation, aggregate must be grouped and stored carefully in facility (Yonar, 2006). In order to mix the materials appropriately in the dryer, amount of aggregate flowing continuously to the mixer must be known. Amount of aggregate may be determined by weighing bridge in the end of the dryer feeding conveyor system. Binder is sprayed to the aggregate proportional to the amount of it. Aggregate is dried and heated in the first part of the dryer, in the second part, binder is sprayed and the asphalt concrete is produced. Storage depots and silos are necessary in continuous types because of the continuous production. 4. CAPACITY AND PERFORMANCE OF PLANTS Asphalt concrete is an expensive construction material. High cost of asphalt concrete is dependent on expensive binder material, high fuel consumption in production process and high investment cost of facilities. Return of the investment takes a long time period (Yonar, 2006). Because of the mentioned causes, plants must be operated in optimum capacity and highest performance. 4.1. Theoretical and Practical Capacity Plants are marketed by their hourly capacity by the producers. These capacities are theoretical and generally calculated in % 5 moisture ratios. A plant must optimize the moisture ratio, altitude of facility and material quality to reach this capacity (Yonar, 2006). 4.2. Low Capacity Effect Ineffectiveness of low capacity can be described as the lower capacity of plant than the construction machines. In this situation, construction team will start to wait asphalt concrete from the plant. Waiting time will be extended cumulatively if the distance between the construction site and facility is taken in to consideration. This situation will cause to form joints in constructing highway (Simge, 2005). 4.3. Logistic and Maintenance Costs Besides the facility and production costs, maintenance and logistic supports have an additional effect on the total costs. All plants need construction machinery, equipment, personnel. Number of personnel in plants with different capacities, are approximately the same. Number of vehicles in the machinery park does not show differences. Furthermore operational and maintenance costs are higher in plants with high capacity (Simge, 2005).

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4.4. Facility Site Area of facility site does not differ in all capacities. Dimensions of production tower, dryer, emission control system may differ by the capacity but this does not affect the total facility area. 4.5. Dryer Capacity Dryers capacity has the highest effect on plants capacity. Aggregate which have not totally removed form moisture cannot be used in asphalt concrete. A dryer which is not appropriate for the plants capacity, will decrease the capacity and increase the fuel consumption. 4.6. High Capacity Effect Quality of product is dependent on stable temperature production. All equipments are on the environmental temperature before the production starts. After the production starts, in a short time period, all equipments reach to the production temperature. Before this stable temperature, quality of the product may be low, for this reason to provide the stable quality plants must not be stopped before the construction is finished (Simge, 2005) (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Product Quality by Time (Simge, 2005) In asphalt plants with high capacity, production will be stopped because of the lower capacity of machinery in the construction site. In this period, equipments will be cooled. When the construction team needs more asphalt concrete, plant will start to produce in low temperature. This will cause the decrease in product quality (Simge, 2005) (Figure 2). Furthermore interruption in the production causes expansion and shrinkage of equipments. This may decrease the deformation period of equipments and dependently the maintenance costs would increase (Simge, 2005). Another cost effective problem in high capacity plants is the large dimensions of equipments, this automatically increases the maintenance costs.

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Figure 2: Quality Loss in High Capacity Asphalt Plants (Simge, 2005) 5. CONCLUSIONS The objective of this study is to evaluate asphalt plants in terms of performance in Turkeys conditions. As in the world, both types of plants are still operating in Turkey. Conclusions obtained from this study are given as follows: 5.1. Storage and Feeding Aggregate storage in continuous type plants needs extra attention than the batch type plants. Defects in aggregate gradation negatively affect the products quality. These problems can be defeated in batch type plants, by the screening unit and hot bunkers. Binder and aggregate can be mixed in exact ratios in batch type plants. In continuous types problems may occur because of continuous feeding of materials. 5.2. Drying and Heating It is known that the opposite flow dryers are more effective than the parallel flow dryers. Otherwise main equipment that affects the capacity of plant is the dryer. The most appropriate dyer must be chosen for the optimum capacity of the plant. 5.3. Production Screening, grouping and collecting processes are repeated in production tower in batch type plants and also cumulative weighing process provides the correct ratio for binder and aggregate. These obtain the increase in production quality. Number of equipments is less than the batch plants in continuous types. This provides the faster warming up of equipments and lower chance of bad quality product.

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5.4. Capacity Capacity of batch plants are up to 300 tons per hour, however the capacity of continuous types may vary up to 450 tons per hour, because of continuous production. As mentioned before, highest capacity is not a solution for the product quality. Highest product quality may be provided by the optimum capacity. Optimum plant capacity in Turkey was 150-200 tons per hour in 1995 (Figure 3). With the developments in construction techniques, optimum capacity is reached to 175-250 tons per hour (Simge, 2005) (Figure 4).

Figure 3: Optimum Plant Capacity for Turkey, 1995 (Simge, 2005)

Figure 4: Optimum Capacity for Turkey, 2005 (Simge, 2005) 5.5. Cost Investment and maintenance costs are higher in batch type plants, because of more components (production tower, screening unit, hot bunkers) (Simge, 2005). Personnel needed for the operation of the plant are the same for two types. Total energy consumption is higher in batch plants. In a general evaluation, Batch types are commonly used in Turkey because of their low defective production method. Continuous types are still used by some public and private companies, for small construction jobs especially in rural areas. Nowadays double unit batch plants started to use to meet the optimum capacity need.

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REFERENCES Asfalt Plenti Alirken, 2005, SIMGE, Bursa. Asfalt ve Uygulamalari, 2001, ISFALT, Secil Ofset, Istanbul. Cesan, Cesan Ltd. Sti., 2005, http://www.cesanltd.com/ Construction of Hot Mix Asphalt Pavements, 2001, Asphalt Institute, Manual Series No: 22, Second Edition. Koenders, B. G.; Stoker, D. A.; Bowen, C.; de Groot, P.; Larsen, O.; Hardy, D. and Wilms, K. P., Innovative Process in Asphalt Production and Application to Obtain Lower Operating Temperatures, 2000, 2nd Eurasphalt & Eurobitume Congress Barcelona Lund, J.W., Wilson J.E., Evaluation of Asphalt Aging in Hot Mix Plants, 1984, Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists Meeting, Arizona. NAPA, National Asphalt Pavement Association, 2005, http://www.hotmix.org/ SIM, Societa Italiana Macchine, 2005, http://www.simammann.it/ Tunc, A., 2004 Kaplama Muhendisligi ve Uygulamalari, Asil Yayin Dagitim Ltd. Sti., Ankara. Umar, F., Agar, E., 1991, Yol Ustyaps, ITU Insaat Fak. Matbaasi, Istanbul. WAPA, 2005, Asphalt Pavement Guide, Washington Asphalt Pavement Association, http://www.asphaltwa.com/pavement_guide/pavement_guide.htm Whiteoak, D., 2004, Shell Bitum El Kitabi, ISFALT. Yonar, F., 2006, Asfalt Plentlerinin Uretim Asamalari ve Performanslari Bakimindan Degerlendirilmesi, Ms. Sc. Thesis, ITU Insaat Muh. Bol., Istanbul.

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Wheel Tracking Performance of Asphalt Concrete Mixture with Conventional and Modified Bitumen
A. F. Nikolaides & E. Manthos
Department of Civil Engineering, Highway Engineering Laboratory, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece

anik@civil.auth.gr

ABSTRACT: Permanent deformation in the form of rutting is one of the basic flexible pavement damage impairing its service life. For a given aggregate gradation the use of appropriate type binder improves the resistance to permanent deformation. The resistance to permanent deformation can be determined in the laboratory by executing the wheel tracking test. The purpose of this study is, firstly, to examine the effect of conventional and modified binder to permanent deformation resistance, on rich and lean mixtures. Secondly, is to examine the effect of employing different procedures of wheel tracking test. In this study, dense asphalt concrete (AC-19) was used with a 50/70 penetration grade bitumen and a 2555/70 SBS modified bitumen. Wheel tracking test was carried out according to BS 598-110 and EN 12697-22. From the results obtained, the beneficial effect of the modified bitumen in resistance to permanent deformation has been proven. As for the use of the BS or EN procedure, in terms of sensitivity of detecting wheel tracking performance, interesting and useful conclusions are drawn. KEY WORDS: Asphalt Concrete, Permanent Deformation, Wheel Tracking Test 1. INTRODUCTION Rutting is one of the well recognized road surface distresses in flexible pavements that can affect the pavement service life and traffic safety. The rutting phenomenon is directly related to the permanent deformation accumulated after each cyclic loading due to traffic. Permanent deformation of bituminous mixtures is dependent upon various factors. One of the most important is the viscoelastic behavior of the mixture. In its turn the viscoelastic behavior of the mixture is dependent on the viscoelastic properties of the binder. Thus, in order to increase the bituminous mixtures resistance to permanent deformation, with respect to its viscoelastic behavior, one should improve the binders properties. In particular, the viscous component of the binder should be reduced, while simultaneously, if possible, to increase the elastic component. This can be done by selecting harder binders or by modifying the original binder, in order to acquire the desired properties. Several additives are used in order to improve the viscoleastic behavior of the binder and consequently of the mixture. Each one has its own advantages and disadvantages. The fact is that, polymer modified binders, in general, enhance the asphalt concretes resistance to permanent deformation. In this study the performance of a dense asphalt concrete mixture in rutting behavior was evaluated. In particular the effect of conventional and modified bitumen on the behavior of the asphalt concrete mixture with high and low percentage of binder, was examined, using
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two types of bitumen; a conventional 50/70 bitumen and an SBS modified bitumen type PmB 25-55/70. The rutting performance of the asphalt concrete mixture was examined by carrying out the wheel tracking test according to BS 598-110 and EN 12697-22, described procedures. The reason for employing both the BS and the EN wheel tracking test procedures, was to determine whether both tests give comparable results. It is noted that the wheel tracking performance of dense asphalt concrete mixtures with conventional, and to a lesser extent with of modified bitumen, has been studied by other researchers in the past, however either the testing procedure was deferent, or the aggregate gradation was different, or the modified bitumen was different, to the ones used in this study (Kandahl and Cooley, 2002a; Kandahl and Cooley, 2002b; Gogula et al., 2003; Lundy and Sandoval-Gil, 2004; SAMARIS, 2006) 2. MATERIALS The materials used for the production of the 19mm AC mixture consisted of crushed limestone aggregate, a 50/70 penetration grade bitumen and a PmB 25-55/70 bitumen, according to EN 14023, modified with SBS additive. The characteristic properties of the aggregates and bitumen used are as shown in Table 1. Table 1: Materials characteristic properties Material Fraction 12.5-25mm 6.3-12.5mm 2.36-12.5mm 0-4.75mm PD: Kg/m3 WA: % Property LA: % FI: %

Aggregate

50/70 Penetration grade bitumen

25-55/70 Modified bitumen

2699 0,2 20 2678 0,3 29 14 2619 0,8 2581 1,2 Penetration (EN 1426) : 66 dmm Softening Point (EN 1427) : 48 oC Penetration Index (EN 12591) : -1.1 Density: (EN 15326) :1.030 gr/cm3 Penetration (EN 1426) : 45 dmm Softening Point (EN 1427) : 74.2 oC Elastic recovery (EN 13398) : 98% Density: (EN 15326) : 1.020 gr/cm3 After TFOT (EN 12607-2) Retained penetration (EN 1426) : 86.1% Difference in softening point (EN 1427): 3.8 oC Elastic recovery (13398) : 87.5%

PD: Particle Density (EN 1097-6), WA:Water Absorption (EN 1097-6) LA: Los Angeles value (ASTM C131), FI: Flakiness Index (BS 812-105)

3. MIX DESIGN AND MARSHALL PROPERTIES 3.1. Aggregate gradation The particle size distribution of the aggregates for the dense Asphalt Concrete mix with maximum nominal size 19 mm (AC-19), used in this study, is as shown in Figure 1. In the same figure the upper and lower limits are shown as proposed by ASTM 3515.
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Figure 2 shows the aggregate gradation raised to the power 0.45 and the Fuller line for maximum density, together with restricted zone, as proposed by Asphalt Institute.

100 90 80 70

75

150 180

300

1,18 500 600m 1,00mm

2,0 2,36

4,0 4,75 6,3

9,5 12,5 19,0 37,5 16,0 20 25 31,5 40 50 63 8,0 10 100.0 91.7

Limits

Passing (%)

Aggregate gradation

67.6

60 50 40 33.7 30 20 10 4.6 0 200 100 80 50 30 16 8 4 1/4 3/8 5/83/4 1 1 1/4 2 1/2 11.8 7.8

50.1

18.9

Sieves

Figure 1: Aggregate gradation for the AC-19 mix used

100 90 80 70 Passing % 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
No.200 No.40 No.80 No 4 3/8" 1/2" 3/4" 1" 0,177 0,42 0,074 2 4,76 9,52 12,5 19 25

Aggregate gradation

Maximum density line

Sieves at 0.45 power

Figure 2: Aggregate gradation for the AC-19 and maximum density line 3.2. Optimum binder content The optimum binder content of the asphalt mixtures was determined by the Marshall method and found to be 4.75% by weight of mix, for the mixture with the 50/70 bitumen and 4.70% by weight of mix for the mixture with the modified bitumen. The volumetric properties of the mixtures at the optimum binder content are as shown in Table 2 and Table 3, respectively. In the same tables, Marshall properties of the mixtures having binder content +0.5% (rich mix) and -0.4% (lean mix) above and below, respectively, the optimum binder content, so as to achieve 3% and 5% air voids, are also shown.
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Table 2: Volumetric properties of AC-19 mixes with 50/70 bitumen Binder content, per weight of mix, % Air Voids, % Marshall stability, KN Flow, mm Voids in mineral aggregate, (VMA) % Voids filled with asphalt, (VFA) % Bulk density of asphalt mix, (kg/m3) 4.75 4.2 9.2 2.5 14.4 71.1 2366 4.35 5.1 9.3 2.5 14.3 64.7 2358 5.25 3.0 8.9 3.0 14.5 79.0 2377

Table 3: Volumetric properties of AC-19 mixes with modified bitumen Binder content, per weight of mix, % Air Voids, % Marshall stability, KN Flow, mm Voids in mineral aggregate, (VMA) % Void filled with asphalt, (VFA) % Bulk density of asphalt mix, (kg/m3) 4.70 4.2 13.3 2.6 14.1 71.0 2373 4.30 5.2 14.4 2.9 14.7 64.1 2348 5.20 2.9 11.6 3.3 14.2 79.8 2384

4. PRODUCTION OF SLAB SPECIMENS AND WHEEL TRACKING TEST 4.1. Production of slab specimens Slab specimens produced at the two binder contents mentioned previously, i.e +0.5 and -0.4 above and below the optimum content, for 50/70 bitumen and modified binder. These four mixtures will be labeled from now on as AC-5.25 and AC-4.35 for the mixtures with the 50/70 bitumen and ACm-5.20 and ACm-4.30 for the mixtures with the modified bitumen. Sufficient number of slabs was compacted at 97% degree of compaction, with respect to the density at 5.25 and 4.75 binder contents. The size of every slab was 305mm in length by 305mm in width. The thicknesses of the slabs were either 50mm or 60mm so to conform to the BS and EN requirements. Compaction was carried out by a roller compactor with a smooth steel roller according to EN 12697-33. Compaction temperature was 1403 for the mixtures with the 50/70 bitumen and 1503 for the mixtures with the modified bitumen. The total number of slab specimens produced in this study was 32. This number of slab specimens was derived by applying the requirements of BS and EN relevant specifications 4.2. Wheel tracking test conditions The conditions of the wheel tracking test were as prescribed in BS 598-110 and EN 12697-22, Procedure B (in air). The test was performed, using a small size device with samples conditioned in air, see Figure 3.

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5. TEST RESULTS 5.1. Volumetric properties of slab specimens The volumetric properties of the slab specimens are as shown in Table 4. It must be noted that the values shown are the average of eight (8) specimens per type of mix.

Figure 3: Wheel tracking test device, small size Table 4: Volumetric properties of the specimens tested Mixture AC-4.35 AC-5.25 ACm-4.30 ACm-5.20 Degree of compaction Bulk density (kg/m3) 2287 2305 2278 2312 Voids VMA (%) (%) 8.0 6.0 8.3 5.8 16.9 17.1 17.2 16.8 VFA (%) 53.0 64.8 52.0 66.1

97 %

5.2. Permanent deformation characteristic properties The permanent deformation characteristic properties according to BS 598-110 are the wheel tracking rate and wheel tracking depth. Alternatively the permanent deformation characteristic properties according to EN 12697-22, Procedure B (in air) are the wheel tracking slope and proportional rut depth. All tests were carried out at 45 oC, for comparison reasons, since this temperature is mandatory according to BS procedure. The results obtained in this study in relation to permanent deformation characteristics, are as shown in Tables 5 and 6, respectively.

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Table 5: Average wheel tracking rate and rut depth using the BS 598-110 specification Mixture AC-4.35 AC-5.25 AC-4.30m AC-5.20m Degree of compaction Wheel tracking rate: mm/h 1.1 1.4 0.5 0.5 Wheel tracking depth: mm o 45 C 3.2 3.8 1.8 2.0

97 %

Table 6: Average wheel tracking rate and rut depth using the EN 12697-22 specification Degree of compaction Wheel tracking slope: mm/103cycles 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.1 Rut depth: mm 45oC 5.5 6.1 2.5 2.8 Proportional rut depth: % 9.2 10.2 4.2 4.7

Mixture AC-4.35 AC-5.25 AC-4.30m AC-5.20m 6. DISCUSSION

97 %

6.1. Results obtained by the BS procedure Statistical analysis was carried out on the characteristic properties of permanent deformation in order to examine the significance of each factor involved. In the statistical analysis, the independent samples t-test method, with 95% confidence level was used. Prior to this, the normal distribution of results was examined and verified. 6.1.1. The effect of binder content The effect of binder content on the wheel tracking results after statistical analysis is as shown in Table 7. Table 7: Significance analysis of results with respect to binder content Mixture AC-4.35 AC-5.25 AC-4.30m AC-5.20m
NS: Non Significant

Degree of compaction

Wheel tracking rate: mm/h N.S

Wheel tracking depth: mm o 45 C N.S N.S

97 % N.S

As it can be seen, from Table 7, the effect of the binder variation was non significant in relation to the wheel tracking rate and rut depth. Thus, it can be concluded that rich and lean mixtures show similar wheel tracking rates and wheel tracking depths.
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6.1.2. The effect of binder type The effect of binder type on the wheel tracking results after statistical analysis is as shown in Table 8. As it can be seen, from Table 8, the effect of binder type was significant in relation to the wheel tracking rate and rut depth. Therefore, the values of wheel tracking rate and wheel tracking depth shown in Table 6 obtained with the use of the modified bitumen are significantly lower than those with 50/70 penetration grate binder. Table 8: Significance analysis of results with respect to binder type Mixture AC-4.35 AC-4.30m AC-5.25 AC-5.20m Degree of compaction Wheel tracking rate: Wheel tracking mm/h depth: mm o 45 C S 97 % S S S

S: Significant

6.2. Results obtained by EN procedure Statistical analysis, similar to the one carried out on the results obtained by BS procedure was not possible due to small number of specimens. For this reason the discussion of the results obtained by the EN procedure will be based on the categorization of the asphalt concrete mixtures with respect to the wheel tracking slope and the proportional rut depth. These two parameters are used by EN 13108-1 to classify the asphalt concrete mixtures with respect to their rutting performance. Based on the results shown in Table 6 the mixtures with respect to their wheel tracking parameters are classified as shown in Table 9. Table 9: Categorization of mixtures according to EN-13108-1 Degree of compaction Wheel tracking slope: mm/103cycles WTSAIR 0.30 WTSAIR 0.30 WTSAIR 0.10 WTSAIR 0.10 Rut depth: mm 45oC 5.5 6.1 2.5 2.8 Proportional Rut depth: %

Mixture AC-4.35 AC-5.25 AC-4.30m AC-5.20m

97 %

PRD> PRDAIR 9.0 PRD> PRDAIR 9.0 PRDAIR 5.0 PRDAIR 5.0

6.2.1. The effect of binder content As it can be seen from Table 9, for lean and rich mixtures of the same binder type, the category of wheel tracking slope and wheel tracking depth is unchanged, despite the variation in the binder content.

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6.2.2. The effect of binder type As it can be seen from Table 9, the mixtures with modified bitumen have distinctively better permanent deformation parameters in comparison to the ones with conventional binder. 6.2. Acceptability of mixes Generally, the purpose of running the wheel tracking test is to determine whether the design mix will have satisfactory rutting performance in situ. The only limiting values of wheel tracking properties for asphalt concrete mixtures when the test is carried out by a small device wheel tracking machine in air, are those proposed by Highways Agency. These values with respect to stressed sites are as shown in Table 10. Table 10: Limiting wheel tracking requirements for site classifications Classification No. Description 1. Moderate to heavily stressed sites requiring high rut resistance 2. Very heavily stressed sites requiring very high rut resistance 3. Other sites Test temperature C 45 60 No Requirement Requirements when tested to BS 598-110 Max rut rate Max rut depth mm/h mm 2 5 4 7 -

No limiting values have been yet proposed, for the EN specifications. The engineer has to specify, out of his experience, the required wheel tracking characteristics (wheel tracking slope and proportional rut depth) in terms of eleven (11) and seven (7) categories specified, respectively. Therefore, the acceptability of the mixtures can only be judged by the results obtained by BS procedure. Based on the results of this study, when wheel tracking test was carried out by BS procedure, all mixtures irrespective of binder content and type of binder, are acceptable for moderate to heavily stressed sites, considering that the test was carried out at 45C. Looking at the results obtained by carrying out the test according to EN procedure, it can clearly be said that the behavior of the mixtures in permanent deformation is distinct, as the type of binder varies. The mixtures with the 50/70 penetration grade bitumen are classified outside the categories for permissible maximum proportional rut depth. This can be translated as these mixtures been unacceptable for any traffic site. On the contrary, the mixtures with modified bitumen, irrespective of binder content, are classified as WTS AIR 0.10 and PRDAIR 5.0. 7. CONCLUSIONS Based on the results obtained in this study, for the asphalt concrete mixtures and the variables considered, the following useful conclusions can be drawn:

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1. The effect of binder content, which resulted in air voids variation (3% and 5%), to the permanent deformation behavior, when testing was performed with BS 598-110, was non significant among asphalt concrete mixtures of the same binder type. 2. The effect of binder type (modified or 50/70) between asphalt concrete mixtures with the same air binder content, to the permanent deformation behavior, when testing was performed with BS 598-110, was significant. 3. When testing was performed with EN 12697-22, Procedure B (in air), asphalt concrete mixtures with 50/70 penetration grade bitumen or modified bitumen showed no change in category for wheel tracking slope and wheel tracking depth, with respect to their binder content. 4. The effect of variation of binder type, 50/70 or modified bitumen, to rutting performance could be seen when testing was carried out either in accordance with EN 12697-22, Procedure B (in air), or in accordance with BS 598-110. 5. The asphalt concrete mixtures with 50/70 penetration grade bitumen, when tested in accordance with EN procedure, gave worse rutting performance than the mixtures with PmB 25-55/70 bitumen. 6. The rutting performance of these asphalt concrete mixtures when judged by BS procedure may lead to erroneous results, since all mixtures are acceptable according to the limiting proposed values. 7. EN 12697-22, Procedure B (in air) testing procedure detects better the effect of binder type used in asphalt concrete mixtures to their rutting performance, since the characteristic properties change category. In review of the above, it is believed that studies are urgently needed in order to determine limiting values on rutting parameters for asphalt concrete mixtures, when the test is carried out according to EN 12697-22, as well as, to review the existing limiting values proposed by Highway Agency. It is also recommended that the limiting values to be determined to refer not only to stressed or traffic volume sites, but also to temperature zones (North, Central, South Europe). REFERENCES Asphalt Institute, 2001. Superpave Mix Design, Superpave Series No.2 (SP-2), 3rd Edition. ASTM C131, 2006. Test method for Resistance to degradation of small-size coarse aggregate by abrasion and impact in the Los Angeles machine. ASTM 3515, 2001. Standard specification for Hot-mixed, Hot-laid bituminous paving mixtures. BS 598-110, 1998. Sampling and examination of bituminous mixtures for roads and other paved areas-Part 110: Methods of test for the determination of wheel-tracking rate and depth. British Standards Institution, London. BS 812-105, 1989. Testing aggregates-Part 105: Section 105.1, Flakiness index. British Standards, Institution, London. EN 1097-6, 2000. Tests for mechanical and physical properties of aggregates-Part 6: Determination of particle density and water absorption. CEN, Brussels. EN 1426, 2007. Bitumen and bituminous binders-Determination of needle penetration. CEN, Brussels. EN 1427, 2007. Bitumen and bituminous binders-Determination of softening point-Ring and Ball method. CEN Brussels. EN 12591, 2009. Bitumen and bituminous binders - Specifications for paving grade bitumens, Annex A. CEN, Brussels.
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EN 12607-2, 2007. Bitumen and bituminous binders-Determination of the resistance to hardening under the influence of heat and air-Part 2:TFOT Method. CEN, Brussels. EN 12697-6, 2003+A1, 2007. Bituminous mixtures-Test methods for hot mix asphalt-Part 6: Determination of bulk density of bituminous specimen. CEN, Brussels. EN 12697-8, 2003. Bituminous mixtures-Test methods for hot mix asphalt-Part 8: Determination of void characteristics of bituminous specimens. CEN, Brussels. EN 12697-22, 2003+A1, 2007. Bituminous mixtures-Test methods for hot mix asphalt-Part 22: Wheel tracking, CEN, Brussels. EN 12697-33, 2003+A1, 2007. Bituminous mixtures-Test methods for hot mix asphalt-Part 22: Specimen prepared by roller compactor, CEN, Brussels. EN 13108-1, 2006. Bituminous mixtures-Material specifications-Part 1: Asphalt Concrete, CEN, Brussels. EN 13398, 2003 (2010). Bitumen and bituminous binders-Determination of the elastic recovery of modified bitumen, CEN, Brussels. EN 14023, 2005 (2010). Bitumen and bituminous binders-Framework specification for polymer modified bitumens, CEN, Brussels. EN 15326, 2007+A1, 2009. Bitumen and bituminous binders-Measurement of density and specific gravity-Capillary-stoppered pyknometer method, CEN, Brussels. Gogula, A.; Buyer, J. and Romanoschi, S., 2003. Effect of PG binder grade and source on performance of Superpave mixtures under Hamburg wheel tester. Proceedings of the 2003 Mid-Continent Transport Research Symposium, Ames, Iowa. Highways Agency-MCHW, 2008. Volume 2, Notes for guidance on the specification for highway works-Series NG 900: Road pavements-Bituminous bound materials. Department of Transport, London. Kandhal, P. S. and Cooley, L. A., 2002a. Evaluation of permanent deformation of asphalt mixtures using loaded wheel tester. National Center of Asphalt Technology (NCAT) Report 02-08, Auburn University, Auburn. Kandhal, P.S. and Cooley, L.A., 2002b. Coarse versus fine graded superpave mixtures: Comparitive evaluation of resistance to rutting. National Center of Asphalt Technology (NCAT) Report 02-02, Auburn University, Auburn. Lundy, J. R. and Sandoval-Gil, J. A., 2004. Permanent deformation characteristics of Oregon mixes using asphalt pavement analyzer. Final Report SPR 340. Federal Highway Administration, Washington D.C. SAMARIS, 2006. Permanent deformation of bituminous materials in flexible pavements: Evaluation of test methods and prediction models. SAM-05-D28.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Analysis of Full Scale Test Data to Study the Load Transfer Efficiency of Rigid Airfield Pavement Joints
A. Wadkar, W. Kettleson, L. Musumeci, A. Zapata
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rowan University, New Jersey, USA wadkar37@students.rowan.edu; kettle99@students.rowan.edu; musume66@students.rowan.edu, zapata11@students.rowan.edu

Y. Mehta & D. Cleary

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rowan University, New Jersey, USA mehta@rowan.edu; cleary@rowan.edu

ABSTRACT: The ability of a joint to transmit part of applied load from loaded slab to adjacent unloaded slab is termed as joint load transfer efficiency. Field measurement of load transfer efficiency includes computation of ratio of unloaded slab deflection to loaded slab deflection. Falling weight deflectometer (FWD) generally serves the purpose of measurement of deflections. The sum of deflections (SD) parameter on the two sides of joint has recently gained importance due to its capability to estimate slab curling and insensitivity to load transfer efficiency of joints. The data collected during construction cycle 2 (CC2) initiated at Federal Aviation Administrations (FAA) National Airport Pavement Test Facility (NAPTF) provides a useful resource to understand the load transfer efficiency concept based on deflection and stresses. Analysis of the FWD data collected during full scale testing of airfield pavement is presented in this paper. Strain gage data obtained from the concrete strain gages during the slow rolling tests is also used in the analysis. The load transfer efficiency based on stresses and deflections and the sum of deflections or strains parameter is analyzed for the test section with varying layer configuration and direction of load transfer mechanism. The results demonstrated the significance of dowelled joints in uniform load transfer in two directions across the joints. In addition, the parameter SD was found to be insensitive to the load transfer efficiency and almost remained a constant as anticipated for a flat slab case. The stress based load transfer efficiency and sum of strains parameter was also found to be independent of the pavement base layer configurations. KEY WORDS: Rigid airfield pavement, Load transfer, Federal Aviation Administration. 1. INTRODUCTION The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) operates a state-of-the-art, full-scale pavement test facility dedicated solely to airport pavement research. Located at the William J. Hughes Technical Center near Atlantic City, New Jersey, the National Airport Pavement Test Facility (NAPTF) provides high quality, accelerated test data from rigid and flexible pavements subjected to simulated aircraft traffic. The test facility is a fully enclosed instrumented test track, 900 feet long and 60 feet wide. The rail-based test vehicle has two loading carriages
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and can be configured for up to six wheels per carriage with loads up to 75000 pounds per wheel. The test vehicle is programmed for a controlled aircraft wander simulation. 1.1. Overview of CC1 The construction cycle 1 (CC1) consisted of 3 rigid pavement test items and 4 flexible pavement test items constructed over varying strengths of subgrades: Low Strength Subgrade (LRS), Medium Strength Subgrade (MRS) and High Strength Subgrade (HRS) (www.airtech.tc.faa.gov/NAPTF/). However, the scope of this paper is limited to rigid pavement test items. The concrete slab size was 20 ft by 20 ft and the slab thickness was 11 inches over LRS, 9.75 inches over MRS and, 9 inches over HRS. A large amount of curling in these slabs was observed and its causes were related to excessive drying shrinkage and large vertical moisture gradient in the slab in combination with thicknesses and mix prone to moisture shrinkage (Hayhoe, 2004). Trafficking on CC1 started in February 2000 with all of test items loaded at 45000 lbs per wheel. Distresses were observed unexpectedly early as during the first wander. The test was stopped and the distresses were analyzed to discover some major findings. All the slabs of HRS and MRS showed major cracking while only the central slabs of LRS cracked during the first 28 passes. Because of unsatisfactory results from CC1, new construction cycle CC2 was initiated. 1.2. Overview of CC2 test items The test items of CC2 consisted of three rigid pavements constructed on conventional base (MRC), on grade (MRG) and on stabilized Econocrete base (MRS). A medium strength subgrade of CBR value 7 was adopted. Each test item was 75 feet long and 60 feet wide, comprising of 20 slabs of size 15 feet x 15 feet. Thickness of slabs was 12 inches. The slabs were designed such that, in the inner lanes, they would be connected with steel dowels on all four sides. The slabs in the outer lanes were doweled on three sides, leaving only the free outer edges non-doweled (NAPTF). Curling of test slabs was limited to around 20 mils or less (Hayhoe, 2004). During CC2 slow rolling tests, the north carriage was trafficked with a 6wheel loading gear while the south carriage was trafficked with a 4-wheel loading gear. The tire pressure was same and of the order 220 psi with each wheel carrying a load of 55000 lbs. Trafficking was carried out until all the slabs failed and significant data was collected to update the failure model used in FAAs thickness design procedure. In addition to the trafficking tests, falling weight deflectometer testing was also conducted for computation of load transfer efficiencies of joints. The concept of load transfer is very important and fundamental to Federal Aviation Administrations (FAA) rigid pavement thickness design procedure which is explained in the next section. 2. LOAD TRANSFER EFFICIENCY The FAA procedure assumes 25% of stress applied to the edge is transferred to the adjoining slab. The value of 0.25 or 25% for stress based load transfer efficiency [LTE (S)] was based upon the findings of US Army Corps of Engineers from the testing conducted at Lockbourne Army field, Ohio in early 1940s (Ahlvin, 1991; Hammons et al.,1995). Thus a joint can be said to effectively reduce the edge stresses of a loaded slab by 25% as compared to a free edge loading case.

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Deflection based load transfer efficiency is defined as,

(1)

Where, unloaded and loaded are the deflections of unloaded and loaded slabs respectively. Stress based load transfer efficiency can be defined as follows, Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) definition: (2) Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) definition: (3) Where denotes the bending stresses and denotes the corresponding strains assuming the modulus of elasticity of concrete remains the same. The above definition of LTE has been extensively used in pavement load transfer evaluation and load transfer efficiency modeling techniques in past (Huang and Wang, 1973; Tabatabaie and Barenberg, 1978; Nishizawa et al, 1989; Ioannides and Korovesis, 1992; Guo et al., 1995). However, the sum of deflections (SD) parameter on the two sides of joint has recently gained importance due to its capability to estimate slab curling and insensitivity to LTE of joints (Guo, 2001). It is of more interest to evaluate the use of SD parameter as an indicator of slab curling based on available test data. 3. ANALYSIS OF FWD DATA FROM CC1 From a past study (Guo and Marsey, 2002) on CC1 at NAPTF, it has been found from the FWD data that the calculated [LTE ()] could be very different when the FWD loading is applied on both sides of the joints, indicating that LTE () may be sensitive to the traffic direction. However, the sum of above two deflections (SDs) still remains almost the same for both traffic directions. It was also found that the SDs varied significantly from summer to winter, or it is sensitive to the curling state of the slab. The longitudinal joints at CC1 were dowelled while the transverse joints were saw-cut. The FWD testing was conducted at both longitudinal as well as transverse joints in June 1999 and October 1999 during CC1 for LRS, MRS and HRS. Comparison of loaded side deflections (deflection under FWD load) indicated that mean loaded deflections at transverse and longitudinal joints were similar. This was attributed to the fact that joint had not been completely cracked at that time. However, all loaded deflection values measure in October and later were much larger than the values observed in June. The difference between the loaded deflection values in June and October was greater for transverse joints than for longitudinal joints. This finding supported the fact that dowelled joints provide relatively better load transfer especially in winter after the joints are cracked. The corners of the CC1 pavement were also tested and the deflection values under the FWD load-plate were found to be higher than those at the joints. In winter, this difference became more significant indicating the different degree of slab curling. In addition, highest curling was observed for HRS (strongest subgrade). Comparison of LTE () indicated that load transfer across transverse
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joints (saw-cut) was higher or equal to those of the longitudinal joints (dowelled) for testing done in June. However, for testing done in October, the LTE () was much lower as compared to that in June and the difference was more significant for the saw-cut joints. It was believed that the lower temperature in October and later led all joints to be cracked which significantly reduced the load transfer capability for the transverse joints (saw-cut) while the load transfer capability of the longitudinal joints were still relatively high through the dowels. Hammons et al. (1997) suggests the use of following formula for a two-slab system from the theory of statics. loaded + unloaded = e (2) Where e is the load induced deflection at a joint edge when the joint load transfer capability is zero. It is often called as the free edge deflection. The above equation can also be extended to bending stresses on the loaded and unloaded side of a joint which is shown below. (3) loaded + unloaded = e Where loaded, unloaded, e are the maximum bending stresses in the loaded slab, unloaded slab and at the free edge respectively. The above relationships have been theoretically proved in Guo (2003) and it is further mentioned that the relation is true only for flat slab condition. The analysis of FWD data from CC1 at NAPTF indicated that the measured sum of two deflections (SD) on two sides of dummy joints increase proportionally to the slab curling but are insensitive to the joint LTE () (Guo, 2001). In addition, although the values of LTE () were found to be significantly different in two directions across the joints, the values of SD varied much less. The SD was found to be sensitive only to curling of slabs. Higher SDs was observed for slabs with higher curling which was for HRS in case of CC1. In this paper, data from CC2 is analyzed to understand the importance of parameter SD. In addition, the data from slow rolling tests has been analyzed to determine the stress based load transfer efficiency. Both FAA and FHWA definitions have been used for computation of stress based LTE. The deflection ratio is compared to the stress ratio for determining the impact of two definitions on the understanding of load transfer efficiency concept. 4. ANALYSIS OF FWD DATA FROM CC2 Periodic heavy weight deflectometer (HWD) testing, using a KUAB model 240, was carried out on CC2 test items with an objective of investigation material properties and track the pavement deterioration concurrent to trafficking (Ricalde, 2007). The first among the series was primarily aimed at determining back-calculation of layer properties which was conducted before loading the pavement. Deflection data from HWD tests conducted at NAPTF during CC2 was analyzed to compute the ratio of deflections and determine LTE () of transverse and longitudinal joints in addition to computation of SDs. The slabs were numbered sequentially from west to east starting from north-west corner of MRC and ending with south-east corner of MRS. Thus the slabs were tagged with number 1 to 20 for MRC, 21 to 40 for MRG and 41 to 60 for MRS. Figure 1 shows the numbering of slabs for all three test items in MRC/MRG/MRS format. The first test among the series of HWD tests was primarily directed for back-calculation of layer properties which was conducted before loading the pavement. In this paper, only the first HWD test program is analyzed. Testing was carried out at longitudinal joints, transverse joints and slab center locations. Proper curing and quality control of the CC2 test items was conducted and curling was almost negligible (Hayhoe, 2004). Table 1 summarizes the loaded and unloaded deflections with LTE () and SD computation for MRC. The drop locations are denoted by a specific code comprising of Joint (longitudinal or transverse)/ Slab number. For example, L/4

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indicates that the load is dropped at the center of longitudinal joint on the slab number 4. Similarly, T/28 would indicate that the load is dropped at the center of transverse joint with slab number 28. The remark column indicates the direction of load transfer: East to West (E to W) or West to East (W to E) for transverse joint and North to South (N to S) or South to North (S to N) for longitudinal joints.

1/21/41 North Carriage 6/26/46

2/22/42 3/23/43 TJ1 7/27/47

4/24/44

5/25/45

TJ2 8/28/48 9/29/49 10/30/50

South Carriage

11/31/51 12/32/52 13/33/53 14/34/54 15/35/55 TJ3 TJ4 16/36/56 17/37/57 18/38/58 19/39/59 20/40/60

Figure 1: Typical plan view of CC2 test items with slab numbers Table 1: Results of HWD data analysis for test item MRC
Drop Location T/10 T/9 T/9 T/8 T/8 T/7 T/7 T/6 T/15 T/14 T/14 T/13 T/13 T/12 T/12 T/11 L/4 L/9 L/3 L/8 L/2 L/7 L/14 L/19 L/13 L/18 L/12 L/17 Drop weight (lbs) 36821 37066 36859 36732 36770 36872 36795 36884 37164 37075 37037 37126 37241 37164 36859 36795 36897 36681 36858 36883 36947 36566 36693 36846 36732 36668 36770 36846 Loaded Unloaded LTE () Deflection Deflection (mils) (mils) TRANSVERSE JOINTS 14.54 12.04 0.83 14.48 12.56 0.86 15.30 12.57 0.82 15.85 12.99 0.82 15.19 11.74 0.77 15.25 12.10 0.79 15.30 12.18 0.79 14.70 12.56 0.85 15.36 12.15 0.79 14.70 12.83 0.87 15.47 11.99 0.76 15.08 12.45 0.83 15.36 12.57 0.82 14.92 13.15 0.88 16.89 13.04 0.77 17.22 13.15 0.76 LONGITUDINAL JOINTS 16.84 15.41 0.92 16.95 16.01 0.94 16.35 15.36 0.94 16.78 15.91 0.95 15.58 14.61 0.94 17.50 16.47 0.94 16.84 15.96 0.95 16.29 14.97 0.92 16.51 15.45 0.94 17.39 15.96 0.92 18.10 16.74 0.92 16.51 15.30 0.93 Remark E to W W to E E to W W to E E to W W to E E to W W to E E to W W to E E to W W to E E to W W to E E to W W to E N to S S to N N to S S to N N to S S to N N to S S to N N to S S to N N to S S to N SD (mils) 26.58 27.04 27.87 28.84 26.93 27.35 27.48 27.26 27.51 27.53 27.46 27.53 27.93 28.07 29.93 30.37 32.25 32.96 31.71 32.69 30.19 33.97 32.80 31.26 31.96 33.35 34.84 31.81 Ratio of high to low values LTE 1.04 1.00 1.03 1.08 1.10 1.09 1.07 1.01 1.02 1.01 1.00 1.03 1.02 1.01 SD 1.02 1.03 1.02 1.01 1.00 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.02 1.03 1.13 1.05 1.04 1.10

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From the above table the average LTE () for transverse joints and longitudinal joints was computed to be 0.81 and 0.93 respectively. The average SD was 27.86 mils for transverse joints and 32.48 mils for longitudinal joints. The standard deviation of SD for transverse and longitudinal joints was 1.03 and 1.24 respectively. The coefficient of variation in SD was 3.69 % and 3.82 % for transverse and longitudinal joints respectively. Table 2 summarizes the loaded and unloaded deflections with LTE () and SD computation for MRG. Table 2: Results of HWD data analysis for test item MRG
Drop Location T/30 T/29 T/29 T/28 T/28 T/27 T/27 T/26 T/35 T/34 T/34 T/33 T/33 T/32 T/32 T/31 L/24 L/29 L/23 L/28 L/22 L/27 L/34 L/39 L/33 L/38 L/32 L/37 Drop weight (lbs) 36974 36910 36897 36884 36961 37025 37063 37025 37509 37305 37292 37253 37356 37202 37228 37190 36706 36719 36896 36884 36808 36921 36884 36973 37075 37024 36795 36973 Loaded Unloaded Deflection Deflection LTE () (mils) (mils) TRANSVERSE JOINTS 11.3 9.31 0.82 11.41 9.99 0.88 11.41 9.61 0.84 11.3 9.94 0.88 11.3 9.53 0.84 11.13 9.99 0.90 11.19 9.67 0.86 11.35 10.13 0.89 12.45 10.69 0.86 12.62 10.78 0.85 12.12 9.56 0.79 12.01 10.53 0.88 11.24 9.86 0.88 11.74 9.97 0.85 11.9 10.14 0.85 11.96 10.61 0.89 LONGITUDINAL JOINTS 13.16 12.07 0.92 12.23 11.42 0.93 12.29 11.16 0.91 13.00 12.21 0.94 13.27 12.18 0.92 12.78 11.88 0.93 14.32 13.12 0.92 13.16 11.88 0.90 12.95 12.15 0.94 13.77 12.46 0.90 14.04 12.83 0.91 13.00 11.96 0.92 Remark SD (mils) 20.61 21.40 21.02 21.24 20.83 21.12 20.86 21.48 23.14 23.40 21.68 22.54 21.10 21.71 22.04 22.57 25.23 23.65 23.45 25.21 25.45 24.66 27.44 25.04 25.10 26.23 26.87 24.96 Ratio of high to low values LTE E to W W to E E to W W to E E to W W to E E to W W to E E to W W to E E to W W to E E to W W to E E to W W to E N to S S to N N to S S to N N to S S to N N to S S to N N to S S to N N to S S to N 1.07 1.03 1.07 1.03 1.01 1.11 1.03 1.05 SD 1.04 1.01 1.04 1.03 1.01 1.04 1.03 1.03

1.01 1.03 1.01 1.02 1.04 1.01

1.07 1.08 1.03 1.10 1.05 1.08

From the above table the average LTE () for transverse joints and transverse joints was computed to be 0.86 and 0.92 respectively. The average SD was 21.67 mils for transverse joints and 25.27 mils for longitudinal joints. The standard deviation of SD for transverse and longitudinal joints was 0.84 and 1.16 respectively. The coefficient of variation in SD was 3.88 % and 4.59 % for transverse and longitudinal joints respectively. Table 3 summarizes the loaded and unloaded deflections with LTE () and SD computation for MRS.

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Table 3: Results of HWD data analysis for test item MRS

Drop Location T/50 T/49 T/49 T/48 T/48 T/47 T/47 T/46 T/55 T/54 T/54 T/53 T/53 T/52 T/52 T/51 L/44 L/49 L/43 L/48 L/42 L/47 L/54 L/59 L/53 L/58 L/52 L/57 Drop weight (lbs) 36425 36361 36208 36527 36451 36489 36540 36387 36451 36515 36541 36451 36413 36451 36337 36464 36463 36630 36591 36374 36489 36335 36553 36642 36349 36426 36553 36426 Loaded Unloaded Deflection Deflection LTE () (mils) (mils) TRANSVERSE JOINTS 12.29 8.34 0.68 13.00 8.78 0.68 12.45 9.06 0.73 12.95 8.16 0.63 11.63 8.92 0.77 12.34 8.83 0.72 13.49 8.09 0.60 13.33 9.16 0.69 11.74 7.98 0.68 11.57 8.34 0.72 11.85 8.76 0.74 12.4 8.83 0.71 11.85 8.59 0.72 11.63 9.48 0.82 13.22 8.53 0.65 13.71 9.10 0.66 LONGITUDINAL JOINTS 11.63 10.72 0.92 12.23 11.37 0.93 12.23 11.27 0.92 12.73 11.77 0.92 11.68 10.63 0.91 12.67 11.61 0.92 11.35 10.59 0.93 10.86 9.78 0.90 12.62 11.59 0.92 12.29 11.27 0.92 12.12 11.45 0.94 11.35 10.39 0.92 Remark SD (mils) 20.63 21.78 21.51 21.11 20.55 21.17 21.58 22.49 19.72 19.91 20.61 21.23 20.44 21.11 21.75 22.81 22.35 23.60 23.50 24.50 22.31 24.28 21.94 20.64 24.21 23.56 23.57 21.74 Ratio of high to low values LTE E to W W to E E to W W to E E to W W to E E to W W to E E to W W to E E to W W to E E to W W to E E to W W to E N to S S to N N to S S to N N to S S to N N to S S to N N to S S to N N to S S to N 1.00 1.16 1.07 1.15 1.06 1.04 1.14 1.02 SD 1.06 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.01 1.03 1.03 1.05

1.01 1.00 1.01 1.03 1.00 1.02

1.06 1.04 1.09 1.06 1.03 1.08

From the above table the average LTE () for transverse joints and transverse joints was computed to be 0.86 and 0.92 respectively. The average SD was 21.15 mils for transverse joints and 23.02 mils for longitudinal joints. The standard deviation of SD for transverse and longitudinal joints was 0.84 and 1.19 respectively. The coefficient of variation in SD was 3.97 % and 5.17 % for transverse and longitudinal joints respectively. The table also shows the ratio of high and low values of LTE () and SD in two directions across a joint. An average value for the ratio of high to low values of LTE () was 1.04, 1.04, 1.05 for MRC, MRG and MRS respectively indicating uniform load transfer in the two directions. However, the average ratios between high and low value of LTE () for three test sections of construction cycle 1 (CC1) on low-strength subgrade, medium-strength subgrade and high-strength subgrade at NAPTF was 1.37, 1.67 and 1.47 respectively (Guo, 2001). The different behavior of CC2 and CC1 joints was due to different joint configurations. As mentioned before, transverse joints at CC2 were dowelled while CC1 joints were saw-cut. The variance in the values of parameter SD was very insignificant which can be anticipated for flat slabs as was the case for the CC2 test items. It is important to note that LTE () and SD values for longitudinal joints were higher than those for transverse joints although the joint configuration was the same.
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The stress based load transfer efficiency LTE (S) can be calculated based on the slow rolling wheel tests conducted during CC2. The next section summarizes the analysis of strain gage data for computation of LTE (S). 5. ANALYSIS OF STRAIN GAGE DATA FROM CC2 Slow rolling tests were conducted on CC2 test items from April through December 2004. The pavement was trafficked using a 4-wheel and a 6-wheel loading gear with a wheel load of 55000 lbs/wheel. The speed of the vehicle was 2.5 mph. The wheel position when the entire gear was on one side of the joints with moving direction towards the joint was considered in this analysis. Position 1 is referred to as when the wheels were on left side of the joint while position 2 is when the wheels were on the right side of the joint. Strain gages were installed in the test pavement at a distance of 3 inches on either side of the transverse joints highlighted in figure 1 (TJ1, TJ2, TJ3, TJ4). The gages were located at the center of highlighted transverse joints. From the tables below, it becomes clear that sum of loaded and unloaded stresses is almost the same irrespective of the pavement layer configuration. No significant variation in the strain values on the loaded and unloaded slabs were observed. The above finding demonstrates that the stresses in PCC slab are less governed by the pavement layers or presence of base (stabilized/ un-stabilized) as long as the thickness of PCC slab and loading parameters remain the same. Moreover, the sum of strains on either sides of the joint almost remained a constant. Average sum of strains in the slabs on two sides of a joint was 0.099 for MRC, 0.090 for MRG and 0.096 for MRS which was almost similar as anticipated from past discussions for a flat slab condition. The ratio of high and low values of sum of strains in two directions considered was also close to 1 indicating that vehicle position or moving direction has no influence on the sum of strains or stress parameter. It is interesting to note that the two definitions (FHWA and FAA) of stress based load transfer efficiency yield very different trends. Based on the FAA definition, the average stress based load transfer efficiency was equal in the two directions as well as almost similar for all three test items. However, based on FHWA definition, the stress based load transfer efficiency showed a significant variation in the two directions and an average LTE (S) of 0.84, 0.84 and 0.96 was obtained for MRC, MRG and MRS respectively. The stress based load transfer efficiency under moving loads was also found to be significantly higher than the 25% assumption used in the FAA thickness design procedures. Table 4: Results of strain gage data analysis for test item MRC Joint TJ1 TJ1 TJ2 TJ2 TJ3 TJ3 TJ4 TJ4 Position 1
0.055 0.055 0.053 0.053 0.056 0.055 0.061 0.060 0.044 0.046 0.042 0.045 0.042 0.046 0.043 0.048 0.80 0.84 0.79 0.85 0.75 0.84 0.70 0.80 0.45 0.46 0.44 0.46 0.43 0.46 0.42 0.45 0.099 0.101 0.095 0.098 0.098 0.101 0.104 0.108 0.048 0.049 0.050 0.051 0.052 0.051 0.064 0.061 0.048 0.049 0.047 0.051 0.044 0.044 0.042 0.043

Position 2
1.00 1.00 0.94 1.00 0.85 0.86 0.66 0.70 0.51 0.50 0.48 0.50 0.46 0.47 0.40 0.41 0.096 0.098 0.097 0.102 0.096 0.095 0.106 0.104

loaded unloaded LTE() LTE(S) Sum loaded unloaded LTE() LTE(S) Sum

Ratio
1.03 1.03 1.02 1.04 1.02 1.06 1.02 1.04

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Table 5: Results of strain gage data analysis for test item MRG Joint TJ3 TJ3 TJ4 TJ4 loaded unloaded
0.052 0.052 0.053 0.053 0.040 0.039 0.038 0.040

Position 1 Position 2 Ratio LTE() LTE(S) Sum loaded unloaded LTE() LTE(S) Sum
0.77 0.75 0.72 0.75 0.44 0.43 0.42 0.43 0.092 0.091 0.091 0.093 0.047 0.046 0.048 0.046 0.044 0.046 0.042 0.041 0.94 1.00 0.88 0.89 0.48 0.50 0.47 0.48 0.091 0.092 0.090 0.087 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.07

Table 6: Results of strain gage data analysis for test item MRS Joint TJ3 TJ3 loaded unloaded
0.050 0.051 0.047 0.048

Position 1 Position 2 Ratio LTE() LTE(S) Sum loaded unloaded LTE() LTE(S) Sum
0.94 0.94 0.49 0.49 0.097 0.099 0.048 0.047 0.047 0.046 0.98 0.98 0.50 0.50 0.095 0.093 1.02 1.06

Figure 2 shows a comparison of the parameters such as LTE (), LTE () and LTE (S) for the transverse joints of the test items.
L () TE 0.81 0.84 0.46 L (sigma) TE 0.86 0.84 0.7 0.46 0.49 L (S TE ) 0.96

MRC

MRG

MR S

Figure 2: Comparison of LTE (), LTE () and LTE (S) for CC2 test items 6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The summary of finding from the observed field performance of joints under FWD and slow rolling tests can be summarized as below: 1. From the FWD data analysis, it was observed that the LTE () of longitudinal joints was much higher than that of the transverse joint in spite of the joint configuration being the same in both cases. Although, some amount of variation in joint load transfer efficiency was observed, the sum of deflection parameter almost remained a constant which was clear from significantly low coefficient of variation. 2. An average LTE () of 0.81, 086 and 0.70 was observed for transverse joints of MRC, MRG and MRS respectively. A weaker base layer as was the case in MRG yielded highest value of LTE (). This finding support the fact that, in general, non-stabilized bases allow greater deflections as compared to stabilized bases and thus the effect of aggregate interlock or dowels is likely to be greater on non-stabilized bases as compared to

345

stabilized bases. However, the LTE () of longitudinal joints was much higher than that of the transverse joints and their magnitudes were similar for all three test items. The sum of two deflections was also a little greater at the longitudinal joints as compared to the transverse joints questioning the insensitivity of SD to LTE at longitudinal joints. 3. A ratio of high and low values of LTE in two directions across a joint was found to be close to 1 indicating a uniform load transfer in the two directions. Same was the case observed for the SD parameter in the two directions. 4. From the slow rolling tests, no significant variation in the strain values was observed for different test items. Thus, it can be concluded that stresses in PCC slabs are less governed by the pavement layers or presence of base (stabilized/ un-stabilized) as long as the thickness of PCC slab and loading parameters remain the same. 5. Interestingly, the two definitions (FHWA and FAA) of stress based load transfer efficiency yielded very different trends of the said parameter. Based on the FAA definition the average stress based load transfer efficiency was equal in the two directions as well as almost similar for all three test items. However, based on FHWA definition, the stress based load transfer efficiency showed a significant variation in the two directions. REFERENCES Ahlvin, R. (1991). Origin of Developments for Structural Design of Pavements. Technical Report GL-91-26, US Army Corps of Engineers, 1991. Federal Aviation Administration, (2004). Use of Nondestructive Testing in the Evaluation of Airport Pavements, Advisory Circular 150/5370-11A. Guo, E. (2001). Back-Estimation of Slab Curling and Joint Stiffness. Proceeding of The 7th International Conference on Concrete Pavements, Orlando, Florida. Guo, E. and Marsey, W. (2001). Verification of curling in PCC slabs at FAA National Airport Pavement Test Facility. The 2001 Airfield Pavement Specialty Conference. Guo, E. (2003). Proof and Comments on Extensively Used Assumption in PCC Pavement Analysis and Evaluation. ASCE Journal of Transportation Research, 129 (2). Hammons, M.; Pittman, D. and Mathews, D. (1995). Effectiveness of Load Transfer Devices. Publication DOT/FAA/AR-95/80. FAA, U.S. Department of Transportation. Hayhoe, G. (2004). Traffic Testing Results from the FAAs National Airport Pavement Test Facility. Presented at 2nd International Conference on Accelerated Pavement Testing, University of Minnesota, Mineapolis, Minnesota. Huang, Y. and Wang, S. (1973). Finite Element Analysis of Concrete Slabs and its Implications for Rigid Pavement Design. Highway Research Board, No. 446. Ioannides, A. and Korovesis, G. (1992). Analysis and Design of Doweled Slab-On-Grade Pavement Systems. Journal of Transportation Engineering, Vol. 118, 1992. National Airport Pavement Test Facility. http://www.airporttech.tc.faa.gov/naptf/. Accessed September, 2008. Nishizawa, T.; Fukuda, T. and Matsuno, S. (1989). A Refined Model of Doweled Joints for Concrete Pavement using FEM Analysis. Publication of Purdue University. Ricalde, L. (2001). Analysis of HWD Data from CC2 Traffic Tests at the National Airport Pavement test Facility. FAA Worldwide Technology Transfer Conference. CD-ROM. Atlantic City, NJ, USA. Tabatabaie, A. and Barenberg, E. (1978). Finite Element Analysis of Jointed or Cracked Concrete Pavements. Transportation Research Board, No. 671.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Approach to Road Maintenance Works on Performance Criteria

M. Dicu, C. Rcnel, A. Burlacu & C. Surlea
Technical University of Civil Engineering of Bucharest, Roads and Railways Department, Romania mdicu@cfdp.utcb.ro; carmen@cfdp.utcb.ro; aburlacu@cfdp.utcb.ro; claudia@cfdp.utcb.ro

ABSTRACT: Performance criteria programming maintenance works is an indicator of quality to anticipate the interventions on the road. Using parameters to quantify the periodic state of wearing course quality and quality of road structure and reporting their values imposed on performance criteria for policy makers is an indicator of assessment strategies for maintenance - repairs and necessary financial allocations. Different approach to performance criteria, the method proposed to apply in Romania is based on technical regulations to quantify the state periodic level of carriageway, creating such a work tool for responsible management of road network. KEY WORDS: Pavement, Maintenance, Specifications, Management.

1. GENERALITIES The conception of maintenance and repair on performance criteria for national roads in Romania has lately become a necessity to improve the traffic conditions, on extending technical conditions of quality of the wearing course. These guidelines specific to the civilized world require consistent and quantifiable measures that are in the responsibility of the road administration in relation to the road user criteria. The aim is the evaluation of the parameters defining the performances of a national road, starting from a French guide. The procedure, used as a technical regulation for the performance evaluation of a national road in Romania, provides its action directions with performance types (Table 1). According to the Romanian standards, the performance criteria on national roads is accepted for a service level at least GOOD in the service period, respectively when the traffic speed is not affected by the presence of various degradations on the road side. This desideratum sugests the following actions: - the definition of the performance criteria on national roads; - the identification of the intervention categories for the maintenance and repair of the road surface, and also the other improvements in the area next to the national road; - planning, organizing and supervising maintenance and repair works, to ensure the traffic under conditions of comfort for the national road drivers.

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Table 1: Performance types for national roads Code P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 Performance type The ensuring of wearing course quality The ensuring of the necessary bearing capacity depending on the evolution of road traffic The ensuring of collection evacuation and discharge of meteoric waters (pluvial waters and from snowmelt) The ensuring of road traffic during winter time The ensuring of visibility in plane, longitudinal and transversal profile The ensuring of road safety conditions The ensuring of the environment conditions The ensuring of the road aesthetic

A series of general objectives are followed: - the classification and particularization of the maintenance and repair works on national roads based on performance criteria which are in the task of the administrators; - the necessary conditions for the quality ensurance during the exploitation of the national road, depending on the technique class enrollment; - the methods and the procedures to follow the technical state in the exploitation of the national road, in order to establish the maintenance repair strategies; - the terms of the design and approval of the technical economical documentation for the performance ensurance on national roads; - the reception of the maintenance repair works on national roads based on performance criteria. The performance level for roadside on national roads in Romania, according to the state of degradation of the roadside, can be quantified depending on the global quality index, the types of degradation and appropriate remedial measures (Table 2). Table 2: Performance Levels Service Level, NS Very good Good Alert Bad Very bad Global Quality Index Performa Degradation Types of Global Index, Index, nce degradation IG ID Level, on national NP roads According to standard CD 155 [%] Very good No NP 1 <5 >95 degradations NP 2 NP 3 NP 4 NP 5 5 - 75 7,5 - 13 > 13 --Good 90 - 95 Satisfactory 77 - 90 Unsatisfactory IG < 77 Unsatisfactory IG< 77
348

Remedial measures proposed for the roadside Not the case Filling of cracks, Very thin asphalt layers Repairs and asphalt layers Structural reclamation New road structure

Surface degradations Local structure degradations Major structure degradations Destroyed road

2. QUALITY REQUIREMENTS FOR THE ENSURANCE OF PERFORMANCE ON NATIONAL ROADS 2.1. The wearing course quality parameters The quality of the wearing course is expressed by the following parameters : - flatness of the wearing course IRI (International Roughness Index) - roughness of the wearing course HS (Height of Sand) or SRT (Skid Resistance Test); - the impermeability of the wearing course, determined indirectly by the degree of failure of the wearing course and its porosity and evaluated by determining in situ permeability. The quality performance of the wearing course in Romania is established depending on the flatness, roughness and impermeability of asphalt or concrete wearing course (Table 3).
Table 3: The performance of the wearing course depending on the quality of the wearing course

The Performance of the wearing course Very good Good Satisfactory Bad

Level of performance, NP NP1 NP2 NP3 NP4 NP5

The Quality of the Wearing Course Impermeability, The roughness with cracking index Flatness the method [%] IRI [m/km] HS SRT IFA* IFBC** [mm] > 0.7 > 80 < 3.5 <7 < 12 0.6 0.7 70 80 3.5 4.5 7 11 12 16 0.2 0.6 55 70 4.5 6.0 11 19 16 - 28 < 0.2 < 55 > 6.0 > 19 > 28

*IFA = cracking index of asphalt wearing course; **IFBC = cracking index of concrete wearing course.

2.2. Residual bearing capacity parameter A series of degradation such as longitudinal cracking, alligator cracking and even fragmentations that appear on the surface of the road are due to structural defects of the roads structure. In this case, the accepted residual bearing capacity leads to the decision to apply new temporally maintenance repair works, until the reinforcement of the road structure is decided. The residual bearing capacity parameter is defined by de deflection level (NW), which is categorised depending on the traffic class (T) and the measured caracteristic deflection (W) (Table 4, 5) Table 4: Traffic class in Romania Traffic Class Very easy Easy Medium Heavy Very heavy Exceptional Code T5 T4 T3 T2 T1 T0 Traffic, N115 m.o.s. Flexible, Rigid Semirigid < 0,03 < 0.20 0,03 0,10 0.20 0.70 0,10 0.30 0.70 3.00 0,30 1,00 3.00 12.00 1,00 3,00 12.00 36.00 3,00 10,00 > 36.00

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Table 5: The Level of Deflection depending on the traffic class Measured characteristic deflection W [0,01 mm] Dynamic Measurements >200 175 200 145 175 130 145 100 130 75 100 <75 Benkelman Lever Measurements >150 Traffic Class T5 T4 T3 T2 T1 T0 NW2 NW1 NW1 NW1 NW1 NW1 120 150 100 119 80 99 NW3 NW2 NW1 NW1 NW1 NW1 NW4 NW3 NW2 NW1 NW1 NW1 NW4 NW4 NW3 NW2 NW1 NW1 65 79 35 64 0 34 NW4 NW4 NW4 NW3 NW2 NW2 NW4 NW4 NW4 NW4 NW3 NW3 NW4 NW4 NW4 NW4 NW4 NW4

The level of performance in relation to the measured bearing capacity parameter as an image of the quality demands of the wearing course is indicated according to Table 6. Table 6: The quality demands of the wearing course Level of deflection NW4 NW3 NW2 NW1 NW1 Level of cracking NF1 NF2 NF2 NF1 NF1 Level of performance NP1 NP2 NP3 NP4 NP5 Quality rating Very good Good Satisfactory Bad Very bad

The correlation of the performance level (NP) with the bearing capacity parameter (NW) is made through the observation of the defects in the field, measured by the level of cracking (NF), which depends on the alligator cracking index (FA) longitudinal cracking index (FL) (Table 7). Table 7: Levels of cracking of the wearing course alligator cracking index, FA longitudinal cracking index, FL >5 % 35% <3 %

>10%

3 10%

<3%

>25% 10 25% <10%

NF1 NF1 NF1

NF1 NF2 NF2

NF1 NF2 NF3

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2.3. The ensuring of collection&evacuation and discharge of meteoric waters (pluvial waters and from snowmelt) This quality demand is indicated in Table 8. Table 8: Quality demands regarding the ensuring of collection evacuation and discharge of meteoric waters
Level of performance Mark Very good Good Quality demands NP3 Satisfactory NP4 NP5 Bad Very bad Defects as cracks under 2 cm on a surface <10% of sideroads. Side roads without grass and plaine for water removal on transversal section of the road. Water collection without any breaks on longitudinal profile. Emankment bridges without deposits Sideroad uniformity and settlement between 5 10 cm Defects as cracks under 2 cm on a surface between 10% and 30 % of sideroads. Water collection with breaks on longitudinal profile ( less then 30 %). Emankment bridges without deposits Sideroad uniformity and settlement 5 10 cm Defects as cracks under 2 cm on a surface > 30 % of sideroads. Water collection with breaks on longitudinal profile ( more then 30 %). Emankment bridges with deposits

NP1 NP2

2.4. The ensuring of road traffic during winter time This quality demand is indicated in Table 9. Table 9: Quality demands regarding the ensuring of road traffic during winter time
Level of performance Mark Very good Good Quality demands Ensure all the demands: a)Prepare the road for winter. b)Material supply for the control of the slide. c)Ensure the snow removal. d)The existance of information points regarding the state of the road during winter. Partial ensure of the demands: a) Prepare the road for winter. b) Material supply for the control of the slide c) Ensure the snow removal d) The existance of information points regarding the state of the road during winter. Unensure of the demands: a) Prepare the road for winter. b) Material supply for the control of the slide. c) Ensure the snow removal d) The existance of information points regarding the state of the road during winter.

NP1 NP2

NP3

Satisfactory

NP4 NP5

Bad Very bad

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2.5. The ensuring of visibility in plane, longitudinal and transversal profile This quality demand is indicated in Table 10. Table 10: Quality demands regarding the ensuring of visibility in plane, longitudinal and transversal profile
Level of performance NP1 NP2 Mark Very good Good Quality demands a )The existence of road signs in proportion of 90 100 %. b) The existence of road markings in proportion of 90 100 %. c)The elimination of dangerous spots in junctions in proportion of 90 100 %. d)The maintenance of road plantation in proportion of 90 100 %. a) The existence of road signs in proportion of 70 90 %. b) The existence of road markings in proportion of 70 90 %. c) The elimination of dangerous spots in junctions in proportion of 70 90 %. d) The maintenance of road plantation in proportion of 70 90 %. a) The existence of road signs in proportion of <70 %. b) The existence of road markings in proportion of <70 %. c) The elimination of dangerous spots in junctions in proportion of <70 %. d) The maintenance of road plantation in proportion of <70 %.

NP3

Satisfactory

NP4 NP5

Bad Very bad

2.6. The ensuring of road safety conditions This quality demand is indicated in Table 11. Table 11: Quality demands regarding the ensuring of road safety conditions
Level of performance Mark Quality demands Ensure all the demands: a)The existence of vertical signalization (road signs). b) The existence of horizontal signalization (road markings). c)The existence of mileage signs. d)The existence of protection fences and safety parapets. e)The existence of presignalization and signalization in junctions. f)The ensuring of visibilty in plane, longitudinal and transversal profile. Partial ensure of the demands: a)The existence of vertical signalization (road signs). b) The existence of horizontal signalization (road markings). c)The existence of mileage and signs. d)The existence of protection fences and safety parapets. e)The existence of presignalization and signalization in junctions. f)The ensuring of visibilty in plane, longitudinal and transversal profile. Unensure of the demands: a)The existence of vertical signalization (road signs). b) The existence of horizontal signalization (road markings). c)The existence of mileage and signs. d)The existence of protection fences and safety parapets. e)The existence of presignalization and signalization in junctions. f)The ensuring of visibilty in plane, longitudinal and transversal profile.

NP1 NP2

Very good Good

NP3

Satisfactory

NP4 NP5

Bad Very bad

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2.7. The ensuring of the environment conditions This quality demand is indicated in Table 12. Table 12: Quality demands regarding the ensuring of the environment conditions
Level of performance Mark Quality demands Ensure all the demands: a)The maitenance, addition and clearing for plantation in the area and green spaces. b) The maitenance of the protection screens c) The mounting of fonoabsorbing panels d) The construction of collection evacuation basins for pluvial waters infested with scrap materiales and fuel from vehicles. Partial ensure of the demands: a)The maitenance, addition and clearing for plantation in the area and green spaces. b) The maitenance of the protection screens c) The mounting of fonoabsorbing panels d) The construction of collection evacuation basins for pluvial waters infested with scrap materiales and fuel from vehicles. Unensure of the demands: a)The maitenance, addition and clearing for plantation in the area and green spaces. b) The maitenance of the protection screens c) The mounting of fonoabsorbing panels d) The construction of collection evacuation basins for pluvial waters infested with scrap materiales and fuel from vehicles..

NP1 NP2

Very good Good

NP3

Satisfactory

NP4 NP5

Bad Very bad

2.8. The ensuring of the road aesthetic This quality demand is indicated in Table 13. Table 13: Quality demands regarding the ensuring of the road aesthetic
Level of performance NP1 NP2 Mark Very good Good Quality demands Ensure all the demands: a)The current maintenance of the national roads. b)The lawn of the grass vegetation. c)Cleaning and addition of road signs. Partial ensure of the demands: a)The current maintenance of the national roads. b)The lawn of the grass vegetation. c)Cleaning and addition of road signs. Unensure of the demands: a)The current maintenance of the national roads. b)The lawn of the grass vegetation. c)Cleaning and addition of road signs.

NP3

Satisfactory

NP4 NP5

Bad Very bad

All this performance criteria demanded through the afferent quality conditions are analised separately but they are interpreted together, in order to appreciate the global performance level, represented by the majoritary performance type. For example, we consider the result from the performance review for a national road, according to Table 13.

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Tabelul 13: Performance review example for a national road Performance type Level of performance Mark P1 NP2 Good P2 NP2 Good P3 NP2 Good P4 NP4 Good P5 NP2 Good P6 NP2 Good P7 NP3 Satisfactory P8 NP3 Satisfactory

From the review of Table 13, with the results of the performance level analysed on types of performances depending on the requested quality of the national road, it results: Np (DN x ) = NP2 GOOD MARK, with recommendations to interfere on the ensuring of the conditions specific to the performance type(P4, P7, P8). Having these information, the road administrator introduces into the Strategic Plan of Interventions (PSI) the necessary work afferent to the imaterialised performances (P4, P7, P8) and he demands financial allocations to the decision court. 3. CONCLUSIONS The approach of the performance criteria for the quality evaluation of a national road can be directed according to this procedure which is in the stage of specialized public inquiry in Romania. The proposed method has the capacity to quantify the performance level depending on the measured parameters on types of performances, so that through multicriterial analysis results pertinent conclusions for decision factors in the administration. This type of approach classifies the interventions grid already covered from the technical point of wiev in Romania, on types of necessary interventions depending on the shown defects in the exploitation of a national road. The periodicity identification of the intervention works expected in the technical regulations in law in comparison with the related performance levels, makes the planning and financing easier. In this sense, the proposed methodology meets the needs of its kind and this is why we belive it is useful and applicable.

REFERENCES Romanian norm for highways maintenance based on performance criteria. Bucharest, 2007. Norms and standards from Romania for maintenance and repairs of public roads Norms for determining the technical condition of modern road, CD, 2001.

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Assessment of Fatigue Resistance and Aging of Asphalt Mixtures in Portugal

J. Dias
Master Student of Instituto Superior de Engenharia de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal jptdias@gmail.com

F. A. Batista
Laboratrio Nacional de Engenharia Civil, Lisbon, Portugal xana@lnec.pt

M. G. Lopes
Instituto Superior de Engenharia de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal glopes@dec.isel.ipl.pt

ABSTRACT: In Portugal, the stiffness modulus and the fatigue resistance of asphalt mixtures are generally assessed through four-point bending tests on prismatic shaped specimens (4PB) based on European standard EN 12697-24-Annex D. Traditionally, these tests are performed at a load frequency of 10 Hz. However, in the present context of European material specifications standards, namely EN 13108-20 concerning type testing, it also became necessary to evaluate the fatigue behavior in 4PB tests performed at a load frequency of 30 Hz. In addition, surface fatigue failure cracks which initiate from the top are becoming a more common pavement distress, mainly in thick pavements. In order to assess the influence of asphalt aging on fatigue resistance of asphalt mixtures for wearing courses, an experimental study was carried out, in which a typical Portuguese surface course asphalt mixture, produced with dense graded granite aggregates and with different penetration grade bitumen (35/5010-1 mm and 50/7010-1 mm), was used. The assessment of the effect of aging was performed after submitting test specimens to laboratory simulated aging, and comparing the fatigue life of the aged and the un-aged prismatic specimens. This paper presents the main results achieved so far concerning the fatigue resistance assessed in 4PB tests performed at a load frequency of 30 Hz, and it may be concluded that the asphalt mixtures involved in this study have exhibited a satisfactory behavior, and have showed low sensitivity to aging. KEY WORDS: Asphalt mixtures, Fatigue resistance, Aging, Four-point bending tests. 1. INTRODUTION Most roads and highways in Portugal are made with flexible pavements, making relevant the study of the characteristics and behavior of asphalt mixtures used in this type of pavement. In Portugal, the stiffness modulus and the fatigue resistance of asphalt mixtures are generally assessed through four-point bending tests on prismatic shaped specimens (4PB) based on European standard EN 12697-24-Annex D. Traditionally, these tests were performed
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at a load frequency of 10 Hz. However, in the present context of European material specifications standards, namely EN 13108-20 concerning type testing, it also became necessary to evaluate the fatigue behavior in 4PB tests performed at a load frequency of 30 Hz. Therefore, in this study, the fatigue resistance of two different asphalt mixtures was performed at a load frequency of 30 Hz. In addition, surface fatigue failure cracks which initiate from the top are becoming a more common pavement distress, mainly in thick pavements (COST 333, 1999; Myers and Roque, 2001). An aspect often pointed out as a cause of surface crack initiation is the aging of the bitumen present in the wearing course, whose asphalt mixture becomes more brittle and susceptible to fatigue cracking (CALTRANS, 2003). Thus, aging is considered an important factor in the performance of asphalt mixtures, particularly in their resistance to fatigue. In order to understand the contribution of aging phenomenon on the fatigue behavior of traditional asphalt concrete mixtures, in this study, the effect of aging was performed after submitting some test specimens to laboratory simulated aging according to the Long-term Oven Aging (LTOA) process (Bell and Sosnovske, 1994; Bell et al., 1994). 2. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME In order to evaluate the influence of aging on the fatigue behavior of asphalt mixtures for wearing courses, two asphalt concrete mixtures were produced in laboratory, both using the same type of aggregates, but different penetration grade bitumen binders. The assessment of the effect of aging was performed after submitting the test specimens to laboratory simulated aging, and comparing the fatigue life of the aged and the un-aged prismatic specimens. 2.1. Materials Two traditional asphalt concrete mixtures were produced in the laboratory with dense graded aggregates, differing only in the type of bitumen used. The selected materials are of common use in Portugal: granite aggregates and 35/50 and 50/70 penetration grade bitumen binders for each mixture. Table 1 identifies the produced asphalt concrete mixtures and Table 2 presents its composition. Table 1: Tested asphalt concrete mixtures identification Mixture identification AC1 AC2 Designation according EN 13108-1 AC14 surf 35/50 AC14 surf 50/70 Mixture gradation Dense-graded Dense-graded Aggregates nature Granitic Granitic Penetration grade bitumen 35/50 50/70

Table 2: AC1 and AC2 asphalt concrete mixtures composition Material Mixture of aggregates Bitumen binder
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8/14 mm fraction 4/8 mm fraction 0/4 mm fraction Filler

Percentage in asphalt mixture (%) 31,8 20,9 39,4 2,9 5,0

2.2. Test specimens Using AC1 and AC2 produced mixtures, slabs were compacted with a steel roller compactor according to EN 12697-33 and later cut into beam specimens with 50 50 400 mm3 approximate dimensions. After preparing the test specimen their bulk density was determined according to standard EN 12697-6 - procedure B (bulk density SSD). The mean values for both mixtures (AC1 and AC2) were identical as shown in Table 3. Table 3: Test specimens volumetric composition Mixture identification AC1 and AC2 Average bulk density (kg/m3) 2428 Average maximum density (kg/m3) 2496 Average porosity (%) 2,7

In order to simulate long-term field ageing, some specimens were submitted to laboratory accelerated aging according to the Long-Term Oven Ageing (LTOA) process, developed by Bell and Sosnovske (1994) and Bell et al. (1994) in the SHRP program. According to the LTOA procedure, test specimens were aged at 85 C for a period of 5 days. 2.3. Stiffness Modulus Previous to the fatigue tests, a study was conducted to assess the stiffness modulus of the two asphalt concrete mixtures produced in the laboratory. The stiffness modulus determination was carried out through four-point bending tests on prismatic shaped specimens, according to standard EN 12697-26 Annex B. The same equipment of the fatigue bending tests was used. The tests were carried out with controlled strain, with an amplitude of 50 microstrain and a temperature of 20 C. The load frequency was defined according to the range proposed by EN 12697-26 standard, i.e., with values of 1, 4, 8, 10, 30 Hz and 1 Hz again. Figures 1 and 2 illustrate the results of the stiffness modulus for AC1 and AC2 mixtures, respectively. These figures also show the stiffness modulus for the specimens submitted to laboratory aging (LA), labeled respectively as AC1-LA and AC2-LA.

Stiffness Modulus (MPa)

14000 12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0 1

AC1

AC1-LA

4 8 Load frequency (Hz)

10

30

Figure 1: Stiffness modulus at 20C of aged and un-aged AC1 asphalt concrete test specimens
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Stiffness Modulus (MPa)

12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0 1

AC2

AC2-LA

4 8 Load frequency (Hz)

10

30

Figure 2: Stiffness modulus at 20C of aged and un-aged AC2 asphalt concrete test specimens Figures 1 and 2 show that stiffness modulus values are higher for the AC1 mixture than for the AC2 mixture, which was expected since these mixtures were produced with a harder (35/50 pen) and softer (50/70 pen) bitumen binder, respectively. The results also show that the aged asphalt concrete specimens have suffered an increase of the stiffness modulus comparatively to the un-aged specimens. 2.4. Needle penetration and Softening point In order to characterize the bitumen binder both of the aged and un-aged test specimens, some of these specimens were used for determination of the penetration and the softening point. The bitumen binder was firstly recovered by the rotary evaporator method (EN 12697-3 standard). Afterwards tests for determination of the needle penetration and the softening point by the Ring and Ball method were carried out, according to EN 1426 and EN 1427 respectively. Table 4 presents the results for the recovered bitumen characterization. Table 4: Needle penetration (Pen) and softening point (TRB) of the AC1 and AC2 asphalt concrete mixtures recovered bitumen Mixture identification AC1 AC2 AC1 (un-aged) AC1-LA AC2 (un-aged) AC2-LA Pen (0,1 mm) 36 34 63 44 TRB (C) 54,4 56,1 49,1 52,5

Table 4 shows that the AC2 mixture (produced with 50/70 pen bitumen) has hardened more than the AC1 mixture (produced with 35/50 pen bitumen) after being submitted to the LTOA process. In fact, AC1 has only suffered a small decrease in the bitumen penetration, after being submitted to the laboratory aging process (LTOA), which is not considered significant. Regarding the softening point, both AC1 and AC2 mixtures have increased their values for the recovered bitumen after being submitted to aging.

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These results are consistent with the ones showed in Figures 1 and 2 since the AC2 mixture presented a higher increase of its stiffness modulus after being submitted to the LTOA process. 3. FATIGUE PERFORMANCE The assessment of fatigue behaviour of the asphalt mixtures used in this study was carried out through four-point bending tests, according to test procedure based on standard EN 12697-24 Annex D. Tests were performed with controlled strain, load frequency application of 30 Hz and at a temperature of 20C. In this study, the fatigue life was defined as the number of repeated load cycles corresponding to a 50% reduction in initial stiffness. Figures 3 and 4 present the fatigue life obtained for each of the asphalt concrete mixtures used in this study.
1000
AC1
y = 3750,5x -0,296 R = 0,9498

AC1-LA AC1-LA

AC1

Flexural strain (10-6 m/m)

100

y = 3413,3x -0,29 R = 0,9661

10 1.000

10.000

100.000 Number of cycles

1.000.000

10.000.000

Figure 3: AC1 mixtures (aged and un-aged) fatigue life

1000
AC2 AC2
y = 2410,2x -0,256 R = 0,9971

AC2-LA AC2-LA

Flexural strain (10-6 m/m)

100

y = 1856,3x -0,239 R = 0,9505

10 1.000

10.000

100.000 Number of cycles

1.000.000

10.000.000

Figure 4: AC2 mixtures (aged and un-aged) fatigue life

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Table 5 presents the results obtained for the fatigue life for both AC1 and AC2 asphalt concrete specimens, aged and un-aged. This table also presents the strain value at which a fatigue life of one million cycles can be expected (6). Table 5: Results of the fatigue life tests Mixture identification Fatigue life ln (N) = A0 + A1 ln () or A0 AC1 AC2 AC1 (un-aged) AC1-LA AC2 (un-aged) 28,0 27,8 31,5 A1 = p -3,4 -3,4 -4,2 a 3413,3 3750,5 1856,3 6 (m/m)

= a N-b
b = -1/p 0,290 0,296 0,239 62 63 68

AC2-LA 30,4 -3,9 2410,2 0,256 70 6 N = Number of cycles; = microstrain; p = slope of the fatigue line; = initial microstrain corresponding with a
fatigue life (N) of 106 cycles

From the results presented in Figures 3 and 4 and in Table 5 it is possible to notice that all tested asphalt concrete mixtures reveal similar fatigue behaviour, exhibiting values of 6 around 60 and 70 microstrain. These results correspond to a test frequency of 30 Hz. However, higher fatigue life values for the same mixtures tested at a load frequency of 10 Hz can be expected (Batista et al., 2008). The slope of fatigue line (p) at 30 Hz, for the AC1 (around -3) and the AC2 (around -4) mixtures, is slightly higher than the value often considered for conventional mixtures (-5), when using the fatigue curve defined by Shell (1978). The results obtained for aged (AC1-LA and AC2-LA) and un-aged (AC1 and AC2) laboratory asphalt concrete specimens show that fatigue life of these materials is not affected by the LTOA aging process. 4. FINAL REMARKS AND FUTURE WORK This paper presents the results achieved so far of an on-going study concerning the fatigue resistance of Portuguese asphalt concrete mixtures. The tests were performed according to European standard EN 12697-24 and complied with testing conditions established by EN 13108-20. This paper refer specifically to the fatigue behavior of two dense-graded asphalt mixtures produced with granite aggregates, with two different penetration grade bitumen binders: a 35/50 and 50/70 ( 10-1mm). The fatigue characterization of these mixtures was addressed using four-point bending repeated load tests for a load frequency of 30 Hz. The effects of laboratory accelerated aging (LTOA - Long-Term Oven Aging process) in the fatigue behavior of the asphalt concrete mixtures were also assessed. The results presented in previous sections suggest that the asphalt concrete mixtures involved in this study have similar fatigue behavior. Indeed, after submitting asphalt concrete specimens to LTOA process (5 days at 85 C) the fatigue behavior of the tested mixtures remained identical to that of new mixtures. However, the stiffness modulus improved with aging and, as expected, a harder bitumen binder (lower penetration and higher softening point) was achieved after aging asphalt concrete specimens. Based on earlier and present results, further research analyses are being developed, in particular: (1) fatigue resistance characterization of other Portuguese traditional asphalt concrete mixtures, including those prepared with different contents of bitumen binder and
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various types of aggregates; (2) assessment of the influence of load frequencies (i.e. 10 Hz and 30 Hz) on the flexural fatigue behavior of asphalt concrete mixtures; (3) characterization of in-service asphalt pavements performance, particularly with regard to their fatigue resistance evolution with age; and (4) simulation and assessment of further laboratory aging methods for asphalt pavements which replicate in-situ real aging conditions. REFERENCES Batista, F. A.; Antunes, M. L.; Miranda, H.; Fonseca, P. 2008. Fatigue resistance of asphalt rubber mixtures. Proceedings of the TRA2008, Transport Research Arena Europe 2008 Conference, Ljubljana, Slovenia, 21-24 April. Bell, C. A.; Ab-Wahab, Y.; Cristi, M. E. and Sosnovske, D. 1994. Selection of laboratory aging procedures for asphalt-aggregates mixtures. Strategic Highway Research Program, Transportation Research Board, N SHRP A 383, National Research Council, Washington D.C., USA. Bell, C. A. and Sosnovske, D. 1994. Aging binder validation. Strategic Highway Research Program, Transportation Research Board, N SHRP A 384, National Research Council, Washington D.C., USA. CALTRANS, 2003. Maintenance Technical Advisory Guide (TAG). State of California Department of Transportation, Office of Pavement Preservation, Division of Maintenance, Sacramento, USA, October. COST 333, 1999. Development of New Bituminous Pavement Design Method. COST Action 333, Final Report, Luxembourg. EN 1426:2007. Bitumen and bituminous binders. Determination of needle penetration. CEN TC 336. EN 1427:2007. Bitumen and bituminous binders. Determination of the softening point. Ring and Ball method. CEN TC 336. EN 12697-3:2005. Bituminous mixtures - Test methods for hot mix asphalt - Part 3: Bitumen recovery: Rotary evaporator. CEN TC 227. EN 12697-6:2003+A1:2007. Bituminous mixtures. Test methods for hot mix asphalt. Part 6: Determination of bulk density of bituminous specimens. CEN TC 227. EN 12697-24:2004+A1:2007. Bituminous mixtures. Test methods for hot mix asphalt. Part 24: Resistance to fatigue. CEN TC 227. EN 12697-26:2004. Bituminous mixtures. Test methods for hot mix asphalt. Part 26: Stiffness. CEN TC 227. EN 12697-33:2003+A1:2007. Bituminous mixtures. Test methods for hot mix asphalt. Part 33: Specimen prepared by roller compactor. CEN TC 227. EN 13108-20:2006. Bituminous mixtures. Material specifications. Part 20: Type Testing. CEN TC 227. Myers, L. A. and Roque, R. 2001. Evaluation of Top-Down Cracking in Thick Asphalt Pavements and the Implications for Pavement Design. Perpetual Bituminous Pavements. Transport Research Circular No. 503, Transportation Research Board, Washington DC, USA, December. Shell 1978. Shell pavement design manual: asphalt pavements and overlays for road traffic. Shell International Petroleum, Lda., London, UK.

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Use of Construction and Demolition Waste as a pavement material in So Lus - Brazil

W. SantAna & T. Ferreira
Department of Transports, State University of Maranho, Brazil canalessantana@uol.com.br tcf_sb@hotmail.com

L. Bernucci & R. Motta

Department of Transports, University of Sao Paulo, Brazil liedi@usp.br rosangela.motta@poli.usp.br

ABSTRACT: Construction and demolition wastes (CDW) have been subject of researchers discussions. Recycled aggregates are generally composed of inert materials such as mortar, concrete, masonry components and crushed stones from concrete. Depending on where the construction is, its stage and how it is done, those types of materials can be found in different proportions. Thus, recycled aggregates made from CDW are heterogeneous materials with unique characteristics. Recently, the first recycling plant of CDW in So Lus city was inaugurated, with capacity for producing 80 tons of recycled aggregates per hour. The purposes of this research are: (i) characterize their physical and mechanical properties; (ii) analyze their technical feasibility for being used in low traffic paving structures. Several tests were carried out: composition, gradation, Atterberg limits (soil), aggregate shape, water absorption, bulk density, Los Angeles abrasion, compaction and compaction influence, California bearing ratio, unconfined compressive strength and resilient modulus. All the results were satisfactory, since they are in compliance with the current specifications. On that account, paving with recycled aggregates is a very interesting alternative for replacing natural and non-renewable materials. KEY-WORDS: Construction and Demolition Waste, Recycling, Recycled aggregates, Paving

1. INTRODUCTION Opportunities of economic profit lead the construction industry to rapid increasing on their activities, contributing to generate additional volumes of solid waste from construction, known as CDW Construction and Demolition Waste. CDW is a huge problem for Brazilian large and medium-sized cities, involving environmental, social and financial issues. Improper disposal of CDW may cause environmental damage, in which insects can proliferate easier and then cause several diseases. Large quantity of residues can be generated by many reasons: (i) lack of environmental awareness, (ii) deficiency in constructions planning and execution, (iii) not qualified workforce, (iv) inadequacies of the laws. This leads to numerous problems such as rivers
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silting, degradation of urban areas, clogged drains, floods, accidents at work and lose of productivity (Noronha, 2005 apud Filho, 2008). According to Dias (2002), in terms of primitives building technologies, the production of construction waste is growing exponentially in large cities, becoming a determinant factor for researchers and governments at all levels to seek alternatives for its reuse. A very effective way of dealing with de CDW is recycling it, and then minimizes the environmental impact not only by reducing its disposal, but by the exploration of raw materials. It is also economically feasible because the cost of recycling it is generally lower than the use of traditional materials. In Brazil, as a way of paying attention to this matter, was published the CONAMA Resolution n 307 (2002), which provides guidelines for effective reduction of the environmental impacts caused by these materials. It was defined that generators are responsible for the waste produced and the primary objective should be no generation. If it is not possible, must be considered reduction, reusing, recycling, and final disposal (in this order). In case of final disposal, the materials should be taken to waste landfill sites or areas and be landed in a way so that it would be possible future reuse or recycling (Motta, 2005). The use of recycled aggregate in paving is a very interesting alternative to replace natural materials, non-renewable, primarily in paving due to the thousands of miles of unpaved Brazilian roads, corresponding to 88% of the national highway network (DNIT, 2005), in which 80% are ruled by the municipal administration (COPPEAD, 2007). In 2004, Brazilian Association of Technical Standards (ABNT) launched the specification NBR 15115, named Recycled aggregates of construction solid waste Construction of pavement layers Procedures (ABNT, 2004). 2. BIBLIOGRAPHIC REVIEW 2.1. History CDW has its origin at the moment in which man build his first building, pave his first road. Soon come the problem: what doing with the waste? Thus, the idea of reusing these materials as recycled aggregates. First works with CDW date from Roman Empire, when were used bricks, tiles and ceramic as pozzolans (Santos, 1975 apud Motta, 2005). The technique for recycling construction waste would first appear around the Second World War, when several European cities had their build completely demolished, and lots of rubble or debris remained (Oliveira et al, 2007 apud Filho, 2008). In these places, the lack of money due to Post-War economy and the high volume of debris led to the development of recycling techniques. Germany had a volume of approximately 400 to 600 million cubic meters of rubble, according Affonso (2005) apud Leite (2007). After the end of the conflict, the recycling plants processed over than 85% of the existing volume. Large part of it was recycled into bricks and became 175000 housing units (Levy, 1994 apud Affonso, 2005). In the recent decades other reasons that have contributed to the waste recycling were: (i) super-exploitation of deposits of mines, (ii) damage to the environment with the extraction of aggregates and waste disposal, (iii) overload landfills. Reducing land filling volumes are directly related to the increased use of recycled aggregates. In the late 80s, the landfill of CDW in developed countries were no longer attractive to the Government, in economic terms, since the cost of the deposition achieved more than $ 100 per ton (Lund, 1993 apud Motta, 2005).

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In Brazil, recycling of construction waste have been initiated in the 80s, using small windmills installed in building constructions, where the wastes of masonry where processed to be reused in the production of mortars (Lima, 1999). Throughout the 90s, some recycling plants have been implemented in several cities in Brazil, being managed by municipalities or individuals. According to Nunes (2004) apud Motta (2005), there are currently 12 cities in Brazil that have a total of 14 recycling plants operating or under pre-operation. This figure differs significantly from the United States, which has about 3500 units of recycling, according to U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (1998) apud Motta (2005). 2.2. CDW and Paving Typically bricks and concrete blocks are approximately 80% of the construction waste. After pre-screening, crushing, screening and blending this waste, it can become recycled aggregate to be used as a road base material (Wu et al, 2009). One issue that encourages the development of techniques for recycling CDW to be a paving material is the high cost and the high demand for virgin materials (Leite, 2007). 3. METHODS, MATERIALS AND RESULTS The methods in this study includes: (i) collecting material, (ii) physical characterization tests, (iii) mechanical properties characterization. 3.1. Collecting Material It was collected about 500kg of recycled aggregates from the recycling plant of So Lus (Figure 1). The material collected was wet, so it was dispersed at the ground in order to dry, at the Laboratory of Soils and Paving of UEMA (State University of Maranho). The material was also homogenized.

Figure 1: (a) Recycled aggregates at the plant; (b) Recycled aggregates drying at the laboratory 3.2. Physical Characterization Tests The tests made for physical characterization were: gradation (Figure 2), composition (Figure 3), Atterberg limits, water absorption and Los Angeles abrasion.

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100% 80% 60%

%
40% 20% 0% 0,01 0,10 1,00 Opening (mm) 10,00 Gradation of the CDW

Figure 2: Recycled aggregate gradation The recycled aggregate presented an uneven and poorly graduation, but still in compliance with the standard NBR 15115 (2004): (i) Uniformity coefficient (CU) was higher than 10; (ii) Percentage passing in the 0.42mm sieve was between 10% and 40% (~ 39%); (iii) Percentage of undesirable materials from different groups were lower than 3%, and from the same group was less than 2% by weight (Figure 2)
3/ 8" - 4 3/ 4" - 1/ 2" 1" 0% 10% 1" Cement Ceramics Rocks Wastes 44% 39% 17% 0% 20% 30% 1" - 3/ 4" 41% 54% 5% 0% 40% 50% 3/ 4" - 1/ 2" 46% 42% 13% 0% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

1/ 2" - 3/ 8" 53% 37% 9% 1%

3/ 8" - 4 85% 10% 6% 0%

Figure 3: Composition of the recycled aggregate The results of the Atterberg limits showed that quantity of plastic soil are inexpressive. The absorption of the aggregate was 8.79%. In comparison with other works (Table 1), it was considered a medium value, in compliance with the standards for the utilization as recycled aggregate and appropriate for paving. Table 1: Some studies related to water absorption of recycled aggregates Type of recycled aggregate Mixed Mixed Mixed Origin Santo Andr / SP So Paulo / SP Salvador / BA Absorption 12.20% 7.80% 8.20% Author Leite (2007) Motta (2005) Carneiro et al. (2001)

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Los Angeles abrasion was carried out with gradation A, according to DNIT-ME035-98 (Figure 4).

Figure 4: (a) Sample for the Los Angeles test; (b) Los Angeles abrasion machine; (c) Recycled aggregate after the test The recycled aggregate presented an abrasion of 54%. Brazilian standard NBR-15115 (2004) do not specifies any limits for Los Angeles abrasion, but other standards related to aggregates for base and subbase determines the maximum abrasion of 55%. As the result in the current study is 54%, then it is in compliance with the Brazilian standards. The high presence of ceramics (bricks, tile, etc.) can be a reason for the border result, because the bricks are more fragile and more susceptible to be broken. Table 2 shows other results of Los Angeles abrasion obtained by other authors. Table 2: Los Angeles abrasion Type of recycled aggregate Mixed Concrete Mixed Origin So Paulo / SP Goinia/GO Goinia/GO Abrasion 50% 36% 58% Author Motta (2005) Oliveira (2007) Oliveira (2007)

3.3. Mechanical Properties Characterization Mechanical properties characterization tests included: dry density, California Bearing Ratio (CBR), unconfined compressive strength e resilient modulus. For the compaction were adopted two energies, using Proctor compaction test standard: intermediate (energy between normal and modified, normalized in Brazil, 26 blows, 5 layers) and modified (55 blows, 5 layers). There was no reuse of material for testing because this type of aggregate is susceptible to breakage, changing grading curve (Figure 5).

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20,0 19,5

(kN/ m)

19,0 18,5 18,0 17,5 Intermediate 17,0 0% 5% 10% Humidity (%) Modified 15% 20%

Figure 5: Compaction curve of the recycled aggregate It was concluded that in the intermediate energy compaction, recycled aggregate has maximum dry density of 18.6 kN/m for a moisture content around 10.0%; and for modified energy compaction the maximum dry density is 19.6 kN/m for 8.7% of moisture content. In the CBR test the average results of three specimens (in the optimum moisture content, according to the energy chosen) are positively significant for paving structures (Table 3). Table 3: Results of the CBR Compaction Energy Intermediate Modified CBR (%) 39 69

Considering the limits of NBR 15115 (2004), recycled aggregate of this research in the intermediate energy can be used as subbase material (CBR 20%), and with modified energy can be used as a base material (CBR 60%), but only for low traffic volumes (N < 5x106). For comparison, Oliveira et al (2007) showed results of CBR for recycled concrete aggregate of 106%, while for recycled ceramic aggregate was 73%. For unconfined compressive strength 12 specimens were tested (all of them at the optimum moisture content corresponding to the intermediate energy compaction 10.0%) The specimens were separated into four groups of three each, varying time before testing: 0 (zero) day, 7 days, 14 days and 28 days (Figure 6). Specimens were stored in an appropriate manner to maintain its initial moisture.

Figure 6: (a) Cylinder of compaction; (b) Specimens

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The results showed that there was pozzolanic activity throughout the period adopted (Figure 7).

Figure 7: Unconfined compressive strength The increase of the compressive strength occurred due to pozzolanic activity, related to the cement elements of the CDW, which made higher the recycled aggregate strength over time. In comparison, the recycled aggregate studied by Motta (2005) showed compressive strength of 0.48 MPa at 180 days of curing, so the material of the current study presented higher resistance. The resilient modulus test was carried out at Laboratory of Pavement Technology (LTP) from University of Sao Paulo. One specimen of 15cm x 30cm was tested. First, recycled aggregate was mixed with the appropriate moisture content (10.0% for intermediate energy compaction). Then the material was stored for 24 hours in a sealed bag before compaction for better grains absorption (Figure 8a). The compaction was performed in an appropriate cylinder, in five layers with 54 blows each (Figure 8b). After, the specimen was removed and remained resting for 24 hours. Finally, it was carried out the resilient modulus test (Figure 8c and d). The parameters used for the test were the same as those on the standard DNER-ME 131/94 (Figure 9).

Figure 8: Sample stored; (b) Specimen molded; (c) Preparing specimen for the resilient modulus test; (d) Specimen prepared for resilient modulus test
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Figure 9: Resilient modulus The results of resilient modulus test are compared with other studies in Table 4. The values obtained in the current study are lower than the others, but it may be related to percentage of soil fines, or even soil and gradation. Concrete recycled aggregates from Bennert et al (2000) showed the best results considering the original material and the lower energy. Table 4: Resilient modulus results CDW Mixed Concrete Origin Santo Andr/BR USA Compaction energy Intermediate Normal Model MR= 440.39 0,467 MR= 25.35 0,4615 0.35 0.35 MR 270 278 Author Leite (2007) Bennert et al. (2000)

According to Sao Paulo municipality standard PMSP-IP-08 (PMSP, 2002), any materials for subbase or base material have to present resilient modulus between 100MPa < MR < 500MPa. So the material in the current study is in compliance with this specification for low volume traffic roads (Table 5) within a range of possible stresses (1 and 3), considering the sum of them. Table 5: Resilient modulus results x Energy Intermediate (MPa) 0.150 0.350 0.750 MR (MPa) 103 152 217

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4. CONCLUSION Recycled aggregates from CDW recycling plant of So Lus city can be considered appropriated to be used in paving structures as subbase and base of low traffic roads (N < 5x106). Future works can evaluate the improvement by pozzolanic activity by MR test, considering the low values observed in this work, even in compliance with the technical specifications. It can be researched the CDW mixed with cement to be applied as base for heavy traffic too. An in situ trial is another important step to improve the knowledge about this local CDW, so the authors are contacting the mayors staff to make it possible. REFERENCES Affonso, F. J. d. A., 2005. Caracterizao de agregados reciclados de resduos de construo e demolio (RCD) para uso em camadas drenantes de aterros de resduos slidos. 2005. Final Project for master degree in Science of Civil Engineering. Federal University of Rio de Janeiro. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Associao Brasileira De Normas Tcnicas ABNT, 1964, NBR 7181 Solo: anlise granulomtrica: mtodo de ensaio. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Associao Brasileira De Normas Tcnicas ABNT, 1982, NBR 7182 Solo: Ensaio de compactao: mtodo de ensaio. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Associao Brasileira De Normas Tcnicas ABNT, 1987, NBR 9895 Solo: ndice de Suporte Califrnia: mtodo de ensaio. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Associao Brasileira De Normas Tcnicas ABNT, 1989, NBR 6954 Lastro-padro Determinao da forma do material. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Associao Brasileira De Normas Tcnicas ABNT, 2004, NBR 15115 Agregados reciclados de resduos slidos da construo civil Execuo de camadas de pavimentao Procedimentos. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Carneiro, A. P., Burgos, P. C., Alberte, E. P. V., 2001, Uso do Agregado Reciclado em Camadas de Base e Sub-base de Pavimentos. Projeto Entulho Bom. EDUFBA /Caixa Econmica Federal, Salvador, Brazil. Coppead, 2007. ndices de transporte rodovirio. Instituto de Ps-graduao e Pesquisa em Administrao. Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. CONAMA Conselho Nacional do Meio-Ambiente, 2002, Resoluo CONAMA n 307, de 5 de julho de 2002. Departamento Nacional de Estradas De Rodagem DNER, 1994, DNER-ME 131/98 Solos Determinao do Mdulo de Resilincia. Mtodo de Ensaio. Dias, J. F., 2004, Avaliao de Resduos da Fabricao de Telhas Cermicas como Contribuio para seu Emprego em Camadas de Pavimento de Baixo Custo. Doctoral Thesis. Department of Construction and Civil Engineering of the Polytechnic School of the So Paulo University, So Paulo, Brazil. Filho, L. H. C. de A., 2008. Reutilizao de Resduos de Construo e Demolio (RCD) nas Obras de Engenharia: Estudo de Caracterizao em So Lus. Statue University of Maranho, So Lus, Brazil. Leite, F. da C., 2004. Avaliao de Agregado Reciclado de Resduo Slido da Construo Civil como Camada de Pavimento de Vias de Baixo-Volume de Trfego. Polytechnic School of the So Paulo University, So Paulo, Brazil. Leite, F. da C., 2007. Comportamento Mecnico de Agregado Reciclado de Resduo Slido da Construo Civil em Camadas de Base e Sub-Base de Pavimentos. Dissertation. Polytechnic School of the So Paulo University, So Paulo, Brazil.

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Lima, J. A. R., 1999. Proposio de Diretrizes para Produo e Normalizao de Resduo de Construo Reciclado e de suas Aplicaes em Argamassas e Concretos. Department of Architecture and Urbanism of the So Carlos Engineering School of the So Paulo University, So Carlos, Brazil. Motta, R. dos S., 2005. Estudo Laboratorial de Agregado Reciclado de Resduo Slido da Construo Civil para Aplicao em Pavimentao de Baixo Volume de Trfego. Dissertation. Polytechnic School of the So Paulo University, So Paulo, Brazil. Motta, R. S.; Bernucci, L. L. B., 2003, Aplicao de Entulho de Construo Civil Reciclado em Pavimentao de Baixo-Custo. XVII ANPET Congress of Research in Transport Teachings. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Wu, Y., Guo, Y., Zhang, X., 2009, Application of Recycled Brick-stone aggregate in Road Base. In: American Society of Civil Engineers - GeoHunan International Conference. Hunan, China.

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Infrastructure asset management techniques and strategies

iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

A Simple Tool for Applying Sustainability Principles to Road Rehabilitation Strategy

Michael L. J. Maher
Golder Associates Ireland Limited, Naas, Ireland mmaher@golder.com

Robert Noel-De-Tilley
Golder Associs Lte, Montral, Canada Robert_Noel-De-Tilley@golder.com

Robert A. Douglas
Golder Associates Ltd., Mississauga, Canada rdouglas@golder.com

ABSTRACT: There is growing demand around the world for public agencies to implement green and sustainable initiatives into public infrastructure projects. One area that comes under scrutiny is the design and implementation of road rehabilitation. While agreeing with the principles of sustainability, many road agencies struggle with how to implement these objectives on a practical level. The challenges relate to how to compare options in a balanced manner and how to identify and quantify the benefits. Road agencies need to have a better understanding of the benefits of incorporating sustainable design concepts and technologies into road rehabilitation. Agencies also need a process to evaluate achievable sustainable technology alternatives that can be incorporated into traditional projects. This paper describes the adaptation of a sustainability decision support tool to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of complex rehabilitation alternatives. The tool, GoldSET, allows for an unbiased appraisal of alternative strategies on the basis of sustainability principles and identification of the optimal solutions. This sustainability analysis results in a triple bottom line assessment, expanding the traditional life cycle costing framework from purely financial performance to environmental, social and economic performance. The technical merits of alternative technologies are also incorporated. The benefits of this approach are that it allows sustainability to be easily incorporated into the decision-making process and supports proactive stakeholder engagement in a process that is rigorous and transparent. This sustainability tool also facilitates communication by presenting the decision outcomes as a visual representation of performance with respect to sustainability indicators. The process for applying GoldSET is illustrated by way of a road rehabilitation project in Ontario, Canada. On this project, three alternative rehabilitation strategies were evaluated and the findings presented in a clear graphical format that identified the preferred option. KEY WORDS: Sustainability; Road Rehabilitation; GoldSET; triple bottom line.

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1. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: IMPLICATIONS The paradigm called sustainable development stems from the realization that economic development must increasingly be undertaken in ways that respect the integrity of the environment while promoting social equity. The United Nations (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987) provided a definition of sustainable development as a development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. However, translating this concept into reality is a complex challenge that corporations and agencies around the world are facing as they try to conform to the new realities of climate change as well as increasing stakeholder and regulatory pressures. The development of sustainable policies and practices requires management of conflicting priorities that are challenging to embed into day-to-day operations constrained by shrinking budgets and require doing more with less. Expenditures are to be minimised in a context where the people and the planet aspects must be carefully considered and managed. In the private sector, the three Ps (Profitability, People and Planet) form this triple bottom line mantra that modern corporations are expected to optimize in highly competitive and increasingly scrutinized markets. Indeed, as sustainability issues are becoming more pressing and intricate, the rising scrutiny from society, organisations, regulators, the media as well as investors renders the issue of sustainable development increasingly unavoidable to the global business community. In a similar manner, public agencies must also face the new realities and lead by example. There is a need to understand and manage the risks and opportunities to the operations model of an organisation arising from the imperatives of sustainable development. As shown in Figure 1, the increasing pressures from the various stakeholders of an organisation to move forward with sustainability are occurring in a context where socio-economic and environmental issues are becoming progressively more complex to understand and manage. As a response to this challenge, many government agencies and industry organisations have prepared policies and guidelines that set sustainability targets and objectives. Examples of these include: A European Strategy for Sustainable Development (Commission of the European Communities, 2001); Sustainable Development Strategy 2007-2009 (Public Works and Government Services Canada, 2006); Project Sustainability Management: Guidelines (International Federation of Consulting Engineers, 2004); and Sustainability Reporting Guidelines (Global Reporting Initiative, 2006). These published resources provide frameworks for addressing sustainability issues. However, the practical problem resulting from these, and numerous similar resources, is that they are not easily applied at the project level where practitioners on a daily basis need to make decisions that go to the heart of whether sustainability can be transformed from concept to reality. Public agencies need to be able to effectively and efficiently evaluate their options with a comprehensive sustainability approach. Such an evaluation process needs to be: Easy to understand, use and communicate; Technically defensible; Transparent to the stakeholders; Flexible so that both quantitative and qualitative information can be processed; Balanced in regards to the sustainability principles; Specific to the organisation; and Pragmatic so that it can support sound decisions consistent with budgetary constraints.

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Figure 1: Organizations are facing increasing pressure to make progress with sustainability A comprehensive analytical framework to support sustainability assessments can lead to sound policy and engineering decisions, decisions in which principles of and agency policies on sustainable development can be implemented at the project level. This process would mean that the assessment of the various sustainability issues in a project will be synthesized in order to facilitate the trade-offs leading to optimized decisions. This process should enhance the understanding of the sustainability issues, which will, in turn, position the project proponents so that they can engage more proactively with their stakeholders, better manage their risks and ultimately improve the overall performance of their projects. While the policies relating to sustainability may originate at a political level, frequently their practical implementation is in the hands of engineers. Far from being a concern, this aspect of implementation of sustainability is a positive one since engineers are in the best position to understand the real challenges that are being faced as a result of the human influence on the earths systems. This understanding, combined with the engineers unique role of working at the coalface in terms of infrastructure delivery and maintenance, will allow the application of innovation to effect change. This key role of engineers is eloquently presented in a paper in the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers entitled, Earth systems engineering: turning vision into action (Hall and OConnell, 2007). This paper concludes with the statement, The capacity for technological adaptation is now recognised as one of the determinants of humankinds ability to cope with global change and technological adaptation is what engineers do best. 2. GOLDSET: AN EXECUTABLE FRAMEWORK FOR SUSTAINABILITY Golder Associates has developed a multi-criteria analytical (MCA) framework called GoldSET to support sustainability assessments. It is used to operationalise the principles of sustainable development into engineering projects. This MCA framework was first developed in 2007 to investigate the sustainability elements included in an environmental site remediation project. The basis for GoldSET was to support the evaluation process in order to make sure that the proper recommendations would be made, while including various sustainability principles. To do so, it was designed to address economic, social and environmental impacts, direct and indirect, positive and negative, short and long term. The tool was developed in conformance with international initiatives pertaining to the integration of sustainable development principles into the decision process of site remediation projects when selecting a remediation scenario. Publications such as the Review of Decision Support
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Tools for Contaminated Land Management, and their use in Europe, (CLARINET, 2002) were consulted. This review identified the MCA methodology as one of the most appropriate and flexible ways of integrating and evaluating environmental issues to support a sustainable development decision-making process. Similarly, the workshop on sustainable remediation held in 2008 (NICOLE & SAGTA, 2008) also supported the MCA approach as an appropriate framework for incorporating sustainable development into remediation projects. The GoldSET evaluation process is divided into a number of steps, as shown in Figure 2:

Figure 2 : Overview of the evaluation process The application of the GoldSET process requires the identification of a series of sustainable development indicators tailored to the specific requirements of an agency and the nature of the design challenge being addressed. The process encourages the initial consideration of a broad set of technological solutions, including those that may be new or innovative. From these, a set of acceptable solutions that meet the minimum performance objectives is then selected. These are the solutions that are then scored using the full set of sustainability indicators, providing a ranked set of solutions. This ranking is carried out on the acceptable options using a structured system incorporating tailored scoring and weighting schemes. The framework can handle both qualitative and quantitative data and can be performed at many levels of detail. The results of the evaluation are presented both numerically and graphically, as shown in Figure 3. As the final step, the interpretation leading to a sound decision can be made based on the outputs of the evaluation process. The process, being iterative by nature, facilitates further refinements if additional information is available or if a new option is proposed. In the end, the process yields an optimized solution that has been reached in a technically sound and objective manner. As can be seen in Figure 3, each axis represents one of the three dimensions of sustainable development, and the triangle represents the performance of an option with respect to those three dimensions: environment, society, and economy. Under normal circumstances, the optimal sustainable solution will be determined by the largest, most balanced triangle. Although the biggest triangle is not an absolute criterion for selecting an

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Figure 3 : Graphical output of the sustainable development evaluation for three design options option, the process provides an in-depth appreciation of the sustainability issues related to a particular design solution and legitimizes the choice of an option on that basis. The benefits provided by GoldSET are not limited to understanding and managing the issues as part of a decision-making process; the tool can also be used to support the communication process with the various stakeholders.
3. APPLICATION OF GOLDSET TO ROAD PAVEMENT REHABILITATION

3.1. Needs and Challenges While the statistics vary, it is generally accepted that transportation is responsible for over one quarter of green house gas (GHG) emissions on a global basis. Of this amount, over 80% is attributed to road transportation. Obviously, the bulk of that is the result of vehicle traffic emissions, but the contribution from road construction, rehabilitation and maintenance cannot be overlooked. For example, it is estimated that the 35 million tonnes of asphalt and 48 million tonnes of concrete consumed on transportation infrastructure in the United States on an annual basis costs $65 billion (Zhang, 2009). In addition, it is estimated that poor road conditions in the United States cost motorists $54 billion a year in vehicle repair and operating costs (ASCE, 2006). In the United Kingdom it is estimated that 54 million is spent a year in compensation claims for damage to vehicles from potholes, more that the amount spent in actually repairing potholes (HTMA, 2009). In many public agencies decision-making with respect to expenditures for road preservation is too much focused on past practice and current short term constraints. This encourages consideration of only cost of production and not the cost of impacts or externalities. While environmental impacts are considered, it is usually only on a superficial level. Many agencies rely almost exclusively on life cycle cost analysis as the means to select preferred road rehabilitation strategies. However, even where these analyses are projected 50 years into the future, the financial projections on which they are based only reflect current cost relationships and conditions. Numerous challenges arise in efforts to introduce sustainability into the decision process. There are the significant challenges of trying to balance re-use and recycling strategies with the need to maintain high standards of performance. There is the trade-off between using locally sourced materials over higher quality or cheaper imported materials from further afield. There is also confusion created by proponents of new equipment, materials and processes which are marketed as green products. How can the greenness of such products be objectively established in a practical manner? Given an objective basis to compare, recycling equipment manufacturers and road building contractors may be further encouraged to develop more sustainable solutions.

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One approach to this challenge that has recently been developed by the University of Washington and CH2M HILL (2010) is Greenroads. This is a sustainability rating system that awards points for more sustainable practices. It is a similar philosophy to that used in the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) system applied to buildings (U.S. Green Building Council, undated). Greenroads is an excellent system that encourages a greater awareness of sustainable practices in road planning and design. The tool presented in this paper is focused on evaluating road rehabilitation treatments from a sustainability perspective and allows detailed evaluation of complex materials and technologies. 3.2 A Wide Range of Treatments to be Considered Given the diversity of road rehabilitation projects and the advances in recycling technologies in recent years, a wide range of treatments is possible. Table 1 lists a large number of them. Table 1: Selection of Road Rehabilitation Treatments
Surface Treatments Shallow Rehabilitation Treatments Partial and Full Depth Treatments Other Rehabilitation Treatments Fog seal, Slurry seal, Microsurfacing, Chip seal (single & double), Scrub seal, Ultrathin friction course Asphalt overlay, Cold planing, Cold in-place recycling (CIR), Hot inplace recycling (HIR), White topping Total reconstruction, Full depth reclamation (FDR), Expanded asphalt, Granular grade raise, Full depth asphalt removal Premium asphalt mixes, Central plant cold mix paving, Full depth crack repair and overlay, Warm mix asphalt

A range of inputs relating to the materials, equipment and processes for each treatment needs to be assessed. The range for just one of the treatments, Full depth reclamation, highlighted in Table 1, is listed in Table 2. Table 2: Range of inputs that need to be assessed for Full Depth Reclamation
Stabilizing Types Mechanical Chemical Bituminous Blends Virgin aggregate, Reclaimed asphalt pavement, Crushed concrete Lime, Portland cement, Flyash, Kiln dust, Mg/Ca chloride, Proprietary chemicals Liquid asphalt, Emulsion, Foamed asphalt Various combinations of items above Equipment Self propelled reclaimer, Motor graders, Compactors, Dump haul trucks, Calibrated aggregate spreader, Water truck with spray bar, Calibrated bulk spreader, Mixer and tanker for slurries, Asphalt emulsion tanker, Liquid or foamed asphalt system, Front end loader Life Expectancy With surface treatment 7-10 years, With hot mix overlay 20 years

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3.3. Sustainability Assessment Criteria At a minimum, three sets of criteria should be considered: environmental, social, and economic. In the case of road rehabilitation, a fourth criterion, technical, has been added. This is considered important to capture the performance risks associated with different technologies and the ease with which the quality of construction can be assured. Each option for the implementation of the rehabilitation project is assessed against these criteria. An example criteria listing prepared for road rehabilitation project options is given in Table 3. Table 3: List of sustainability assessment criteria
Environmental Criteria Use of natural resources, Energy consumption, GHG emissions, Construction air emissions/dust, Waste generation, Noise in service, Runoff quantity/quality, Smoothness, Heat island effects Health & safety during construction, Construction impact on community, Equity-local jobs, training, Noise in service, Rider comfort and safety Construction cost, Life cycle cost, Impact on local business/commerce, Future maintenance interventions Performance risk, Quality risks

Social Criteria Economic Criteria Technical Criteria

The lists of items for each criterion in Table 3 have been carefully considered to strike a balance between simplicity and transparency on the one hand, and completeness and the need to set criteria which will differentiate one project option from the other, on the other hand. Project options are rated against the criteria in Table 3, taking into account all the inputs in Table 2, as they apply to the relevant rehabilitation treatments in Table 1. 4. CASE STUDY 4.1. Project Description To demonstrate the application of GoldSET to the selection of an optimal rehabilitation strategy, a section of rural arterial highway in Eastern Ontario, Canada has been selected. The section is a 12 km long stretch of Highway 62 in the Township of Hastings Highlands. A typical condition photograph of the road section is provided in Figure 4

Figure 4: Distresses in pavement after approximately 20 years in service

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A detailed investigation of the road section was undertaken comprising a visual condition survey, shallow boreholes, coring and ground-penetrating radar. Project details are given in Table 4. Table 4: Project details
Current Traffic Construction History Pavement Condition 3,450 Average Annual Daily Traffic with 10% commercial Originally constructed in 1950. In 1970, 70 mm asphalt overlay applied. In 1990, pavement was cold milled and a new recycled asphalt overlay applied. Slight ravelling and coarse aggregate loss throughout; Few areas of very slight flushing; Extensive, moderate wheel track rutting; Extensive, moderate distortions; Intermittent, moderate longitudinal wheel track cracking with very slight alligator cracking; Few severe areas of centreline cracking with intermittent alligatoring; Moderate transverse cracking throughout with intermittent, moderate alligatoring; and Intermittent, severe longitudinal, meander and midlane cracking. Average Thickness (mm) 165 135 Thickness Range (mm) 95-270 90-240

Pavement Structure Asphalt Granular Base Subgrade

Sand with gravel/Silty Sand. Note: No subbase layer used due to sandy subgrade.

4.2. Rehabilitation Options Based on local practice and resources, three options were considered for the project. Their details follow. OPTION 1 Cold mill the existing asphalt surface to a depth of 100 mm. Place milled material on adjacent granular shoulder Full depth reclaim the remaining +/-100 mm of asphalt and underlying granular base materials for a depth of 225mm. Resurface with a 50 mm lift of SuperPave surface course over 70mm of Superpave binder course. Estimated Life +/- 18 years Estimated initial cost of construction per 2 lane/km: $170,000 OPTION 2 Cold In-Place Recycle the existing pavement to a depth of 100 mm. Tack-coat and resurface with a 50 mm lift of SuperPave surface course Estimated Life 10 to 12 years Estimated initial cost of construction per 2 lane/km: $120,000 OPTION 3 Mill and pave or pre-pave a series of Hot Mix patches in the most severely deteriorated areas. Overlay with a single 50mm lift of SuperPave surface course mix. Estimated Life - 5 to 7 years Estimated initial cost of construction per 2 lane/km: $60,000

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4.3. Results from Sustainability Assessment Each of the three viable options was assessed under the three established sustainability criteria, and technical merit, and the result is shown in Figure 5. These scores were averaged for each criterion (environment, economy, society, and technical), and plotted on the four-axis graphs, Figure 5. The graphs provide an immediate visualization of the sustainability characteristics of each option. As indicated by the size of each options quadrilateral, it is evident that Option 1 is generally the best solution, whereas Option 3 is generally the poorest and has associated high risks of performance problems. A closer look reveals that while Option 1 scores well on technical grounds, it scores less well on economic grounds. It is also interesting to note that if the options were considered on purely economic merits, for example using a life cycle cost analysis, Option 3 might have been the option selected this despite its short life-expectancy and obvious short-comings against environmental, societal and technical measures.

Figure 5 : Graphical output of the evaluation of the three rehabilitation options 5. CONCLUSION This paper presents a simple decision-support tool to assist in making road rehabilitation expenditures more sustainable. It has been demonstrated that there is a need for a practical project-level analytical framework to evaluate scenarios and to facilitate sound and defensible decisions. This approach enhances the understanding of the sustainability issues in a project and encourages innovation. In turn, this understanding can be instrumental in the following: Supporting proactive stakeholder engagement and greater user satisfaction; Fostering optimized expenditures and better outcomes; Encouraging more innovation from equipment manufacturers and contractors; Providing a framework for estimating the greeness of new technologies; and, Meeting the overall objectives of a more sustainable road network. This sustainability decision support tool has numerous benefits that can help achieve sustainable financial performance while promoting environmental and social development.

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REFERENCES ASCE, 2006. Road to Infrastructure Renewal A Voters Guide. American Society of Civil Engineering, Reston, Virginia, U.S.A. CLARINET, 2002. Review of Decision Support Tools for Contaminated Land Management, and their Use in Europe. Contaminated Land and Rehabilitation Network for Environmental Technologies. Commission of the European Communities, 2001. A European Strategy for Sustainable Development. Commission's proposal to the Gothenburg European Council. COM (2001) 264. May 2001. 17 pages. Global Reporting Initiative (GRI), 2006. Sustainability Reporting Guidelines,G3, Version 3.0. Hall, J. and OConnell, E., 2007. Earth systems engineering: turning vision into action. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Civil Engineering Volume 160, No. CE3, August. HTMA, 2009. Sustainable Roads 2009. Highways Term Maintenance Contractors, Conference and Exhibition media package, Westminister, U.K., October. International Federation of Consulting Engineers (FIDIC), 2004. Project Sustainability Management: Guidelines. 40 pages NICOLE & SAGTA, 2008. Sustainable Remediation., Proceedings of the Workshop on Sustainable Remediation, Network for Contaminated Land in Europe and The Soil and Groundwater Technology Association, pp. 1-38. Public Works and Government Services Canada (PWGSC), 2006. Sustainable Development Strategy 2007-2009. 56 pages. University of Washington and CH2MHILL, 2010. An Introduction to Greenroads: A Sustainability Performance Metric for Roadways. Version 1.0, 13 January 2010. U.S. Green Building Council, undated. Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED). Consulted in April 2010. Available at: http://www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CategoryID=19 World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), 1987. Our Common Future. Published as Annex to General Assembly document A/42/427, Development and International Co-operation: Environment, August 2, 1987. Zhang, Han, 2009. Sustainable Pavement Asset Management based on Life Cycle Models and Optimization Methods. Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, University of Michigan.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Use of 3D Laser Profiling Sensors for the Automated Measurement of Road Surface Conditions (ruts, cracks, texture)
D. Lefebvre
INO (National Optics Institute), Canada Daniel.Lefebvre@ino.ca

Y. Savard
Ministre des Transports du Qubec (MTQ), Canada Yves.Savard@mtq.gouv.qc.ca

J. Laurent & J.F. Hbert & R. Habel

Pavemetrics Systems inc., Canada jlaurent@pavemetrics.com jfhebert@pavemetrics.com rhabel@pavemetric.com

ABSTRACT: In order to maximize road maintenance funds and optimize the condition of road networks pavement management systems need detailed and reliable data on the status of the road network. To date, reliable crack data has proven difficult and expensive to obtain. To solve this problem, over the last 7 years INO (National Optics Institute of Canada) in collaboration with the MTQ (Ministre des Transports du Qubec) have been developing and testing a new technology called the LCMS (Laser Crack Measurement System). The LCMS is composed of two high performance 3D laser profilers that are able to measure complete transverse road profiles and to process this data using algorithms that were developed to automatically extract crack data including crack type (transverse, longitudinal, alligator) and severity. This system was completed in three main phases. The first (2002) aimed at evaluating the 3D laser profilers and was validated by surveying a road section containing artificial cracks created by saw cuts. The second phase validated the algorithms for the detection and classification of road cracks on 400m road segments in 2005. The third phase aimed to perfect the system and software so as to make them robust enough to complete network level surveys. This paper describes results obtained during the campaign of 2007 when the system was used to survey 10,000 km of the MTQs road network. This paper will also explains the 3D laser technology and optical configuration used by the LCMS system and show examples of data acquisitions and processing results. We also describe the validation tests and the main steps of the quality insurance plan that was implemented by the MTQ. Finally, an analysis of the results of the surveys will show that the LCMS meets most of the MTQs pavement management requirements. 1. INTRODUCTION The LCMS system is based on two high performance transverse 3D laser profilers that are placed at the rear of the inspection vehicle looking down in such a way as to scan the entire 4m width of the road surface. The use of 3D laser profilers allows the system to directly measure surface defects such as cracks, ruts, pot holes, macro-texture, joints and patches while the intensity data that is also collected allows for the detection of lane markings and sealed cracks. Table 1 summarizes the specifications of the LCMS system.
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Figure 1: Photo of the LCMS on the MTQ Inspection Vehicle Table 1: LCMS Specifications Nbr. of laser profilers Sampling rate (max.) Vehicle speed Profile spacing 3D points per profile Transverse field-of-view Depth range of operation Z-axis (depth) accuracy X-axis (transverse) resolution 2 5600 profiles/s 100 km/h (max) Adjustable 4096 points 4m 250 mm 0.5 mm 1 mm

Figure 2: Photo of the LCMS System (Sensors and Controller)

The recommended system configuration that was used and tested by the MTQ is the following: Two LCMS sensors were placed 2m apart and 2m above the road surface looking down. Instead of placing the sensors at a 90 degree angle perpendicular to the road surface a slight (15 degree) slant was put on the sensors in order to improve the detection of transverse cracks.
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With such a configuration it is possible, with the 15 degree tilt angle, to reliably detect both longitudinal and transverse cracks as can be seen with the following illustrations of the sampling intervals for each case. At 100km/h in the case of transverse cracks the 15 degree tilt angle results in the fact that each transverse crack will effectively be measured at over 200 different points. For longitudinal cracks the effective sampling rate is one point every 5 mm.

2m 18 mm 5 mm

2m 2m

220 points

Figure 3: Diagram of the Crack Sampling Interval 2. HARDWARE CONFIGURATION The sensors used with the LCMS system are 3D laser profilers that use high power laser line projectors, custom filters and a camera as the detector. The light stripe is projected onto the pavement and its image is captured by the camera. The shape of the pavement is acquired as the inspection vehicle travels along the road using a DMI signal from an odometer to synchronize the sensor acquisition. All the images coming from the cameras are sent to the frame grabber to be digitized and then processed by the CPU. Saving the raw images would imply storing nearly 30Gb per kilometer at 100 km/h but using lossless data compression algorithms on the 3D data and fast JPEG compression on the intensity data brings the data rate down to a very manageable 20Mb/s or 720Mb per kilometer. The LCMS sensors simultaneously acquire both range and intensity profiles. The figure below illustrates how the various types of data collected by the LCMS system can be exploited to characterize many types of road features. The graph shows that the 3D data and intensity data serve different purposes. The intensity data is required for the detection of lane markings and sealed cracks whereas the 3D data is used for the detection of most of the other features.

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Figure 4: Data analysis library diagram 3. INTENSITY DATA Intensity profiles provided by the LCMS are used to form a continuous picture of the road. The first role of the intensity information is for the detection of road limits. This algorithm relies on the detection of the painted lines used as lane markings to determine the width and position of the road lane. The lane position data is then used by the other detection algorithms to circumscribe the analysis within this region of interest in order to avoid surveying defects outside the lane. Highly reflective painted landmarks are much easier to detect in 2D since they generally appear highly contrasted in the intensity images. With the proper pattern recognition algorithms, various markings can be identified and surveyed. To date, only the detection of lane lines has been implemented and tested. In future work we will also be exploring the possibility of evaluating the quality of the lane marking by computing the deterioration as the ratio of the pixels of the surface of the lane markings that have lost their reflectivity. The following figure shows two intensity images with painted lane marks.

Figure 5: LCMS images of painted lane marks

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4. RANGE DATA The 3D data acquired by the LCMS system measures the distance from the sensor to the surface for every sampled point on the road. The image (6a) below is an example of the raw range (3D) data acquired by the sensors. In this image, elevation has been converted to a gray level. The brighter the point, the lower is the surface. As can be seen, the height varies along the cross section of the road. The areas in the wheel path are usually deeper than the sides and thus appear brighter this would correspond to the presence of ruts. Height variations can also be observed in the longitudinal direction. This is due to the suspension of the vehicle holding the sensors. In this case, the variation comes from the changes in the sensor height rather than the road surface itself. This phenomenon does not affect rut measurements since these are made on a profile-by-profile basis whereas the suspension motion causes relative height changes from one profile to the next. These large-scale height variations correspond to the low-spatial frequency content of the range information in the longitudinal direction. Most features that need to be detected are located in the high-spatial frequency portion of the range data. For instance, cracks correspond to very sudden, sharp transitions in height i.e. high frequencies. The first step in range analysis is to separate the high frequency content from the low one. This is performed using a specially designed filter. Figure 6b shows the result of this process. The low frequency part is what can be referred to as the mean surface. The high-frequency part clearly shows the presence of surface defects (cracks). Once separated, both frequency parts are then used as an input to the various feature detection algorithms.

Figure 6: (a) Range (raw) and (b) Range (corrected) images 5. MACRO-TEXTURE Macrotexture is important for several reasons, for example it can help estimate the tire/road friction level, water runoff and aquaplaning conditions and tire/road noise levels produced just to name a few. Macrotexture can be evaluated by applying the ASTM 1845-01norm. This standard requires the calculation of the mean profile depth (MPD). To calculate the MPD, the
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profile is divided into small segments and for each segment a linear regression is performed on the data. The MPD is then computed as the difference between the highest point on the profile and the average fitted line for the considered portion. See figure below.

Figure 7: Macro-texture Analysis Example 6. CRACKING Detecting cracks reliably is far more complex than applying a threshold on a range image. As mentioned previously section the 3D profile data needs to be detrended from the effects of rutting and vehicle movements. Macrotexture is also a problem; road surfaces have very variable macrotexture from one section to the next and even from one side of the lane to the other. For example, on roads with weak macrotexture we can hope to detect very small cracks which will be harder to detect on more highly textured surfaces. It is thus necessary to evaluate and to adapt the thresholding operations based on the macrotexture of the road. Once the theresholding operation is performed, a binary image is obtained where the remaining active pixels are potential cracks. This binary image is then filtered to remove many of the false detections which are caused by asperities in the road surface which are not cracks on the pavement. At this point in the processing, most of the remaining pixels can correctly be identified to existing cracks, however many of these crack segments need to be joined together to avoid multiple detections of the same crack. 7. MTQ PROTOCOL After the detection process, the next step consists in the characterization of the cracks. This was done using the MTQ protocol. With this protocol, severity level of a crack is determined by evaluating its width (opening). For a single continuous crack, the severity is evaluated every 5 cm. In order to facilitate the interpretation of the detection results, the cracks are classified into three categories as shown in the table below: Table 2: Cracks Categories Severity level Weak Medium Severe
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Width Less than 3 mm Between 3 mm and 5 mm More than 5 mm

The cracks were also grouped into two main categories: Longitudinal and transverse cracks. A transverse crack is defined as a crack which has a slew angle of less than 20 degrees. Furthermore, transverse cracks are further divided into complete and incomplete types. A complete transverse crack covers more than 75% of the pavement width. An incomplete transverse crack covers between 25% and 75% of the road lane. Any crack which is less than 25% of the road width is not considered as a transverse crack. Finally, the transverse cracks are graded as weak, medium or severe depending on its maximum severity (width) which composes at least 25% of the transverse crack. The definition of a longitudinal crack is simply a crack that has not been classified as a transverse crack. However, longitudinal cracks are further refined into three sub-categories: simple, multiple and alligator. 8. RESULTS During the summer campaign of 2007 the LCMS system was used by the MTQ to survey 10,000km of its road network. In order to validate the system an independent 3rd party under the supervision of the MTQ was mandated to manually qualify the crack detection results of LCMS system over the entire survey. To do this each 10m section was visually analyzed and the results were categorized in 3 classes (Good, Average and Bad). A forth class (NA) was used when for when it was not possible to correctly evaluate a section. Figure 8 shows two examples of both a Good and an Average crack detection results on a 10m pavement section. Transverse cracks are identified with a bounding box. Regions with a red cross indicate the presence of alligator cracking. Regions with a yellow cross indicate regions with multiple cracks. Green, yellow and red cracks represent weak, medium and severe crack severities respectively. Table 3 shows the results of the compilation of the manual evaluation. The final results are deemed excellent as the overall Good rating reaches 96.5%.

Figure 8: Two crack detection results (Examples of good (bon) and average (moyen) results)
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Table 3: 10,000 km survey results Results (manual classification) Total District # Proportion (%) (10 m sections) Number of images (10m sections) Good Average Bad NA Good Average Bad NA 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 & 92 Total 35288 4243 147903 149926 189097 125003 123653 215513 990626 34144 4101 144040 138453 183010 121835 116930 213142 955655 310 53 516 1170 1064 442 2980 197 6732 144 51 1520 5728 2002 2015 2434 956 14850 690 38 1827 4575 3021 711 1309 1218 13389 96,8 96,7 97,4 92,3 96,8 97,5 94,6 98,9 96,5 0,9 1,2 0,3 0,8 0,6 0,4 2,4 0,1 0,7 0,4 1,2 1,0 3,8 1,1 1,6 2,0 0,4 1,5 2,0 0,9 1,2 3,1 1,6 0,6 1,1 0,6 1,4

A second evaluation test was performed on 770 km of the MTQ road network using 77 000 images of 10m sections acquired by the LCMS system that were compared to images of the same sections measured by a video camera. This time a more detailed analysis was done to evaluate the capacity of the LCMS to detect and correctly classify the following road surface characteristics: Longitudinal cracks, transverse cracks, incomplete transverse cracks, Patches and Pot holes. Again each 10m section was visual analyzed and the detection results were classified as follows: Much less (missing 2 or more cracks), Less (missing 1 crack), Good, More (1 or more false detections). Table 4 summarizes these results. Overall the results are very good except for what might be expected for the detection of the transverse cracks. The table indicates that a large number of transverse cracks were missed (33.4%), however most of these missing cracks were complete transverse cracks that were detected as incomplete transverse cracks (80%). Also since these tests were done the acquisition rate of the LCMS sensors has been multiplied by 4, the performance of the new sensors is expected to greatly increase the detection rate of the transverse cracks. Table 4: 770 km detailed survey results Results (manual classification of 77,000 images) Defect type Longitudinal cracks Transverse cracks Patches Potholes Number of images (10m sections) Much Less Less 632 1426 430 10 1040 53429 5948 13962 1210 166 4926 1982 854 744 95 55 1.1 6.5 6.5 0.5 Proportion (%) 1.9 95.5 1.6 3.4 1.5 2.5 Good More Much Less Less Good More

26.9 63.2 18.2 74.0 7.5 89.6

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9. CONCLUSION We have presented a road surveying system that is based on two high performance transverse 3D laser profilers that are placed at the rear of an inspection vehicle looking down in such a way as to scan the entire 4m width of the road surface. This configuration allows the direct measurement of many different types of surface defects by simultaneously acquiring high resolution 3D and intensity data. Examples of different algorithms and results were shown using the 3D data to detect cracks while the intensity data was used for the detection of lane markings. The LCMS system was tested at the network level (10000km) to evaluate the systems performance at the task of automatic detection and classification of cracks. The system was evaluated to be over 95% correct in the general classification of cracks when the 3D crack data was visually present in the images. The LCMS system was also compared to 770 km of detailed manual video analysis techniques and the system performance was measured to be: 95% accurate for the detection of longitudinal cracks and 63% accurate for the detection of transverse cracks with a majority (80%) of the missing transverse cracks being partially detected as incomplete transverse cracks. REFERENCES Laurent, J.; Lefebvre, D. and Samson E., 2008. Development of a New 3D Transverse Profiling System for the Automatic Measurement of Road Cracks. Proceedings of the 6th Symposium on Pavement Surface Caracteristics, Portoroz, Slovenia. Laurent, J. and Hbert, J. F., 2002. High Performance 3D Sensors for the characterization of Road Surface Defects. Proceedings of the IAPR Workshop on Machine Vision Applications, Nara Japan.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

The Effect of Geometric Features on Flexible Pavement Damage using In-Service Pavement Performance Data Case Study
H. Salama, N. Gonah & A. Wahdan
Civil & Environmental Engineering Department, Al Azhar University, Egypt salamahas@gmail.com, n_gonah@yahoo.com & enitcairo@yahoo.com

M. Solyman
Zuhair Fayez Partnership (ZFP), Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia msolyman@zfp.com

ABSTRACT: Although some segments of the same road are exposed to heavier loading conditions due to their geometric features, the current state-of-the-practice for pavement design does not differentiate between these segments and applies the same pavement layer thickness and materials to the entire road. The geometric features such as horizontal curve, vertical gradient and Uturn locations may affect the pavement performance. This paper investigates the effect of geometric features on flexible pavement damage using in-service pavement performance data. Comparison between the pavement performance of straight sections and sections with special geometric features was done using Analysis Of Variance (ANOVA). The study includes field survey for pavement distresses which is characterized by Pavement Condition Index (PCI) and pavement roughness which is characterized by International Roughness Index (IRI). Pavement distresses and roughness for a total of 115 sections with special geometry and their reference sections on different highways in Egypt were surveyed. Analysis of the collected data shows considerable decrease in pavement performance at special geometric sections. The percent reduction in the PCI is higher than the percent increase in the IRI which indicates that the pavement distresses at both horizontal and vertical curves always start first causing the pavement roughness to increase. This study proposes special care for pavement design of sections located at special geometric features to resist rutting distress. KEY WORDS: Pavement distresses, Pavement roughness, PCI, Road geometric features.

1. BACKGROUND Pavement performance is a function of several factors some of which are not constant in the direction of traffic. Hence, the deterioration rate varies along the road, where some sections experience more deterioration than others. The highways that have special geometry such as horizontal and vertical curves, intersections, U-turns, and stopping areas along with the remarkable increase in the allowable maximum loads and tire pressure the pavement deterioration could accelerate at these locations.

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Although some segments of the road are exposed to unaccounted loading conditions, the current state-of-the-practice for pavement design does not differentiate between these segments and applies the same pavement layer thickness, materials, and specification to the entire road. Hence, some sections suffer from premature deterioration more than others at the same road. Very few researchers have investigated the influence of the geometric characteristics on pavement design and performance. Kandhal, 1998 investigated the presence of rutting and shoving in the special geometric locations such as intersections. He found that there is no significant rutting and shoving in the same road away from the intersection because of the difference in the rate of loading at intersections. Abdel Nabi, 1995 and Abdel Nabi et al., 1999 investigated the effect of highway geometry on the surface cracking of asphalt pavement. Their investigation showed that the geometry of a highway plays a major role in the occurrence of the surface cracking. The results indicate that the number of pavement transverse cracks in both Egypt and Canada highways are significantly higher on the horizontal curve sections than those on the straight sections. Gillespie and his group at UMTRI, 1993, investigated the forces that cause pavement distresses at special geometric section. They found that accelerating, braking and cornering maneuvers place additional stress on a pavement surface. In accelerating and braking maneuvers the weight of the vehicle shifts longitudinally. In cornering, the weight shifts laterally. Thus, the maneuvers change wheel loads affecting the normal stresses on the pavement. The tire traction and cornering forces which are necessary to accomplish the maneuvers are imposing additional shear stresses on the pavement surface. These unaccounted loadings accelerate pavement damage at these locations. Chang, (2001) studied the unaccounted loading in the pavement design at the special geometric section especially at the horizontal curve. His study showed that when a vehicle travels on a horizontal curve a portion of the vehicle weight is shifted to the outside tires resulting in excessive lateral forces. In some cases, the load on the inside wheels reaches zero and lifts off the ground and the load in the outside tires is increased by double the magnitude of the designed load. This paper investigates the effect of highway geometry on flexible pavement damage from in-service pavement distress data. Field surveys for 115 pavement sections with special geometric features and the adjacent straight sections (reference sections) were conducted. Statistical analysis was carried out to compare between pavement distresses at both special sections and their references. 2. DATA COLLECTION Pavement distresses and roughness were collected for 115 sections that have either horizontal, vertical curves or U-turns. To study the effect of these geometric features on pavement damage, each of the previous sections that have special geometry were compared with the adjacent straight section (its reference section). These sections are located over the following four main roads on the Egyptian road network: Cairo - Alexandria Agricultural Highway (CAA) 43 sections Tanta - Damietta Agricultural Highway (TDA) 50 sections Cairo - Alexandria Desert Highway (CAD) 8 sections Cairo - Ismailia Desert Highway (CID) 14 sections All selected sections have flexible pavement type, variation in traffic characteristics and pavement conditions. Figure 1 show the roads included in the study.

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Figure 1: Map of roads under study 2.2. Features of Selected sections All selected sections have the following criteria: 1. Located on a main highway in Egypt. 2. Have the same number of lanes throughout the entire length of section, 3. Constructed at the same time by the same contractor, 4. Have a uniform asphalt mixes and same thickness and material of the entire wearing, base, subbase, and subgrade layers, 5. Have the same length which is 100 m, After selection of the sections, relevant information was collected from the regional highway agency for each road. Sections which failed to meet the above selected criterion were excluded from the analysis. Preliminary site visits were made to each of the selected sections to compare the data collected from the agencies and the road maps to the actual field condition. Table 1 shows the total number of sections for each alignment type, whereas Table 2 shows the number of sections for alignment type in each road. Table 1: Total number of sections for each alignment types Alignment type Vertical Curve Downgrade Upgrade Special geometric sections 15 15 78 7 115 Straight sections (reference section) 15 15 78 7 115

Horizontal curve U-turn TOTAL

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Table 2: Number of sections according to alignment types Road Name Cairo-Alexandria Agricultural (CAA) Alignment Type Vertical Curve Horizontal curve Tanta-Damietta Agricultural (TDA) Vertical Curve Horizontal curve Vertical Curve Cairo-Alexandria Desert (CAD) Horizontal curve U-turn Cairo-Ismailia Desert (CID) Vertical Curve Horizontal curve U-turn 2.1. Pavement Condition Evaluation Method Two performance measures were taken into consideration to evaluate the pavement condition: 1- Pavement surface distresses were collected through visual inspection according to SHRP distress identification manual. The Pavement Condition Index (PCI) for each section was calculated using MicroPAVER software. In this technique, the pavement condition is characterized based on a numerical rating from 0 to 100 where 0 indicates very poor pavement condition whereas 100 indicates excellent pavement condition. There are three pavement distress characteristics that have significant effect upon the determination of the degree of deterioration and hence the PCI: Type of distress, Severity of distress, and Amount or density of distress. The distress survey includes only the outside (slow) lane where most trucks travel causing more distress. 2- International Roughness index which measures pavement roughness in terms of the number of inches/mile (m/km) that a laser, mounted in a specialized van, jumps as it is driven across the highway. The lower the IRI number, the smoother the ride along the road. The surface roughness is an important indicator of pavement condition assessment that is identified from the calculated IRI. The collected data along the road profile was processed by ROMDAS software package to calculate the IRI for each section. Those two pavement performances (PCI and IRI) were used to evaluate the pavement condition for both types of pavement sections, sections with special geometric features and their reference sections. Downgrade Upgrade Downgrade Upgrade Downgrade Upgrade Downgrade Upgrade No. of Sections 10 10 23 1 1 48 2 2 2 2 2 2 5 5

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3. GENERAL COMPARISON OF PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE To investigate the effect of geometric features on pavement performance, the values of both PCI and IRI for sections at horizontal curves, vertical curves, U-turns, and straight sections were compared. Details of these comparisons are presented in the following sections. 3.1. Effect of Geometric Features on PCI Values Figure 2 depicts the values of PCI for pavement sections at horizontal curves, vertical curves, and U-turns with their reference sections which are adjacent straight sections. The values of PCI represent the overall average of PCI for both types of sections. The figure shows that there is a considerable difference in the PCI values for pavement sections with special geometric features and straight pavement sections. There is a reduction on PCI values of 62%, 76%, and 81% for horizontal curves, vertical curves, and U-turns, respectively.
100 80

.
60

PCI

40 20 0 Horizontal Curves Vertical Curves Alignment type Sections with Special Geometry Reference Sections U -Turns

Figure 2: Comparison between PCI of sections with special geometry and their references 3.2. Effect of Geometric Features on Pavement Roughness Figure 3 shows the difference between IRI values at pavement sections with horizontal and vertical curves as well as their reference sections. The results showed that pavement sections at horizontal and vertical curve sections are rougher than their reference sections. The roughness increased by 55% and 67% for sections with horizontal and vertical curves than their reference sections, respectively. It should be noted that the U-turn sections have no measurements of IRI due to the small radius of the U-turns which reduce the riding speed under the speed limits of the IRI device.
7
. . IRI, m/km

6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Horizontal Curves Alignment type Sections with Special Geometry Reference Sections Vertical Curves

Figure 3: Comparison between IRI of sections with special geometry and their references
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3.3. Comparison between PCI Related Rutting and Cracks Since the most dominant distress types are rutting and cracking especially at straight sections, comparison between PCI related rutting and PCI related cracking was conducted to determine which type of distresses is dominant at the pavement sections located at horizontal and vertical curves. The PCI was decomposed into PCI rutting and PCI cracking and illustrated in Figure 4. The comparison between PCI rutting and PCI cracking at special geometric sections and straight sections showed that unlike straight sections that have equal chances to have cracking and rutting distresses, the special section showed more rutting distresses than cracking. The rutting distress is more common at these locations due to reduction of speed at vertical curves and increasing the load at outside tires as indicated by Chang, 2001. This result indicates that at the special geometric section the pavement layers (subbase, base, and hot mix asphalt layer(s)) should be designed to resist rutting distress as recommended by Roberts et. al., 2002.
Horizontal curve sections Vertical curve sections Straight sections

100 90

100

100

100

100

100

83.16 80 72 .9 70 60 48 .42 45 .7 50 40 30 20 10 0 69 .76 69.76

82.99

PCI

LEGAND

MAX

19 .8 15.2 10 13.85 13 .85 10

MIN
MEAN

Cracking

Rutting

Cracking

Rutting

Cracking

Rutting

Type of distress

Figure 4: Difference between PCI rutting and PCI cracking at different alignments 3.4. Comparison between PCI and IRI at Special Geometric Sections The reduction in PCI and increase in IRI between the straight sections and the special geometric sections was compared and shown in Figure 5. This comparison will show whether the pavement distresses or pavement roughness starts first and causes the others to proceed. For the sections under study, the results showed that the pavement distresses at both horizontal and vertical curves always start first causing the pavement roughness to increase.

400

Percent reduction or increase

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Reducion in PCI Increase in IRI Type of performance Horizontal Curves Vertical Curves

Figure 5: Reduction of PCI and Increase in IRI for Sections with Special Geometry 4. ANOVA ANALYSIS Statistical analysis was employed to examine the difference in pavement performance data between pavement sections located at horizontal curves, vertical curves, and U-turns with straight sections. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare the means of PCI and IRI and to determine whether the difference is statistically significant for sections with special geometric features than those straight sections or not. 4.1. ANOVA Analysis of PCI Table 3 shows the descriptive statistics for special geometric sections and their references. Also, the table shows the results of ANOVA analysis between the PCI means of straight sections and sections with special geometric features. The results showed that there are statistical significant differences (p-values = 0.0) between the means of PCI of horizontal curve sections, vertical curve sections, and U-turns sections and the means of PCI of straight sections. These results indicate that there is considerable reduction in PCI values due to the pavement distresses at pavement sections located at special geometry. 4.2. ANOVA Analysis of IRI IRI data was also analyzed using one-way ANOVA to compare the mean IRI values for pavement sections located at horizontal and vertical curves which means IRI values of adjacent straight sections. Table 4 shows the descriptive statistics of IRI data and ANOVA analysis. ANOVA analysis showed that there is significant difference between IRI values for sections located at horizontal and vertical curves and their reference. The results showed that there is a considerable increase in roughness due to deterioration in surface pavement condition for sections with special geometric features. It should be noted that more comprehensive statistical analysis can be found at Gonah, 2009.

in performance.

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Table 3: Output of ANOVA and descriptive statistics of PCI

Alignment type Item Horizontal Curve Sum of Squares Mean Square F Significance Sum of Squares Mean Square F Significance Sum of Squares Mean Square F Significance One-way ANOVA Between groups 86151.29 86151.29 174.46 0.00 47185.71 47185.71 379.52 0.00 13084.57 13084.57 95.91 0.00 Within groups 71109.62 493.82 Item N Minimum Maximum Mean N Minimum Maximum Mean N Minimum Maximum Mean Descriptive statistics PCI of special geometric sections 73 1 100 30.21 30 5 62 17.35 7 3 31 14.57 PCI of reference sections 73 50 100 78.79 30 41 94 73.43 7 55 91 75.71

Vertical Curve

7211.12 124.33

U-turn

1637.14 136.42

Table 4: Output of ANOVA and descriptive statistics of IRI

Alignment type On-way ANOVA Between Item Groups Sum of Squares 90.69 Mean Square 90.69 F 9.911 Significance 0.04 Sum of Squares 72.29 Mean Square 72.29 F 4.89 Significance 0.04 Within Groups 292.80 9.15 Descriptive statistics IRI of Reference Item IRI sections N 17 17 Minimum 1.80 1.1 Maximum 19.50 4.36 Mean 5.89 2.62 N 8 8 Minimum 3.70 1.30 Maximum 19.81 4.38 Mean 6.58 2.33

Horizontal Curve

Vertical Curve

206.83 4.77

5. PRACTICAL VERSUS STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANT The statistical significance of the difference between factors and others needs to be judged from the practical point of view. This practical significance is dependent on the magnitude of the mean difference of levels for a particular factor and will vary for each performance measure (Chatti et al 2005). For example, if the means of PCI for pavement sections with special geometric features are statistically significantly differs from pavement sections constructed on straight sections, one should check whether this difference has any practical or operational meaning from an engineering point of view. The practical significance therefore depends on the subjective judgment of actual pavement performance observed in the field. To determine reasonable levels of practical significance for different distress types, the performance charts developed based on the engineering judgment of expert panels were used for both PCI and IRI. The common threshold for different pavement conditions according to PCI and IRI are shown in Figures 6 and 7, respectively. Figure 6 shows the PCI values for sections with
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special geometry and PCI values for straight sections. The figure shows that all reference sections are in very good pavement condition zones, whereas sections located at vertical curves and U-turns are located at very poor pavement condition zone and horizontal curve sections are located at poor pavement condition zone. Similar to PCI, the IRI analysis shown in Figure 7 indicates that all pavement sections located at special geometry are located in poor pavement condition zone whereas their reference sections are located in good condition zone. These results agree with the statistical analysis which implies that the statistical analysis reflect the public perception. In general, there is a practical significant in pavement performance between special geometric sectionsStatistical Significant and their references. Practical Vurses
100 90 80 70 60

Vertical curve

Horizontal curve 78.8

U-turn sections

Excellent
73.43 75.71

Very good Good Fair

PCI

50 40

30.21
30 20 10 0

Poor
14.57

17.23

Very poor Failed

Type of alignments
Sections with special geometry Reference sections

Figure 6: The practical significant of data presented in threshold of PCI Practical Vurses Statistical Significant
20

Failed

Horizontal curve

Vertical curve

18 16 14 12

Very poor

IRI (m/Km)

10 8 6 4

Poor
6.21

5.886

2.6194

2.3312

Fiar Good
Very good Excellent

2 0

Type of alingments
Sections with special geometry Reference sections

Figure 7: The practical significant of data presented in threshold of IRI Comparison between the pavement condition for both PCI and IRI for the same sections showed that the pavement distresses was transferred from very good condition for straight sections to very poor condition for special geometric sections, whereas the pavement roughness was transferred from good condition for straight sections to poor condition for
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special geometric sections. These results indicate that the pavement distresses deteriorated more than the pavement roughness which indicates that the pavement roughness at special geometric sections is due to the excessive distresses. 6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION Based on the field investigation of pavement conditions data, statistical analysis and practical significance of in-service pavement performance data, the following conclusions can be drawn: The pavement performance data showed that the PCI values at special geometric sections is much less than the PCI value at straight sections. The IRI values at sections with special geometric features have marginal increase than the IRI values at the straight sections. Analysis of the pavement distresses at special geometric features showed more rutting than cracking due to reduction of speed at vertical curves and increasing the load at outside tires at horizontal curves. There was more increase in the percent reduction in the PCI than the percent increase in the IRI which indicates that the pavement distresses at both horizontal and vertical curves always start first causing the pavement roughness to increase. ANOVA analysis confirms that there was statistical significant between the means of the pavement performance at pavement with special geometric features and straight sections. Assessment of the pavement performance data on the pavement condition thresholds showed good agreement with the statistical analysis which implies that the statistical analysis reflects the public perception of the pavement performance. This study is proposing special care for pavement sections located at the special geometric features to design their pavement layers to resist rutting distress. REFERENCES Abdel Nabi, R.,1995. Influence of Highway Geometry on Distress of Asphalt Concrete Pavements. Ph.D., Zagazig University, Civil Engineering Department, Cairo, Egypt. Abdel Nabi, R.; Abd elhalim O.; Abd El Aleem, A.; Easa S. and Haas R., 1999. Effect of Highway Geometry and Construction Equipment on the Problem of Reflection Cracks. E&FN spon 2-6, London, SE18HN, ISBN 0419. Chang, T., 2001. Effect of Vehicles Suspension on Highway Horizontal Curve Design. Journal of Transportation Engineering, Vol. 127, No. 1. Chatti, K.; Buch, N.; Haider, S.; Pulipaka, A.; Lyles, R.; Gilliland, D. and Desaraju, P., 2005. Influence of Design and Constructions Features on Response and Performance of New Flexible and Rigid Pavements. NCHRP report No.20-50. Gillespie, T. and Karamihas, S., 1993. Effect of Heavy-Vehicle Characteristics on Pavement Response and Performance. Transportation Research Board. Gonah, N. 2009. Relationship between Traffic Flow Characteristics and Pavement Condition on Roads in Egypt. Master Thesis, Civil & Environmental Engineering Department, Al Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt. Kandhal, P., 1998. Hot Mix Asphalt for Intersections in Hot Climates. NCAT Report 98-06. Roberts, F.; Kandhal, P.; Brown, E.; Lee, D. and Kennedy, T., 2009. Hot Mix Asphalt Materials, Mixture Design and Construction. National Center for Asphalt Technology, NCAT.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Road Pavements Maintenance through High Performance Measurement

E. Cesolini & S. Drusin
Anas S.p.A., Centro Sperimentale Stradale - Cesano (Roma), Italy s.drusin@stradeanas.it, e.cesolini@stradeanas.it

ABSTRACT: The present paper describes the practical approach, adopted by the Societ ANAS Spa, aimed at the monitoring and maintenance of road pavements. ANAS s.p.a. is the largest operator of public roads in Italy, its network covers over 25,000 km. The issues which it faces regarding the control of the pavements are complex and articulated. In recent years effective solutions have been found and used in the field of pavement maintenance and construction. Pavement condition is detected through high performance measurements capable of operating at high speed in traffic without causing disruption. From these equipments new control methods have been developed based on performance indicators. These methods can describe the functional and structural pavement conditions for efficient quality control as well as for diagnostics aimed for proper maintenance activity. This control process finds a practical implementation in the adoption of Technical Standards, operating guidelines, methodologies and control systems regarding materials, mixtures, and pavements in place, software developed ad hoc. KEY WORDS: Pavement, Management, Measurement, Methods, Specifications. 1. ROAD PAVEMENT CONDITIONS ANAS s.p.a. manages and maintains approximately 25,000 km of primary roads in Italy, other 6,000 km of highways can be added to include concessions for which, ANAS s.p.a., performs control and surveillance functions. Managing an extensive and complex infrastructure system poses great and complex challenges, especially in the crucial sector of road pavement preservation. Road pavement is made of viscous-plasto-elastic materials that need to be maintained in their basic characteristics can be divided into: a) functional conditions, which is in direct contact with the tires of road vehicles, and b) structural conditions, which reflects the bearing capacity of the pavement. Normally pavements are subject to breaking due to fatigue with the consequence of loss of stiffness, necessary to give bearing capacity. The question of how to evaluate the functional conditions has already been successfully resolved; high performance measurement devices are already being used to give diagnostics used for present roads and to control the quality of new road works. For measuring the bearing capacity, presently, the most widely used equipment is slow, or a full stop is requested. Furthermore they are limited to providing diagnostics for a pavement management system; they are not widely employed as a approval of works.
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The approval is usually carried out by indirect testing of the mixtures being used and through indirect onsite evaluations, always with slow methods. The Falling Weight Deflectometer gives the possibility to measure the structural performance, evaluating the deflection basin under dynamic load. However, the interpretation of the measurements through "backcalculation" of the data, can be very complex, making this method liable to contestation when used for final approval of the works. In a previous article (Cesolini and Drusin, 2009) a new approach is described, it transforms the way how the stiffness is evaluated with the deformation basin and a new method for pavement design was presented. It combines an advanced analysis of the capacities of different mixtures, which are studied for both, fatigue behaviour and stiffness, to give trough result and defined life time of the pavement. The evaluation is based on dynamic deformation indexes which must be detected by both FWD and by a newer and faster (truly High Performance) bearing capacity equipment machine, the TSD. Recently, only for diagnostics purposes, a new system was introduced called Road Eye, its equipped with digital cameras that can detect as high performance measurement rows of pictures of the pavements, where, in post processing, its possible to survey and classify defects through simple operation assisted and guided by the software; This information together with the definition of the state of the pavements evaluated by performance indicators, which will be discussed, allows to define the optimal technical and economic rehabilitation. 2. HIGH-PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT EQUIPMENT USED BY ANAS FOR ROAD PAVEMENTS The main challenges in the field of road pavement management can be summed up as follows: Evaluation of the existing conditions, for efficient inspections of new pavements, and for pavement maintenance to promote the optimal management of available resources; Pavement design; The pavements must be designed in terms of the expected traffic load, environmental conditions, materials employed and design lifetime. For a comprehensive understanding of all this issue, therefore, the most essential element is the definition of performance indicators for both functional and structural condition, as well as the identification of appropriate measuring equipments capable of making rapid and numerous measurements to facilitate monitoring of the entire network, with repeated testing when possible. Repeated measurements make it possible to track the evolution of pavement over time, in order to see the lifetime of the pavement as well as its capacity at time zero (tests during the inspection phase). The following functional indicators have already been identified and are currently in use: Skid resistance (CAT) Mean Profile Depth (MPD) International Roughness Index (IRI) New bearing capacity indicators for structural condition were subsequently identified: Thickness of the layers Structural Index (IS) Recently evaluation of superficial defects in pavements has been introduced. Other indicators may be subsequently incorporated as long as they are measurable and correspond to the characteristics above described. The ANAS Road Experimental Centre in Cesano already has equipment that is capable of measuring the performance indicators reported here.

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All surface pavement conditions are measured using a single equipment known as ERMES (Figure 1).

Figure 1: ERMES equipment This equipment represents an improved version of the WDM Corporations SCRIM system, and includes two measuring wheels for measuring the skid resistance and two lasers, coupled with two accelerometers, for measuring macrotexture and roughness. Structural characteristics, especially the thickness of the layers, are measured with a device known as THETIS. This equipment has two high frequency radar antennas (1.2 GHz) for measuring the upper layers, and a 600 MHz antenna for measuring the very deep layers. Superficial defects condition is carried out analyzing and interpreting the row of images collected by the ROAD EYE equipment (Figure 2). Its equipped with a high-frequency and high-resolution digital camera that record georeferenced and calibrated pictures for interpretation, by special software developed by ANAS, for identifying, classifying and measuring the defects encountered.

Figure 2: ROAD EYE equipment The bearing capacity is measured reliably with the Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD). This device drops a known load on the road pavement and records the deflection basin using 9 sensors that are lined up with the load trajectory. The main disadvantage rests in the fact that the measures can only be executed by a stationary vehicle, so that each station requires about 1.5 minutes completing the testing. Another problem concerns the complexity of the data processing required to determine the bearing capacity value. A very innovative equipment, shortly due in ANAS, is made in Denmark by Greenwood Engineering A/S, and succeeds in overcoming this limitation. This device is capable of measuring the road pavement bearing capacity, and others performance indicator described, at steady and high speed, up to 90km/h (Figure 3).

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Figure 3: TSD equipment 3. DESIGN OF PAVEMENT AND TESTING OF WORK The design method of new mixtures and testing criteria were translated into dedicated Guidelines and incorporated in Technical Standards that will be used to regulate both Maintenance and New Construction works provide by ANAS in the future. The most peculiar characteristics of the rehabilitations described in the current guidelines, which include Technical Standards for forming and testing the materials to be used, are: Design through rational methods that use specific fatigue curves to calculate the operational lifetime; Maximizing the recycling of milled asphalt materials and other marginal materials that are readily available at intervention site in order to reduce transportation and costs and to help preserve the environment. These materials are verified and confirmed by fatigue testing; Definition of general work criteria for managing practical issues of work under traffic condition. Thicknesses are prescribed in accord with the bearing capacity needs and workability in relation to the techniques being employed; Generalized employment of modified bitumen to guarantee an increase in operational lifetimes; Definition of testing methods for each singular material, for mixtures and for pavements in place. Pavements in place are evaluated with performance indicators measured with high performance measurement above described. These indications are used to calculate a series of solutions for new construction pavement and for rehabilitation of existing pavement (Figure 4), that can then be used to generate predetermined fatigue ratings, and, relevant for approval testing, predicted stiffness curves of pavement in place for quick and easy final tests (Figure 5).

Figure 4: examples of full deep rehabilitation

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In figure 5 there are three different control curves for the RPA1 solution that vary as a function of the amount of time that passes between the laying of the subbase and the execution of the test. The IS index is following described.

Figure 5: Control curves for RPA1 full deep rehabilitation 3.1. Structural index for the testing of pavement bearing capacity and design criteria As mentioned before, the IS (Structural Index) is designed to bring both the slower FWD measurement and the faster TSD ones together. The decision to use this index turned out to be particularly effective because it represents a direct expression of the measurements made with either FWD or TSD equipment. The index is defined as the difference between the deflection at the centre plate (or centre wheel, for TSD) and the deflection reading at a specified distance away from that point. The resulting index is an expression of the stiffness of the entire pavement structure. For each of the solutions, the mechanical characteristics of the materials and the chosen thicknesses are used to estimate the theoretical lifetime of the design using the procedure described below. In case of full deep rehabilitation (RP), the bearing capacity characteristics are calculated and expressed using the IS300 Structural Index, which is defined as the difference between the deflection at the centre of the plate and at 300 mm away from the centre. In case of partial deep rehabilitation (RS), when the base are not completely involved, the approval testing is carried out with the use of the IS200 Structural Index, which is defined as the difference between the deflection at the centre of the plate and the deflection 200 mm away from the centre, the index is corrected to take in account the stiffness of deeper layer not influenced by the rehabilitation. Indexes defined in this way are also influenced by the testing conditions, especially the temperature of the asphalt concrete, and this makes it necessary to employ corrections to bring the indexes back to one reference temperature. To evaluate the effects of variations of temperature in the mechanical characteristics of the asphalt concrete, a simplified solution was adopted using the air temperature measurement. A defined range of air temperatures is considered acceptable for testing, in the near future the intention is to gradually expand this range as we learn more about the phenomenon.

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The ANAS Road Experimental Centre in Cesano is carrying out specific studies using experimental tests conducted on the State Road Aurelia S.S.1 at Km 23+500. This site has been equipped with a continuous monitoring system and real time temperatures measurement for two full years now. The system consists of no. 4 sensors for measuring pavement temperatures at different depths (-5, -10, -15 and -20 cm), no. 1 infrared sensor for measuring the surface temperature, and no. 1 sensor for measuring air temperature. All of these instruments are controlled by a central processor that receives, records and transmits the data in real time. The data stored were gathered and compared with the structural index that was measured with the FWD and TSD equipment. This permitted us to test and calibrate the model that was proposed to represent the temperature influence in the asphalt concrete using the structural index simple corrected with air temperature expressed through the formula:

IS 14 C = e [c(14 Tair )] IS Tair

where c=0,037 for RP solution and c=0,022 for RS solution. The calculation applied for pavement designed start from the rational method and it take in account the expected traffic loads, the environmental conditions, the materials employed. These types of methods describe the pavements as a sequence of homogeneous and isotropic layers with a linear elastic behaviour that are superimposed on an undefined layer. Each layer can be characterized in terms of an elastic module value E, a Poisson coefficient and a thickness. This schema makes it possible to express the behaviour of the pavement in terms of the tensions and deformations caused by different environmental and traffic conditions. In addition, the fatigue curves for the materials employed can be used to estimate its operational lifetime. Fatigue curves express the number of repeated load that bring the material to a fracturing point. These curves were defined using data from the literature and were calibrated using the Catalogue of Italian pavements (CNR n. 178). They also derive from experience acquired and tests conducted using innovative equipment developed by the ANAS Road Experimental Centre in Cesano (Figure 6). With this device it possible to carry out a simplified fatigue testing making a comparison of lifetime of material under test with a reference material (Cesolini et al., 2009).
Ln Ln r reference

Ln i

1 cicle

Ln Ni

Ln N

Figure 6: Device for fatigue testing with comparison of lifetime

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4. PAVEMENT MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR The pavement evaluation begins with measurement of the performance indicator CAT, TEX and IRI, two distinct indicators for structural condition, IS300 and ISfond, the latter of which expresses the bearing capacity of the deeper layers, and distress condition. Each of these indicators should be evaluated independently of the others, as specified below, in order to make a judgment and define the rehabilitation priorities. Generally speaking, pavements that are judged to be unacceptable and assigned intervention priority 1 may compromise traffic circulation, making prompt rehabilitation necessary. Whenever the time of year or limited economic resources make this impossible, road signs are used to warn of irregularities and/or slipperiness in case of rain and speed limits are reduced if necessary. For pavements that are judged to be insufficient and assigned intervention priority 2, rehabilitation should be scheduled as soon as possible so as to restore adequate values to the specific indicators that were identified as being insufficient. For pavements that are judged to be at the warning threshold, the frequency of monitoring by means of high performance measurement should be increased in order to track further developments in the pavement status. In all other cases, measurements will continue to be executed according to the regular schedule. The final choice of the optimal rehabilitation is calculated automatically by special software developed by ANAS called Road Eye. 4.1. Evaluation of adherence The adherence is evaluated through a parallel assessment of the CAT and MPD indicators. The Table 1 is available to evaluate variations in CAT values as a function of road type, quantity and types of traffic and other relevant conditions, such as the presence of short radii of curvature, slope, intersections, etc. Table 1: Thresholds of CAT
Threshold values Other conditions Surrounding High traffic (TGM>15,000) Short curve radii (<1000 m) Slope (>3 %) for extended sections (>100 m) Intersections or interchanges Highways Type A roads < 25 25 - 35 35 - 40 Nearing insufficiency 40 - 45 Warning zone 45 Sufficient to excellent

Unacceptable

intervention with priority 1 Unacceptable Approaching insufficiency

intervention No No with priority 2 intervention intervention Warning zone Sufficient to excellent No intervention Warning No intervention Sufficient to excellent

Other cases intervention intervention with priority 2 with priority 1 Nearing High traffic (TGM>5,000) Unacceptable

Ot her roa d

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Short radii (<500 m) Slope (>5 %) for extended sections (>100 m) Intersection areas

insufficiency intervention intervention with priority 2 with priority 1 Unacceptable Nearing insufficiency intervention intervention with priority 1 with priority 2

zone No No intervention intervention Sufficient to excellent

Other cases No intervention

The values were drawn from table II of CNR n.147 of 12.14.1992 4.2. Evaluation of roughness Roughness is evaluated using the IRI (International roughness index). As with the CAT, the Table 2 is available to evaluate variations in these values as a function of road type, quantity and types of traffic and other relevant conditions, such as the presence of viaducts, etc. Table 2: Thresholds of IRI
Threshold values Other surrounding conditions High traffic (TGM>15,000) with no viaducts intervention with priority 1 Presence of viaducts Low traffic (TGM<15,000) Other cases intervention intervention with priority 1 with priority 2 Unacceptable Insufficient No No intervention intervention Sufficient to excellent Unacceptable Insufficient intervention No No with priority 2 intervention intervention Warning zone Sufficient to excellent 6.0 6.0 5.0 5.0 4.0 Insufficient 4.0 3.0 Warning zone <3.0 Sufficient to excellent

Unacceptable

Highways Type A roads

Speed limit 90 km/h and no viaducts present Other roads

Presence of viaducts Other cases

intervention intervention with priority 2 with priority 1 Unacceptable Warning zone

No intervention Sufficient to excellent

intervention with priority 1

No intervention

No intervention

The IRI values should be calculated every 10 m

4.3. Evaluation of bearing capacity The IS300 structural index represents the bearing capacity of the upper layers, wich are composed of asphalt concrete (surface course, base course). The ISfond structural index, which is defined as the difference in the deflection measured at distances of 900 mm and 1500 mm

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from the centre of load application, represents the bearing capacity of the deeper layers (subbase course, subgrade course, roadbed soil). Both of these parameters depend on the levels of stress applied to the pavement during bearing capacity control tests. The applied stress is presumed to be equivalent to 1700 KPa (corresponding to a weight of 350 kg dropped from a height of 4 for bearing capacity tests conducted with the FWD equipment). The ISfond index is presumed no dependent on environmental conditions. The IS300 index change with the asphalt temperature, its necessary referrer to the index IS300(20C), which is the correct index reported to a reference asphalt temperature of 20C (Table 3). Table 3: Thresholds of IS
ISfond IS300(20C) 140 Unacceptable 80 intervention with priority 1 AC layers insufficient 80 - 50 intervention with priority 2 Warning zone <50 No intervention No intervention Sufficient to excellent intervention No intervention with priority 2 Warning zone 140 100 Subbase insufficient <100 Warning zone

For pavement section that fall in the zones with grey colour cells in the Table 3, full deep rehabilitations are recommended, while the sections with no background colour that have problems concentrated in the asphalt concrete layers, partial deep rehabilitations should adopted (re making the upper layers or overlay if possible). 4.4. Distress condition Different types of defect are represented into software Road Eye in order to support the visual inspection. To help with memorization, each defect type is represented by a symbol that is suggestive of its actual appearance and each of these symbols is linked to an on line guide with photographs and explanations that help facilitate proper and consistent defect classification even if done by different operators. The possible causes of each defect are also reported, as well as the potential consequences of non rehabilitation. 4.5. Selection of the best rehabilitation The rehabilitations to be used are described in Special Contract Specifications, the technical articles of which are linked to the items on the Price List, for use individually or in combination as called for by the specific rehabilitation. This helps with the quote of annual programming (planning) and work reports (final balance). The software Road Eye support the operator while evaluating the surface pavement condition and it also link each type of defect or underperformance of adherence, roughness and bearing capacity, with one or more rehabilitations, each of which has its own suitability

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rating (on a scale of 0 to 100) that sums up how well that specific rehabilitation is expected to solve the given defect. Each rehabilitation is linked to a unit cost (derived from the above mentioned Price List), a theoretical life time and a series of constraints relating to the practical application (minimum widths or lengths, etc.). When budget constraints are issue the software can use the urgency ratings assigned to different defect types or shortfalls of performance indicators in order to find the rehabilitation with higher priority. In general, the rehabilitations were divided into surface treatment, surface emergency repairs, which may be limited or extended and are taken to perform rapid, cheap but not very durable solution, or full deep and partial deep rehabilitations, which are always extended to provide longer life, predetermined, as previously defined; The software automatically evaluates all possible rehabilitations, assigning to each option a weighted pointing based on cost, theoretical life time, typological and spatial homogeneity of the rehabilitation (absence of discontinuity), urgency and number of defects repaired. The rehabilitation with the highest point ratings are chosen like the best solution. When working with budget constraints, rehabilitations with higher total point ratings are chosen until the spending limit. To accommodate different maintenance strategies the weightings assigned to the factors described above can be changed to orient the software towards different types of solutions. REFERENCES E. Cesolini, S. Drusin, 2009. High-Performance Measurements of Road Pavement Bearing Capacity for ANAS Performance Specifications. The Sixth International Conference on Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Pavements and Technological Control, Torino, July. E. Cesolini, P. Bernardinetti, C. Sartori, 2009. Measurement for Comparing the Fatigue Life of Pavement Mixtures. The Sixth International Conference on Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Pavements and Technological Control, Torino, July. Centro Sperimentale Stradale ANAS di Cesano, 2009. Operating Guidelines for Maintenance Planning of Pavements Road, Adherence, Roughness and Bearing Capacity. Centro Sperimentale Stradale ANAS di Cesano, 2009. Operating Guidelines for Detection of Pavement Surface Defects and Technical Definition of Rehabilitation. CNR n. 125 Bollettino Ufficiale Parte IV Technical Rules, 4/20/1988. Istruzioni sulla pianificazione della manutenzione stradale. CNR n. 147 Bollettino Ufficiale Parte IV Technical Rules, 12/14/1992. Norme per la misura delle caratteristiche superficiali delle pavimentazioni. CNR n. 178 Bollettino Ufficiale Parte IV Technical Rules, 9/15/1995. Catalogo delle pavimentazioni stradali.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Utilizing Traffic Molding of Road Pavements Towards More Cost Efficient Pavement Design and Management
E. Kleyn
Consulting Civil Engineer, Pretoria, South Africa

W. J.vdM. Steyn
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

ABSTRACT: Traffic deformation of a road pavement only leads to structural failure, or does it? Experience has shown that not all pavements which initially deform under traffic, or suffered from traffic molding, necessarily fail structurally or even continue to deform. This phenomenon was investigated by doing in situ strength measurements over a period of time as well as on accelerated loading monitoring of existing road pavements. Results thus obtained laid the foundation towards better understanding of this phenomenon and the conclusion that traffic molding of a pavement does not necessarily lead to structural failure but can lead to an increase in bearing capacity and strength-balance. It appears that the process of traffic molding may be applied and/or guided towards an increase in bearing capacity by judicious selection of materials and may even be utilized towards the creation of construction and maintenance energy saving pavements. These observations are discussed in the paper and recommendations are given regarding the application of the observations and pavement behavior phenomena towards minimizing pavement deformation and enhanced life cycle management. The objective of the paper is to introduce and secure the concept that traffic molding of a pavement not necessarily leads to structural failure but can result in an increase in bearing capacity as well as strength-balance, and that this phenomenon can be expressed mathematically and utilized towards enhanced pavement design and performance. KEY WORDS: Pavement, DCP, Strength-Profile, Strength-Balance, Traffic molding. 1. INTRODUCTION The structural properties of road pavements change over time as result of exposure to traffic and the environment. Environmental influences mainly affect the temperature and moisture regime of specific layers, causing the temperature and moisture sensitive materials in the pavement to exhibit a change in behavior patterns. Traffic induced changes, on the other hand, result when the applied traffic load on the pavement structure (combination of layers of materials) cause some or all of the materials to undergo deformation and further densification and strengthening, or continued deformation (failure) when further densification does not result in sufficient increased strength to successfully support the applied load. While environmentally caused changes obviously also play a role in practice, this paper focuses mainly on the traffic induced changes. Changes in the properties of one pavement layer invariably affect the properties and behavior of the supporting and supported layers, since the various layers of the pavement 415

within the sphere of influence of the load act in unison as a structure. This phenomenon is termed traffic molding in this paper. Thus, traffic molding may be defined as changes that occur within a pavement structure which affect its bearing capacity and typical behavior patterns due to the application of traffic loads. Note that traffic molding may be affected by a change in climate (temperature and moisture levels) also. The objective of the paper is to introduce and secure the concept that traffic molding of a pavement not necessarily leads to structural failure but can result in an increase in bearing capacity as well as strength-balance, and that this phenomenon can be expressed mathematically and utilized towards enhanced pavement design and performance. The scope of this paper is to discuss and define the concepts of traffic molding and pavement strength-balance and its implications to pavement behavior and performance. The lessons that may be learned and applied to pavement design, construction, analysis, maintenance and rehabilitation in practical terms are highlighted. The paper starts off with a discussion of the background to the phenomenon, followed by a discussion of the development of the traffic molding and strength-balance concepts. Finally some potential practical applications of the concept are discussed. 2. BACKGROUND The inherent shear strength characteristics of pavement materials are well-defined and can be measured using various methods (Yoder and Witczak, 1975). It is well-known that the shear strength of a material can be improved through compaction and mechanical or chemical stabilization, or can be decreased through an increase in moisture content or particle breakdown. In general, a material with higher shear strength will withstand higher applied loads before failure occurs. Failure of a layer of material (and subsequently the pavement structure) is initiated when the applied load is larger than the shear strength of a particular material or zone of material within the sphere of influence of the load when the load overstresses the material. The application of relatively small overstressing loads affect the condition and properties of the material more subtly usually through an accumulation of small plastic strains. This can lead to a decrease in air voids, repacking of the grains and a subsequent increase of the shear resistance of the material. Hence, continuous application of small overstressing loads can lead to a continuous incremental increase in the shear resistance, albeit at the cost of continuous deformation of the road. This process takes much longer to reach the maximum shear strength of the material than the laboratory test procedure. Obviously, if the immediate shear strength of the material is overtopped during load applications or the increased amount of densification does not result in sufficient gain in shear strength to support the load, shear failure will eventually occur in the material (Yoder and Witczak, 1975). The rate and magnitude of deformation which the soil undergoes is monitored by the shear strength/density ratio of the material under those circumstances. Usually, when the above phenomenon occurs, the properties and behavior of specific layers in the pavement will change, sometimes continuously affecting the overall behavior and performance of the structure. This can lead to the formation of rutting (permanent deformation in the layer and the pavement) and when this rut reaches a limiting value (typically 20 mm) on the surface, the pavement is deemed to have failed functionally (the pavement becomes unsafe to use due to excessive rutting and unacceptable riding quality). The deformation may also result in a structural failure (some of the pavement material/layers cannot support the applied loads any more), but this cannot summarily be assumed.

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Since the layers or zones of material in a pavement act in unison as a structure, any changes in one layer (positive or negative) will affect the properties and behavior of the other layers and hence of the pavement structure. Loss of support through weakening of deeper layers will increase the strains generated in the overlying material, while an increase in the strength of a lower layer will increase its support value and decrease the strains in the overlying material. Protection of deeper layers by overlying layers that become stronger due to increases in density can also occur. Ultimately, it is this combination of layers (with their respective properties mainly shear strength in this argument) that provide the response to traffic loading and the overall performance of the pavement. The mechanism highlighted above is termed traffic molding of the pavement. It thus pertains to the changes (molding) occurring to the materials/layers within the pavement due to traffic loads applied at the surface, and their changing properties and behavior due to the effect of these loads on their inherent shear strengths. In this regard the question can be posed of whether traffic loading always leads to deformation of a pavement and whether this deformation would always lead to structural failure? If this deformation and changes in properties can be predictably managed, it can be harnessed towards the enhancement of the life cycle performance and behavior prediction of a pavement. 3. CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT Since the introduction of the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) (Scala, 1956; ASTM, 2010) and in situ road pavement strength measurement during the 1970s (Kleyn, 1975; Kleyn and Savage 1982; Kleyn et al, 1982) the traffic molding phenomenon could be monitored and verified with much more certainty than before, especially after having been introduced to and further calibrated during the South African Accelerated Pavement Testing (APT) program launched during the 1970s (Kleyn, 1975; Rust et al, 1997; Steyn, 1995). The APT program was focused on gaining a better understanding of the internal behavior of different pavement compositions (surfaced crushed stone and natural and cemented gravel layer combinations) and there were very few relatively simple and non-destructive ways of monitoring the in situ changes a pavement structure undergoes during trafficking. This opportunity provided the required data to calibrate the different DCP strength profiles with regard to traffic categories in South Africa. This information provides the basis for the typical in situ DCP profile at each penetration, as well as the traffic molding of the pavement. During a major road investigation preceding the APT program (Burrow, 1975) it was observed that many of the roads assessed had deformed and would functionally classify as nearing the end of their service lives. However, upon evaluation of their structural condition with the DCP (down to 800 mm), many of these pavements had in situ layer shear strengths suggesting anything but that they were structurally failing. Analysis of the measured shear strengths indicated that surprisingly many of these pavements had in situ strength values in excess of their original design/as-built strengths (Burrow, 1975). Calibration of the DCP penetration rate in terms of mm/blow (DN) to California Bearing Ratio (CBR) allowed strength profiles to be drawn in terms of in situ DCP derived CBR values (Kleyn and Savage, 1982; Kleyn et al, 1982) (Figure 1). Typical strength profiles started being recognized in relation to its expected traffic handling potential or bearing capacity. These could be compared to and calibrated against the existing provincial design catalogue for different traffic classes. Hence a procedure developed whereby one could determine the in situ bearing capacity of a pavement and, for instance, whether it would be cost-effective to rebuild a deformed road (that had functionally failed) or whether only light rehabilitation regarding the riding comfort was necessary (Kleyn and 417

Savage, 1982). At the time it was also observed that some in situ strength profiles demonstrated a relatively smooth strength transition with depth, while others indicated a more erratic strength/depth profile as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 1: Example of layer strength profile application

More exciting however, was the observed change in strength profile of the pavement under APT. It seems that the traffic, depending on the rate of overstressing of the pavement, was not merely deforming the pavement but attempting to adjust the strength profile of the pavement towards a smooth transition of strength with depth. Graphical illustrations of the DCP Structure Number, DSN800, (Kleyn, 1975) (the total number of DCP hammer blows to 800 mm depth) of successive DCP measurements illustrated this phenomenon much better than the DCP field forms (Figure 3). Successive strength profile measurements showed that the traffic load was not merely molding the pavement randomly but indeed endeavoring to smooth out the in situ strength transition - molding the pavement into a more effective stress dissipation structure. The traffic had somehow positively affected the in situ strength profile of the pavement. In Figure 3 (inset) actual changes in DCP derived strength profiles before and after accelerated pavement testing is shown (Kleyn, 1984; Jooste et al, 1997). The apparent phenomenon is that the material in the pavement which is overstressed deforms and compacts either to a strength which can support that particular load or if such strength is not attained continues to deform under that load. However, when the material deforms/compacts the overlying material also deforms and must either have sufficient resilience to return to its original position (elastic deformation) or remain deformed (plastic deformation). Most often its a combination of the two phenomena. This, of course, can lead to structural failure of the overlying more rigid or cemented layers. After the originally overstressed material has attained sufficient strength through densification, it will transfer some of the load experienced downwards onto the lower layer, provided that the overlying material is in a position to allow it. In other words, this is an iterative process which can set off a chain reaction within the pavement until sufficient supportive strength has been developed (or structural failure occurs) all the while molding the pavement towards a smoother or seemingly optimum strength-balanced profile for the particular load under the 418

particular circumstances. Climatic influences also affect the rate of the process, and the changes typically take a number of months or even years to manifest, depending on the loading levels and environmental conditions. This process is schematically illustrated in Figure 4. The developing strength profile is not necessarily all that smooth. If, for instance, the composition of the pavement is such that it contains either a much weaker or stronger layer/zone, that layer could act as a molding barrier in that the material below it will be shielded against the applied load, resulting in a sudden change (stress concentration point) in the strength profile slope at that point/zone.

Figure 2: Some strength profiles exhibited a relatively smooth strength progression Many formulae and procedures have been developed and are continuously being developed to improve the understanding of the relationship between the DCP data and traffic molding as well as the interpretation of DCP data (Kleyn, 1984; De Beer, 1991; TRL, 1993; Livneh et al, 1995; Steyn, 1996; Chen et al, 1999, Uddin, 2002). The abovementioned investigations and measurements have all contributed to the clarification of the traffic molding phenomenon. Observation of the traffic molding phenomenon in the field lead to the compilation of the Standard Strength-Balance Curves (SSBC) (Figure 5), considered indicative of the ideal 419

strength transition of a Strength-Balanced Pavement (Kleyn, 1984). Although the SSBCs were originally developed for a pavement depth of 800 mm the general form of the equation can be expressed as follows (Kleyn et al, 1989): Percentage strength S = 7BN*D / [(100 BN) D*(1 0.08BN)] Percentage depth D = S*(100 BN) / [7BN + S*(1 0.08BN)] With these equations a pavement can be designed or analyzed for strength-balance.
0 0 100 200 300 400 Depth in mm 500 600 700 800 Final S trengthBalance Percentage of Pavement Structure Number 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

(1) (2)

Original S trengthBalance

900 1000

Figure 3: Traffic loading can smooth out the strength profile of a pavement In order to identify the various segments of the SSBCs more readily, a parameter called the Balance Number (BN) was introduced. BN is that percentage of the pavement DCP Structure Number over a depth of 800 mm (DSN800) achieved at a pavement depth of 100 mm: Balance Number BN = (DSN100/DSN800)*100 or in general form as: Balance Number BN = S*(100 D) / [(7D + S*(1 0,08D)] (3) (4)

With these equations any pavement can be designed or analyzed for strength-balance. Note that the higher the BN, the more the upper portion of the pavement contribute to the overall structural value of the pavement and vice versa. Thus, a pavement within which the 420

structural value decreases relatively rapidly with increasing depth may be considered to be a relatively shallow pavement, while a relatively deep pavement is a pavement within which the structural value of the layers decreases relatively slowly with increasing depth. Incidentally, Bousinesqs theorem regarding stress dissipation in a soil mass (Yoder and Witczak, 1975) equates to a strength-balanced pavement with a BN of around 32 per cent, which is close to the average of 38 per cent for South African pavements (Kleyn, 1984).

Traffic load applied to pavement Pavement stable: maintains its form, strength profile, load sensitivity & bearing capacity.

Is any material in pavement overstressed? Yes Overstressed material deforms (densifies/shears) Overlying material displaces downwards Pavement strength profile changes Pavement stress profile changes Any material in pavement overstressed? Yes No Any structural failure criteria exceeded? Yes Pavement classified as structurally failed

No

No

Pavement stable, but: pavement deformed & strength profile, load sensitivity & bearing capacity changed.

Figure 4: Schematic illustration of the phenomenon of traffic molding During the APT program it was further observed that shallower pavement compositions were typically more overload sensitive than deeper pavements. An overload on a relatively shallow pavement seemed to constitute a higher number of equivalent standard axles than would be the case for a relatively deeper pavement (Kleyn, 1984). Thus the value of the exponent n in the well-known load equivalency formula F = (P/SA)n is sensitive to the pavement strength-balance (P = applied axle load and SA = standard design axle load). 421

Limited field work during the APT program showed that the load equivalency exponent n for the pavements tested may vary between 1 and 5 during the test (Kleyn et al, 1997; Rust et al. 1997).

Figure 5: SSBC diagrams with a shallow and a relatively deeper pavement strength profile. The in situ or effective bearing capacity of a pavement may thus be quite different from the design value and also vary depending its strength-balance state, which is inter alia affected by climatic and drainage variations along the route. Lack of appreciation for the importance of the abovementioned factors most probably account for many miscalculations of pavement behavior and performance in the past the pavement is alive and its strength-balance changes over time. This observation led to the re-defining of the bearing capacity of a pavement as well as the effective traffic loading experienced by the pavement. The same traffic spectrum is thus experienced differently by relatively shallow and relatively deep pavements. The bearing capacity of a pavement should therefore be calculated in terms of Standard Axle repetitions (SA) while the traffic load should be calculated in terms of Equivalent Standard Axle repetitions (ESA). The bearing capacity of a pavement can then be expressed in terms of Million SA (MISA) and the traffic load in terms of Million Equivalent SA (MESA) (Kleyn, 1984). Another observation made during the APT program is that shallower pavements tend to fail upwards, that is, failure seems to initiate at the bottom of the main load bearing upper zones/layers of the pavement with noticeable initial deformation the typical fatigue cracking mode scenario. On the other hand, relatively deep pavements tend to fail downwards. That is, failure seems to initiate through fracturing/failing of the top of the basecourse, water ingress and downward progression into the pavement, without noticeable initial deformation. 4. PRACTICAL APPLICATION The abovementioned observations and contemplations will not be of much use if it cannot be utilized in practice. The following discussion is an attempt to order the findings and identify their practical applications.

422

4.1. Direct strength measurement The in situ strength and strength variation of a virgin subgrade or an existing pavement can be measured directly by DCP; The in situ layer strength of a failed pavement can be obtained in order to assess the structural condition for rehabilitative purposes, and Seasonal strength and load sensitivity variations should be monitored. 4.2. Strength profile assessment The optimum strength profile (and load sensitivity assessment) for rehabilitative/ upgrading purposes can be obtained from DCP data; The strength profile of a pavement can be assessed relative to the Standard StrengthBalance (SSBCs), assisting in avoiding/identifying stress concentration hot spots, and The optimum strength profile for rehabilitation/upgrading purposes can be obtained. 4.3. Pavement design A pavement can be designed/upgraded such as to avoid stress concentration hot spots; A strength-balanced pavement with a specific bearing capacity to suit a specific traffic spectrum can be designed and constructed for optimum performance; Pavement rehabilitation design can be steered towards strength-balance as well as optimum utilization of the in situ material (Kleyn and van Heerden, 1983 and Kleyn and van Zyl, 1987), and A pavement can be intentionally compiled such that the traffic should mold it into a better state of strength-balance as well as bearing capacity to accommodate traffic growth over time, requiring only relatively inexpensive cosmetic surfacing rehabilitation - saving construction energy for lower class pavements. 4.4. Construction Construction quality control can be done by direct in situ strength measurement , and Amendment of material/pavement type or composition can be executed on site to suit local drainage/material conditions (Kleyn, 2007). 4.5. Management The strength profile, bearing capacity and load sensitivity of a pavement can be monitored with an aim to controlling traffic loading, optimum rehabilitation/up-grading programming; Correlation of pavement strength profiles and bearing capacities with pavement performance can be done with an aim to obtain area/climate specific pavement design/composition catalogues, and An existing pavement or pavement network can be steered towards improved performance under existing or a future traffic spectrum through judicious upgrading of the pavement. 5. CONCLUSIONS

Based on the discussion in this paper, the following conclusions are drawn: The in situ strength of a pavement can be measured using the DCP; Traffic associated deformation of a pavement can, through Traffic Molding, rearrange/mold the strength profile of a pavement; 423

Traffic molding does not always result in a decrease in bearing capacity or structural failure but can lead to an increase in bearing capacity; Traffic molding is aimed at attainment of a strength-balanced pavement that ensures optimum performance under the particular circumstances and traffic spectrum; A set of typical strength-balance curves have been developed as a guide to pavement composition and in situ strength profiles, and There seems to be a correlation between the strength-balance of a pavement and its load sensitivity and performance.

6. RECOMMENDATIONS Based on the discussion in this paper, the following recommendations are made: The in situ pavement strength situation of a deformed pavement should be assessed before assuming that the structure has failed in order to guide rehabilitative measures; Only that part of the design pavement composition not all ready present/in situ should be added; In any pavement design or construction always aim to attain a smooth/balanced strength profile; In order to have a pavement that is not overly sensitive to overloading (n < 4.5) aim towards having a relatively deep pavement composition (BN < 45 per cent); To encourage positive traffic molding endeavor to use material at the different depth/layer zones that will gain strength upon being molded as rapidly as possible, and Further work needs to be done regarding the selection of pavement materials such as to harness the life cycle traffic molding of a pavement towards improved bearing capacity which will require only cosmetic/functional rehabilitation.

REFERENCES ASTM, 2010. ASTM D6951 / D6951M - 09 Standard Test Method for Use of the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer in Shallow Pavement Applications. http://www.astm.org/Standards/ D6951.htm. Accessed on 19 March 2010. Burrow, J. C. 1975. Investigation of existing road pavements in Transvaal. Transvaal Roads Department Report L1/75, Pretoria, South Africa. Chen, J.; Hossain, J. M. and La-Toretta, T. M. 1999. Use of falling weight deflectometer and dynamic cone penetrometer in pavement evaluation. Transportation Research Record. 1655, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., 145-151. De Beer, M. 1991. Use of the dynamic cone penetrometer DCP in the design of road structures. Geotechnics in the African Environment, Vol. 1, G. E. Blight, et al., eds., Balkema, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 167183. Jooste, F. J.; Kekwick, S. V.; Sadzik, E. S. and Rohde, G. T. 1997. Comparison of accelerated pavement test results with long term pavement behaviour and performance. 8th International Conference on Asphalt Pavements, Vol. II, pp. 1025-1037, Seattle, Washington, USA. Kleyn E. G. 1975. The use of the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP). Report L2/74. Transvaal Provincial Road Administration, Pretoria, South Africa.

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Kleyn, E. G.; Maree, J. H. and Savage, P. F. 1982. Application of a portable pavement Dynamic Cone Penetrometer to determine in situ bearing properties of road pavement layers and subgrades in South Africa. E SOPT II, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Kleyn, E. G. and Savage, P. F. 1982. The application of the pavement DCP to determine the bearing properties and performance of road pavements. International symposium on bearing capacity of Roads and Airfields, Trondheim, Norway. Kleyn, E. G. and van Heerden, M. J. J. 1983. Using DCP soundings to optimize pavement rehabilitation. Proceedings of 1983 Annual Transport Convention, Volume 29c, Johannesburg, South Africa, July 1983. Kleyn, E. G. 1984. Aspects of pavement evaluation and design as determined with the aid of the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (In Afrikaans), Unpublished M.Eng thesis, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa. Kleyn, E. G. and van Zyl, G. D. 1987. Application of the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) to light pavement design. Report L4/87, Transvaal Provincial Administration, Roads Department, Pretoria, South Africa. October 1987. Kleyn, E. G; De Wet, L. F. and Savage, P. F. 1989. The development of an equation for the Strength Balance of Road Pavement Structures. The Civil Engineer in South Africa, Vol. 31(2). Kleyn, E. G, Kekwick, S. V. and Sutton, R. 1997. Impact of the Heavy Vehicle Simulator (HVS) programme of the Gauteng Provincial Government. CSIR Contract Report CR-96/086, Pretoria, South Africa. Kleyn, E. G. 2007. Pavement layer adjustment to accommodate material availability on site. Pretoria, South Africa. Unpublished paper. Livneh, M.; Ishai, I. and Livneh, N. A. 1995. Effect of vertical confinement on dynamic cone penetrometer strength values in pavement and subgrade evaluations. Transportation Research Record. 1473, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., pp. 1-8. Rust, F. C.; Kekwick, S. V.; Kleyn, E. G. and Sadzik, E. S. 1997. The impact of the Heavy Vehicle Simulator (HVS) test programme on road pavement technology and management. 8th International Conference on Asphalt Pavements, Vol. II, pp. 1073-1085, Seattle, Washington, USA. Scala, A. J. 1956. Simple methods of flexible pavement design using cone penetrometers. New Zealand Engineer, New Zealand. Steyn, W. J.vdM. 1995. Guideline to the use and operation of the Heavy Vehicle Simulator (HVS). Division for Roads and Transport Technology, CSIR, Technical Report I/PA/3/95, Pretoria, South Africa. Steyn, W. J.vdM. 1996. Aspects of the structural performance of rehabilitated lightly cemented pavements. Unpublished M.Eng thesis, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa. Transport Research Laboratory TRL. 1993. Overseas road note 31: A guide to the structural design of bitumen-surfaced roads in tropical and subtropical countries. Transport Research Laboratory, Crowthorne, U.K. Uddin, W. 2002. In situ evaluation of seasonal variability of subgrade modulus using DCP and FWD tests. 6th International Conference on the Bearing Capacity of Roads, Railways and Airfields, Lisbon, Portugal. Yoder, E. J. and Witczak, M. W. 1975. Principles of pavement design. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. USA.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Multi-Objective Decision-Aid Tool for Pavement Management Systems

A. Ferreira
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Coimbra, Portugal

S. Meneses
Technology and Management High School of Oliveira do Hospital, Institute Polytechnic of Coimbra, Portugal

M. Trindade
Department of Road Maintenance Management, Estradas de Portugal, S.A., Portugal

ABSTRACT: This paper presents the development and implementation of a Multi-Objective Decision-Aid Tool (MODAT) tested with data from the Estradas de Portugals Pavement Management System. Nowadays, the Decision-Aid Tool of the Pavement management System (PMS) used by the main Portuguese concessionaire (Estradas de Portugal, S.A.) uses a deterministic section-linked optimization model with the objective of minimizing the total expected discounted costs over the planning time-span while keeping the road pavements within given quality standards. The MODAT uses a multi-objective deterministic sectionlinked optimization model with three different possible goals: minimization of agency costs (maintenance and rehabilitation costs); minimization of user costs; and maximization of the residual value of pavements. This new approach allows PMS to become interactive decisionaid tools, capable of providing road administrations with answers to what-if questions in short periods of time. The MODAT also uses the deterministic pavement performance model used in the AASHTO flexible pavement design method that allows closing of the gap between project and network management. The application of the new Decision-Aid Tool is illustrated with a case study involving the main road network of Castelo Branco, a district of Portugal. KEY WORDS: Pavements, maintenance management, planning and scheduling, optimization.

1. INTRODUCTION One of the main components of a Pavement Management System (PMS) is the methodology used to select the best maintenance and rehabilitation (M&R) strategy taking into account the expected evolution of pavement quality. This methodology, realized in a Decision-Aid Tool, may be based on prioritization (ranking) models (Hawker and Abell, 2000; Kulkarni et al., 2004; Sebaaly et al., 1996; Wong et al., 2003) or optimization models (Abaza, 2006; Abaza et al., 2004; Ferreira et al., 2002a; Ferreira et al., 2002b; Ferreira et al., 2009a; Ferreira et al., 2009b; Golabi et al., 1982; Madanat et al., 2006; Mbwana and Turnquist, 1996; Nunoo and Mrawira, 2004; Picado-Santos et al., 2004, Wang and Zaniewski, 1996). Recently, researchers (Flintsch and Chen, 2004; Fwa et al., 2000; Kaliszewski, 2004; Wu and Flintsch, 2009) have concluded that maintenance planning and programming requires optimization analysis involving multi-objective considerations. However, traditionally single427

objective optimization techniques have been employed by pavement researchers and practitioners because of the complexity involved in multi-objective analysis. Other researchers (Deb, 2008; Fwa et al., 2000; Iniestra and Gutirrez, 2009; Mansouri, 2005; Wu et al., 2010) concluded that it is possible to develop a Multi-objective Decision-Aid Tool, incorporating into the same optimization model several objectives, for example one for minimization of maintenance costs and another for maximization of the residual value of pavements using the concepts of Pareto optimal solution set and rank-based fitness evaluation. 2. PROPOSED MULTI-OBJECTIVE DECISION-AID TOOL The Multi-Objective Decision-Aid Tool (MODAT) is constituted by the following components: the objectives of the analysis; the data and the models about the road pavements; the constraints that the system must guarantee; and the results. Several objectives can be considered in the analysis, including the minimization of agency costs (maintenance and rehabilitation costs), the minimization of user costs, the maximization of the residual value of pavements at the end of the planning time-span, etc. The results of the application of the MODAT to a road network are constituted by the M&R plan, the costs report, and the structural and functional quality report. The optimization model is formulated as follows: Objective functions

Min AC =
r =1 S

(1 + d )
s =1 t =1 T

ACrst X rst

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)
428

Min UC =
s =1 t =1 S

1 UCst (1 + d ) t

Max RV =
s =1

1 RV (1 + d ) T +1 s ,T +1

Constraints

PSI st = p( PSI s 0 , X 1s1 ,..., X 1st ,..., X Rs1 ,..., X Rst ), s = 1,..., S ; t = 1,..., T
PSI st PSI s , s = 1,..., S ; t = 1,..., T
X rst ( PSI st ), r = 1,..., R; s = 1,..., S ; t = 1,..., T
R

r =1

X rst = 1, s = 1,..., S ; t = 1,..., T

UC st = u ( PSI st ), s = 1,..., S ; t = 1,..., T

RV s ,T +1 = r (PSI s ,T +1 ), s = 1,..., S
R S r =1 R s =1 T

ACrst = a( PSI st , X rst ), r = 1,..., R; s = 1,..., S ; t = 1,..., T

r = 2 t =1

ACrst X rst Bt , t = 1,..., T N max s , s = 1,..., S

rst

Pavement condition functions

PSI 0 = 5 e 0.000065IRI 0 0.000535 R0 0.21 (C 0 + D0 + Pa 0 ) 0.5
2

(13) (14)

PSIt = PSI0 - (4.2 - 1.5) 10

e d SN t = H n C n C n n =1 N

1094 (log10 (W18 )Z R S0 9.36log10 ( SN+1)+0.2-2.32log10 ( M R )+8.07) 0.4+ ( SN+1)5.19

(15)
(1 + tc ) Yt tc 1

W80t = 365 TMDA p

(16) (17)

User cost function VOC t = 1.20487 0.49116 PSI t + 0.05458 PSI t2 Residual value of pavements function PSI s ,T +1 1.5 RVs ,T +1 = C s ,rehab PSI s ,rehab 1.5

(18)

Where: ACrst is the agency cost for applying operation r to road section s in year t; Bt is the budget
e for year t; C 0 is the total cracked pavement area in year 0 (m2/100m2); C n is the structural d coefficient of layer n; Cn is the drainage coefficient of layer n; C s , rehab is the cost of the last rehabilitation action applied in pavement section s; d is the discount rate; D0 is the total disintegrated area (with potholes and raveling) in year 0 (m2/100m2); H n is the thickness of layer n (mm); IRI 0 is the pavement longitudinal roughness in year 0 (mm/km); MR is the subgrade resilient modulus (pounds per square inch); Nmaxs is the maximum number of M&R operations that may occur in road section s over the planning time-span; W80 is the number of 80 kN equivalent single axle load applications estimated for a selected design period and design lane; Pa 0 is the pavement patching in year 0 (m2/100m2); PSIt is the Present Serviceability Index in year t; PSI s , rehab is the PSI value after the application of a

rehabilitation action in pavement section s; R is the number of alternative M&R operations; R0 is the mean rut in year 0 (mm); RVs,T+1 is the residual value for the pavement of section s; S is the number of road sections; S0 is the combined standard error of the traffic prediction and performance prediction; SNt is the structural number of a road pavement in year t (AASHTO, 1993); T is the number of years in the planning time-span; tc is the annual average growth rate of heavy traffic; TMDAp is the annual average daily heavy traffic in the year of construction or the last rehabilitation, in one direction and per lane; UCst is the user cost for road section s in year t; VOCt are the vehicle operation costs in year t (/km/vehicle); Xrst is equal to one if operation r is applied to section s in year t, and is equal to zero otherwise; Yt is the time since the pavements construction or its last rehabilitation (years); ZR is the standard normal deviate; PSIst are the pavement condition for section s in year t; PSI is the warning level for the pavement condition; is the average heavy traffic damage factor or simply truck factor; PSIt is the difference between the initial value of the present serviceability index (PSI0) and the value of the present serviceability index in year t (PSIt); a are the agency cost functions; p are the pavement condition functions; r are the residual value functions; u are the user cost functions; are the feasible operations sets.
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3. RESULTS OF THE APPLICATION OF MODAT The MODAT was tested with data from the Estradas de Portugals PMS (Picado-Santos and Ferreira, 2008; Ferreira et al., 2009; Trindade e Horta, 2009) to plan the maintenance and rehabilitation of the road network considering two objectives, the minimization of agency costs and the minimization of user costs. The Estradas de Portugal road network has a total length of 14500.0 km. The MODAT was applied only to the road network of one of the eighteen districts of Portugal, the district of Castelo Branco. This road network has a total length of 589.9 km and the corresponding network model has 32 road sections. Figure 1 represents the Pareto optimal set of solutions in the objective space by varying the weight values while Figure 2 represents the optimal set of normalized solutions. The point with black color represents the Knee point and was obtained considering the following weight values: ( wAC , wUC , wRV ) = (0.04,0.96,0.00); and it corresponds to the following objective values ( AC , UC , RV ) = (62.8x106, 1508.8x106, 31.3x106). The range of values for the two objective functions are ( ACmin , AC max ) = (44.2x106, 206.0x106), and ( UCmin , UC max ) = (1424.2x106, 2529.3x106). From Figures 1 and 2 it can be concluded that, when varying the two weights through a grid of values from 0 to 1 with a fixed increment step, as for example 0.05, the two objective values were not transformed maintaining the same fixed range. Therefore, each weight value not only indicates the importance of an objective, but also compensates, to some extent, for differences in objective function magnitudes. In multi-objective problems there is no perfect method to select one optimal solution from the Pareto optimal set of solutions. The final best-compromise solution is always up to the decision maker. For that purpose, four different M&R solutions of the Pareto frontier were considered for comparison. a) Solution I: Multi-objective optimization approach (corrective-preventive) considering the Knee point ( wAC =0.04, wUC =0.96, wRV =0.00); b) Solution II: Multi-objective optimization approach (corrective-preventive) considering the following weights ( wAC =1.00, wUC =0.00, wRV =0.00); c) Solution III: Multi-objective optimization approach (corrective-preventive) considering the following weights ( wAC =0.00, wUC =1.00, wRV =0.00); d) Solution IV: Multi-objective optimization approach (corrective-preventive) considering the following weights ( wAC =0.50, wUC =0.50, wRV =0.00).
) 6 ^ 0 1 x ( s r a e y 0 2 r e v o s t s o c r e s u l a t o T 2400 2200 2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 0 50 100 150 200 Total M&R costs over 20 years (x10^6 ) 250

Figure 1: Pareto optimal set of solutions

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1,0 0,9 s r a e 0,8 y 0 2 0,7 r e v o 0,6 s t s o c 0,5 r e s 0,4 u l a t o t 0,3 d e z i 0,2 l a m r 0,1 o N 0,0 0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1,0 Normalized total M&R costs over 20 years

Figure 2: Pareto optimal set of normalized solutions The costs and normalized costs during the entire planning time-span for these four Pareto optimal solutions are summarized in Figures 3 and 4, respectively. Figure 4 shows that, as expected, solution I (Knee point) is the Pareto optimal solution with less normalized value of M&R costs plus user costs. Considering the non-normalized value of M&R costs plus user costs (Figure 3), one can verify that this optimal solution continues to have the least value but this is not necessary to happen. In Meneses and Ferreira (2010), considering a municipal road network with low quality pavements and reduced values of traffic volume, it happened the opposite. Figure 4 also shows that solution I (Knee point) is the Pareto optimal solution with less total normalized costs, computed by adding M&R normalized costs and user normalized costs and deducting the residual normalized value. Figure 5 represents the predicted PSI average value over the years of the planning time span for all the road network pavements and for each solution. By analyzing this figure it can be seen that solution III, i.e., the solution of the multi-objective optimization approach (corrective-preventive) considering the weights ( wAC =0.00, wUC =1.00, wRV =0.00), corresponds to the largest average PSI values as expected because this solution corresponds to the minimization of user costs. Solution I (Knee point) is the second best solution in terms of average PSI values also as expected because corresponds to a high weight value for user costs and a small weight value for agency costs ( wAC =0.04, wUC =0.96, wRV =0.00).

S olution I (K nee point) 2.500 V alue (x 10^6 ) 2.000 1.500 1.000 500 0 M & R c os ts Us er c os ts

S olution II

S olution III

S olution IV

M&R c os ts + us er c os ts

Res idual value

Total c os ts

Figure 3: Costs throughout the planning time-span of 20 years

431

S olution I (K nee point) 1,0 0,9 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0,0 M & R c os ts Us er c os ts

S olution II

S olution III

S olution IV

Norm alis ed v alue

M&R c os ts + us er c os ts

Res idual value

Total c os ts

Figure 4: Normalized costs throughout the planning time-span of 20 years

Solution I 5,0 4,5 Solution II Solution III Solution IV

e u l a v e g a r e v a I S P

4,0 3,5 3,0 2,5 2,0 1,5 1,0 0,5 0,0

Year

Figure 5: PSI average value for all the road network pavements In addition to these summarized results, the MODAT provides extensive information about the M&R strategy to be implemented for each road section. To analyze these road sectionlinked results, four road sections were chosen with different attributes in the present year. Table 1 illustrates the attributes of these four road sections including their present PSI value. Table 2 presents the M&R operations to be applied in the four road sections considering the four M&R solutions of the Pareto frontier. Figure 6 represents the predicted evolution of the PSI value over the years for pavement section 05001 of a national road as a consequence of the execution of the M&R plan. For this pavement section, which is in good quality condition (with a PSI value of 3.81), if solution I of MODAT is adopted, the same M&R operation 2 (non-structural maintenance) would be applied in years 2014 and 2022. If solution II or solution IV of MODAT is adopted no M&R operation will be needed in all the planning timespan. If solution III of MODAT is adopted the recommended M&R operations are very different. The MODAT recommends the application of four M&R operation 5 (major rehabilitation) in years 2014, 2018, 2022 and 2026, with a constant interval of 4 years. In this solution the M&R operations are more and heavier because this solution corresponds to the minimization of user costs which means that the pavement quality must be always high. An identical analysis could be made for any other pavement section. For example, for pavement section 05004 of another national road (see Table 2 and Figure 7), which has a PSI value of 2.75, if solution I of MODAT is adopted the M&R operation 4 (medium rehabilitation) would be applied in year 2010 and M&R operation 2 (non-structural maintenance) would be applied in years 2017 and 2024. If solution II or solution IV of MODAT is adopted only one M&R operation is recommended, which is M&R operation 3 (minor rehabilitation) applied in year 2010. Again, if solution III is adopted the recommended M&R operations are more and heavier as appended for pavement section 05001. In this case the MODAT recommends the application of four M&R operations 5 (major rehabilitation) in years 2010, 2014, 2018, and 2022.

432

Table 1: Attributes of road sections

Attributes Section_ID 05012 Road_class EN Pavement_type Flexible District Castelo Branco Length (m) 21455 Width (m) 5.9 Sub-grade_CBR (%) 5 Structural_number 2.11 Age_of_pavements (years) 0 Annual_average_daily_traffic 756 Annual_average_daily_heavy_traffic 150 Annual_growth_average_tax 3 Truck_factor 2.0 1.79 PSI0 Road section 05003 05004 IC IC Flexible Flexible Castelo Branco Castelo Branco 14635 19439 8.6 8.8 4 10 4.40 3.25 10 10 5838 5838 800 800 4 4 4.5 4.5 2.15 2.75 05001 IP Flexible Castelo Branco 1931 9.4 6 5.20 4 4331 300 3 3.0 3.81

Table 2: M&R operations to be applied in road sections

Year Section PSI0 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029

Solution I - Knee point ( wAC =0.04, wUC =0.96, wRV =0.00) 05012 05003 05004 05001 05012 05003 05004 05001 05012 05003 05004 05001 1.79 2.15 2.75 3.81 1.79 2.15 2.75 3.81 1.79 2.15 2.75 3.81
5 1 4 1 5 1 3 1 5 1 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 5 1 5 5 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 5 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 5 1 5 5 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Solution II ( wA C =1.00, wUC =0.00, wRV =0.00)

Solution III ( wAC =0.00, wU C =1.00, wRV =0.00)

Solution IV ( wA C =0.50, wUC =0.50, wR V =0.00) 05012 1.79 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 05003 2.15 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 05004 2.75 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 05001 3.81 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 KEY (M&R actions): 1 Do nothing; 2 - Non structural maintenance; 3 - Minor rehabilitation; 4 - Medium rehabilitation; 5 Major rehabilitation

Solution I 5,0 4,5 4,0 3,5 3,0

PSI

Solution II

Solution III

Solution IV

2,5 2,0 1,5 1,0 0,5 0,0

Year

Figure 6: Evolution of PSI for pavement section 05001 of a national road

433

Solution I 5,0 4,5 4,0 3,5 3,0

Solution II

Solution III

Solution IV

PSI

2,5 2,0 1,5 1,0 0,5 0,0

Year

Figure 7: Evolution of PSI for pavement section 05004 of a national road

3. CONCLUSIONS The Multi-objective Decision-Aid Tool (MODAT) presented in this paper, incorporating several objectives into the same optimization model, can solve the pavement management problem for the case involving major rehabilitation interventions. The MODAT, as well as the decision-aid tool currently in use in the Estradas de Portugals PMS, which has the objective of minimizing costs over a selected planning time-span, allows closing the gap between project and network management. This is made possible by replacing the traditional microscopic approach, which uses models that include independent variables explaining the pavement deterioration process (i.e. layer thickness, resilient modulus, asphalt characteristics, traffic, climate, etc.), with a macroscopic approach that uses models for predicting the future condition of the pavement based on measured condition data (i.e. cracking, raveling, potholes, patching, rutting, longitudinal roughness, skid resistance, traffic, climate, etc.). The macroscopic approach requires that each road section is homogeneous in terms of quality, pavement structure, traffic and climate. It is assumed that each road section possesses one performance curve with any estimated future performance value representing the overall average pavement condition. The MODAT considers the pavement performance model used in the AASHTO flexible pavement design method but any other preferred model can be used as well. In the implementation of an optimum solution recommended by the MODAT, a field review must be conducted to identify continuous road sections with the same or identical M&R interventions with the goal of aggregating them into the same road project. It is recommended that whenever actual pavement performance data becomes available, it should replace the predicted PSI values from the AASHTO pavement performance model. Any other appropriate pavement condition indicator can easily be used as an alternative in this methodology. It is further recommended that the MODAT is applied as often as necessary (annually or bi-annually) to obtain revised optimum M&R plans that would incorporate the impact of any recent changes that might have taken place in the pavement network. The MODAT constitutes a new useful tool to help the road engineers in their task of maintenance and rehabilitation of pavements. This new approach allows PMS to become interactive decision-aid tools, capable of providing road administrations with answers to what-if questions in short periods of time. While the case study of this paper focuses on a

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national road network, the approach proposed is applicable to any transportation infrastructure network, e.g., municipal road network, bridge network, where the decision-making process often involves multiple objective considerations. In the future, because the MODAT is an open system, some modifications could be made to better serve the needs of road engineers. In the near future, our research in the pavement management field will follow two main directions. First, the MODAT will be applied considering also other objectives, beyond the two existent ones, as for example the maximization of the residual value of pavements or the maximization of the road network quality. Second, pavement performance models will be developed using pavement performance data available in some road network databases and will be incorporated into MODAT for future applications to road networks. REFERENCES AASHTO (1993). Guide for design of pavement structures. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C., USA, 4th ed., 1-640. Abaza, K. (2006). Iterative linear approach for nonlinear nonhomogenous stochastic pavement management models. Journal of Transportation Engineering, 132(3), 244-256. Abaza, K.; Ashur, S.; Abu-Eisheh, S. and Al-Khatib, I. (2004). Integrated pavement management system with a markovian prediction model. Journal of Transportation Engineering, 130(1), 24-33. Das, I. (1999). On characterizing the knee of the Pareto curve based on normal boundary intersection. Structural and Multidisciplinary Optimization, 18, 107-115. Deb, K. (2008). Multi-objective optimization using evolutionary algorithms, Wiley, West Sussex, United Kingdom, 2008. Ferreira, A.; Antunes, A. and Picado-Santos, L. (2002a). Probabilistic segment-linked pavement management optimization model. Journal of Transportation Engineering, 128(6), 568-577. Ferreira, A.; Meneses, S. and Vicente, F. (2009a). Pavement management system for Oliveira do Hospital, Portugal. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers-Transport, 162(3), 157-169. Ferreira, A.; Meneses, S. and Vicente, F. (2009b). Alternative decision-aid tool for pavement management. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers-Transport, 162(1), 3-17. Ferreira, A.; Picado-Santos, L. and Antunes, A. (2002b). A segment-linked optimization model for deterministic pavement management systems. The International Journal of Pavement Engineering, 3(2), 95-105. Ferreira, A.; Picado-Santos, L.; Wu, Z. and Flintsch, G. (2009). Selection of pavement performance models for use in the Portuguese PMS. International Journal of Pavement Engineering, Taylor & Francis. Submitted for publication. Flintsch, G. W. and Chen, C. (2004). Soft computing applications in infrastructure management. Journal of Infrastructure Systems, 10(4), 157-166. Fwa, T.; Chan, W. and Hoque, K. (2000). Multiobjective optimization for pavement maintenance programming. Journal of Transportation Engineering, 126(5), 367-374. Golabi, K.; Kulkarni, R. and Way, G. (1982). A state-wide pavement management system. Interfaces, 12(6), 5-21. Hawker, L. and Abell, R. (2000). Selection and prioritisation of maintenance works on major roads in England. Proceedings of the 1st European Pavement Management Systems Conference, Budapest, Hungary, CD Ed., 1-8.

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Iniestra, J. and Gutirrez, J. (2009). Multi-criteria decisions on interdependent infrastructure transportation projects using an evolutionary-based framework. Applied Soft Computing, 9(2), 512-526. Kaliszewski, I. (2004). Out of the mist-towards decision-maker-friendly multiple criteria decision making support. European Journal of Operational Research, 158(2), 293-307. Kulkarni, R.; Miller, D.; Ingram, R.; Wong, C. and Lorenz, J. (2004). Need-based project prioritization: alternative to cost-benefit analysis. Journal of Transportation Engineering, 130(2), 150-158. Madanat, S.; Park, S. and Kuhn, K. (2006). Adaptive optimization and systematic probing of infrastructure system maintenance policies under model uncertainly. Journal of Infrastructure Systems, 12(3), 192-198. Mansouri, S. (2005). A multi-objective genetic algorithm for mixed-model sequencing on JIT assembly lines. European Journal of Operational Research, 167, 696-716. Mbwana, J. and Turnquist, M. (1996). Optimization modeling for enhanced network-level pavement management system. Transportation Research Record 1524, Transportation Research Board, 76-85. Meneses, S. and Ferreira, A. (2010). Multi-objective decision-aid tool for pavement management systems. Proceedings of the 12th World Conference on Transport Research, Lisbon, Portugal, CD Ed., 1-11. Nunoo, C. and Mrawira, D. (2004). Shuffled complex evolution algorithms in infrastructure works programming. Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering, 18(3), 257-266. Picado-Santos, L.; Ferreira, A.; Antunes, A.; Carvalheira, C.; Santos, B.; Bicho, M. H.; Quadrado, I. and Silvestre, S. (2004). The pavement management system for Lisbon. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers-Municipal Engineer, 157(3), 157-165. Picado-Santos, L. and Ferreira, A. (2008). Contributions to the development of the Portuguese road administrations pavement management system. Proceedings of the Third European Pavement and Asset Management Conference, CD Ed., paper 1138.pdf, 1-10, Coimbra, Portugal. Sebaaly, P. E.; Hand, A.; Epps, J. and Bosch C. (1996). Nevadas approach to pavement management. Transportation Research Record 1524, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., 109-117. Trindade, M. and Horta, C. (2009). Pavement management system of Estradas de Portugal, S.A.. Proceedings of the 15th Congreso Ibero-Latinoamericano del Asfalto, CD Ed., 1351-1360, Lisboa, Portugal (in Portuguese). Wang, K. and Zaniewski, J. (1996). 20/30 hindsight: the new pavement optimization in the Arizona state highway network. Interfaces, 26(3), 77-89. Wong, W.; He, G. and Luk, S. (2003). Development of road management systems in China. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers-Transport, 156(4), 179-188. Wu, Z. and Flintsch, G. (2009). Pavement preservation optimization considering multiple objectives and budget variability. Journal of Transportation Engineering, 135(5), 305-315. Wu, Z.; Flintsch, G.; Ferreira, A. and Picado-Santos, L. (2010). Multi-criteria optimization applications in highway asset management. Journal of Transportation Engineering. Accepted for publication.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Use of WIM Data to Evaluate Growth Including Economic Activities Attributed to Reconstruction of a Warranty Road
R. Tarefder & N. Sumee
Department of Civil Engineering, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA tarefder@unm.edu

ABSTRACT: A newly constructed road may be a driver for economic development of an area. Based on this premise, US-550 was built in the northwest part of NM, mainly Sandoval County, through a warranty contract. One of the logics to borrow money from GARVEE bond to reconstruct the old NM-44 (renamed US-550 after reconstruction) was economic growth in the San Juan County. Here economic growth is measured through quantities like employment, unemployment and population growth. The goal of this paper is to examine whether those growths show any relation to the traffic growth due to reconstruction of US-550 in the region. To this end, traffic data of US-550 is collected over the past years (2003 to 2009) and analyzed to examine the change in economy, employment growth in the northwest part of the state of New Mexico. In particular, weigh-in-motion (WIM) data collected from US-550 is used to determine the correlation of factors such as vehicle classification, ESAL, volume and weight data with the employment growth, unemployment rate and population growth. It is shown that US-550 has positive influence on the employment growth in the northeast part of NM. KEY WORDS: Traffic, WIM, Economic growth, US 550, Vehicle Classification, Traffic volume, ESAL, Class.

1. INTRODUCTION During 1993-2000, US-550 (formerly NM-44) was constantly ranked among the most dangerous roads in the country. This road connects City of Farmington and San Juan County with Albuquerque, which is the largest and important city in New Mexico. Farmington city and San Juan County are part of Four Corners area of New Mexico. Farmington has the fourth highest population, while having the ninth highest unemployment rate in New Mexico. Due to public safety and desire for economic development, New Mexico Department of Transportation (NMDOT) started a warranty project for construction of US-550 highway (NMDOT 1998). The project involved reconstructing and widening of 118 miles of roadway, rehabilitation or replacement of seven bridges, and replacement or extension of 393 culverts. Total cost of the project was $323.82 million (NMDOT 1998). The initial construction phase of the project was completed in November 2001, when three weigh-in-motion (WIM) stations were installed and traffic data collection started (NMDOT 2006). New Mexico borrowed dollars from GARVEE bond to expedite the construction of the entire road; otherwise, it would take 20-30 years to construct this road through construction of 5-6 miles per year. In
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addition to safety, another reason for speedy reconstruction of this road was the economic development of the Four Corner area. In this study, the correlation between traffic growth and economic growth is examined. 2. OBJECTIVES The objectives of this study are to: Examine whether there is a relationship between the US-550 traffic growth and economic activities in the region the economic activities are measured in terms of employment and population growth. In particular, the objective is to relate employment, unemployment rate and population growth to the annual traffic volume and class. Determine the number and weight of oversize and overweight vehicles passes each day on US 550. These over-sized vehicle may further indicator of the economic growth in the region. 3. SOME PRELIMINARIES 3.1. Weigh-in-Motion (WIM) Systems Three Weigh-in-Motion (WIM) devices were installed along US-550 to capture and record truck axle weights and gross vehicle weights. WIM does not require the vehicle to stop. It simply measure axle weight and volume, when a vehicle passes over the sensor. WIM can provide detailed data for each individual vehicle including dynamic weights of all axles, gross vehicle weights, axle spacing, and distance between vehicles, speed and AASHTO vehicle classification (FHWA 2001). 3.2. Vehicle Classification The vehicles in this study are classified following The FHWA Traffic Monitoring Guide (TMG). This guide classifies vehicles into 13 different categories (FHWA 2001). According to this guide, class 9 vehicle is a five-axle single trailer trucks. All five-axle vehicles consisting of two units, one of which is a tractor or straight truck power unit (FHWA 2001). 3.3. Traffic Data Among the three WIMs, the WIM at Cuba is located at the middle of the corridor. WIM data at Cuba is used in this study. This WIM has a Station ID 35102 located on US 550 Mile Post (MP) 71.05, Cuba (Latitude 36.072, Longitude 107.039). Data is collected 24 hours per day. Data consists of matching pair of text based file termed as 4-card and 7-card. Data in 4-card is the traffic weight card. Data in 7-card includes both weight and vehicle classification. It also contains data of axle weight and spacing for individual vehicles. Vehicle classification records contains information such as the number of vehicles passed through the point for each AASHTO class 1 to 13. Vehicle classes 1 to 3 include motorcycles and other lightweight vehicles that have very little to no contribution to ESAL traffic, which is responsible for roadway damage (FHWA 2001). Data from 2003 to 2009 are used in economic growth analysis. 3.4. Traffic Data Analysis Software McClure et al. (2008) studied the growth of equivalent single-axle loads (ESALs), along this US-550 corridor. These authors used a custom computer program (ALTRIS) developed
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specifically to calculate ESALs quickly and accurately for US-550. This ALTRIS software was lately upgraded by McClure (2009) and named KELTRIS, which was used in the present study to process WIM data of US-550. KELTRIS program is used to process the data files generated by WIM station at Cuba location of US 550. The program calculates ESALs using both the AASHTO ESAL conversion table and ESAL equation (McClure et al. 2008). Traffic data are recorded in 4-card and 7-card files for each day traffic. Data can be processed daily, monthly or yearly. This program allows the user to apply a correction factors for missing data of vehicles or days. 3.4.1. Correction Factor 4-card measures traffic volume and 7-card measures weight and volume. Ideally 4-card reading is higher then a 7-card data. 7-card discards some vehicle count, if the vehicle is passing too slow or too fast, or in a wrong direction. 7-card can also miss if any axle of the vehicle is off the scale. So, total vehicle counts (4-card) are higher then in the truck weight record files, which are used to calculate total ESALs. Therefore, in ESAL calculation correction factors are applied to account for the ESAL due to missing vehicles by the 7-card. This correction factor is simply calculating an average ESAL for 7-card vehicles multiplied by the difference in vehicle counts between 4-card and 7-cards. This correction factor is added to the ESAL count (McClure et al. 2008). This correction factor is computed as follows: (1) where ET = total ESALs for a given vehicle classification, Eavg = average ESAL computed for a given vehicle classification, v = difference in number of vehicles as reflected in daily WIM file pairs for a given vehicle classification, E7 = total ESALs computed from the Truck Weight Record for a given vehicle classification 3.4.2. ESAL Calculation The vehicle load can be converted to an equivalent single axle load (ESAL) for equivalent damage. When different size and weight vehicles pass through a road, each vehicle causes a different amount of damage to the road. Therefore, damage caused by a specific axle load in a single pass is converted to same amount of damage caused by equivalent of 18 kip axle load, known as ESAL (AASHTO 1993). One ESAL is a single axle weighing 18 kips. Calculation of ESALs involves a number of factors including the pavement serviceability index, the number and weight of axles in the axle group, and the structural number. In this study, ESAL is calculated using the equation below (AASHTO 1993): (2) where W = axle applications inverse of equivalency factors (where W18 = number of 18,000-lb single-axle loads), Lx = axle load being evaluated (kips), L18 = 18 (standard axle load in kips), L2x = code for axle configuration (1 for single-axle, 2 for tandem-axle, 3 for triple-axle, x for axle-load equivalency under consideration and s for code of standard axle, single axle). (3) where G is a function of the ratio of loss in serviceability at time t, to the potential loss taken at a point where pt = 1.5; where pt is the terminal serviceability index (the point at which the pavement is considered to be at the end of its useful life), and (4)
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where is a function that determines the relationship between serviceability and axle load applications. SN = structural number (AASHTO 1993). 3.4.3. Cumulative ESAL Generally, pavements are designed to carry the cumulative ESAL. Cumulative ESALs are a measure of the accumulation of equivalent 18,000-lb single axles over the design life. The US-550 pavement warranty contract was made to carry cumulative ESALs of 4,000,000 in 20 years. Heavy commercial vehicles contribute ESAL compare to other vehicles. Accurate ESAL calculation is therefore a critical factor for US 550. 3.4.4. Overweight Vehicle Overweight truck causes a significant amount of damage to pavements and results in substantial maintenance and repair costs. Chou et al. (1999) showed that any vehicle whose gross weight exceeds 356 kilo Newton (80,000 lb) should be considered as overweight vehicles. If the total gross weight with load imposed upon the highway by any vehicle or combination of vehicles, exceed the limit provided by the State of New Mexico is considered as overweight vehicle (NMDOT 2010). 4. PROCESSING OF COLLECTED DATA Table 1 represents the sample data calculation using KELTRIS for the February, 2009. Northbound ESAL calculations are shown for the vehicle class distribution for class 4 through class 13. Vehicle count data for 4-card and 7-card are shown in volume column for each direction. The next column to volume is showing the difference between the data recorded by 4-card and 7-card. Total ESAls and average ESAL are calculated using ESAL Equation based on 7-Card data. Correction factor is then calculated by multiplying the difference by the average ESAL. Corrected ESAls is obtained by adding the correction factor to the total ESAL. Total ESAL for class 9 is noticeably high compare to the ESALs of other classes. Table 1: Sample Data Calculation (February, 2009)
North Average ESAL (=Total ESAL/7Crad Volume ) 0.67 0.05 0.39 0.43 0.29 0.9 0.57 1.36 0.91 2.98 Corrected ESAL (=Total ESAL+ Correction Factor) 121.75 238.12 199.27 12.56 224.52 5140.13 102.11 580.05 287.98 68.55

Class

Volume (4-Card/7Card) 183/166 5060/4971 508/477 029/028 784/740 5739/5555 179/171 428/408 315/298 023/020

Difference in Volume 17 89 31 1 44 184 8 20 17 3

Total ESALs 110.44 233.93 187.11 12.13 211.92 4975.33 97.55 552.95 272.44 59.61

Correction Factor (=Average ESAL*Difference) 11.31 4.19 12.16 0.43 12.6 164.8 4.56 27.11 15.54 8.94

Class 4 Class 5 Class 6 Class 7 Class 8 Class 9 Class 10 Class 11 Class 12 Class 13

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5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 5.1. Vehicle Class Distribution by Volume Using Cubas WIM data from year 2003 to 2009, yearly traffic for each vehicle class along north and southbound directions are presented in Figures 1(a) and 1(b). it can be seen that, for both south and northbound traffic, class 9 vehicle is very high which is about 250 vehicle per day. Next to class 9 is class 5 vehicle which is about 190 vehicle per day. Class 8 vehicle is in 3rd postion which is about 65 vehicle per day for each direction, also considered as heavy truck. The remaining classes are below 30 vehicle per day.

Figure 1(a): Vehicle Class per Day from Year 2003 to 2009 (Northbound) by Volume

Figure 1(b): Vehicle Class per Day from Year 2003 to 2009 (Southbound Traffic) by Volume Figure 2 represnts the trend of Class 9, Class 8 and Class 5, as these classes have higher traffic then other classes. From 2003 to 2005, class 9 vehicle increased following the same pattern for both direction though the value is higher for south. In 2006, the amount of class 9 vehicle per day was almost same for north and south (254 and 256). In 2007 northbound traffic has more class 9 vehicle than south. In 2007, both direction traffic decreases, especially northbound class 9 vehicle. Conitinuing the same pattern, there is a significant dropdown in class 9 vehicle in 2009 for each direction. The dropdown rate is more severe for northbound
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traffic then southbound. For class 5 vehicle (2 axle single unit truck), trend is not similar to class 9 truck. Northbound class 5 truck was always higher compare to southbound class 5 from 2003 to 2006 while both direction traffic were folowing increaseing rate. From 2007, northbound traffic started decreasing but southbound traffic was following the increasing rate as well. Class 8 vehicle, which is also considered as heavy truck, followed almost same manner like class 9 vehicle. From 2003 to 2006, both north and southbound class 8 trucks were almost same. In 2007, average number of class 8 trucks towards north had a siginificant increase comapre to southbound (76 and 66 respectivley). From 2007, likewise other classes (class 9 and class 5) daily number of class 8 trucks started going down which is more prominent for northbound traffic.

Figure 2: Comparison of Vehicle Class per Day from Year 2003 to 2009 by Volume 5.2. Vehicle Class Distribution by ESALs Figures 3 represents the number of ESAL contributed by each class of vehicle per day from year 2003 to 2009. The first thing to observe is the number of ESALs contributed by class 9 vehicle per day. Thus, the governing class for contributing ESALs is Class 9 and next to this is Class 11. However, class 8 and 5 have high volume count, but those traffic have very small impacts on ESAL. Class 11 vehicle does not have significant amount of traffic but contribute more ESAL compare to that of class 5 and 8. The number of axles per vehicle for Class 5 and Class 8 are 2 and 4, respectively. But for one class 11 truck, number of axle is 5. Thats why it is contributing more ESAL compare to Class 5 and 8. For both direction of traffic, class 9 vehicle is the dominating class. 5.3. Total ESAL ESAL is very important to determine early expiration of the warranties of US 550. It is therefore vital to calculate ESALs which is possible to do with WIM data. Figure 4 presents the total ESAL per year by all class vehicle for both direction traffic. For this graph, montly value for 2007 december is assumed (85% of November). For south and north bound traffic, there is an increasing rate upto 2006-2007 and after that, both direction traffic had decresing rate. Northbound ESAL was lower at the beginning of WIM installation and after 2005 it was getting higher value compare to southbound traffic. Both of these trends are similar to traffic volume count.

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Figure 3: Vehicle Class Distribution per Day from Year 2003 to 2009 (Northbound Traffic) by ESAL

Figure 4: Total ESAL by Class 4 to Class 13 Vehicle per Year from 2003 to 2008 5.4. Cumulative ESAL Figure 5 represents the prediction of ESAL growth for US 550. The horizontal axis represents time in month and vertical axis presents cummulative ESALs in millions. The time sapn started from October 2003 (considered as 0 month), as the project was done by that time. Due to lack of data for 2002, values are forcasted from other years. Original growth curve presents the actual ESAL count from WIM data. Assuming linear growth, trend line is drawn which is the predicted growth. By extending the predicted growth, it is found that 4 million value will be reached in the month of 170 (December, 2016).

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5.5. Overweight Vehicle Since ancient times, pavements have played a vital role in trade and transportation throughout the world. Different types of trucks are being used for this purpose. Every state has their own rules and regulation for overweight and oversized vehicle. Each year, overweight vehicles account for millions of dollars of damage connected with the life span, design, and maintenance of state highways and structures. For New Mexico State, ff any vehicle exceeds the legal limit (NMDOT, 2010) of loading is considered as an overweight vehicle. Figure 6 is showing number of overweight vehicles for North and southbound per day. The bar chart shows that amount of over weight vehicles per day is higher in southbound direction than that of northbound direction with an exception in 2006 and 2007. It means that more goods are transporting towards Albuquerque, NM or to reach to I-40 to go to Texas (East direction) or Arizaona (west Direction).

Figure 5: Prediction of Traffic Growth 5.6. Impact of Class 9 vehicle on Economic Growth

Figure 6: Overweight vehicles per day

Five Axles, single trailer trucks are classified as Class 9 vehicle. Usually class 9 vehicles are used for transporting goods. Therefore, increase in this number of vehicle means rate of production and distribution of goods are also increasing. Number of commercial vehicle increase means allowing larger parking lots, storage areas as well as employment opportunities. It also means that municipalities and other facilities are extending within this locality creating an environment for attracting customers, jobs, and investment, which promote economic growth and collect tax revenue. Reconstruction project has increased the traffic volume in US 550 (refer to Figure 1 again). Mobility has increased over the years after the reconstruction is clearly noticeable from this figure especially for class 9 vehicle. To examine any changes economic activity in San Juan County that might be attributed to the reconstruction of NM 44/US 550, data from the US Bureau of Census and UNMs Bureau of Business and Economic Research (UNM BBER) is collected. Figure 7 represents impact of class 9 vehicle on population growth of San Juan County. After reconstruction of US550, class 9 vehicle for both direction traffic has an increasing rate starts from 2003 to 2007 and after 2007 the rate is going down. As shown in the accompanying figure, the population growth in San Juan County since the completion of US 550's reconstruction in December 2001 has been increasing per year. Figure 8 also shows the same trend for employment opportunities. As class nine vehicles is increasing due to
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reconstruction of US550, employment opportunities also increasing in a significant manner. This employment data is mainly on the Farmington Metropolitan Statistical Area, which is essentially San Juan County. In Figure 9, it is prominent that, in the same period rate of unemployment is following down. These statistics can be true, as convenience of freeway may have attracted population and employment from other parts of New Mexico or people start going towards different parts of New Mexico.

Figure 7: Impact of reconstruction of US550 on Population Growth

Figure 8: Impact of reconstruction of US550 on Employment

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Figure 9: Impact of reconstruction of US550 on Unemployment Rate (%) 6. CONCLUSIONS This research presents a study for estimating truck volumes, based primarily on classification counts and influence on employment within the state. As a result, it is observed that truck traffics are playing a vital role in the development and prosperity of New Mexico. They also have a negative impact on the roadway network, primarily because of their massive weight. Profiles of truck traffic are developed for study area, indicates that AADTT are increasing in volumes and percentages. The number of increasing trucks US 550 indicates to the point that special or unique roadway design treatments may be required. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This project was funded by the New Mexico Department of Transportation (NMDOT). REFERENCES AASHTO (1993), AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures, Washington, D.C. Chou, K. C.; Deatherage, J. H.; Leatherwood, T. D. and Khayat, A. J. (1999), Innovative Method for Evaluating Overweight Vehicle Permits, J. of Bridge Engineering, Vol. 4, No. 3, ASCE. FHWA (2001), Traffic Monitoring Guide, Publication No. FHWA-PL-01-021, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C. McClure, S.; Lowry, J. and Woodland, J. (2008), Public-Private Partnerships: Case Study in Evaluating Equivalent Single-Axle Loads for Long Term Performance Warranties in New Mexico, Transportation Research Records, J. of the Trans. Res. Board, No. 2079. NMDOT (2010), ALTRIS, User Manual, US-550 Warrenty Complience Program, New Mexico Department of Transportation, Santa Fe. NMDOT (1998), NM44 Corridor Agreement, New Mexico Department of Transportation, Santa Fe, and Mesa Project Development Corporation. NMDOT (2006), US-550 Annual ESAL Reports. New Mexico Department of Transportation, Santa Fe, and Mesa PDC, 20022006 Tarefder, R. A.; Sumee, N.; Yi, H.; Gopi, A. and Benedict, K. (2010). Development of a MEPDG database for Local Calibration, Interim Report, Submitted to Research Bureau, New Mexico Department of Transportation.
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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

A Preliminary Comparison of Continuous Compaction Control and Portable FWD systems for Qc/Qa
A. Marradi & U. Pinori
DIC - Roads and Transportation Division, University of Pisa, Italy

C. Sangiorgi & C. Lantieri

DISTART Roads,University of Bologna, Italy

ABSTRACT: Qc/Qa approach to pavement construction requires that correlated methods of measurement can be employed either by the contractors - guaranteeing the work reliability and the controller. The case of bearing capacity evaluation for subgrade and foundation layers is today moving from traditional testing (PLT), through Portable FWDs and FWDs, to the latest version of CCC and IC systems. Most of the modern vibrating compactors can be geared with in-built testing devices able to evaluate the stiffness level of the compacted layer down to a decimetric span, during compaction. On the other hand, Portable FWDs can quickly define a dense pattern of measurements in order to assess if the surface stiffness complies with requirements. This paper presents a preliminary testing campaign, aiming to contribute to the discussion of researchers for the CCC and PFWD systems integration as cross validation methods. A full scale double trial site have been constructed and monitored with a common IC-CCC drum and two different PFWDs. Results are also presented in the form of spatial geostatistic analysis. KEY WORDS: pavement, compaction, IC, CCC, PFWD, geostatistic. 1. INTRODUCTION The current techniques for constructing and controlling the embankments and foundations of a transportation pavement, are resulting from an ongoing process based on the achievement of the largest reliability of the completed earthworks and their following verification. The research of new solutions within the mechanical and electronic engineering to be applied to the construction machinery, allows to considerably reduce the construction time span guaranteeing, in the interim, high quality levels. With the aim of associating to the earthwork itself the evaluation of its bearing capacity, the Intelligent Compaction (IC) and the Continuous Compaction Control (CCC) systems have been recently developed. Intelligent Compaction evolved in Europe starting in the late seventies and it is today normally achieved by a smooth drum vibratory roller with a measurement/control system. This measurement system uses the information collected to adapt the equipment performance continuously, to optimize compaction and meet the required conditions. This system controls the different compaction parameters for the roller such as: vibration, amplitude, frequency and

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working speed (Figure 1). The output parameter is a soil stiffness modulus which is calculated continuously on the basis of the monitored drum accelerations (Briaud and Seo, 2003). The early versions of the IC systems were not able to adapt the vibrational effort aiming, real-time, to a target stiffness modulus. Hence, their use was limited to produce controlling passes at fixed amplitudes for assessing the latest achieved compaction. Most of the CCC technologies, though, are today embedded within the IC ones and can be employed whenever a proof rolling check is needed for the earthwork validation. In this case, their use is comparable to the in situ FWD testing devices, as they are actually applying the deflectometric concepts to the bearing capacity measurements of the investigated surface: the drum vibrate on the pavement surface generating a fixed action on the soil which deforms to an extent that is related to its stiffness.

Figure 1: Intelligent Compaction basic concept and Bomag-Variocontrol system controller Also the independent testing methodologies for verifying the pavement baring capacity performances have undergone a significant evolution. The in situ testing equipments have developed, above all, with the introduction of the new deflectometric systems (e.g. RWD, FWD and PFWD) that supported and, in part substituted the traditional PLT method. The objective of the present study is that of coupling to the Bomag-Variocontrol technology the use of the Portable Falling Weight Deflectometer as Qc/Qa integrated methodology for earthworks. Two types of devices were employed: the ZFG 2000, manufactured by Zorn (Germany) and the LWD 3031, manufactured by Dynatest (Denmark). Details on these systems can be found elsewhere (Sangiorgi et al., 2009). 2. THE ROAD TRIAL SITE The experimental trial site was located on a new stretch of road in the area of Altopascio, Tuscany, Italy. The 100 metres section of pavement was built on a shallow embankment over the exiting natural subgrade. The 40 cm thick foundation layer was made of two different materials, on two adjacent fields: Field 1: material A2-5 classified with UNI 10006/02; Field 2: material C&D in accordance with UNI 10006/02 and Lancieri, 2006. Each field was then subdivided into 3 strips in order to compact the layers with a varying number of rolling passes (Figure 2). The strips of field 1 were 2 metres wide and 50 metres long, while the ones of field 2 were of same width, but 40 metres in length. Also two external shoulder-strips of the same materials were compacted to create a passage for the mechanical means and to avoid any edge effect on the central strips.
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er uld sho

C2

B2

A2

C1 8 passes

B1 4 passes

FIELD 2 s ho uld er A1

FIELD 1

2 passes

Figure 2: Trial site layout and its compaction with a Bomag-Variocontrol drum The compaction of each strip was performed by means of a Bomag BW 213 DH roller compactor and it was monitored via the basic version of the Variocontrol system. This system is installed on-board of the roller and let the operator act on a control panel to set the compacting mode and the target modulus for the automatic option (Figure 1). For any chosen setting the system can print on paper the measured modulus Evib (MPa) versus the travelled distance. Other several data can be gained during compaction: refer to Bomag technical papers for more details. Referring to Figure 2 the roller compaction passes were counted for each transit on the strip, either in forward and reverse gear. All compactions were vibratory. A total of 2 passes were completed on A strip, 4 passes on B strip and 8 passes on C strip for both fields. These were made in the automatic mode with varying vibrating amplitudes and constant speed. Records were printed every forward transit. A final proof rolling pass was done on each strip in manual mode to acquire the moduli to be compared to the correspondent PFWD s values. After compaction a dense pattern of PFWD tests was completed on the trial fields. In particular, rows of 3 testing points were spaced on each strip of approximately 5 metres. Thus, 9 rows were recorded for each strip on field 1 and 7 on field 2, with both the Zorn and the Dynatest equipments. Points were densified in the vicinity of some PLT spots. PFWD tests were cautiously positioned and alternated along the rows, in order not to affect data with further compactions generated with the testing itself. The testing point spacing was also based on the required distribution of records on the area, for the application of the geostatistic calculations on both fields. A minimum of three tests per row is desirable to verify the homogeneity of the transversal compaction under the drum width (Sangiorgi et al., 2009). Figure 3 shows the adopted PFWD testing scheme.

Figure 3: PFWD testing grid on field 1

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3. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS FROM INTELLIGENT COMPACTION RECORDS Both trial fields were compacted, as shown previously, by means of the intelligent compaction system that automatically regulates the compaction effort given by the drum on the basis of the soil response to vibrations. The record of the automatic Evib moduli was taken during the advancing passes of the roller, hence at pass 1 for strips A1 and A2, at passes 1 and 3 for strips B1 and B2 and at passes 1, 3, 5 and 7 for strips C1 and C2. Figure 4 shows two graphs for each trial field. The top graphs plot the Evib moduli for all the first passes. The bottom graphs plot the Evib for strips C1 and C2 at subsequent passes.
180 180

FIELD 1
160 140 120 pass 1- strip A1 pass 1- strip B1 pass 1- strip C1 120 160 140

FIELD 2
pass 1- strip A2 pass 1- strip B2 pass 1- strip C2

Evib [MPa]

100 80 60 40 20 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Evib [MPa]

100 80 60 40 20 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

chainage [m]
180
180

chainage [m]

FIELD 1
160 140 120 pass 1- strip C1 pass 3- strip C1 pass 5- strip C1 pass 7- strip C1
160 140 120

FIELD 2
pass 1- strip C2 pass 3- strip C2 pass 5- strip C2 pass 7- strip C2

Evib [MPa]

100 80 60 40 20 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Evib [MPa]

100 80 60 40 20 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

chainage [m]

chainage [m]

Figure 4: Evib for both fields: passes 1 for strips A, B, C and passes 1, 3, 5 and 7 for strips C. Over the small area of both fields a significant variation of Evib is recorded. In particular, the equivalent stiffness of the investigated surfaces exhibits, for field 1, a transversal non homogeneity for the initial 30 metres where strip C1 is mostly weaker than the other strips. Than, after a transversal peak at 30-32 metres, and very low moduli until 38 metres, the three curves of first passes tend to describe an overall increase in stiffness for the final 10 metres of field. Similarly it happens for field 2 where the transversal and longitudinal stiffness of the initial 13 metres is close to 80 MPa. For strips A2 and B2 this value is kept until a chainage of 20 metres, whereas strip C2 exhibits an average Evib of 120 MPa. After 25 metres the recorded stiffnesses on field 2 are transversally non homogeneous with a large portion of the central strip below 20 MPa. The target value of 150 MPa adopted for the automatic compaction mode of field 1 is never reached, meaning that, at the first passes, the compacted material, and the correspondent subgrade, are not able to develop such an equivalent stiffness. Only the central portion of strip C2 in field 2 compacted automatically with a target Evib of 120 MPa was getting the aimed stiffness, while most of the field is weaker.

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Evibs on both fields are mainly affected by the bearing capacity of the laying subgrades and by the characteristics and thicknesses of the new compacted layers. The non homogeneity, in fact, can be attributed to the condition of subgrades that, for specific road locations, are locally weakened by the presence of a superficial water table. Secondly for field 1, the A2-5 material is partially sensible to the water that is recalled by the compaction through the newly laid layer. Figure 5 shows some pics taken after compaction on a humid spot of field 1, strip B1 and C1, approximately just after the chainage of 35 metres.

Figure 5: Humidity emerging in a portion of strips B1 and C1 on field 1 Field 2 is generally stiffer, either because, for a large part of the area, the subgrades are stronger (embankment), and also because of the relative insensitivity of the C&D material to the presence of water. The weak 25-35 metres section can be ascribed to the presence of an existing depression of the ground field that somehow affected the embankment compaction. With regard to the subsequent compaction records on strips C1 and C2 it can be underlined that on both fields, the passes after the first are increasing the equivalent stiffness of the area. On field 1, passes 3 and 5 are recording similar moduli; pass 7 differs only by the pop up of two peaks around 15 and 48 metres; this one is so high and concentrated that can be easily attributed to the presence of a deep local rigid element like, most probable, a large stone. It should be noticed that weak sections remain weak even after the seventh pass. This is also true for field 2 where the weak portion (25 to 35 m) has Evibs below 60 MPa. The section between 8 to 15 metres is the one showing the largest increase in stiffness after pass 1. After pass 7 the section comprised between chainage 8 and 22 metres is well above the target Evib of 120 MPa. After being compacted with the automatic mode, the two fields were subjected to further rolling passes to verify the obtained stiffnesses with a manual setting of the vibrating drum. This means that the vibration amplitude was kept constant to give a uniform action on the tested surface, without aiming to a target stiffness. The main difference with the automatic mode is basically the depth of investigation reached by the drum generated pressures. Figure 6 compares, for the two fields, the proof rolling passes for each strip. Dotted curves plot the manual mode passes. With regard to the compaction control curves of field 1, it can be noticed that Evibs are always below the automatic curves, following the same trends. This has to be imputed to the difference in investigated depths. Thus, the general trends of strips A1, B1 and C1 are related to the local weakness of the top 60-80 cm of superficial materials, including the newly compacted A2-5 layer. The automatic Evib values are translated, showing that a stiffer subgrade exists below 1 metre of depth, developing higher equivalent moduli. A different behaviour characterizes the proof rolling passes of field 2. In this case, the dotted curves are mostly superimposing the automatic modes Evibs. Trends are comparable

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and the minimum Evibs recorded during the compaction control passes are close to 40 MPa. Again the investigated depth is relevant for commenting the differences that arise in the last 15 metres of field, where similar behaviours to the field 1 curves are recorded. In the first part of the area, instead, Evibs are generally higher than 80 MPa and indicate that the bearing capacity of subgrades have induced a reasonable compaction of the superficial materials, in particular for the C&D layer. Hence, stiffness is homogeneous through the embankment down to 1.5-2 metres of depth. Trends suggest that the C&D material may reach Evibs of 40 MPa even where weaker subgrades exist as it happens in strip B2.
180 160 140 120 180

FIELD 1
pass 1- strip A1 pass 3- strip A1 160 140 120

FIELD 2
pass 1- strip A2 pass 3- strip A2

Evib [MPa]

100 80 60 40 20 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Evib [MPa]

100 80 60 40 20 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

chainage [m]
180 180

chainage [m]

FIELD 1
160 140 120 pass 1- strip B1 pass 3- strip B1 pass 5- strip B1 160 140 120

FIELD 2
pass 1- strip B2 pass 3- strip B2 pass 5- strip B2

Evib [MPa]

100 80 60 40 20 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Evib [MPa]

100 80 60 40 20 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

chainage [m]
180 160 140 120 180

chainage [m]

FIELD 1
pass 1- strip C1 pass 3- strip C1 pass 5- strip C1 pass 7- strip C1 pass 9- strip C1

FIELD 2
160 140 120 pass 1- strip C2 pass 3- strip C2 pass 5- strip C2 pass 7- strip C2 pass 9- strip C2

Evib [MPa]

100 80 60 40 20 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Evib [MPa]

100 80 60 40 20 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

chainage [m]

chainage [m]

Figure 6: Automatic (IC) and manual (CCC) mode records of Evib for both trial fields. 4. COMPARISON OF COMPACTION CONTROL AND PFWD RESULTS The basic aim of the experimental site investigation was to assess the opportunity of indirectly controlling compaction with different methods of measurement, to be adopted at different stages of construction. It is therefore significant to plot the recorded Evib values for the proof

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rolling passes, together with the correspondent Evd average moduli measured every 5 metres of each strip by means of the two available PFWD devices. For the seek of shortness, only data from field 1 are shown in Figure 7. First of all, it should be noticed how moduli are on the same scale; this proves that with the adopted manual mode, the drum action involves thicknesses of pavement that are comparable to those interested by the used dynamic plate tests (Sangiorgi et al., 2009). As known, the three moduli are calculated by the systems on the same principle, but with different apparatus. Thus, differences in magnitude may also be imputed to that; nevertheless trends are matching on the field, in particular on strips B1 and C1, showing that the three dynamic devices are able to record the same stiffnessvariations and that, an appropriate PFWD testing pattern, can lead to a significant correlation between the CCC and the PFWD measurements on the area.
90 80
FIELD 1 - strip A1 Evd Dynatest Evd Zorn

90 80

FIELD 1 - strip B1 Evd Dynatest Evd Zorn Evib Bomag

Evib, EvdZ, EvdD [MPa]

60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Evib, EvdZ, EvdD [MPa] 40 50

70

Evib Bomag

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

10

20 chainage [m]

30

10

20 chainage [m]

30

40

50

90 80

FIELD 1 - strip C1 Evd Dynatest Evd Zorn Evib Bomag

Evib, EvdZ, EvdD [MPa]

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

10

20 chainage [m]

30

40

50

Figure 7: Field 1: plots of Evds from PFWDs and Evib from the Bomag CCC. PFWD testing. The use of geostatistics can help into the description of such a correlation. References to the use of geostatistics in the analysis of PFWD data can be found in Sangiorgi et al., 2009. In this case, each strip of the trial field 1 can be mapped on the basis of the variograms obtained from Zorn and Dynatest data. Basically, each measured modulus on a row of the testing grid combines to give, through a statistical model, a calculated modulus in a different point; the weight of its influence on the new calculated value depends on their reciprocal distance. This has been done on the strip span and each map was subsequently joined to compose the whole field. A different representation was made for the Variocontrol records: Evibs have been attributed to the full width of the strip, as a unique value, and no use of geostatistical models was therefore needed. Figure 8 brings together the three maps obtained for field 1 by the PFWDs and the Variocontrol data. A single scale was used even though, as already said, only trends should be addressed when commenting. The two PFWDs maps support the aforementioned trends matching and can contribute to the transversal characterization of the strips, augmenting the accuracy of the compaction controlling.

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Figure 8: Geostatistical mapping of the stiffness moduli database on field 1. The integration of intelligent compaction and continuous compaction controls with PFWD systems is under discussion among the scientific community; the presented experimental results aid to proving that, such an integration is possible on condition that, a specific relationship between the moduli is developed for each compaction scenario to be controlled with roller vibrating systems and PFWD tests. The main object of debate is evidently related with the kind of material and pavement to be controlled, as well as the depth of investigation, coupled with the vibratory settings of the roller compactor. The following remarks are a contribution to this discussion and highlights how the best reliability is attained when a specific correlation is calculated for each compacted field. The left graph of Figure 9 plots the average Evd values, measured on rows of three tests located every 5 metres on each strip of field 1, versus the average value of Evib calculated with the moduli recorded in close proximity to the PFWD tests. These correlations show how, even a relatively loose pattern of PFWD test, can produce a valid relationship between the continuous compaction control system and both the portable falling weight equipments. In particular, two distinct correlations have been found for field 1 where the Evd moduli were limited to 80 MPa and Evib ones to 60 MPa. This infers again that both PFWD equipments may be adopted to calibrating and controlling the use of the new intelligent compaction control technologies. It is also proven that a specific relationship exists between the moduli measured by the two PFWDs, as previous researches have mentioned (White et al., 2007).
90 80 Average EvdZ, EvdD [MPa] 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
y = 1.17x + 13.07 R2 = 0.872 y = 0.61x + 8.73 R2 = 0.862

FIELD 1 Evd Dynatest Evd Zorn Average EvdZ, EvdD [MPa]

120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0

FIELD 2 Evd Dynatest Evd Zorn

y = 0.29x + 51.89 R2 = 0.822

y = 0.14x + 32.16 R2 = 0.804

50

Average Evib Bomag [MPa]

100 Average Evib Bomag [MPa]

150

200

Figure 9: Correlation between Evds and Evibs for field 1 and field 2.

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When a different compacted scenario is considered, for instance field 2, two new reliable correlations should be worked out for the comparison of Evd and Evib results (Figure 9 right). This aspect is peculiar if an extended integration of CCC and PFWD or FWD systems is scheduled amid the new European standards. In fact, the Qc/Qa contracts approach involves either the constructor, that generally owns the CCC system, and the controller that performs the independent testing. The existence of various CCC technologies, as well as of diverse PFWD or FWD equipments, asks for an intensive collection of data to define a consistent procedure for correlating tests with different devices and for different materials. The obtained correlations should be used for verifying the CCC recorded data, through all the construction site, acquiring the CCC maps as Qc evidence and, for instance, the PFWD maps as Qa support. The use of the already available GPS based systems may encourage the process. 5. CONCLUSIONS The discussion among researchers for the CCC and PFWD systems integration as cross validation methods is still open. The advantages of controlling compaction by means of intelligent rollers is undoubted and the possibility of guaranteeing those controls by means of independent methods is foretelling a sensible increase in the pavement construction quality. This study, as part of a larger research, have made that integration advisable, and not only possible. Not all the CCC and PFWD systems are the same. This means that either a general model or a specific correlation is needed prior controlling. Moreover, in Altopascio two different PFWDs were used on different materials and their results compared with those recorded by the CCC Bomag roller. The existence of different relationships demands for the collection of a large database with varying equipments and materials. The definition of a simple procedure for creating a reliable model from a calibration trial field is essential. The on-going work concerns the production of consistent correlations between the two adopted PFWD devices. This will reduce the number of variables amid the just mentioned integration process. A number of compacted trial fields are being double-tested with the two PFWDs; subgrades, layersthicknesses and materials are the main variables whilst searching for a general correlation model. The geostatistic analysis have proven its potentialities and shell be applied to all the future analysis. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Authors are grateful to Hans-Josef Kloubert of Bomag GmbH and Filippo Franceschelli of Bomag Italia srl. The trial site was realized by Del Debbio S.p.A. with the courtesy of the engineers of the Provence of Lucca. REFERENCES Briaud, J. L. and Seo, J., 2003. Intelligent compaction: overview and research needs, Texas A&M University, December. Lancieri, F. and Marradi, A., 2006. Capitolato Speciale dappalto tipo a carattere prestazionale per lutilizzo di materiali inerti riciclati da costruzione e demolizione, Regione Toscana.

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Sangiorgi, C.; Marradi, A.; Lantieri, C. and Pinori, U., 2009. Dynamic field assessment of bearing capacity for pavement subgrades and foundations. 6 International Conference on maintenance and rehabilitation of pavements and technological control, Torino, July. White, D. J.; Thompson, M. J. and Vennapusa, P. K. R., 2007. Field Validation of Intelligent Compaction monitoring technology for Unbound materials. Report n MN/RC-2007-10. Minnesota DoT. Marradi, A. and Marvogli, M., 2007. Falling Weight Deflectometer Measurements for Evaluation of the Bearing Capacity of Granular Unbound Layers, 4th International SIIV Congress, Palermo, September.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Precision and Bias Measurements in Automated Cracking Surveys and Future Technologies
K. Wang Civil Engineering Department, University of Arkansas, USA kcw@uark.edu

ABSTRACT: Although the high-speed and objective means of automated data collection and processing for pavement distress survey are appealing, many agencies are reluctant to adopt the new technology as either data quality is perceived as compromised, or that there is lack of experience. In addition, there is lack of commonly used cracking protocols and limited analysis of data quality. This paper attempts to design an analysis method, and apply real-world data sets under varying conditions for fully automated analysis. A statistical approach is used to compare results among manual, semiautomated, and fully automated procedures. The paper also presents the automated cracking survey methodologies and protocols used in the Automated Distress Analyzer (ADA) and the Digital Highway Data Vehicle (DHDV). The quality of automated cracking data is compared with manual processing result. The variability and the quality assurance procedures in the cracking survey are discussed. It is demonstrated that fully automated processing of pavement cracking can be as useful as manual processing at substantial savings. New 3D laser imaging technology is also introduced at the end of the paper. KEY WORDS: Automated Distress Detection; Distress Survey; Distress Protocol; Statistical Analysis; Digital Highway Data Vehicle; Laser Road Imaging System, 3D Pavement Surface

1. INTRODUCTION Network-level pavement management systems require accurate distress data to support sound conclusions as to where and when to invest highway maintenance, rehabilitation, and construction dollars. At the project level, distress data are critical to correctly diagnosing the causes of pavement deterioration, and therefore used to select the most appropriate remedial measures. Distress data are important independent variables in the development of structural design methods and performance prediction models for both new and rehabilitated pavements. A critical problem that plagued the industry until recently was the inability to collect clean and shadow-free images of pavement surface with a vehicular platform at highway speed (FHWA, 2001). The introduction of laser-based imaging technology for pavement data acquisition in 2006 has changed the landscape of surface distress survey, which is able to capture 1-mm shadow free images of the entire pavement surface at highway speed. The automated data acquisition system has certain advantages in terms of safety and efficiency. It can keep a permanent and objective record of a pavements condition which a manual survey cannot. The automated data interpretation system also has the potential to provide higher objectivity, as well as improved data consistency and repeatability. Many US agencies have adopted automated technology for data collection (Wang, 2000). A recent report on an automated cracking questionnaire survey (McGhee, 2004) concluded that for the state DOTs in 2003; most of the 30 agencies surveyed use an automated method to acquire pavement surface images, but few adopted automated processing software. In the survey, some believe that data
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quality is compromised and they are hesitant to invest in the new technologies until they have been more thoroughly proven, while other agencies mentioned an improved data quality through automation. The data quality issue of distress surveys exists in both automated cracking surveys and manual surveys. For example, manual survey results show wide variability (Morian et al., 2002). The variability or error in the automated interpretation of cracking survey mainly comes from the automated cracking interpretation algorithms which rely on image processing and pattern recognition of two dimensional pavement images. Despite the fact that the automated cracking result is not perfect with todays computer vision technology, it shows promising capabilities in network level cracking surveys. For example, Maryland DOT has successfully implemented an automated network level cracking survey with proper quality assurance (Groeger et al., 2003). At a minimum, if properly calibrated, fully automated interpretation systems for cracking surveys are consistent and repeatable in their results. 2. THE HARDWARE SYSTEM AND SOFTWARE CAPABILITY Since 2005, the Digital Highway Data Vehicle (DHDV) has evolved into a new platform with laser based imaging technology for pavement surface data collection. The DHDV was designed to be multifunctional and includes a sub-system for pavement surface imaging, a sub-system for Right-Of-Way imaging, and a sub-system of laser road profiling. Figure 1 illustrates the basic components and data flow of DHDV.

Figure 1: Dataflow of the DHDV system The Automated Distress Analyzer (ADA) was developed to conduct the real-time analysis of the pavement images for automated distress detection and focuses primarily on cracking survey at this time. With ADA, a crack map is also generated with identified cracks highlighted. Geometry information of individual cracks and their positions are streamed into a real-time database. The reporting software compiles the cracking information in the database into various indexing formats or protocols, such as Crack Indicator (Paterson, 1994), the AASHTO interim protocol (AASHTO, 2001), and UK SCANNER (SCANNER, 2005). Additionally, reporting files for a Pavement Condition Index (PCI) can also be generated based on ADA results and non-cracking distresses that are surveyed in a workstation with a separate software program. The files can be directly fed into the MicroPaver software. The pavement imaging sub-system includes two line scan cameras and two laser sensors pointing downward on the pavement, covering about 4-meters of pavement width with 1-mm resolution at speeds greater than 100 km/hr shown in Figure 2. The real-time Automated Distress Analyzer, ADA, shown in Figure 3, was developed prior to the use of 1mm laser images, and since then has been enhanced to work with 1mm laser images. The detected cracks in the images are highlighted in a bounding box within the crack map. The length, width, direction, type, and other details of the cracks are exported to the reporting software module. The crack statistics of the target road is provided in a graph, an Excel file, or database file.
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Figure 2: Digital Highway Data Vehicle (DHDV) with laser imaging

Figure 3: Automated Distress Analyzer (ADA) 3. AUTOMATED INTERPRETATION FOR CRACKS Parallel processing techniques are used in the DHDV to maintain real-time operation of data acquisition and processing. At the macro level, Figure 4 illustrates the data acquisition and processing in a parallel environment. A single dual-CPU multi-core computer is used for data acquisition and processing of all sub-systems in the DHDV: including multiple Right-of-Way color cameras, 1-mm LRIS pavement image acquisition sub-system, rutting and longitudinal sub-systems, various positioning devices, and real-time processing with ADA. There is a project manager for parallel processing, which coordinates the processing of images among the four to eight processor cores with ADA depending on CPU loads. Figure 5 illustrates an integrated Multimedia Highway Information System Deluxe (MHIS Deluxe) that presents all DHDV collected data sets in a geo-referenced environment. A key feature of MHIS Deluxe is its capability to add non-cracking distresses and edit existing cracks through a CAD-like tool palette.

Figure 4: The framework data acquisition and processing for DHDV

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Figure 5: Integrated MHIS Deluxe for distress editing and information presentation 4. PROTOCOL APPLICATIONS FOR ADA In any cracking survey, the delivered result is normally a cracking index for condition evaluation and pavement management purposes based on a pre-defined methodology, commonly referred to as a protocol. The author conducted a study in 2008 (Wang et al., 2009) that shows that a protocol can actually increase the inherent variability in the computed indices based on that protocol if the protocol design was not specifically and properly tailored toward automated interpretation. The primary reason for this phenomenon is that there are many factors that are beyond the control of the protocol itself and the data collection process. For example, a large patterned crack can be divided into small pieces and thus bring in differences among raters or recognition algorithms, leading to inconsistent results due to the protocol. In addition, when a cracking protocol requires the distinction between wheel-path and non-wheel-path cracks, substantial errors would occur in calculating results for repeatability due to vehicle wandering in the data collection process. This particular error is not even correctable if lane markings are not present due to lack of reference. Therefore, selecting a proper protocol for automated cracking interpretation becomes an essential task in implementing such a system for production. 4.1. Cracking Definition of UK SCANNER In recent years, the road agency in Great Britain implemented a pavement survey protocol called UK Surface Condition Assessment of the National NEtwork of Roads, or commonly referred to as UK SCANNER. UK SCANNER includes definitions for calculating roughness, rutting, edge condition, and surface cracking. A critical component of SCANNER is a protocol for calculating

Figure 6: Highlighted cracking grid UK SCANNER on a crack map

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cracking index. The pavement surface is divided into 200mm 200mm grids, highlighting those grids affected by cracking. The percentage of the cracked grids out of the total number of the grids is calculated for each 50-meter subsection of roadway as the UK SCANNER cracking index. Figure 6 shows the pavement image and the corresponding crack map generated by ADA. The grids containing any cracking are highlighted by the square dots in the crack map UK SCANNER definition:

Index =

nc 100 % N

(1)

n c - The total number of cracking grids in one 50-m subsection

N - The total number of grids in one 50-m subsection 5. DATA ANALYSIS The purpose of the presented study is to verify the validity and reliability of the automated processing data through comparison with manual processing data. A critical step is to establish a sound reference for the data comparison. Unlike many previous studies, this study adopted a precision test which evaluates the precision statistics of the raters data before using them to establish the reference value and the acceptable range. The precision test has advantages over simpler statistical analyses. First, a larger sample is used. Second, during this test, outliers are evaluated for omission and only statistically reasonable data are retained for further analysis. Lastly, the acceptable range is more robustly determined in the precision test for analyzing automated results. In a typical analysis, the mean value of several raters plus or minus two times the standard deviation is set as the acceptable range (Albitres et al., 2007). However, manual distress processing is known with high level of subjectivity (Goodman et al., 2001) and notable inconsistency among raters. Substantial inconsistency may exist in results produced by a single rater. The precision test closely modeled the intrinsic statistic behavior of the manual processing before providing the acceptable range for further precision analysis of the automated processing. 5.1. Strategy and Terms Three data processing methods or terms are used in the comparison test: fully automated processing, semi-auto processing and manual processing. Fully automated processing refers to the procedure involving data collected by the DHDV and automatically interpreted by the computer program, ADA, to determine the crack map and generate the UK SCANNER index without any manual intervention. Semi-automated processing refers to the procedure of interpreting pavement images for cracks with ADA, and then using the MHIS Deluxe software to manually verify the cracking results. Manual processing refers to the interpretation of cracking using manual evaluation by raters reviewing the images on the computer with the MHIS Deluxe without any pre-processed results by ADA; the rater manually traces the crack on the pavement grids while viewing an image on a computer screen. Acceptable here means the automated result or semi-automated result is equivalent to a manual result and can be used to replace the manual processing. If the majority of the automated results among the test sections are acceptable, automated means would be preferred since the manual alternative consumes tremendously more time and effort. Another two important terms in this study are precision and bias. Precision in statics is a quality associated with the measurement and refers to the way in which repeated observations conform to themselves. Bias is the difference between the measurement and the true value of the pavement cracking data. Twenty unique road sections (0.1mile-long each) from the four pavements representing four levels of cracking (good, fair, fair to poor and poor) are used in this test. All pavements are asphalt concrete (AC). Each of the 20 sections is visually examined in the computer with MHIS Deluxe and can be generally categorized at one of the four levels based on their UK SCANNER indices: 0-10 is good, 1120 is fair, 21-30 is fair to poor, above 30 is poor.

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Due to labor intensity, the precision test was performed on only four road sections, with each representing one of the four pavement types. Per ASTM E691-99 (ASTM, 1999) recommendation of a minimum eight laboratories and three materials for a test, nine raters (i.e., laboratories) were used to rate the four pavement sections (i.e., materials). Four replicate tests were conducted by each rater for each section. The UK SCANNER protocol was used to calculate the index for each section as an indicator of the cracking condition. Detailed analysis was conducted in the precision test, including ANOVA analysis of within-rater and between-rater variance, consistency check on each rater, and the precision statistics calculation. The precision statistics include the average value and acceptable range for each section which was then used as the criteria to determine whether the automated and semiautomated results were acceptable. Then the test was extended to 20 road sections. Three raters who demonstrated the ability to be statistically consistent (within-rater and between rater) conducted the manual ratings for the additional 16 roadway sections. The acceptable range for each section was obtained by interpolating the values for the four sections in the precision test. Automated ratings and semi-automated ratings were also conducted for those roadway sections. Data comparisons between the manual, semi-automated, and automated results were made for all 20 roadway sections. 5.2. Precision Test The precision test was conducted in accordance with ASTM E691-99 (ASTM, 1999), Standard Practice for Conducting an Interlaboratory Study to Determine the Precision of a Test Method. This test is normally conducted to test the precision and bias of a measurement means for material testing in a civil, mechanical or other engineering field. In this study, an analogy between pavement raters and laboratories testing materials is applied. Laboratories in ASTM E691 refers to individual raters. Nine raters (thus nine laboratories) were included in the effort. Material in ASTM E691 refers to individual pavements; four pavement sections were used in this study, representing good, fair, fair to poor and poor pavement conditions. Four replicate tests were performed by each rater for each pavement section. The precision test includes three mains steps: 1) Calculate between-rater consistency h and withinrater consistency k for each rater for each section. 2) Find the critical values of h and k at the 5 percent significance level and flag inconsistent results. 3) Calculate precision statistics based on statistically consistent results. All nine raters completed the rating of all four sections based on the UK SCANNER method. Table 1 lists the procedure to calculate the consistency statistics h and k for roadway section A. Similarly h and k values can be calculated for the other three road sections. The next step is to flag inconsistent results based on the critical values of the consistency statistics. The critical value for h depends on the number of raters and the critical value for k depends both on the number of raters and on the number of replicating test per rater per section. Both critical values are determined from the Table 5 in ASTM E691-99. Then the inconsistent result may be omitted. In this test, data from rater 2 and rater 3 out of nine raters were thrown out. Finally the precision statement is calculated, which is shown in Table 2. Table 1:. Worksheet for manual UK SCANNER indices for road section A Raters 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 4.41 2.77 3.28 4.37 4.17 3.92 5.49 2.74 3.76 Test Results, x 2 3 4.12 3.79 4.59 4.47 4.46 4.14 3.98 4.36 4.24 4.82 3.39 4.01 4.84 5.32 3.5 2.9 4.04 4.14 4 3.69 4.62 3.93 4.25 4.41 3.87 5.29 4.02 3.98
x

4.0025 4.1125 3.9525 4.24 4.41 3.7975 5.235 3.29 3.98

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s 0.327961 0.897343 0.498489 0.181659 0.291319 0.277774 0.277669 0.586401 0.160831

d -0.11083 -0.00083 -0.16083 0.126667 0.296667 -0.31583 1.121667 -0.82333 -0.13333

h -0.00323 -2.4E-05 -0.00468 0.003689 0.008639 -0.0092 0.032664 -0.02398 -0.00388

k 0.009987 0.027325 0.015179 0.005532 0.008871 0.008458 0.008455 0.017856 0.004897

Average of cell averages,

. 11333

Standard deviation of cell averages, s Repeatability standard deviation, s Reproducibility standard deviation, s
r

x
=
R

= 0 . 5239
0 = 0 . 4476 . 7359

Where: x = individual test result x = cell average x = average of cell average s = cell standard deviation d = cell deviation= x - x
A A

s x = standard deviation of cell averages

/( p 1 )

sr sR
h
k

= repeatability standard deviation =

s2 / p
sr

=reproducibility standard deviation = larger of

and

(s x )2 + (s r )2 (n 1) / n

= between-rater consistency statistics, = d / s x and

= within-rater consistency statistic s / s r p = the number of the raters n = the number of the replicate tests by one rater for each section

Table 2: Precision statement for manual rating Sections A B C D

sr

x
4.11 12.41 21.69 32.7

sr
0.45 1.26 1.28 1.37

sR
0.74 2.02 3.42 3.83

r 1.26 3.528 3.584 3.836

2.072 5.656 9.576 10.724

x = average of the study data

=repeatability standard deviation s =reproducibility standard deviation r =Repeatability acceptable range of two test results (d2s:95% limit) R =Reproducibility acceptable range of two test results (d2s:95% limit)
R

Table 2 summarizes the mean, repeatability standard deviation, and reproducibility standard deviation for the four pavements based on results of manual processing. It also includes the estimate of 95% repeatability and reproducibility limits for the manual process. Repeatability concerns the variability between independent test results obtained from a single rater. Reproducibility deals with the variability between results for one road section obtained among different raters. In the data comparison, x , the average of the manual results for each section will be set as the reference, and the reproducibility acceptable range will be used to determine whether the automated and semi-automated results are acceptable. Figure 7 shows the comparison between the automated and semi-automated result with the manual reference. It was found that both automated and semi-automated results for all four sections were within the acceptable range. It means that for these four sections, the automated and semi-automated survey results are not statistically dissimilar from the manual results, and provide results that are at least as precise as those derived by the manual process.

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Auto Result 45 40 35 30 UK Index

Semi Auto Result 45 40 35 30 UK Index 25 20 15 10 5 0

25 20 15 10 5 0 A B Section No. C D

B Section No.

Figure 7: Data comparison between the automated and semi-auto result with manual result for the four sections in precision test 5.3. Supplemental Tests This analysis was conducted on only four sections. To increase the sampling size, the test was extended to 20 road sections. Three raters being statistically consistent in the precision test rated the other 16 road sections. The averages of the ratings were used as the reference mean. From the precision test, it was found that the acceptable range for reproducibility was increasing as the pavement cracking worsened. In general, the acceptable range for each section in the extended test was calculated from the interpolated value for the four sections used in the precision test. For the manual processing results from the three raters, the semi-automated processing, and the fully automated processing, Figure 8 and Figure 9 demonstrate the acceptable range (the black bar) and the automated result (triangle) or semi-automated result (square). It was found that the automated results for 18 out of the total 20 sections are statistically acceptable. The other two sections deviated only slightly from the lower limits, which were 1.11 for section 1, and 9.46 for section 11. The lower range limits of these two sections were 1.21 and 10.89 respectively. As expected, the semi-automated results for all the sections fit very well within the acceptable range. For manual processing, depending on the distress quantity of an individual pavement section, it took 45 minutes to 2 hours to process one 0.1 mile section. Semi-automated processing took less than half of the time. Ninety percent of the automated results are demonstrated to be statistically acceptable, and the time commitment for automated data processing is only about 16 seconds per section (160m long) with a single ADA process in a moderately equipped computer.
Auto Result
50 45 40 35 UK Index 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Section No.

Figure 8: Automated and manual cracking result for the 20 test sections

464

Semi Auto Result

50 45 40 35 UK Index 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Section No.

Figure 9: Semi-Auto and manual results for the 20 test sections 6. NEW 3D LASER IMAGING FOR PAVEMENT CONDITION SURVEY Pavement surface defects all have unique 3D characteristics of various scales in both the x and y dimension, and the 3rd dimension. In recent years 3D laser imaging technology has been widely applied for inspection of manufactured products. Figure 10 illustrates the general principles of using 3D laser imaging techniques to capture surface characteristics on the conveyer belt. Conceptually, such 3D data gathering technique can be applied to pavement surface imaging, and has been demonstrated as such in Figure 11. At this time, the major element of pavement surface distresses is surface cracking. The detection and classification of cracks are still not fully automated in the field. Substantial amount of postprocessing and manual intervention is still required. Figure 11 shows a sample 3D pavement surface. The new research underway has the potential to pave the way to establish a new technological platform that would produce several key pavement surface distresses at highway speed and in full automation, including cracking, rutting, pothole, patching, and several other defects. The research would utilize the same principle to facilitate two main steps: the first is to acquire high resolution and high definition images of pavement surface at 1-mm or better in all three directions; and the second is to develop 3D algorithms to extract pavement distress features from the 3D images for cracking and rutting initially. Potentially, macro-texture information may be extracted from the 3D surface models as well.

Figure 10: Line Laser and Triangulation Used for 3D Imaging in Manufacturing Inspection

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Figure 11: Sample 3D Pavement Surface 7. CONCLUSION It is evident that automated data analysis has become the next critical step in the automation of cracking surveys. An elaborate statistical approach which aims at modeling the precision statistics of a cracking survey was adopted to examine the manual cracking data and establish a dependable reference value to validate the automated survey results. The automated cracking survey result is considered to be statistically acceptable as demonstrated in the paper. The research also shows that with limited human intervention, the automated system can generate the same accurate result as manual survey. The automated survey method even shows superiority over manual processing in terms of consistency and efficiency. Another key advantage for the fully automated survey is that cost savings can be substantial when it is used for a large network. Particularly ADA can be run in a multiCPU with multi-core computer setup in a parallel and batch mode. This setup can provide processing at a speed of several hundreds of miles per hour in a state-of-the art workstation. A quality control process is a critical step in assuring the usability of the automated results. Due to the use of different cracking protocols and varying pavement surfaces in different highway agencies, the quality control process therefore needs to be determined by individual highway agencies to obtain acceptable levels of precision and bias. A 3D laser imaging platform under development may be an ultimate system that would convince pavement engineers to adopt fully automated technology, as long as proper levels of precision and bias are understood and accepted. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors would like to thank the following individuals who contributed to the data processing for the project: Emerson John, Ryan Reynolds, Terry Tracy, Vu Nguyen, Weiguo Gong, Jonathan Wang, and Mathew Wang. Dr. Stacy Williams and Dr. Jacqueline Z. Hou provided data analysis presented in the paper. REFERENCES FHWA (2001), Key Findings from LTPP Distress Data, FHWA-RD-02-031, U.S. Department of Transportation. Wang, K.C.P. (2000), Design and Implementation of Automated Systems for Pavement Surface Distress Survey, ASCE Journal of Infrastructure Systems, Vol.6, No1, March, pp. 24-32. McGhee, K. (2004), NCHRP Synthesis 334: Automated Pavement Distress Collection Techniques. Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C.
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Morian, D., S. Stoeffels, and D.J. Firth (2002), Quality Management of Pavement Performance Data, 2002 Pavement Evaluation Conference, Roanoke, Va., Oct. 21-25. Groeger, J.L., P. Stephanos, P. Dorsey, and M. Chapman (2003), Implementation of Automated Network-Level Crack Detection Processes in Maryland, Transportation Research Record 1860, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., pp. 109116 Paterson, W. D. (1994), Proposal of Universal Cracking Indicator for Pavements, Transportation Research Record 1455, TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., pp. 6975. AASHTO (2001), Standard Practice for Quantifying Cracks in Asphalt Pavement Surface, AASHTO Designation: PP44 00. SCANNER Surveys for Local Roads, Specification Volume 2 (2005), Specification for Services, July, Halcrow Group Limited. Wang, K. C. P., Z. Q. Hou, W.G. Gong (2009), Automated Cracking Survey and Protocol Design, In the 88th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., Jan. Albitres, C. M., R. E Smith, and O. J. Pendleton (2007), Comparison of automated pavement distress data collection procedures for local agencies in San Francisco Bay area, California, Transportation Research Record 1990, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C. Goodman, S. N. (2001), Assessing Variability of Surface Distress Surveys in Canadian Long-Term Pavement Performance Program, Transportation Research Record 1764, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Washington D.C., pp. 112-118. ASTM E691-99, Standard Practice for Conducting an Interlaboratory Study to Determine the Precision of a Test Method.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Evaluation of Aircraft Landing Hydroplaning Risk

H. R. Pasindu, T. F. Fwa & G. P. Ong
Dept. of Civil Engineering, National University of Singapore h.r.pasindu@nus.edu.sg, cvefwatf@nus.edu.sg, cveongr@nus.edu.sg.

ABSTRACT: Historically, aircraft are exposed to a higher accident risk during landing as compared to other flight phases. Hydroplaning is one potential hazard that an aircraft can encounter during wet-weather landing. It reduces tire-pavement friction and causes a loss of directional control, thereby leading to aircraft overruns or veer-offs. Recognizing the importance of ascertaining the risk of hydroplaning during wet-weather landing and the serious consequences involved in the event of an overrun or veer-off, this paper presents a probabilistic-based methodology to calculate hydroplaning risk for an aircraft landing on a runway during wet weathers. Runway geometry (such as design and cross-slope), pavement surface characteristics (such as mean texture depth), weather conditions (such as rainfall intensity) and aircraft operational characteristics (such as lateral and longitudinal wander, speed and weight variation) are considered in the developed framework. The paper shall apply the framework to evaluate the hydroplaning risk for different sections along the runway. Using the numerical example presented in the paper, it is demonstrated that the framework is capable to provide hydroplaning risk information useful for runway friction maintenance management and planning. KEY WORDS: Airport runway, Aircraft landing, Hydroplaning, Risk. 1. INTRODUCTION Air transportation is one of the fastest growing modes of transport. In 2008, over 21.8 million departures had taken place worldwide (Boeing, 2008). Global air traffic is expected to grow at an annual rate of 5% to 6% for the next two decades (Netjasov and Janic, 2008), and this increase is expected to exert even more pressure on aviation agencies in ensuring a high level of aviation safety. Over the last decade, about 25% of the fatal accidents involving commercial jet aircrafts take place during the landing phase (Boeing, 2008). Considering that the exposure time for landing relative to the total flight time is only around 1%, aircraft landing can be considered as a highly critical phase of flight operations in terms of safety. One of the many hazards aircrafts encounter during the landing maneuver is hydroplaning. When an aircraft tire rolls on a wet runway surface, water is squeezed out from the tirepavement contact patch and this process generates water uplift forces from underneath the tire. At a critical landing speed, the aircraft tire can get completely separated from the runway surface by a thin film of water, triggering a phenomenon known as hydroplaning. The critical speed at which the tire is completely separated from the pavement is known as the hydroplaning speed. Hydroplaning is a critical aviation safety issue since it results in near-

469

zero friction coefficient between the aircraft tire and the runway pavement, and a loss of steering control of the aircraft, and can potentially lead to runway overruns and veer-offs. Recognizing the importance of ascertaining the risk of hydroplaning during wet-weather landing and the serious consequences involved in the event of an overrun or veer-off, this paper presents a methodology to calculate hydroplaning risk for an aircraft landing on a runway during wet weathers. Factors affecting aircraft hydroplaning risks are first discussed and a probabilistic approach is the proposed to incorporate these factors in the computation of aircraft landing hydroplaning risks. A numerical example is then presented to demonstrate the application of the proposed methodology. 2. FACTORS AFFECTING AIRCRAFT HYDROPLANING RISK This section describes some of the important weather, runway/pavement and aircraft factors that are known to affect the risk of hydroplaning. 2.1. Wet Weather Conditions Rainfall intensity affects the water film thickness accumulated on the runway pavement, while rainfall duration influences the exposure period towards hydroplaning risk. van Es et al. (1998) had analyzed the aircraft landing and takeoff operations and their corresponding weather conditions at selected European airports and found that about 24% of the runway operations take place under wet or contaminated conditions. In other words, there is a significant exposure to wet weather conditions that can possibly contribute to poor pavement surface friction and possibly hydroplaning, should the runway being inadequately designed. In addition to rainfall intensity and duration, the overall risk during aircraft landing is also dependant on the location of the airport and its local climatic conditions. For example, the probability of having a thunderstorm and heavier rainfall is higher in monsoon regions as compared to arid regions. Hence, hydroplaning risk computation has to be site-specific and the local intensity-duration- frequency (IDF) curves should be used to predict the probability of rainfall duration and intensity during the risk assessment process. For a given rainfall intensity, the water-film thickness at any point along the runway width can be determined using the empirical model developed by Gallaway and Rose (1979) as follows: 0.01485 MTD 0.11Lx 0.43 I 0.59 (1) tx = MTD S 0.2 where tx is the water-film thickness in mm at point x, Lx the flow length in m which is equal to the distance of point x from the runway centerline, I the rainfall intensity in mm/h, S the flow path slope in m/m, and MTD the mean texture depth of the pavement in mm.
2.2. Runway Geometry and Pavement Surface Characteristics Runway geometry factors and pavement surface characteristics known to affect hydroplaning occurrence include: runway width, the cross slope and longitudinal slope of the pavement, surface macro texture, presence of grooving and others. The width of the runway affects the length of drainage path in which accumulated water is discharged. An increase in runway width increases the drainage path length and results in higher water film thicknesses across the runway cross section. Similarly, the pavement crossslope plays an important factor in the discharge of rainfall off the runway. An increase in
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cross slope results in a faster discharge of water and lower water-film thicknesses across the runway width. Typical slopes recommended by the International Civil Aviation Organization are 1.5% to 2% for the transverse cross slopes and 1% to 2% for the longitudinal slopes, depending on the runway type (ICAO, 2004). Besides the geometric design of the runway, pavement surface texture also play an important role in runway drainage. Pavement macro texture improves the drainage capacity of the pavement and reduces risk of hydroplaning by providing drainage path for water trapped between tire foot print and the surface. It is known from previous research studies that pavements with a larger mean texture depth has a higher hydroplaning speed and a lower hydroplaning risk (Gallaway and Rose, 1971). 2.3. Aircraft Physical and Operational Characteristics Different aircraft types can have different hydroplaning speeds. This is due to differences in aircraft physical and operational characteristics. Aircraft physical characteristics include the type of aircraft, the gear design and configuration, tire type and tire tread design (Agrawal, 1986). Operational characteristics refer to the exact touchdown location of an aircraft on the runway and its touchdown speed, landing weight, tire inflation pressure and tire tread depth. It is noted that in practical aircraft operations, variability can exist in the aircraft operational characteristics whereas most physical characteristics (such as gear configuration and tire type of the given aircraft type) tend to be fixed. As such, this paper assumes that hydroplaning risk is largely dependent on the aircraft operational characteristics such as variations in touchdown position, landing speed and landing weight during the aircraft landing operation for a given aircraft type. Touchdown position variation can be defined in terms of the wander across the runway width and the longitudinal variation along the runway touchdown zone upon touchdown. Statistical distributions can be fitted to represent this variation for different aircraft types. The distribution can be used to determine the position of the main gears of a particular aircraft type during touchdown and the water film thicknesses at the corresponding locations. Another important aircraft operational characteristic that can directly affect hydroplaning risk during landing is the touchdown speed of the aircraft. This varies for aircraft types as well as within the same aircraft type (Barnes et al., 1999). A higher touchdown speed will invariably increase the risk of hydroplaning. Similarly the landing weight also varies between aircraft types as well as within each type (Barnes et al., 1999) due to the different fuel, passenger and cargo loading requirements. A higher wheel load tends to increase the aircraft hydroplaning speed and hence reduce the risk of hydroplaning. 3. DETERMINISTIC APPROACH TO TEST FOR HYDROPLANING OCCURENCE Noting that hydroplaning of aircraft tires during landing can lead to significant loss of steering control and the heavy consequences of an aircraft accident, there is a need to evaluate the hydroplaning potential of an aircraft landing on a given runway. Traditionally, a deterministic computation of hydroplaning speeds for common commercial aircraft types is performed and a hydroplaning check is performed to test if hydroplaning will occur. Equation (2) shows the hydroplaning equation developed in a series of experiments performed by the NASA Langley Research Center in the 1960s (Horne and Dreher, 1963):

v p = 6.36 pt

(2)

471

where vp is the hydroplaning speed (in knots) and pt is the tire inflation pressure (in psi). Hydroplaning is said to occur when the touchdown speed of a given aircraft type exceeds the NASA hydroplaning speed. To illustrate the deterministic procedure, hydroplaning speeds for common commercial aircraft types can be computed and a test for hydroplaning occurrence can be made using typical touchdown speeds. Table 1 shows the computed hydroplaning speed for different commercial aircraft types using Equation (1) and compares them against the aircrafts typical touchdown speeds. A deterministic interpretation of hydroplaning occurrence can be made, as shown in Table 1. It can be noted from Table 1 that the deterministic approach can only give a binary response (i.e. hydroplane or no hydroplane). This is very much due to (i) the lack of consideration to the probabilistic nature of the many operational factors described in the previous sub-sections, and (ii) the lack of capability of the NASA hydroplaning equation in explaining the hydroplaning phenomenon due to different water film thicknesses, tire and pavement surface characteristics. In other words, this procedure does not allow airport planners and engineers to have an idea of how much hydroplaning risk is associated with a given aircraft type, for a given runway or for the entire airport. Table 1: Comparison of Typical Touchdown Speeds and NASA Hydroplaning Speeds for Different Aircraft Types Aircraft Type A300 A340 B747 B777 MD-11 Typical Touchdown Speed (kts) 136 142 153 138 148 NASA Hydroplaning Speed (kts) * 89 87 89 88 91

* For NASA hydroplaning speeds, pavement surface texture depth and tire tread depth are assumed to be zero, and runway is flooded with 7.62 mm of water. Hydroplaning speed values shown are conservative estimates.

4. A PROBABILISTIC APPROACH FOR COMPUTING AIRCRAFT HYDROPLANING RISK Recognizing the need for planners to estimate the hydroplaning risk associated with landing operations in an airport, the paper proposes a probabilistic approach to compute aircraft hydroplaning risk. Noting the limitations of the NASA hydroplaning equation in evaluating hydroplaning speeds associated with different water-film thicknesses, landing weights and pavement surface characteristics, this paper adopted the finite element hydroplaning simulation model developed by Ong and Fwa (2007) to determine the hydroplaning speed of the aircraft. The simulation model is then incorporated within a probabilistic framework to determine hydroplaning risk analogous to that described by Ong and Fwa (2009). 4.1. Probabilistic Nature of Aircraft Hydroplaning Since the occurrence of aircraft hydroplaning is probabilistic in nature, the concept of hydroplaning risk is proposed in this paper to evaluate the probability of hydroplaning occurrence. This concept was first proposed by Fwa and Ong (2006) in their analysis of vehicular hydroplaning in a highway. When applied to runway operations, the hydroplaning risk of an aircraft operating under a known set of conditions on a given runway can be computed as the probability that the operating speed of the aircraft will reach or exceed its

472

hydroplaning speed. Assuming that the probability density function f (v) of the aircraft landing or taking off speed is known, the risk of hydroplaning is defined as:

= P ( v > v p ) = 1 F ( v p ) = 1 f ( v )dv
0

vp

(3)

where v is the spot speed of the vehicle, vp is the hydroplaning speed, P(v > vp) is the probability that the aircraft speed is higher than the hydroplaning speed, and F(vp) is the cumulative probability of a vehicle with speeds smaller than the design hydroplaning speed. 4.2. Computation of Aircraft Hydroplaning Risk For every aircraft type analyzed, information on aircraft tire, aircraft load, water depth on the pavement and the pavement characteristics are required as inputs to the hydroplaning simulation model. The steps performed to determine the hydroplaning risk of each individual aircraft are described as follow. (a) Determine the landing weight probability distribution of each aircraft type i, gi(a) where a is the landing weight of the aircraft. (b) Given the water depth distribution along the runway width tw(x,y) and the landing weight probability distribution of aircraft type i, gi(a), determine the hydroplaning speed probability distribution in the runway touchdown zone vp(x,y) by running the finite element simulation model developed by Ong and Fwa (2007). (c) Determine the landing speed distribution of the aircraft type i, fi(v). (d) Given the hydroplaning speed variation along the runway width and the landing speed distribution of the aircraft type i, determine the hydroplaning risk distribution i(x,y) associated with the aircraft type i across the runway touchdown zone.

i ( x, y ) = P ( v > v p )

( x , y ),i

= 1 F ( v )

( x , y ),i

vp = 1 f ( v )dv 0 ( x , y ),i

(4)

(e) Determine the wander distribution of the aircraft type wi(x) and the wander distribution for each tire j for the aircraft type i along the runway width wij(x). (f) Given the wander distribution associated with the tires of an aircraft type wij(x) and the corresponding longitudinal variation along the runway during touchdown wij(y), the probability distribution of the tires in the touchdown zone can be determined.

x +x y +y wij ( x, y ) = wij ( x) dx wij ( y ) dy x y

(5)

The hydroplaning risk of each tire j of a particular aircraft type i for an area x by y in the runway touchdown zone can be determined. x and y can be taken to be the width and length of the tire imprint respectively. Let ij(x) be the total hydroplaning risk distribution of the tire j of a particular aircraft type i along the runway. Hydroplaning risk of tire j of aircraft type i for a strip x along runway width = Probability of tire j at the finite area Hydroplaning risk of tire j at the finite area

x +x y +y x +x y +y = wij ( x, y )dxdy i ( x, y )dxdy x y x y

(6)

(g) Determine the total hydroplaning risk associated with each tire j for the aircraft type i. The total hydroplaning risk of each tire j of a particular aircraft type i, Rij is computed as follows,
473

Rij = Sum of hydroplaning risks of all finite areas in the runway touchdown zone

x +x y +y x +x y +y = wij ( x, y )dxdy i ( x, y )dxdy x, y x x y y

(7)

(h) Determine the total hydroplaning risk for the aircraft type. In this paper, hydroplaning is assumed to occur when any tire of the aircraft hydroplanes. Hence the total hydroplaning risk of aircraft type i, Ri is defined as:
Ri = max { Rij }

(8)

4. METHODOLOGY FOR COMPUTING HYDROPLANING RISK This section demonstrates the application of the methodology described in the earlier section to evaluate hydroplaning risk of the Boeing 727-200 aircraft type. The typical physical characteristics of the B727-200 aircraft are used in this study (Boeing, 1985). Information on the landing characteristics are extracted from the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) survey at Washington Airport performed in 1999 (Barnes et al., 1999). Table 2 describes the input parameters used in the study. Pavement mean surface texture depth is assumed to be zero to provide a conservative estimate of hydroplaning risks. Table 2: Input Parameters for Hydroplaning Risk Analysis Aircraft Parameters Aircraft Type : B727-200 Gear type - Dual, Percent Weight on Main Gear = 95% Tire Width = 17 in., Tire inflation pressure = 1165 kPa, Tire tread depth = 0 mm Distance to the centre of the outer wheel from aircraft centerline = 3.29m Distance to the centre of the inner wheel from aircraft centerline = 2.43m Landing Operations Mean Standard Deviation Touchdown speed (km/h) 176.2 20.1 Touchdown location (m) 363.3 93.3 Lateral Wander (m) 0 1.71 Landing Weight (kg) Min:45359.24kg/Max:73028.37kg Runway Parameters Runway Width = 60m Transverse Slope = 1.5% Mean Texture Depth = 0 mm Rainfall Intensity = 150mm Based on the information provided in Table 2, the landing weight distribution of the aircraft and the touchdown location of the centerline of the aircraft can be determined. Figure 1 shows the cumulative probability density distribution of the landing weights of B727-200 and is considered in the probabilistic hydroplaning speed computations. Figure 2 shows the variation in hydroplaning speed along the runway width for the mean landing weight of B727-200. It can be observed that hydroplaning speed decreases with increasing distance from the centerline of the runway. This is due to increasing water film thicknesses associated with a distance further from the runway centerline. Figure 2 also shows 63892.6 4125.87

474

the probability distribution of vp(x,y) at x = 1 m, x =15 m and x = 30 m due to the possible variations in aircraft landing weights (Figure 1).
Cumulative Density Distribution G(a)

Landing Weight a (kg)

Figure 1: Cumulative density distribution of landing weight of Boeing 727-200

vp(30,y)

vp(15,y)

Figure 2: Hydroplaning speed variation along the runway width The next step in the analysis involves the determination of the touchdown location and variation in the runway touchdown zone. Figure 3 illustrates the probability distribution of the touchdown location of the centerline of the aircraft in the runway touchdown zone, using the information shown in Table 2. Based on the information given in Figure 3 and the gear configuration shown in Table 2, the probability distribution of each tire can be obtained. The

475

vp(1,y)

water-film distribution in the runway touchdown zone can also be determined using Equation (1), given the runway parameters shown in Table 2.

wi(x,y)

Figure 3: Probability distribution of the landing location of centerline of B727-200 aircraft

Note: Values at contours indicate hydroplaning risk.

Figure 5: Hydroplaning risk contours for the touchdown zone The critical tire for aircraft hydroplaning (i.e. the tire most susceptible to hydroplaning) is the outermost tire in the main gear. This is because this is the tire that is most likely to be subjected to higher water film thickness. Therefore, hydroplaning risks (in steps (f) to (h) shown in the previous section) computations for the aircraft are computed using only the critical tire. Hydroplaning risks for the critical tire are presented in form of risk contours. Figure 4 shows the hydroplaning risk contour for the critical tire in the runway touchdown zone. It can be observed that the highest hydroplaning risk remains closer to the centerline of the runway
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within the touchdown zone, despite higher hydroplaning potentials nearer to the runway edges. This is largely due to the higher touchdown concentration nearer to the centerline of the runway as compared to the unlikely scenario of an aircraft landing way off the runway centerline. It is to be noted that risk values presented in Figure 4 are conservative since pavement surface texture depths and tire tread depths are considered to be zero. 5. CONCLUSION This paper has described a probabilistic-based hydroplaning risk computation aircrafts landing on a runway during wet weathers. By considering the physical and operational characteristics of the aircraft, weather conditions, and the runway and pavement surface characteristics, hydroplaning risks for aircraft landing operations can be computed. This is an improvement over the conventional deterministic approach where only binary responses (hydroplane or no hydroplane) are obtained. Through the numerical example presented in the paper, useful information, such as hydroplaning risk values and risk contours within the runway touchdown zones, can be drawn. This information is useful for airport managers in runway friction maintenance management planning and the identification of appropriate preventive or mitigation measures to improve runway safety.

REFERENCES Agrawal, S. K. (1986). Braking Performance of Aircraft Tires. Progress in Aerospace Science, Vol. 23, No. 2, 105 -150. Barnes, T., DeFiore, T. and Micklos, R. (1999). Video Landing Parameter Survey Washington National Airport. DOT/FAA/AR-97/106, Federal Aviation Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation. Benedetto, A. (2002). A Decision Support System for the Safety of Airport Runways: The Case of Heavy Rainstorms. Transportation Research Part A, Vol. 36, No. 8, 665-882. Boeing. (1985). 727 Airplane Characteristics for Airport Planning. Boeing Commercial Airplanes. Boeing.(2008). Statistical Summary of Commercial Jets Airline Accidents, Worldwide Operations 1959 2008. Boeing. Website: http://www.boeing.com/news/news/techissues/ pdf/statsum.pdf. Accessed: Mar. 20, 2010. Fwa, T. F. and Ong, G. P. (2006). Transverse Pavement Grooving against Hydroplaning II: Design. ASCE Journal of Transportation Engineering, Vol. 132, No. 6: 449-457. Gallaway, B. M. and Rose, J. G. (1971). The Effects of Rainfall Intensity, Pavement Cross Slope, Surface texture, and Drainage Length on Pavement Water Depths. Research Report No. 138-5. Texas Transportation Institute. Horne, W. B. & Dreher, R. C. (1963). Phenomena of Pneumatic Tire Hydroplaning. NASA TN D-2056. Washington DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Ho Sang, V. A. (1975). Field Survey and Analysis of Aircraft Distribution on Airport Pavements. Report FAA-RD-74-36. Federal Aviation Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation. ICAO. (2004). Annex 14 Aerodromes, Volume 1: Aerodromes Design and Operation. International Civil Aviation Organization. Netjasov, F. and Janic, M. (2008). A Review of Research on Risk and Safety Modeling In Civil Aviation. Journal of Air Transport Management, Vol. 14, No. 4, 213-220.

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Ong, G. P. and Fwa, T. F. (2007). Wet-Pavement Hydroplaning Risk and Skid Resistance: Modeling. ASCE Journal of Transportation Engineering, Vol. 133, 10: 590-598. Ong, G. P. and Fwa,T. F. (2009). Runway Geometric Design Incorporating Hydroplaning Consideration. Transportation Research Record, No. 2108, 118-128. Ong, G. P.; Fwa, T. F. and Guo, J. (2005). Modeling Hydroplaning and the Effects of Microtexture. Transportation Research Record, No. 1905, 166-176. Ross, N. F. and Russam, K. (1968). The Depth of Rain Water on Road Surfaces. Road Research Laboratory. Van Es, G. W. H.; Roelen, A. L. C.; Kruijsen, E. A. C.; Giesberts, M. K. H. (1998). Safety Aspects of Aircraft Performance on Wet and Contaminated Runways. NLRTP-2001-216, Netherlands National Research Laboratories.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Results of Accelerated Load Tests in Slovenia

Marjan Tuar
National Institute of Chemistry, Ljubljana, Slovenia, marjan.tusar@ki.si

Mojca Ravnikar Turk

ZAG Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia, mojca.turk@zag.si

ABSTRACT: A three year research project, named SPENS (Sustainable Pavements for New Member States) ended in 2009. The objective of this research project was to develop appropriate tools and procedures for the optimum and cost-effective rehabilitation and maintenance of roads in the EU New Member States. Within the scope of task 4.3 Upgrading of asphalt macadam and light asphalt pavements to the bearing capacity level needed by EU-regulations, the Accelerated load test (ALT) approach was used on selected test fields. ALTs were performed on selected field trials with a Heavy Vehicle Simulator. Full-scale accelerated load tests were performed on 6 test fields in Slovenia. The test structures were extensively instrumented with strain gauges and inductive coils (for deformation measurements). The main test for each test field lasted for 2 weeks, during which time the machine ran day and night, 7 days a week, with interruptions only for daily servicing. During the main test, cross profile measurements were carried out for calculations of rut depth propagation on the surface. It was decided that the pavement temperature should be kept constant at 20C, and that the wheel load should be 60 kN at the beginning of the tests and then increased if necessary. On the thinnest structures we found a clear dependence of the depth of permanent deformation on the thickness of asphalt layers, but on the other test fields with thicker asphalt layers all the permanent deformations were the same, and did not depend on thickness or reinforcement. From these data it was concluded that there is a limit to which it is reasonable to go with the thickness of asphalt pavements. Of course, the limit depends on the quality and quantity of the layer beneath the asphalt pavement, and on the applied loads. We found an unexpected huge effect of water. After heavy rain the rutting rate increased by a factor of five. KEY WORDS: Test field, Accelerated load test, Heavy vehicle simulator, Steel mesh reinforcement 1. CONSTRUCTION 1.1. Unbound layers We began with the construction of a test field in autumn 2007. On top of the subgrade, which consisted of clayey silt, a gravel fill (GP) taken from the river Mura was used to construct the sub-base layer. The thickness of the fill differed over the overall length of the test section due
479

to changes in the natural ground. The soil investigations, performed at the end of the test, proved that the fill thickness was 60cm on average, but varied between 50cm and 70cm. On the sub-base layer several field control tests on compaction were performed: nondestructive density and water content testing using radioactive isotopes (nuclear method). Based on the results of Proctor test, the percentage of compaction was calculated. static deformation modulus tests (Ev1 and Ev2) dynamic deformation modulus tests (Evd). The field testing was performed according to Slovenian national regulations, Technical specifications for roads TSC 06.720 and TSC 06.711, respectively. Representative samples of the gravel were taken, and Proctor tests were performed in the laboratory according to SIST EN 13286-2. The average values of the test results are shown in Table 1. Table 1: Average values of the results of tests performed on the sub-base layer
Sub-base layer % of compaction dry d,max Evd Ev1 Ev2 Test field No. [%] [kg/m ] [kg/m3] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa]
3

1 96% 2141 2230

2 97% 2160 2230 50

3 96% 2136 2230 42 33 76

4 97% 2147 2230 40

5 98% 2218 2285 52 42 94

6 100% 2256 2267 49 30 86

On top of the sub-base layer, an unbound base layer of material from the same borrow pit, with a thickness of 20-25 cm, was constructed. On top of this base layer several field control tests on compaction and deformation moduli were performed. One measurement of the static deformation modulus was performed on every test field. The average values obtained are presented in Table 2. This table also presents the values of d,max obtained by the Proctor tests, and taken into account for the calculation of the percentage of compaction. Table 2: Average values of the results of tests performed on the base layer
Base layer thickness % of compaction dry d,max Evd Ev1 Ev2 Ev2/Ev1 Test field No. [cm] [%] [kg/m3] [kg/m3] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa] 59 129 2,2 1 20 98% 2232 2285 2 20 98% 2236 2285 58 47 140 3,0 3 20 99% 2279 2293 45 67 137 2,1 61 117 1,9 4 17 97% 2222 2285 5 20 98% 2236 2285 42 68 140 2,1 6 20 97% 2211 2285 57 53 111 2,1

The measured moduli on the sub-base layer are much lower than those corresponding to the base layer, probably due to the very soft subgrade. The sub-base layer consisted of the similar material as the base layer there was no significant difference in water content and grain size distribution.
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After the Accelerated Load tests several questions arose regarding the ground conditions. This is why five boreholes, within the area of ALT testing performed, were drilled at the end of March 2009. The drilling was performed after five days of heavy rain, on a cloudy day at the temperatures of around 15oC. The soil in test fields 1 to 5 was investigated. The boreholes were made next to the location, where the deformations occurred due to the ALT wheel loads. Intact samples of gravel and clayey silt were taken for laboratory testing. Static penetration test were performed in the clayey silt. They clearly showed that the subgrade beneath the gravel fill was very soft. The boreholes were dry, except in the test field 2, where a 2m deep borehole was drilled and soon afterwards the water table rose to a level 110cm beneath the road surface.
7,0

Sub-base moisture in 2008 (%)

6,0 moisture content (%) 5,0 4,0 3,0 2,0 1,0 0,0 1 2 3 4 Test field No. 5 6 7

Base moisture in 2008 (%) moisture (%) in March 2009

Figure 1: Moisture content of the base and sub-base layers The moisture content of the sub-base and base layers was determined during the Nuclear tests. The material (four samples of gravel) of the base and sub-base layers was taken from the boreholes and water content was measured. There was no increase in water content regarding the initial conditions, even though there was rainy period before drilling (Figure 1). For the analyses of the Accelerated Load tests it may be assumed that the actual thickness of the base layer is 50 cm to 70 cm since there is no significant difference between the deformation moduli and material characteristics of the sub-base and base layers. Uncrushed gravel with a grain size of 0 to 32mm was used for these two layers. The road base layer overlies a very weak subgrade, with the CBR1 (at natural moisture) and CBR2 (fully soaked) values from 1.1 to 0.8. There is no difference in the CBR values of subgrade at natural water content and fully soaked along the six test fields. The water content of the base and sub-base layers was, after construction, not greater than at the time of compaction. It can be assumed that the ground water table is at the depth of more than 100 cm below the road surface. 1.2. Bound layers Above the unbound base layer, asphalt mixtures of different thicknesses were designed: test section 1: 6 cm AC16 surf B 50/70, test section 2: 4 cm AC11 surf B 50/70 over 4 cm AC 16 base B 50/70, test section 3: 4 cm AC11 surf B 50/70 over 6 cm AC 22 base B 50/70, test section 4: 4 cm AC11 surf B 50/70 over 9 cm AC 22 base B 50/70,
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test section 5: 4 cm SMA 11 PmB45/80-65 over 6 cm AC 22 base B 50/70, test section 6: 4 cm SMA 11 PmB 45/80-65 over 6 cm AC 22 base B 50/70,reinforced steel grid between the asphalt layers and the base layer.

For the AC asphalt mixtures we used average B 50/70 bitumen, but for the SMA we used high quality PmB with a high elasticity and a high softening point. The asphalt layer thickness was increased from 4 cm (section 1) to 13 cm (section 4). For sections 5 and 6, a stone mastic asphalt (SMA) surface layer was designed instead of an asphalt concrete (AC) one. The only difference in the structure between sections 5 and 6 was in the reinforcing steel grid, placed between asphalt binder layer and the gravel base layer. After constructing the test field, cores (three per test section) were taken from the asphalt layers and several laboratory tests were performed. The actual thicknesses at the measuring positions were determined (Table 3). Table 3: Design and actual thicknesses of the asphalt layers
Test section /bored core nr. 1/1 1/2 1/3 2/1 2/2 2/3 3/1 3/2 3/3 4/1 4/2 4/3 5/1 5/2 5/3 6/1 6/2 6/3 Core thickness (mm) 62 57 71 96 106 111 92 93 94 129 138 144 107 105 105 105 110 109 100 108 100 106 130 136 100 93 80 105 60 65 Design thickness (mm) Actual thickness for analysis (mm)

The thickness of the unbound base course was continuously checked during construction, and the design value (200 mm) was taken into account in further analyses. For some sections, the thicknesses of the asphalt layers differ considerably from the design values. From the measured thicknesses, design values and the ones that were used for analyses can be seen. For section 1, the asphalt layer thicknesses differed from the design value by (-3 to +11) mm, for section 2 by (+16 to +31) mm, for section 3 by (-8 to -6) mm, for section 4 by (-1 to +14) mm, for section 5 by (+5 to +7) mm and for section 6 by (+5 to +10) mm. On test field No. 2 the thickness was greater than the planned thickness of 8 cm, and on test field No. 3 the thickness was less than the planned 10 cm. Most of the asphalt layers used for the wearing courses was compacted better than usually: Average compaction rate for AC surf 11 was 102.5% v/v and void content 4 % v/v. Average compaction rate for SMA surf 11 was 99.4 % v/v and void content 2.4 % v/v.
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Average compaction rate for AC surf 16 was 95.1% v/v and void content 6.8 % v/v. Average compaction rate for AC base 16 was 95.3% v/v and void content 6.6 % v/v. Average compaction rate for AC base 22 was 98.8% v/v and void content 8.9 % v/v. From the wearing courses, it can be assumed that only AC surf 16 used on test field No. 1 is practically permeable for water from the surface, on all other test fields the surface of the asphalt can be assume to be impermeable to water from the surface. Wheel tracking tests at 600C with the small device according to EN 12697-22 showed excellent resistance to permanent deformation for mixtures AC base 22 and SMA surf 11. Resistance to permanent deformation for mixture AC surf 11 is still good for low traffic roads. Only for AC surf 16 it can be assumed its resistance to permanent deformation is typical for low traffic roads. 1.3. Installation of sensors During the construction of the test structures (Nov 2007) sensors were installed in the pavements to get response data from the HVS loading (COST 347, 2005; Format, 2005). Inductive coils (EMU-coils) were placed at the bottom and top of the unbound base layers to be used to measure the vertical deformations of the base layers, and asphalt strain gauges (ASG) at the bottom of the asphalt layers to be used to measure the horizontal strains in the asphalt in the longitudinal direction (loading direction). Three sets of these sensors were installed at different longitudinal positions and at the centre line of the HVS loading in each test structure. This is valid for test structures 1, 2, 3 and 4. In test structures 5 and 6 some other sensors were installed partly due to the fact that the EMU-coils could not be used together with the steel net reinforcement. 2. ACCELERATED LOAD TEST The HVS tests in Slovenia (Blab, 2002;Wiman, 2008; Wiman, 2006) were carried out with dual wheel load at a pavement temperature of +20 C. The following test parameters were used in the tests: Dual wheel load 60, 80 and 100 kN Tire pressure 800 kPa Tire size 295/80R22.5 Wheel speed 12 km/h Loading in both directions Pavement temperature +20 C Lateral load distribution Table 4: The following wheel loads and number of passes were used in the tests:
Test 1 2 3 Structure 1 and 2 3 and 4 5 and 6 60 kN 0 293000 0 49760 0 50000 Number of passes 80 kN 49760 - 208135 50000 - 173000 100 kN 173000 - 190500

During the accelerated load test pavement performance was documented each day by cross profile measurements to get the surface rut depth propagation, and by inductive coils measurement to get the deformation in the unbound base layers.

483

At the beginning of the tests, after about 20 000 loadings, response measurements were performed with various wheel loads starting at 30 kN and then increasing to 40 kN, 50 kN and 60 kN. At these measurements full response signals from each sensor in the test structures were collected for 4 load passes (two in each direction). The response measurements were then repeated at the end of the tests with the same wheel loads but also raised to 80 kN and 100 kN. Two lateral positions of the loading wheel were used during the response measurements, 0 cm and 15 cm. Position 0 cm means that the sensor position was between the tires of the dual wheel, and position 15 cm means that the sensor position was below one of the tires of the loading wheel. Each day cross profiles were measured and from the profiles the depths of the rutting were determined. At the same time the readings from the EMU coils were recorded, and so the permanent deformations in the unbound gravel layer were determined. 3. RESULTS 3.1. Test fields 1 and 2 On test fields 1 and 2 only 60 kN loading was used. About 300 000 passes were performed. Cross profiles were measured each day. In Figure 2 the cross profile corresponding to measurement location 1/1 is presented. From such cross profile measurements of the permanent deformation was detected.
HVS Test Sektion SP01 Rut depth

SPENS HVS Slovenia. Structure 1 and 2 Permanent deformation in base layer

Load repetitions 0 0 1 Permanent deformation (mm) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 EMU11 EMU12 EMU13 EMU21 EMU22 EMU23
Rut depth (mm)

Load repetitions 0 0,0 50000 100000 150000 200000 250000 300000

50000

100000

150000

200000

250000

300000

5,0

10,0 Profile 11 Profile 12 Profile 13 Profile 21 Profile 22 Profile 23

15,0

20,0

25,0

30,0

Figure 2: Propagation of permanent deformation in the unbound gravel layer and of permanent deformation (rutting) on the surface of test fields 1 and 2 With the EMU coils, the permanent deformation in the unbound gravel layer was also measured (Figure 2) and it can be seen that permanent deformation on the surface has the same shape as the deformation in the unbound gravel layer. The average vertical distance between the EMU plates was 15 cm. From Figure 3 it can be seen that in the case of smaller asphalt thicknesses the permanent deformation depends a lot on the asphalt thickness, but at thickness of the asphalt layer greater than 9 cm the permanent deformation is almost independent of the asphalt thickness. From Figure 3 it can be seen that the correlation coefficient is good (0.95), and the slope of the curve increases with the number of passes.

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30 Permanent deformation on surface (mm)

y = 2,7671x + 2,5657 R2 = 0,9973 Permanent deformation after 100200 passes (mm)

Permanent deformation (mm) 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 20 40

Aspahlt thickness/Permanent def.

y = -0,351x + 44,699 R 2 = 0,9523 Permanent deformation after 100200 passes (mm) Permanent deformation after 196120 passes (mm) Permanent deformation after 293000 passes (mm) Linear (Permanent deformation after 293000 passes (mm)) Linear (Permanent deformation after 100200 passes (mm))

25

20

Permanent deformation after 196120 passes (mm) Permanent deformation after 293000 passes (mm) Linear (Permanent deformation after 196120 passes (mm))

15

10

0 0 2 4 6 8 10 Permanent deformation in unbound layer (mm)

60

80

100

120

y = -0,2792x + 36,116 R 2 = 0,9509

Aspahlt thickness (mm)

Figure 3: Relationship between the permanent deformation on the surface and the permanent deformation in unbound gravel layer compared to the relationship between the asphalt thickness and the permanent deformation on the surface We correlated the permanent deformation in the unbound gravel layer and the permanent deformation on the surface (Figure 3). It was assumed that the intercept (2.57 mm) in the linear equation represents a pure initial deformation in the asphalt layers. From the slope of the curve it can be seen that after initial deformation more than one third of the deformation (2.77) is in the 15 cm of the unbound base layer. 3.2. Test fields 3 and 4 In fields 3 and 4, after 50000 passes the load was increased from 60 kN to 80 kN. The permanent deformation in unbound gravel layer was also measured by EMU coils (Figure 4) and it can be seen that the permanent deformation on the surface has the same shape as the deformation in the unbound gravel layer.

SPENS HVS Slovenia. Structure 3 and 4 Permanent deformation in base layer

0 50000

HVS Test Sektion SP02 Rut depth

Load repetions 100000 150000 200000 250000

Load repetitions 0 0 50000 100000 150000 200000 250000

0,0

5,0

Permanent deformation (mm)

2
Rut depth (mm)

4 6 8 10 12

EMU31 EMU32 EMU33 EMU41 EMU42 EMU43

10,0

15,0

Profile 31 Profile 32 Profile 33 Profile 41 Profile 42 Profile 43

20,0

25,0

Figure 4: Propagation of permanent deformation in the unbound gravel layer and of permanent deformation (rutting) on the surface of test fields 3 and 4 From Figure 5 it can be seen that in the case of an asphalt layer with a thickness of more than 9 cm, the permanent deformation is almost independent of the asphalt thickness. From Figure 5 it can be seen that correlation coefficient is showing small correlation after 49750 passes (0.66), but there is no correlation between the thickness of the asphalt layer and the permanent deformation after 208135 passes (0.04).

485

We correlated the permanent deformation in the unbound gravel layer and the permanent deformation on the surface (Figure 5). After 49750 passes with a 60 kN load we assumed that the intercept (4.4 mm) in the linear equation represents the pure initial deformation in the asphalt layers. From the slope of the curve it can be seen that after the initial deformation most of the deformation (1.6) appears in the 15 cm of the unbound base layer. After readings at 49750 passes, the load was increased to 80 kN. After 119375 and 208135 passes we got two different slopes. The slopes of both curves are similar (1.5), only the intercept are different.
25 Permanent deformation on surface (mm) y = 1,5219x + 8,3555 R2 = 0,8813 20 y = 1,5879x + 6,5 R2 = 0,915 15 Permanent deformation after 49750 passes (mm)
Permanent deformation (mm) 25

Aspahlt thickness/Permanent def.

y = -0,0171x + 21,417 R 2 = 0,0367 Permanent deformation after 49750 passes (mm) Permanent deformation after 119375 passes (mm) Permanent deformation after 208135 passes (mm) 10 Linear (Permanent deformation after 208135 passes (mm)) Linear (Permanent deformation after 49750 passes (mm))

Permanent deformation after 119375 passes (mm) Permanent deformation after 208135 passes (mm)

20

15

10 y = 1,2597x + 4,3824 R2 = 0,9303 5 Linear (Permanent deformation after 119375 passes (mm)) Linear (Permanent deformation after 49750 passes (mm)) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Linear (Permanent deformation after 208135 passes (mm))

0 0 50 100 Aspahlt thickness (mm) 150 200

0 Permanent deformation in unbound layer (mm)

y = -0,0469x + 13,47 R 2 = 0,6632

Figure 5: Relationship between the asphalt thickness and the permanent deformation on the surface compared to the relationship between the asphalt thickness and the permanent deformation on the surface 3.3. Test fields 5 and 6 Test fields 5 and 6 have a relatively uniform thickness of the asphalt layer. To differ from other test fields with AC 11 with B 50/70 in the wearing course on these test fields the asphalt mixture SMA 11 with PmB was used. The only difference between test fields 5 and 6 is the steel mesh reinforcement under the asphalt pavement in test field 6. The goal of this experiment was to evaluate the use of reinforcement under relatively thin asphalt pavements. But from Figure6 no difference can be seen between the average permanent deformations in the observed test fields. In fields 5 and 6, after 50000 passes the load was increased from 60 kN to 80 kN. Additionally after 173000 passes the load was increased to 100kN. But from Figure 6 it can be seen that after the 19th May 2008 (114337 passes of HVS) the increase in permanent deformation became the steepest. In Figure 6 it can be seen that on 19th May it began to rain. Heavy rain fell for three days and during those three days the average rutting rate increased by a factor greater than 4. For example, between passes 96930 and 114337 the average rutting rate was 0.07 mm per 1000 passes, but between passes 132660 and 150000 the average rutting rate was 0.33 mm per 1000 passes. In test fields 5 and 6 the permanent deformation was also independent of the asphalt thickness and the steel reinforcement. Values of the correlation coefficients are practically 0. In test field 6, due to the steel reinforcement, it was impossible to use an EMU coil to determine the permanent deformation in the unbound layer, so we tried with two LVDT sensors. Soon after rain began on the 20th May both LVDT-s failed. We obtained only the relationship between the average permanent deformation in the unbound gravel layer and the permanent deformation on the surface. The correlation coefficient is high, but the intercept is

486

negative, so it can represent the pure initial deformation in the asphalt layers. The slope of curve is steeper than in previous test fields, so it can be assumed that there were problems with normalization of the obtained LVDT data.
HVS Test Sektion SP03 Rut depth
Load repetions 0 0,0 5,0 10,0 15,0 20,0 25,0 30,0 35,0 40,0 45,0 50,0 Profile 51 Profile 52 Profile 53 Profile 61 Profile 62 Profile 63 Rut depth (mm) 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000 120000 140000 160000 180000 200000
Repetition 1-50 0000: Load = 60 kN Repetition 50 000 -173000 : Load = 80 kN Repetition 173000- : Load= 100 kN

45 40 35

180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0

13.05.2008 14.05.2008 15.05.2008 16.05.2008 17.05.2008 18.05.2008 19.05.2008 20.05.2008 21.05.2008 22.05.2008 23.05.2008 24.05.2008

rainfall l/m2

30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Figure 6: Propagation of permanent deformation (rutting) on the surface of test fields 5 and 6 and the quantity of rain during HVS testing on test fields 5 and 6

4. CONCLUSIONS Accelerated load tests (ALT) were performed on selected field trial with the Heavy Vehicle Simulator, HVS-Nordic. Field trials in Slovenia were prepared by a Slovenian company DDC and Slovenian National Civil Engineering Institute (ZAG). Six different road structures were selected as the most representative for SPENS project (Sustainable Pavements for New Member States research project) test fields. On weak, clayey subgrade, sub-base and base fill of sandy gravel was placed and compacted. The thickness of these two layers was approximately 60 cm. Uncrushed gravel with a grain size of 0 to 32 mm was used. The effect of the unbound layers was almost uniform on all test fields. On test fields 1 to 4 the asphalt layer thickness varied from 5.7 cm to 14.4 cm. From the results of the tests on fields 5 and 6, the effect of steel mesh was evaluated, so the data about the effect of reinforcement on the bearing capacity of the road was obtained for this particular case. At the suggestion of the producer of the reinforcement, the steel mesh was put between the unbound base layer and the asphalt concrete layer. When full-scale accelerated load testing was performed on the test fields, the rut depths as a function of the load repetition numbers were monitored in each section. On the thinnest structures we found a clear dependence of the depth of permanent deformation on the thickness of asphalt layers, but in other test fields with thicker asphalt layers all the permanent deformations were the same, and did not depend on thickness or reinforcement. From these data it was concluded that there is some limit to which it is reasonable to go with the thickness of the asphalt pavement. Of course the limit depends on the deformability of the layer beneath the asphalt pavement and on the applied loads. In our

487

load (kN)

study it was shown, that with increasing asphalt thickness over 9 cm the resistance to permanent deformation did not improve. A good linear correlation was found between the permanent deformation in the unbound gravel layer and the permanent deformation on the surface (rutting). The regression curve was calculated. It was assumed that the intercept in the linear equation represents the pure initial deformation in the asphalt layers. From the slope of the regression curve we can see the ratio between the deformation at the surface and the deformation in the 15 cm of the unbound base layer. An unexpected huge effect of water was found. After heavy rain, the rutting rate increased by five times. From our test results we concluded that water must be let away from the pavement structure. Even deep water ditches did not help at our trial section, so ditches should be watertight. According to field trial experience, it can be concluded that all upgrading systems must first protect pavement structure against the penetration of water inside with draining water, or by means of some water impermeable layers. New overlay should also be as impermeable for water as possible, to protect the pavement structure against water coming from the top. It was known in advance that steel mesh reinforcement works if it is placed between two asphalt layers and if the total thickness of the pavement amounts to at least 10 cm. In this task such a method of application of steel mesh was not possible, since weak pavements with a thickness of about 10 cm were being studied. Following the suggestion of the producer of the reinforcement, the steel mesh was placed between the unbound base layer and the asphalt concrete layers. It was assumed that, during the laying of the asphalt, the steel mesh would rise a few centimetres higher into the asphalt layer. The results of the accelerated loading test, performed on these two test fields, showed that the impact of steel mesh on the structural capacity of the tested section No. 6 compared to the reference section No 5 was not obvious in this particular case. In the trial with steel mesh reinforcement, resistance to permanent deformation was not improved, due to delamination between the steel mesh and the asphalt layer. After cores had been drilled it was found that the steel mesh had remained at the bottom of the asphalt layers. This construction method, without tack coating, resulted in very low adhesion between the layer of gravel with no crushed aggregate, the steel mesh, and the asphalt, so the reinforcement was not properly embedded into the asphalt layer. However, further testing with improved adhesion, together with analyses and evaluations of subsoil performance, are needed. REFERENCES COST 347 Pavement Research with Accelerated Loading Testing Facilities; Draft Final Report; http://www.pave-test.org/public.htm; 12 February 2005. Format: Final Technical Report, http://ec.europa.eu/transport/roadsafety_library/publications/ format_final_report.pdf, 31.3. 2005. Blab R.; J. Litzka and P. Girkinger: Verification of Pavement Structure Design on A2 Toll Motorway in Poland using Heavy Vehicle Simulator HVS NORDIC Mark IV. Expertise for A2-Baudevelopment, Poznan, Poland. 2002. Wiman L. G., Accelerated Load Testing of Roads An Example of Trans-nationally Used Testing Equipment, Transport Research Arena Europe 2008, 2008. Wiman L. G., Accelerated Load Testing of Pavements HVS Nordic tests at VTI Sweden 2003-2004. VTI report 544A, Linkping, Sweden, 2006.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Combining FHWA and EVALIV Spreadsheets for Forwardcalculating Subgrade and Pavement-Layers Moduli
M. Livneh
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Technion-Israel institute of Technology, Israel moshliv@tx.technion.ac.il

ABSTRACT: A direct-calculation method of deriving layered elastic properties from pavement deflections, also known as forwardcalculation, has been suggested by the FHWA in its Long-Term Pavement Performance (LTPP) studies. This method does not rely on engineering judgment nor iteration procedures; instead, it uses closed-form formulas to derive the bound-surface course and the subgrade modulus directly and the intermediate granular layer indirectly. The Hogg model is used to forwardcalculate the subgrade modulus values and the multilayered elastic model using the AREA approach to forwardcalculate the boundsurface course. Another forwardcalculating method, entitled EVALIV, has recently been published in Israel. This alternative method draws on the Burmister model (the elastic twolayer model) for obtaining the subgrade modulus and the composite pavement modulus, the latter constituting the composite of the bound-surface course and the composite of the granular layers. For matching behavior of real pavements, the mechanical postulations of the Hogg model seem to be inferior to those postulated both for the subgrade and the boundsurface course. It would therefore be reasonable to combine the two methods in the following way: EVALIV for forwardcalculating the subgrade and the composite pavement moduli, FHWA for forwardcalculating the bound-surface-course modulus, and, with these three calculated moduli as known values, the Then de Barros composite pavement modulus equation for calculating the intermediate granular layer modulus. A comparative study of these procedures, alongside the MODULUS program for both simulated and in-situ measured deflection data, demonstrates the applicability of the suggested combined procedure. KEY WORDS: Deflection basin, Evaluation, Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD), Flexible Pavement, Forwardcalculation, Modulus. 1. INTRODUCTION A direct-calculation method of deriving layered elastic properties from pavement deflections, also known as forwardcalculation, has been suggested by the FHWA in its Long-Term Pavement Performance (LTPP) studies. This method does not rely on engineering judgment nor iteration procedures; instead, it uses closed-form formulas to derive the bound-surface course and the subgrade modulus directly and the granular layers indirectly. The Hogg model is used to forwardcalculate the subgrade modulus values, and the multilayered elastic model using the AREA approach to forwardcalculate the bound-surface course. Intermediate granular-layers moduli are estimated through commonly used modular ratios between adjacent layers.
489

Another forwardcalculation method, entitled EVALIV, has recently been published in Israel. This alternative method draws on the Burmister model (the elastic two-layer model) for obtaining the subgrade modulus (ES) and the composite pavement modulus (EP), the latter constituting the composite of the bound-surface course (EA) and the composite of the granular-layers (EG). For matching behavior of real pavements, the mechanical assumptions postulated for the Hogg model seem to be inferior to those postulated both for the subgrade and the bound-surface course. In light of the above, it would be reasonable to combine the two methods in the following way: EVALIV for forwardcalculating the subgrade and the composite pavement moduli, FHWA for forwardcalculating the bound-surface-course modulus, and, with these three calculated moduli as known values, the Then de Barros composite pavement modulus equation for calculating the intermediate granular layer modulus. Given this background, the objectives of the present study are as follows: To describe briefly the FHWA and EVALIV forwardcalculation methods and to present the FHWA equations for forwardcalculating asphaltic layers modulus; To summarize the examination of the reliability of the outputs of these two methods using simulated data and to extend this examination to in-situ measured FWD deflection data with the aid of their MODULUS outputs; To suggest correction factors for the ES, EG and EA outputs of the FHWA-EVALIV combined method in order to make it a legitimate, quick, and direct calculation method. The following provides a detailed description of the elaborations used to achieve this study's objectives as well as their associated conclusions. 2. THE FHWA FORWARDCALCULATION METHOD Forwardcalculation techniques issued by the U.S. Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) were first used to screen the pre-1998 set of backcalculated parameter files in its Long-Term Pavement Performance (LTPP) database (Stubstad et al., 2007). This screening approach, which allows users to choose any backcalculation program, offers forward calculated values that may be used to compare the results of two or more evaluation methods. Ideally, if these approaches give similar (even if not identical) results, one can be confident that the results obtained through either method will be reasonable and tenable for further use in pavement evaluation and rehabilitation design. In this screening approach, the above forwardcalculated values are obtained from the FHWA forwardcalculation method. For the forwardcalculation of subgrade modulus values, the FHWA method is based on the simplified two layer Hogg model (Hogg, 1944), with similar equations to those developed earlier by Wiseman and Greenstein (1983). These new FHWA equations are provided in Stubstad et al. (2007). In addition to the forwardcalculation of subgrade modulus values, the forwardcalculation of asphaltic layers modulus of the FHWA method is based on the AREA concept, defined by the following expression:

d d AREA 300 = 50 2 + 3 200 + 300 d0 d0

(1)

where AREA300 denotes the modified deflection-basin area, in mm; d0 denotes FWD deflection measured at center of FWD load plate, in micron; d200 denotes FWD deflection measured 200 mm from center of plate, in micron; d300 denotes FWD deflection measured 300 mm from center of plate, in micron. Note: the maximum value of AREA300 is 50 (2+3+1)=300 mm.
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For typical pavement materials and modular ratios, large numbers of trial CHEVLAY2 runs were used to develop calibrated equations to forwardcalculate asphaltic layers modulus values. These equations are:
0.752 AF = 1.752 AREA 300 25 6.85
1.35

(2)

EA=

1.5 Ra p H A AF AF 1000 d 0 2 Ra HA 2 Ra
2

(3)

where AF denotes the AREA factor; EA denotes the asphaltic layers modulus, in MPa; p denotes pressure of FWD impact load under load plate, in MPa; Ra denotes radius of FWD load plate, in mm; d0 denotes surface deflection in center of loading plate, in micron; HA denotes the total asphaltic layers thickness, in mm. An effective method of deriving the modulus of the composite granular layers is by using the modulus relationship between two adjacent layers of unbound materials as developed by Dorman and Metcalf (1965). The Dorman and Metcalf method computes the composite granular layers modulus as follows:
0 E G = 0.2 H G.45 E S

(4)

where EG denotes composite granular layers modulus, MPa; HG denotes thickness of the intermediate granular layers, in mm; ES denotes subgrade modulus, in MPa. Accordingly, the same forwardcalculation equation used to derive the subgrade modulus is used to derive the composite granular-layers modulus by adding Equation 4 to the calculation. According to Stubstad et al. (2007) the use of Equation 4 "has proved to be both effective and reasonable, resulting in a realistic base course modulus." This statement, however, is not compatible with the findings of Livneh (2010a). Finally, it is worth mentioning that the local regular set up of the FWD sensors does not include the measurements of d200 and d450. Note that the latter deflection (i.e., d450) is necessary when using the FHWA method for forwardcalculating ES. Thus, it is suggested that the following expressions for estimating of d200 and d450 via the following measured deflections be used: d0, d300, d600 and d900, based on the method presented by Rohde (1994):

d200=

200100 200 400 100 400 d0 + d300 d600 600 300 300 300 300 600

(5) (6)

d 450= d 450/ 600 d 450/ 900

when,

d 450/ 600= d 450/ 900=

150150 450150 450150 d0 + d300 + d 600 300 600 300 300 600 300

(7a) (7b)

150 450 150 450 150150 d300 + d 600 d900 300 600 300 300 600 300

491

where d0 denotes FWD deflection measured at center of FWD load plate, in micron; d200 denotes estimated FWD deflection as if measured 200 mm from center of plate, in micron; d300 denotes FWD deflection measured 300 mm from center of plate, in micron; d450 denotes estimated FWD deflection as if measured 450 mm from center of plate, in micron; d600 denotes FWD deflection measured 600 mm from center of plate, in micron; d900 denotes FWD deflection measured 900 mm from center of plate, in micron; d450/600 denotes estimated d450 on the basis of d0, d300 and d600, in micron; d450/900 denotes estimated d450 on the basis of d300, d600 and d900, in micron. In order to examine the accuracy of Equations 5, 6 and 7, surface deflection data were calculated for a two-layer model with infinite depth to bedrock with the aid of the OdemarkUllidtz equations taken from Wiseman and Greenstein (1983). From these simulated data, as detailed in the next section, Figure 1 has been constructed, showing the variation of the deflection correction factor of estimated d200 of Equation 5 and the deflection correction factor of estimated d450 of Equation 6, both with the variation of the ratio d300/d0. These two deflection correction factors (CF) are defined by the ratio of either the estimated d200 of Equation 5 to the simulated (true) d200 or the estimated d450 of Equation 6 to the simulated (true) d450. The regression analysis conducted on these data yielded the following expression:
CF = t 4 ( d 300 4 d d d ) + t 3 ( 300 ) 3 + t 2 ( 300 ) 2 + t 1 ( 300 ) + t 0 d0 d0 d0 d0

(8)

where CF denotes the deflection correction factor of either estimated d200 or estimated d450; t0, t1, t2, t3, t4 denote the polynomial regression coefficients given Table 1.
1.15

Simulated Data

1.10

Deflection Correction Factors

y =-1.2045x4+2.0498x3-0.8211x2-0.3397x+1.2555 R = 0.9835 1.05

1.00 y =-0.8061x4+2.6162x3-3.2188x2+ +1.8363x+0.5733 R = 0.9946 0.95

CF=1.0

Correction Factor for d200 Correction Factor for d450 0.90 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Ratio of Deflection at a Radial Distance of 300 mm to Central Deflection

Figure 1: Deflection correction factors of estimated d200 of Equation 5 and estimated d450 of Equation 6 as a function of the ratio d300/d0 for simulated (calculated) data Table 1: Polynomial regression coefficients of Equation 8 (deflection correction equations) Curve-Fitting Coefficients CF for t4 t3 t2 t1 T0 d200 -1.2045 2.0498 -0.8211 -0.3397 1.2555 d450 -0.8061 2.6162 -3.2188 1.8363 0.5733 Finally, in order to correct the estimated d200 of Equation 5 and the estimated d450 of Equation 6, it is necessary to divide these estimated values by the value of CF as calculated from Equation 8.
492

3. THE EVALIV FORWARDCALCULATION METHOD The EVALIV method is based on two-layered elastic media. As mentioned in the previous section, for any given two-layer model with infinite depth to bedrock, the surface-deflection basin can be theoretically calculated with the aid of the above-mentioned Odemark-Ullidtz equations. Such theoretical calculations were performed for the following: (a) subgrade and pavement Poisson ratio of 0.5, (b) subgrade modulus of 50 MPa, (c) a ratio of pavement modulus to subgrade modulus ranging from 5 up to 30, (d) pavement thickness of 300 mm to 1,800 mm, (e) radius of loading plate of 150 mm, and (f) reference load of 9.5887 kN. The outputs of these calculations, ES d 0 and EP/ES, are given as a function of the term modAREA as defined by the following expression:

d d d d 1 + 2 300 + 2 600 + 2 900 + 2 1,200 d0 d0 d0 d0 mod AREA = 150 d d + 2 1,500 + 1,800 d0 d0

(9)

where modAREA denotes the modified deflection-basin area, in mm; d0 denotes surface deflection in the center of the loading plate, in micron; di denotes the surface deflection at 300 mm, 600 mm, 900 mm, 1,200 mm, 1,500 mm, and 1,800 mm from the FWD plate center, in micron. Note that the modAREA parameter of Equation 9 is different from the AREA300 parameter of Equation 1. The former is based on the deflection readings of all 7 sensors, while the latter is based on the deflection readings of the first two sensors with an intermediate sensor located at 200 mm away from the center of the loading plate. The curves of ES d0 and EP/ES values obtained by the above calculations can be formulated by mathematical equations with the aid of the regression technique. This has been done by the author elsewhere (Livneh, 2010b & 2010c), and the obtained equations for forwardcalculating subgrade modulus (ES) and pavement modulus (EP) are presented there. 4. SUGGESTED COMBINED METHOD As mentioned before, the FHWA forwardcalculation spreadsheets for calculating the subgrade modulus are based on the Hogg model. This model typically yields a lower subgrade modulus than that obtained via classic backcalculation. This is mainly due to the fact that the Hogg model is associated with the plate theory, for which no compression of the upper layer exists. Thus, all of the deflection is attributed to the compression of the subgrade and bending of the plate. The phenomenon of lower subgrade moduli in the Hogg model is demonstrated by the author elsewhere (Livneh, 2010d) for the LTPP database given by Stubstad et al. (2007). As for the simulated data that served to develop the EVALIV method, Figure 2 indicates that the above mentioned phenomenon may hold only for low pavement thicknesses and for specific values of pavement and subgrade modulus ratio. This might be due to the fact that the Hogg model in the FHWA forwardcalculation spreadsheets calculates only the effective subgrade modulus under the load plate and to a finite depth. Conversely, the simulated data is based on a subgrade that (a) extends to an infinite depth and (b) it is the same at all deflectionbasin offset distances (sensors #2 through #7), including under the load plate (sensor #1). Given all these findings, it would be reasonable to combine the two forwardcalulation methods (FHWA and EVALIV) in the following way: EVALIV for forwardcalculating the subgrade modulus, and FHWA for forwardcalculating the bound-surface-course modulus.

493

3.5
FHWA Forwardcalculated Data EVALIV Forwardcalculated Data

EP/ES=10 20

Ratio of Forwardcalculated to Simulated ES

3.0

2.5 5 2.0 30

1.5

1.0

R=1.0

0.5 Simulated Data 0.0 0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800 2,000

Total Pavement Thickness [mm]

Figure 2: Ratio of EVALIV forwardcalculated subgrade modulus (ES) and FHWA forwardcalculated ES to simulated ("true") ES versus total pavement thickness; Note: curves represent regression lines As with respect to the granular course modulus, the use of Equation 4 in the FHWA forwardcalculation spreadsheets is very questionable, as it does not guarantee that for all real pavements the relationship of Equation 4 really exists. As explained further on, this can be also concluded from Figure 3, which is based on the same simulated data of Figure 2. In this figure, the AASHTO structural number (SN) is calculated according to the following expression:
SN = 0 . 000931 H P 3 E P = 0 . 000931 ( H A 3 E A + H G 3 E G )

(10)

where SN denotes the AASHTO structural number, in inch; EP denotes composite pavement modulus, in MPa; EA denotes asphaltic layers modulus, in MPa; EG denotes the granular layers modulus, in MPa; HP denotes the total pavement thickness, in mm.; HA denotes the total asphaltic layers thickness, in mm; HG denotes the total granular layers thickness, in mm. Note: in Figure 3, HA is equal to 0.15 H P. Equation 10 is based on the relationship between EP and the combination of EA and EG as formulated by Then de Barros (1966). In addition, EP is used in this equation for calculating SN in EVALIV method, while EA and EG are used for calculating SN in FHWA method. Figure 3 indicates again that the SN values obtained from the FHWA forwardcalculation of EA and EG are not consistent with the true values. The ratio of these forwardcalculation values to the true values depends on various variables such as pavement thickness, pavement modulus, asphaltic layer thickness, etc. This behavior of Figure 3 leads to the conclusion that the FHWA forwardcalculated EG values are essentially erroneous. As for the FHWA forwardcalculated EA values, these are shown to be essentially reliable in the next section. The above findings lead to an alternative procedure for calculating EG in the suggested combined method. In this procedure, EG values are suggested to be calculated from the EVALIV forwardcalculated EP values combined with the FHWA forwardcalculated EA values, utilizing the following equation derived from the Then de Barros Equation 10:

(H + H A ) 3 E P H A 3 E A EG = G HG

(11)

494

Here, it should be mentioned that the Then de Barros equation is merely an approximation. A full discussion of this issue can be found in Baus and Johnson (1992). A correction factor for the two-layer EP is therefore necessary to accompany the use of Equation 12. This is shown in the next section where the comparison between the combined FHWA-EVALIV outputs and the MODULUS outputs is provided for the local FWD study.
1.4 EP/ES=5

Ratio of Forwardcalculated to Simulated SN

1.2

10

1.0

R=1.0 20

0.8

30

0.6

0.4

0.2 FHWA Forwardcalculated Data EVALIV Forwardcalculated Data 0.0 0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800 2,000 Simulated Data

Total Pavement Thickness [mm]

Figure 3: Ratio of EVALIV forwardcalculated structural number (SN) and FHWA forwardcalculated SN to simulated (true) SN versus total pavement thickness; Note: curves represent regression lines 5. LOCAL FWD COMPARISON STUDY In the previous section it was recommended that the combined FHWA and EVALIV method be used for forwardcalculating ES, EG, and EA. However, its forwardcalculated results should be assessed for their reasonableness. To this end, several local FWD measurements are analyzed by the combined FHWA and EVALIV forwardcalculation method together with the MODULUS backcalculation method, and their outputs are presented in Table 2. In addition, examples of this comparison-analysis are provided in Figure 4 for the asphalt layers modulus values and in Figure 5 for the composite granular-layers modulus values. Table 2 displays the values obtained for the zero-intercept linear regression analysis of combined FHWA-EVALIV outputs versus MODULUS outputs, and of FHWA outputs versus the same MODULUS outputs; in other words, the slope of the zero-intercept linear regression equation (labeled Slope of Reg. in the table) and the coefficient of determination of the zero-intercept linear regression (labeled R2 of Regression in the table). The results were analyzed for five in-situ measured projects consisting of flexible pavements of various granular layer thicknesses (denoted as HG in the table: 300 mm to 690 mm) and various asphalt layer thicknesses (denoted as HA in the table: 100 mm to 320 mm). This table indicates that the values of the regression's slope of the combined FHWAEVALIV ES (which actually express the average ratio of combined FHWA-EVALIV ES outputs to MODULUS ES outputs for each project) are closer to the required value of 1.0, than those associated with FHWA ES outputs. In addition, the values of R2 for these regressions are higher for the combined FHWA-EVALIV ES outputs than those for the FHWA ES outputs. This means that the scatter of the ratio data of combined FHWA-EVALIV ES outputs to MODULUS outputs is smaller than that of the ratio data of FHWA ES outputs to MODULUS outputs.

495

In the same manner, the EG outputs exhibit identical behavior to that of the ES outputs. For these outputs, it is advisable to implement a correction factor of approximately 0.00271 H G, as obtained from a linear regression analysis, for which it was found that R2 is equal to 0.92. Please recall that each forwardcalculated EG output is to be divided by the above appropriate correction factor. Also, HG is given in mm. Table 2: Forwardcalculated combined FHWA-EVALIV and FHWA outputs in relation to backcalculated MODULUS outputs for local FWD measurement Project No.(*) 6a(3) 7(6) 9(1) 11(6) 12(431) HG [mm] 500 400 690 300 350 HA [mm] 100 220 160 320 210 Number of Points 170 161 128 161 228 Combined FHWA-EVALIV Reg.'s Slope of ES 0.938 0.910 0.566 0.901 0.921 R2 of ES Regression 0.961 0.900 0.691 0.775 0.840 Reg.'s Slope of SN 1.019 1.084 1.156 1.026 1.070 R2 of SN Regression 0.955 0.915 0.936 -0.553 0.907 Reg.'s Slope of EG 1.276 1.222 1.902 0.893 0.773 R2 of EG Regression 0.790 0.049 0.667 -0.621 0.296 Reg.'s Slope of EA 1.014 1.049 1.062 0.830 1.171 2 R of EA Regression 0.855 0.630 0.850 0.516 0.862 FHWA Only Reg.'s Slope of ES 0.716 0.702 0.411 0.760 0.732 R2 of ES Regression 0.814 0.792 -0.220 0.636 0.785 Reg.'s Slope of SN 1.014 1.184 1.176 0.959 1.026 R2 of SN Regression 0.785 -4.906 0.524 -0.059 0.099 Reg.'s Slope of EG 0.594 0.870 2.030 0.365 0.589 2 R of EG Regression -0.433 -0.885 -0.026 -1.700 -0.462
(*)

Project numbers are according to those from Livneh (2010d).

14,000 HA=320 mm HG=300 mm Equality Line 12,000

FHWA Asphalt Modulus [MPa]

10,000

FHWA y = 0.8303x R = 0.5165

8,000

6,000

4,000

2,000 FHWA Project No. 11(6) 0 0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 14,000

MODULUS Asphalt Modulus [MPa]

Figure 4: FHWA forwardcalculated EA versus MODULUS backcalculated EA for measured deflection basins of Project No. 11(6) It should be added here, however, that according to FHWA (Stubstad et al., 2006a and 2006b), the highest reasonable value for the modulus of crushed granular materials is 1,500
496

MPa and 750 MPa for the modulus of uncrushed granular materials. With this in mind, Figure 5 reveals the existence of a considerable amount of (a) MODULUS EG outputs and (b) combined FHWA-EVALIV EG outputs that exceed the above upper limits of EG. This finding indicates that screening of the measured FWD deflection-basins should be conducted following the procedure suggested in Livneh (2010d). As for the EA outputs, Table 2 indicates that the FHWA method produces reasonable values. For these outputs, it is also advisable to implement a correction factor of approximately -15.01 H A2+5.53 H A+0.60, as obtained from a polynomial regression analysis for which it was found R2 is equal to 0.86. Once more, recall that each forwardcalculated EA output is to be divided by the above appropriate correction factor. Also, HA is given, in meter.
12,000
FHWA & Combined EVALIV Granular Layers Modulus [MPa]

HA=320 mm HG=300 mm 10,000 Equality Line 8,000 EVALIV y = 0.8927x R = -0.6213

6,000

4,000 FHWA y = 0.3654x R = -1.700 2,000 FHWA EVALIV Project No.11(6) 0 0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000

MODULUS Granular Layers Modulus [MPa]

Figure 5: FHWA and combined FHWA-EVALIV forwardcalculated EG versus MODULUS backcalculated EG for measured deflection basins of Project No. 11(6) Finally, the findings of this and the previous sections all yield the conclusions summarized in the next section. 6. CONCLUSIONS Findings from the current study on backcalculation and forwardcalculation of FWD deflection basin measurements yield the following conclusions: The EVALIV spreadsheets seem to better reflect a comparison with the MODULUS Es and SN outputs than the FHWA spreadsheets outputs do. The FHWA spreadsheets seem to reflect a reasonable comparison with the MODULUS EA outputs, while the combined FHWA-EVALIV better reflect a comparison with the MODULUS EG outputs, than the FHWA spreadsheets alone. A screening method of the measured FWD deflection-basins should be conducted following the procedure suggested in Livneh (2010d), where a comparison between the MODULUS and EVALIV ES outputs is to take place. In addition, from the above conclusions it follows that the correction factors for the EVALIV ES and SN outputs as associated with the screening method (Livneh, 2010d) should be implemented in order to obtain reliable ES and SN values. As for the FHWA EA outputs, their correction factor equals approximately -15.01 H A2+5.53 H A+0.60 (HA in meter); the correction factor of the combined FHWA-EVALIV EG outputs, equals approximately to 0.00271 H G (HG in mm).

497

Finally, it should be noted that the regression equations that yielded the two correction factors above were based on limited data sets (merely 5 projects). An analysis of FWD deflection data collected on pavements with an additional range of layer-thickness values, SN values, and subgrade stiffnesses would therefore be advisable. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The results presented in this paper were obtained in the course of engineering studies undertaken by the author for several Israeli governmental departments and agencies. Thanks are therefore due these departments and agencies. The paper was prepared with the assistance of Mr. Arieh Aines of the Transportation Research Institute at the Technion, to whom thanks are also due. REFERENCES Dorman, G. M., and Metcalf, C. T., 1965. Design Curves for Flexible Pavements Based on In Layered System Theory. Highway Research Record 71, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., pp. 69-83. Hogg, A. H. A., 1944. Equilibrium of a Thin Plate on an Elastic Foundation of Finite Depth. Philosophical Magazine, Vol. 35, No. 243, pp. 265-276. Livneh, M., 2010a. Some Findings Concerning the Determination of Granular-Base Moduli for Flexible-Pavement Thickness Design. Proceedings of the First International Conference on
Road and Rail Infrastructure, Opatija, Croatia.

Livneh, M., 2010b. On the Reliability of Excluding Thickness in Forward-Calculating Pavement Parameters. To be published in the International Journal of Road Materials and Pavements Design. Livneh, M., 2010c. On Forwardcalculations of AASHTO Pavement Parameters from FWD Surface-Deflection Basins. To be published in the Proceedings of the 11th International Symposium on Advanced Technologies in Asphalt Pavements (2010 ATAP), Chun Cheon, South Korea. Livneh, M., 2010d. An Alternative Forwardcalculation Technique as a Screening Procedure for Review and Evaluation of Backcalculated Moduli. To be published in the International Journal of Roads and Airports (IJRA). Rohde, G. T., 1994. Determining Pavement Structural Number from FWD Testing. Transportation Research Record 1448, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., pp. 61-68. Stubstad, R.N., Jiang, Y.J. and Lukanen, E.O., 2006a. Guidelines for Review and Evaluation of Backcalculation Results. Publication No. FHWA-HRT-06-152, Office of Infrastructure Research and Development, Federal Highway Administration (LTPP), McLean, Virginia. Stubstad, R.N., Jiang, Y.J. and Lukanen, E.O., 2006b. Review of the Long-Term Pavement Performance Backcalculation Results-Final Report. Publication No. FHWA-HRT-05-150, Office of Infrastructure Research and Development, Federal Highway Administration (LTPP), McLean, Virginia. Stubstad, R. N., Jiang, Y. J. and Lukanen, E.O., 2007. Forwardcalculation of Pavement Moduli with Load-Deflection Data. Transportation Research Record 2005, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., pp. 104-110. Thenn de Barros, S., 1966. Deflection Factor Charts for Two- and Three-Layer Elastic Systems. Highway Research Record 145, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., pp. 83-108. Wiseman, G. and Greenstein, J., 1983. Comparison of Methods of Determining Pavement Parameters from Deflection Bowl Measurements. Proceedings of the 7th Asian Regional Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Haifa, Israel.
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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Modifications to Pass-to-Coverage Ratio Computation in the FAAs FAARFIELD Design Procedure

I. Kawa
SRA International,, Linwood, NJ, USA Izydor_Kawa@sra.com

G. Hayhoe
Federal Aviation Administration, William J. Hughes Technical Center Atlantic City International Airport, NJ, USA Gordon.Hayhoe@faa.gov

D. Brill
Federal Aviation Administration, William J. Hughes Technical Center Atlantic City International Airport, NJ, USA David.Brill@faa.gov

ABSTRACT: The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) adopted FAARFIELD as its standard thickness design procedure for airport pavements in September 2009. Like its predecessor program LEDFAA 1.3, FAARFIELD incorporates the effects of airplane wander through a computed pass-to-coverage (P/C) ratio. FAARFIELD incorporated a number of changes in the procedure for computing P/C. These changes were originally introduced in the FAAs COMFAA program for Aircraft Classification Number (ACN) computation and were then extended and elaborated for FAARFIELD. One of the main advantages of the new computational procedure is that it is valid for arbitrary gear configurations and no longer requires the airplane under consideration to conform to one of the military designation codes representing typical gear types. This allows the procedure to be applied to complex configurations such as the Airbus A380, which has both four-wheel and six-wheel gears. This paper explains the statistical relationship between assumed normal aircraft wander and P/C, as embedded in the FAARFIELD procedure. For flexible pavement design, the computed P/C must account for the increase in effective tire width with depth and possible interaction between tire loads. This interaction is automatically accounted for in the new procedure. The nature of the changes made in FAARFIELD is documented, and it is shown that in nearly all cases the new computation results in the same P/C as LEDFAA 1.3 (with allowance for numerical error). A few exceptions are noted. The effect of changing the assumed wander width on computed P/C, and hence on computed design thickness, is also examined. KEY WORDS: FAARFIELD, COMFAA, Airport Pavement Design, Pass-to-Coverage Ratio, Federal Aviation Administration. 1. INTRODUCTION The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) adopted FAARFIELD as its standard thickness design procedure for airport pavements in September 2009. Like its predecessor
499

program LEDFAA 1.3, FAARFIELD incorporates the effects of airplane wander through a computed pass-to-coverage (P/C) ratio. FAARFIELD incorporated a number of changes in the procedure for computing P/C ratio. These changes were originally introduced in the FAAs COMFAA program for Aircraft Classification Number (ACN) computation (FAA, 2008) and were then extended and elaborated for FAARFIELD. One of the main advantages of the new computational procedure is that it is valid for arbitrary gear configurations and no longer requires the airplane under consideration to conform to one of the military designation codes representing typical gear types. This allows the procedure to be applied to complex configurations such as the Airbus A380. 2. P/C RATIO The failure models in FAARFIELD relate a computed structural response to the number of coverages a pavement structure can carry. In the case of flexible pavements, the primary structural response is vertical strain at the top of the subgrade. For rigid pavements, the response is bending stress at the bottom of the concrete slab. Coverages can be defined as a measure of the number of repetitions of the maximum strain (for flexible pavements) or stress (for rigid pavements) occurring at a particular location in the pavement (Ahlvin, et al., 1971). In general, the number of coverages is different from the number of passes due to aircraft wander, but passes and coverages can be related through the pass-to-coverage (P/C) ratio. 2.1. Miners Rule and Cumulative Damage Factor FAARFIELD uses Miners hypothesis to predict the fatigue life of a pavement structure. The usual expression of Miners hypothesis is: k n (1) Ni = 1 i =1 i where ni is the number of applied cycles of load at response level i, Ni is the number of cycles at level i causing fatigue failure of the component, and k is the number of discrete response levels experienced by the component during its life. When equation (1) is satisfied, the component is expected to fail. For pavement structures, the cumulative damage factor (CDF), based on Miners hypothesis, is defined by: Na n CDF = i (2) i =1 N i where: Na = total number of airplanes in the traffic mix ni = the number of coverages of airplane i experienced by the pavement over the design life, causing pavement response Ri Ni = the number of coverages to failure for the pavement structure at response level Ri.
When CDF=1, the pavement is defined as having failed at the specified location. In the program implementation, CDF is calculated for each 25.4-cm (10-in.) wide strip along the pavement over a total width of 2057 cm (810 in.). Since traffic data is in terms of passes (departures) and the CDF (equation 2) is expressed in terms of coverages, the P/C ratio must also be computed. The P/C ratio is computed for each strip based on the assumption that airplane traffic is laterally normally distributed with a standard deviation of 773 mm (30.435 in.). Statistically, this is equivalent to assuming that 75% of the passes fall within a wander width of 1.78 m (70 in.), which is representative of airplane operations on a taxiway.

500

The CDF for design is taken to be the maximum over all 81 strips. The contribution of a given airplane to the maximum CDF depends on the P/C ratio for that airplane on the critical strip. Even with the same gear geometry, airplanes with different main gear track widths will have different P/C ratios on each of the 25.4-cm (10-in.) strips. Thus, two airplanes that produce similar local stress or strain responses may have significantly different effects on the design thickness, depending on how close the gear tracks are to the critical strip. For this reason, FAARFIELD reports both the maximum CDF computed for each airplane (CDF Max for Airplane) and the contribution of each airplane to the maximum computed CDF (CDF Contribution). 2.2. Effective Tire Width The P/C ratio computation considers the depth of the pavement structure through the concept of effective tire width, as illustrated in Figures 1 and 2. For both rigid and flexible pavements, the width of the tire contact patch is determined by assuming that the contact patch is in the shape of an ellipse with the ratio of the major axis to the minor axis equal to 1.6. For rigid pavements, the effective tire width is measured at the surface of the pavement, and it is equal to the nominal tire contact patch width. For flexible pavements, the effective tire width is measured either at the top of the subgrade (for the subgrade vertical strain criterion) or at the bottom of the asphalt layer (for the horizontal strain criterion). For simplicity, we consider only the subgrade strain case, but the procedure is similar for any depth of interest. Response lines are drawn at a slope of 1:2 from the contact patch edges to the top of the subgrade. Tires are considered to be either separate or combined, depending on whether the response lines overlap (Figures 1 and 2). The maximum value of vertical strain at the top of the subgrade is computed with all the wheels in the landing gear assembly acting on the pavement. The maximum computed strain is then assumed to act on the full effective width of each of the equivalent tires.

t w tires 1 h 2 h 2 w+h h 2 top of subgrade w surface

subgrade

Figure 1: Equivalent tire width with no overlap (two equivalent tires)

501

t w tires w surface

1 h 2 top of subgrade h 2 subgrade w+t w+t+h h 2

Figure 2: Equivalent tire width with overlap (one equivalent tire) 2.3. P/C Ratio Computation for Rigid Pavements Using the above definition of effective tire width, the coverage-to-pass (C/P) ratio may be defined as the probability that any part of the effective tire width covers the center point of a given strip. Then the P/C ratio is simply the inverse of this probability. For rigid pavements, it is assumed that the critical surface is the contact surface of the pavement, and the effective width is therefore the nominal tire width w. As stated above, the surface of the pavement is divided into 81 longitudinal strips, and the C/P ratio is computed for each offset. For each offset i, (C/P)i is computed using the probability formula (Ahlvin, et al., 1971): Nt (C P )i = P xi w xk xi + w (3) 2 2 k =1 where: Nt is the number of tires for the gear, xi is defined as the lateral distance from a longitudinal reference line (e.g., the runway or taxiway centerline) to the midpoint of strip i, and xk is the lateral distance from the same reference line to the centerline of tire k. 2.4. C Ratio Computation for Flexible Pavements The calculation of C/P for flexible pavements is conceptually the same as for rigid pavements. However, the calculation for flexible pavements must consider that the critical surface at the top of the subgrade layer may be located 1 m (39 in.) or even deeper under the asphalt concrete surface. Hence, the interaction between adjacent tires is more complicated for flexible pavements than for rigid pavements. Figures 1 and 2 show the width at the top of subgrade influenced by one tire and two tires respectively. If it is assumed that the width of the subgrade strip influenced by a single tire is given by w + h (Figure 1), where w is the tire footprint width and h is the depth to the top of the subgrade, then the width of the strip influenced by two adjacent tires is w + t + h (Figure 2), where t is the center-to-center distance between tires. It is assumed here that the tires are sufficiently close together that they produce one equivalent tire at the critical surface. As illustrated in Figure 2, this condition is satisfied when h t w . The equivalent tire width weq is calculated for each airplane based on its gear configuration and the depth to the critical layer. For dual-wheel or dual-tandem airplane gears and h t w ,
weq = w + t + h
502

(4)

Equation (4) assumes that subgrade strain is the critical response being considered. For the criterion of fatigue damage in the hot-mix asphalt (HMA) layer, weq is computed from:
weq = w + h

(5)

where in this case, h is the depth to the critical HMA layer. Similar to the procedure for Portland cement concrete (PCC) pavements, the subgrade layer is divided into 81 longitudinal strips, and C/P is computed for each offset. For offset i, (C/P)i is computed using equation (3), except that the equivalent tire width weq is substituted for the actual tire footprint width w. Hence, the C/P ratios used in the FAARFIELD program are generally higher for flexible pavements than for rigid pavements. 2.5. Interaction Between Gears in Tandem The C/P ratio, as implemented in the FAARFIELD design procedure, accounts for the interactions between laterally adjacent tires. For rigid pavements, for tandem distances shorter than or equal to 183 cm (72 in.), a factor of 1 is applied to the number of passes of tandem wheels, and for tandem distances longer than 183 cm, a factor of 2 is applied to the number of passes of tandem wheels. For flexible pavements, the interaction between the front and rear tires in a tandem gear assembly may also be significant. The FAARFIELD program includes a tandem gear factor to consider the interaction between the front and rear tires in an assembly. Let b be the net distance between the front and rear tires (i.e., the center-to-center tandem spacing minus the length of the tire contact patch). Then the factor Ftnd is defined as follows:
Ftnd = 1 where b h 2 Ftnd = 2 where b h

(6) (7)

For cases where h/2 < b < h, Ftnd is defined by linear interpolation between 1 and 2, as shown in Figure 3. (A similar interpolation procedure between 1 and 3 is used for three axles in tandem.)

Ftnd 1

h/2

Net tandem spacing b

Figure 3: Tandem gear factor as a function of tandem spacing

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2.6. P/C Ratio Computational Procedure in FAARFIELD To summarize, the P/C ratio computation procedure is executed in four steps: 1. Identify tire coordinates in global airplane coordinates 2. Determine the effective tire width 3. Compute the area under the normal distribution curve 4. Apply the tandem factor Step 1. The FAARFIELD program has an internal airplane library that is divided into six airplane groups: Generic, Airbus, Boeing, Other Commercial, General Aviation, and Military. For most airplanes, the wheel coordinates are defined in a local gear coordinate system for one of the two wing gears. Certain airplanes, e.g., the DC10-30/40, besides having two wing gears, also have a body gear, which is listed separately in the airplane list, and for which wheel coordinates are defined in the local gear coordinates. However, for certain airplanes with multiple main gears (Airbus A380 and Boeing B747), wheel coordinates are instead defined in global airplane coordinates for all the wing and body gear wheels taken as a group. In the latter case, no calculations are needed in this step, since the tire coordinates are already provided in global airplane coordinates. Step 2. For rigid pavements, effective tire width equals nominal tire width. For flexible pavements, effective tire width is determined as shown in figures 1 and 2. The procedure calculates the effective tire width by adding nominal tire width to total pavement thickness. In cases where the effective tire widths of two tires overlap, a single effective tire width is calculated eliminating duplication of overlapping regions. Step 3. The area under the normal distribution curve for the effective tire width is calculated using the Euler-McLaurin formula. Calculations are repeated for each of the 81 offset positions. The P/C ratio is the reciprocal of the C/P ratio obtained from this numerical integration procedure. Figure 3 shows an example of an area computation for a dual-wheel airplane at an offset from the centerline. Step 4. For rigid pavements and for tandem distances shorter than or equal to 183 cm (72 in.), a factor of 1 is applied to the number of passes, and for tandem distance longer than 183 cm, a factor of 2 is applied to the number of passes. For flexible pavements, the factor for tandem distances is calculated using Figure 3. The design P/C ratio for an airplane is then the inverse of the maximum of the C/P values calculated over all 81 offsets. Tables 1 and 2 present examples of FAARFIELD C/P ratio calculation results for airplanes with various types of gear configurations. The gear type designations given in the second column refer to the gear naming convention in Appendix 2 of AC 150/5320-6E (FAA, 2009). Because the FAARFIELD P/C values are computed based on the actual gear geometries, they are in general different from the values applicable to the same gear types as given in Appendix 2 to AC 150/5320-6D (FAA, 2005). Table 1: P/C ratios for rigid pavements (FAARFIELD) Aircraft SWL-50 Dual Whl-200 DC10-10 B777-200 ER A380-800 C-5 C-17A C-130 Gear Type S D 2D 3D 2D/3D2 Special 2T 2S
504

C/P 0.19 0.27 0.26 0.25 0.28 0.75 0.76 0.21

P/C 5.18 3.29 3.81 4.04 3.61 1.34 1.31 4.67

Table 2: P/C ratios for flexible pavements (FAARFIELD) Aircraft SWL-50 Dual Whl-200 DC10-10 B777-200 ER A380-800 C-5 C-17A C-130 Gear Type S D 2D 3D 2D/3D2 Special 2T 2S P/C at top of subgrade, depth 0.5 m (19.7 in.) 0.75 m (29.5 in.) 2.33 1.87 1.39 1.26 0.83 0.65 0.57 0.45 0.59 0.46 0.37 0.31 0.60 0.52 1.12 0.91 1.0 m (39.4 in.) 1.59 1.19 0.54 0.41 0.38 0.27 0.51 0.86

OFFSET = 110.0
Frequency

Location of tires

-250

-150

-50

50

150

250

Lateral Distance from Centerline [inch]

Figure 4: Normal distribution curve for Dual Whl-200 at offset 2.79 m (110.0 in.) 3. MAJOR CHANGES FROM PREVIOUS PROCEDURE The most significant improvements to the C/P ratio calculations concern the elimination of U.S. military designation codes. Previously, all airplanes had to be identified by a letter code (Holliway and Millard, 1990) giving information about the gear geometry that was used internally by the program. For example, in the earlier P/C ratio subroutine implemented in LEDFAA 1.3, all 2D (dual-tandem) gears are identified by the code F. Rather than use letterspecific rules for computing P/C, FAARFIELD uses a generic algorithm to determine effective tire widths and eliminate duplication of overlapping effective tire widths. The new algorithm allows adding an arbitrary gear configuration to the aircraft library. This has clear advantages, since many new gears of interest (e.g., the A380) do not fit any existing military designation and hence could not be easily handled under the old procedures. FAARFIELD P/C ratio calculations agree in most cases with LEDFAA 1.3 results. As an example, Figures 5(a) and (b) show comparative results for the two programs for the Dual Whl-200 for rigid and flexible pavements respectively. The new algorithm improved results in the P/C ratio calculation for certain specific airplanes, as shown in Figures 6(a) and (b). In the rigid pavement case, P/C ratio results were corrected for the C-5 gear. For flexible pavements, results were corrected for C-5, C-17A, and A380 gears. The correction in the C-5 calculation is due the proper accounting of the number of tires for C-5 for rigid and flexible pavements, and for C-17A for the proper accounting for the tandem factor for flexible pavement.

505

Coverage to Pass Ratio Rigid Pavem ent

0.35 0.3 0.25
0.7 0.6 0.5

CtoP - Flexible Pavem ents @Depth = 14 inch

PtoC

PtoC

0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05

0.4 0.3

LEDFAA 1.3 Dual Whl-200 FAARFIELD Dual Whl-200

LEDFAA 1.3 Dual Whl-200 FAARFIELD Dual Whl-200

0.2 0.1 0

0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

OFFSET [inch]

OFFSET [inch]

(a) Rigid P/C

(b) Flexible P/C (Depth at 35.6 cm)

Figure 5: Computed P/C ratios for Dual Whl-200 airplane

Coverage to Pass Ratio Rigid Pavem ent
0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
1.6

Coverage to Pass Ratio @Depth = 14 inch

LEDFAA 1.3 C-5 FAARFIELD C-5

PtoC

1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

PtoC

LEDFAA 1.3 C-17A FAARFIELD C-17A

OFFSET [inch]

OFFSET [inch]

(a) C-5 Rigid P/C

(b) C-17A Flexible P/C (Depth at 35.6 cm)

Figure 6: Computed P/C ratios for military airplanes C-5 and C-17A 4. SENSITIVITY OF FAARFIELD DESIGN THICKNESS TO P/C RATIO In general, the effect of airplane wander is to reduce the design thickness requirement relative to the zero-wander case. The amount of the thickness reduction depends on the assumptions in the specific design procedure. One means of measuring this effect is simply to compare the standard design assuming wander with the case where wander width is set to zero (fully channelized traffic). This comparison is shown in Table 3 for rigid pavements and Table 4 for flexible pavements. The computed design thickness is based on 1200 annual departures of the given airplane on the FAARFIELD sample structure for each pavement type. P/C ratios are given for both standard and zero wander; in the latter case, the P/C ratio may be less than 1.0 due to the effects of interaction between gears in tandem, as discussed earlier. The last column in Tables 3 and 4 gives the ratio of computed design thicknesses for the channelized and standard cases. For rigid pavements, the increase in PCC slab thickness due to the elimination of wander ranges from 5.3 to 10.5 percent. For flexible pavements, the increase in total structural thickness is smaller, ranging from only 0.2 percent for the C-17A to 4.4 percent for a single-wheel load. Where tandem effects are not included (i.e., where the P/C ratio for the zero-wander case is equal to 1.0), it may be verified that the same increase in design thickness may be obtained by simply multiplying the number of annual departures by the P/C ratio obtained for the standard case.

506

A convenient tool for quantifying the effect of wander on the design thickness is the nondimensional sensitivity parameter, defined by (Garg, et al., 2005):

S x ,T =

T x x T

(8)

where S x ,T is the sensitivity of an output variable, in this case design thickness T, to some input variable x. Usually, it is convenient to approximate equation (8) as a difference formula:
S x ,T T ( x + x ) T ( x x ) x 2 x T (x )

(9)

where x is a finite variation (say plus or minus 10 percent) in the original value of x. Using equation (9), the sensitivities to several different input variables can be computed and ranked according the magnitude of the nondimensional parameter S x ,T . Equation (9) is applicable to either flexible or rigid pavements, if design thickness T is taken as the total thickness (thickness above the subgrade) for flexible pavements, and the PCC slab thickness for rigid pavements. Table 3: Effect of zero wander width on rigid design thickness Standard Wander Case PCC Thickness P/C (mm) 5.18 318 3.29 402 3.81 356 4.04 379 3.61 378 1.34 282 1.31 316 4.67 257 Zero Wander Case PCC Thickness P/C (mm) 1.00 345 1.00 423 1.00 384 1.00 410 1.00 407 0.50 302 0.50 342 1.00 283 Thickness Ratio 1.085 1.053 1.078 1.082 1.077 1.068 1.081 1.105

Airplane SWL-50 Dual Whl-200 DC10-10 B777-200ER A380-800 C-5 C-17A C-130

Table 4: Effect of zero wander width on flexible design thickness Standard Wander Case Total Thickness P/C (mm) 2.48 441 1.36 537 0.80 530 0.53 572 0.56 557 0.40 412 0.56 557 1.26 385 Zero Wander Case Total Thickness P/C (mm) 1.00 460 1.00 544 0.50 543 0.33 589 0.33 572 0.25 421 0.50 558 0.50 398 Thickness Ratio 1.043 1.013 1.025 1.030 1.027 1.022 1.002 1.034

Airplane SWL-50 Dual Whl-200 DC10-10 B777-200ER A380-800 C-5 C-17A C-130

Tables 5(a) and (b) present calculations for the sensitivity of FAARFIELD thickness to variations of the assumed wander width, using equation 10 with x taken as wander width W.
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The standard wander width is W = 1.778 m (70 in.). Sensitivity was computed for FAARFIELD new rigid and new flexible designs using the FAARFIELD sample structures and assuming wander widths W, W-10%, and W+10% (1.778, 1.600, and 1.956 m). These wander widths correspond to assumed standard deviations of wander equal to 0.773, 0.696 and 0.850 m (30.435, 27.391, and 33.478 in.). In table 5, calculations are presented for the eight airplanes separately, as well as for a traffic mix consisting of 1200 annual departures of all eight airplanes. Sensitivity to wander width takes on negative values, indicating that a decrease in wander width (more channelized traffic) results in an increase in required thickness, all else being equal. However, the absolute values of sensitivity are small, demonstrating that wander width is not a dominant parameter for either flexible or rigid design. Table 5(a): Calculation of sensitivity to wander width for new rigid design Rigid P/C Ratio Wander Width W (m) 1.778 1.600 1.956 5.18 4.67 5.69 3.29 3.07 3.51 3.81 3.75 3.92 4.04 4.00 4.14 3.61 3.54 3.73 1.34 1.30 1.36 1.31 1.29 1.34 4.67 4.23 5.12 PCC Design Thickness (mm) Wander Width W (m) 1.778 1.600 1.956 318 320 317 402 403 401 356 357 356 379 379 378 378 378 377 282 283 282 316 316 315 257 258 255 408 409 407

Airplane SWL-50 Dual Whl-200 DC10-10 B777-200 ER A380-800 C-5 C-17A C-130 Mix

Ann. Dep. 1200 1200 1200 1200 1200 1200 1200 1200 -

SW ,T
-0.04792 -0.03159 -0.01426 -0.01005 -0.01345 -0.01349 -0.01608 -0.06931 -0.02491

Table 5(b): Calculation of sensitivity to wander width for new flexible design Flexible P/C Ratio Wander Width W (m) 1.778 1.600 1.956 2.48 2.25 2.71 1.36 1.27 1.45 0.80 0.78 0.83 0.53 0.52 0.54 0.56 0.55 0.57 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.56 0.55 0.58 1.26 1.15 1.38 Total Thickness Above Subgrade (mm) Wander Width W (m) 1.778 1.600 1.956 441 444 438 537 539 535 530 531 529 572 572 570 557 557 555 412 412 412 557 557 556 385 387 384 596 597 595

Airplane SWL-50 Dual Whl-200 DC10-10 B777-200 ER A380-800 C-5 C-17A C-130 Mix

Ann. Dep. 1200 1200 1200 1200 1200 1200 1200 1200 -

SW ,T
-0.06048 -0.03073 -0.01437 -0.01778 -0.01826 -0.00308 -0.01369 -0.03296 -0.01278

Similar sensitivity calculations were performed for various input parameters, and the results are presented in Figure 7 (a, rigid) and (b, flexible). In all cases, the calculations were performed for the eight-airplane traffic mix using equation 10 with a variation of 10 percent in value of the given input variable. Since the sensitivity parameter (equation 8) is dimensionless, it is possible to compare the input variables directly and rank them from most
508

to least sensitive. Based on Figure 7(a) and (b), it is clear that both rigid and flexible design thicknesses using FAARFIELD are relatively insensitive to the wander width. For rigid pavement design, the input variables having the greatest influence on PCC thickness are concrete strength R, subgrade k-value, and gross vehicle weight, in that order. For flexible design, subgrade CBR and gross taxi weight have the greatest influence. This is consistent with the conclusions presented in Garg, et al. (2005), for the LEDFAA 1.3 software. Compared with the sensitivity to annual departures, sensitivity to wander is of lower magnitude and opposite sign. It is also noted that sensitivity to wander width is lower for flexible pavement design than for rigid design, a consequence of the different treatment of equivalent wheel width in rigid and flexible design.

1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0

Concrete Strength R Gross Taxi Weight Subgrade k-Value Annual Departures Wander Width

Sensitivity Parameter

-0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1

(a) Rigid Pavement Design

1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0
Subgrade CBR Gross Taxi Weight

Sensitivity Parameter

-0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1

HMA Surface Layer Modulus

Annual Departures

Wander Width

(b) Flexible Pavement Design Figure 7: Sensitivity of FAARFIELD design thickness to various input parameters
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5. CONCLUSIONS Airplane wander is incorporated into FAA pavement thickness design through the P/C ratio. The FAA developed a new algorithm that improves the calculation of P/C ratio. The new P/C procedure makes possible the addition of new, complex gear configurations to the FAARFIELD airplane library without entailing major source code modifications. A sensitivity analysis using the improved procedures demonstrated that airplane wander has a relatively minor impact on FAARFIELD design thicknesses compared with other input variables. In the case of rigid pavements, it was found that assuming zero wander causes an increase in PCC slab thickness relative to the standard wander case from 5.3% to 10.5%. In the case of flexible pavements, the increase in total flexible pavement thickness from assuming zero wander ranges from near zero to as high as 4.4%. 6. DISCLAIMER The work described in this paper was supported by the FAA Airport Technology Research and Development Team, Dr. Satish K. Agrawal, Manager. The contents of the paper reflect the views of the authors, who are responsible for the facts and accuracy of the data presented within. The contents do not necessarily reflect the official views and policies of the FAA. The paper does not constitute a standard, specification, or regulation. REFERENCES Ahlvin, R.G., H.H. Ulery, R.L. Hutchinson, and J.L. Rice, 1971. Multiple Wheel Heavy Gear Load Pavement Tests, Vol. 1 Basic Report, Technical Report S-71-17, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi, USA. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), 2005. Advisory Circular (AC) 150/5320-6D, Airport Pavement Design and Evaluation (cancelled), Office of Airport Safety and Standards, Washington, DC. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), 2009. Advisory Circular (AC) 150/5320-6E, Airport Pavement Design and Evaluation, Office of Airport Safety and Standards, Washington, DC. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), 2008. Advisory Circular (AC) 150/5335-5A, Standardized Method of Reporting Airport Pavement Strength PCN, Office of Airport Safety and Standards, Washington, DC. Garg, N., E. Guo, and G. F. Hayhoe, 2005. Parametric Sensitivity Analysis for the FAAs Airport Pavement Thickness Design Software LEDFAA-1.3, Proceedings of the 7th Conference on the Bearing Capacity of Roads, Railways, and Airfields, Trondheim, Norway, June 27-29. Holliway, R. and K.S. Millard, 1990. Aircraft Characteristics for Airfield Pavement Design and Evaluation, Air Force Engineering and Services Center, Tyndall Air Force Base, Florida.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Improvements of Neural Networks Application for Backcalculation

D. Cunha
Lisbon City Council, Lisbon, Portugal david.cunha@cm-lisboa.pt

S. Fontul
National Laboratory of Civil Engineering, Lisbon, Portugal simona@lnec.pt

M. G. Lopes
Instituto Superior de Engenharia de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal glopes@dec.isel.ipl.pt

ABSTRACT: Road pavements require maintenance in order to provide good service levels during their life period. Because of the significant costs of this operation, the timing of each maintenance intervention should be carefully planned, to avoid unnecessary interventions, but also to prevent irreparable damages to the pavement and avoid safety faults of the pavement. Nowadays, there is a wide array of tools available on the market to do surveys on road pavements. Equipments like the Falling Weight Deflectometer complemented with the Ground Penetrating Radar provide huge amounts of data, allowing performing analysis along the pavement, in a continuous way, instead of analyzing just target points of the pavement. The analysis of this data, however, can be complex and time consuming, becoming a troublesome task.To solve this problem, the use of Artificial Neural Networks (ann) to perform the backcalculation of the data acquired was tested. With these tools it is possible to perform the structural characterization almost instantaneously, saving time and resources and, at the same time, providing results within the expected range. Taking into account that the performance of the ANN can be improved if the number of outputs is reduced, a study was performed aiming at developing dedicated ANNs for structural characterization of the pavement. The sensitivity of the ANNs response to changes in inputs is addressed, aiming at quantifying the influence of an erroneous measurement. In this study, a computer program was developed, using MATLAB, in order to create, train and tests the Artificial Neural Networks. Using this program, the pavement layer moduli can be evaluated using ANNs. This paper presents the methodology adopted for the study, the main results obtained and final considerations regarding ANN application to pavement structural evaluation. KEY WORDS: Pavements, Characterisation, Evaluation, Artificial Neural Networks.

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1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. Background The bearing capacity of a pavement is generally evaluated through Non-Destructive load Testing (NDT). Based on the deflections measured in situ and taking into account the pavement layer thickness and material characteristics, a response model of the pavement is established. The layer thicknesses are normally obtained through cores and, if available, Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) measurements. The elastic moduli of the layers are adjusted until the deflections calculated are close to the deflections measured during testing (backcalculation). Due to the large amount of data involved in the backcalculation process, an efficient tool is needed for the backcalculation of layer moduli when GPR measurements are performed. Among the available methods, the use of Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is considered a promising approach (Williams and Gucunski, 1995; Meier and Tutumluer, 1998; TRB, 1999; Fontul, 2004; Cunha, 2009). An ANN can be trained to determine the corresponding pavement layer moduli from deflection basins. 1.2. Backcalculation In order to perform in situ pavement evaluation, loading tests and thickness measurements are undertaken. The equipments used in this process are the Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) and, if available, the GPR. The FWD is a well known non-destructive testing equipment which measures the deflections of the pavement under an impact load applied on a circular loading plate at the pavement surface (Grogan et al., 1998; Ullidtz, 1998; CROW, 1998; COST 336, 2002; Loizos et al., 2003). The GPR allows for continuous detection of the pavement layer interfaces through electromagnetic waves. In most GPR equipments operating in road pavements the signal is transmitted and received by horn antennas, suspended above the pavement surface. The measurement is continuous (usually a reading is taken every 250 mm) and in this way, information regarding layer thickness is gathered and an accurate identification of changes in the pavement structure can be made (Maser, 1996; Scullion and Saarenketo, 2002; Al-Qadi, 2004; Fontul et al., 2007). The standard procedure for bearing capacity evaluation is to measure the deflections in a considerable number of points (Antunes, 1993; CROW, 1998; Irwin, 2002; COST 336, 2002), located along several lines parallel to the pavement axis. The GPR tests are performed along the same test lines as the FWD. In this way, confident information of the pavement structure is obtained for each FWD test point. There are several methods for backcalculation of layer moduli (Ullidtz, 2002; Irwin, 2002; COST 336, 2002). However, the results obtained are not always satisfactory, for several reasons, such as the existence of multiple solutions or errors in the pavement layer thickness. The use of Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) for backcalculation process can solve the problem of multiple solutions and, at the same time, enables the processing of a large amount of data almost instantaneously (Meier and Tutumluer, 1998, Fontul, 2004; Fontul and Antunes, 2006; Cunha, 2009). 1.3. Artificial Neural Networks ANNs are interconnected assemblages of simple computational elements, patterned after biological processes (Wasserman, 1989; Meier and Tutumluer, 1998). The computational
512

elements are called neurons. Each neuron receives stimuli from their connections, then the combined input is modified by an activation function (simple mathematic operation) and finally the output value is passed by to another neuron through connections. A weight is associated to each connection between neurons and represents the importance of the connection. ANNs learn to produce a desired output by adjusting the connection weights. This process is called training. Among the various types of ANN the back-propagation structures are considered well suited for pavement evaluation. They are powerful and versatile and their training is supervised, in other words they can be taught a mapping from one data space to another, using examples of the mapping to be learned (Silva, 1998). This type of training enables a certain control of the ANN response, as the answer will be within the range of values used for training. They consist in a minimum of three layers, one input layer, one output layer and at least one hidden layer. The number of neurons in the first and the last layer is equal to the number of input and output parameters. Trials must be used to determine the optimum network architecture, which must be the best compromise between accuracy and training speed, as the increase in the number of neurons on hidden layers increases the memory capacity of the network, but at the same time reduces the capacity of reasoning (response to data not used during training). Synthetic data are used during the training process. Using the response model selected for the pavement under consideration (generally multi-layer linear elastic model) synthetic deflections are calculated for the pavement structure under study. Variations in pavement structure parameters have to be considered in order to uniformly cover the applicable range of values. In this way, datasets of deflections, layer thickness and elastic moduli are obtained. During training, deflections and layer thicknesses from this database are considered as inputs, while the corresponding elastic moduli and subgrade thickness represent the target outputs (Fontul and Antunes, 2006; Cunha, 2009). Initially arbitrary weights (wi0) are assigned to all the connections, which are small random numbers. In the first phase of training (forward propagation) the input signals (deflections and thicknesses) are propagated through the hidden layer(s) to the output neurons, resulting in a collection of values (elastic moduli estimated by ANN). In the second phase the error is calculated as the difference between these later values and the "target" outputs (elastic moduli from the data sets). In the third phase (backward propagation) the error is back-propagated and the weights of the connections (wi) are corrected in order to achieve an improvement of the network response. This process is repeated as many times as necessary to obtain a satisfactory ANN response (Fontul and Antunes, 2006). After the training process is finished the ANN functioning is tested. This validation is generally performed using data within the same range as the training data, but not used during training (Fontul, 2004). The applicability is limited to the range of testing conditions and pavement structures used for training. 2. IMPROVEMENTS OF NEURAL NETWORK APPLICATION 2.1. Objectives The combination of results from Falling Weight Deflectometer (ANN) and Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) tests can provide a major improvement to the quality of pavement structural evaluation. Furthermore, the use of Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) is an interesting option for the backcalculation of layer moduli.

513

This paper presents the main results of a research study focused on determining how the backcalculation process performed by the ANNs could be improved. The study addressed two main aspects: improving the results accuracy and quantifying the effect of input variation on ANN response. The first task was to study if the use of specific ANNs could improve the backcalculation process. For this purpose, the results obtained through the use of a single ANN to perform the whole process were compared with the results obtained through the use of dedicated ANNs for each task. Another task was to study the performance and the sensitivity of ANNs to changes in inputs, in order to evaluate the influence of an erroneous measurement. The methodology adopted in this study is presented, as well as the main results achieved. 2.2. Pavement structure To perform the study, it was necessary to train several neural networks, in order to test them. These networks were created and trained using the Neural Networks Toolbox of MATLAB. It was also necessary to create datasets to train and test the neural networks. For this purpose, a program has been developed to generate the synthetic databases needed for training, using ELSYM 5 as subroutine (Fontul, 2004), covering the selected range of possible pavement structures. Figure 1 presents the pavement structure and the range of thicknesses and elastic moduli considered in this study.

Figure 1: Pavement structure range considered in this study Several datasets, combinations of thicknesses and moduli within the ranges presented above, were developed. For this structure 447 535 different datasets where generated. For modelling purposes, in the interpretation of FWD tests the subgrade is often considered to be divided into two separate layers, a top layer with a limited thickness and a bottom layer. This last one is considered to be semi-infinite in depth and stiffer then the first one and it is usually designated as rigid layer. This presumption is physically based on the nonlinearity of the soil behaviour, the stratification of the soil and on the load pulse travel time, which limits the maximum depth that is reached during then measurement window (Ullidtz, 2002; Antunes, 1993). The parameters considered constant during training are: the loading plate diameter (300 mm), the load (50 kN), the Poissons ratios and the distance between deflection transducers. Also, the ratio between the elastic moduli of the lower rigid layer (E4) and upper subgrade modulus (E3) was fixed to E4=5xE3. This ratio had been already used in previous studies and it was considered to represent adequately the response of the subgrade soil. This assumption will improve the ANN performance by reducing the number of
514

variables. Studies were performed with E3 and E4 independent and unknown but the results obtained led to difficulties of ANN training and performance (Fontul, 2004). 2.3. Methodology In order to improve the ANNs behaviour two different approaches were studied. The response of a general network, used to estimate both elastic moduli and subgrade thickness was compared with the response of dedicated networks, aimed to estimate only subgrade thickness or elastic moduli. Therefore, various networks were trained and tested. All ANNs trained have the same inputs and architectures, in terms of hidden layers, 2 hidden layers of 10 neurons each (Figure 2) . The inputs are the seven deflections d0 to d6 and two thicknesses h1 and h2 of asphalt layer and granular material layer, respectively. The number of outputs varies accordingly to the approach, 4 for the general ANN and 1 or 3 for the dedicated ANNs.
INPUT LAYER

WEIGHTED CONNECTIONS

HIDDEN LAYER

WEIGHTED CONNECTIONS

HIDDEN LAYER

WEIGHTED CONNECTIONS OUTPUT LAYER

Figure 2: Example of ANN architecture 4x5x5x3 2.4. General network The first approach uses a single general network, with an architecture of 9x10x10x4, which delivers 4 outputs (E1, E2, E3, h3), as shown in Figure 3.
h1 h2 d0 d1 d2 d3 d4 d5 d6

GENERAL NETWORK

E1 E2 E3 h3

Figure 3: Flowchart of the general ANN The training was performed using 414 535 datasets, representing different pavement structures. Each dataset consists of layers elastic moduli and thicknesses and the corresponding deflections. The ANN behaviour was tested with 33 000 datasets, different from the ones used for training. The results obtained were then compared with the ones obtained using dedicated networks.

515

2.5. Dedicated networks The second approach uses 6 dedicated networks, one to estimate the subgrade layer thickness and the other 5 for elastic moduli estimation, one for each subgrade thickness. The first dedicated network, with 9x10x10x1 architecture, delivers only one output (subgrade thickness h3) which serves as a filter for the next 5 networks. The other networks, with architectures of 9x10x10x3, deliver 3 outputs (layers elastic moduli E1, E2, E3). Each of them is trained for a fixed subgrade thickness (100, 125, 150, 175 and 200 cm). The subgrade layer thickness, between 100 and 200 cm in this study, was divided into 5 intervals. The datasets analysed by the first dedicated network are then divided based on the h3 output (Table 1) and are processed by dedicated ANNs, namely by the 5 different networks that deliver the elastic moduli of the layers (Figure 4). Each network analyses only the datasets with subgrade layer thickness matching their training range. The subgrade thickness ranges and the corresponding ANN are presented in Table 1. Table 1: Division of data by subgrade thickness and the corresponding dedicated ANN
h3 range of variation (cm) h3 112.5 112.5 < h3 137.5 137.5 < h3 162.5 162.5 < h3 187.5 187.5 < h3 Dedicated ANN h3 - 100 h3 - 125 h3 - 150 h3 - 175 h3 - 200

h1 h2 d0 d1 d2 d3 d4 d5 d6

FIRST STAGE NETWORK

h3 h1 h2 d0 d1 d2 d3 d4 d5 d6

SECOND STAGE NETWORK - h3 = 100

SECOND STAGE NETWORK - h3 = 150

SECOND STAGE NETWORK - h3 = 125

E1 E2 E3

E1 E2 E3

E1 E2 E3

E1 E2 E3

SECOND STAGE NETWORK - h3 = 175

E1 E2 E3

h1 h2 d0 d1 d2 d3 d4 d5 d6 E1 E2 E3

Figure 4: Flowchart of the division into dedicated ANNs 2.6. Comparison of results The results obtained in the two approaches were compared in order to evaluate the improvements obtained by reducing the number of outputs.
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SECOND STAGE NETWORK - h3 = 200

In order to evaluate the ANNs performance the root mean square error ( Er ) between the target values ( Et ) and the ANN response ( E ANN ) was calculated using the following equation:
Er = 1 n 2 ((Et E ANN ) / Et ) 100 n i=1

The average values of the errors obtained, as well as the corresponding standard deviation are presented in Table 2. Table 2: ANN performance average and standard deviation of errors
Variables Single Network Dedicated Networks h3 A 9.1% 3.2% SD 8.7% 4.2% A 1.6% 1.8% E1 SD 1.9% 2.7% A 7.0% 3.8% E2 SD 7.8% 6.1% A 8.9% 5.3% E3 SD 6.9% 5.9%

A = average value; SD = standard deviation

2.7. Analysis of sensitivity to input variations In order to study the ANNs sensitivity to input variations, the inputs were changed as follows: 2% for deflections D0, D3 and D6 and 5% for thicknesses h1, h2 and h3. These variations (2%; 5%) correspond to the manufacturers specification limits, respectively for deflections measured by the FWD and for layer thickness given by the GPR. Variations of 10% in all inputs were also studied for some of the ANNs in order to see the influence of having an erroneous measurement in the response. Table 3 presents a summary of the results obtained for the average differences between target values and ANN response. The errors are classified as low ( Er <10%), medium (10% Er <25%) and high ( Er 25%). Table 3: Input sensitivity results
ELASTIC MODULI INPUT VARIATION + h1 h2 d0 d3 d6 5% 10% 5% 10% 2% 10% 2% 10% 2% 10% 8% 14% 2% 3% 8% 29% 4% 16% 4% 21%
Er < 10%

E1 0 7% 13% 2% 3% 2% 6% 49% 4% 15% 3% 8% + 11% 19% 6% 9% 10% 34% 6% 20% 5% 20%

E2 0 11% 19% 5% 8% 4% 10% 30% 6% 22% 6% 21% + 6% 6% 6% 6% 6% 7% 7% 15% 6% 8%

E3 0 6% 7% 6% 6% 6% 6% 17% 6% 11% 6% 9%

10% Er < 25%

Er 25%

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From the tests, the following considerations about the interpretation of erroneous inputs by the ANNs can be drawn:

For variations of 2% in deflections, within the manufacturers specified limits, the deviations in the outputs are acceptable (maximum of 10%). Variations of 10% in deflections may have a significant impact (maximum of 49%) on the outputs. Changes in asphalt layer thickness of 5 to 10% have small to moderate influence while changes of 10% in granular layer thickness have almost no influence in the ANN response.
Therefore, errors in layer thickness obtained with GPR equipment (which in case of horn antennas are below 5%) can be considered acceptable, as they do not have a big impact on the ANN behaviour. Deviations in moduli below 10% are considered to be acceptable for pavement structural evaluation purposes (Antunes, 1993). 3. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS This paper presents a method for structural pavement evaluation, which makes use of GPR data combined with FWD test results. The GPR tests were used to obtain continuous, reliable information on layer thickness. Based on this information, the interpretation of FWD test results is performed in each test point using ANN. In order to exemplify the methodology a flexible pavement structure characterisation is addressed in this work. In order to optimize the ANN methodology two studies were undertaken, one aiming to improve the ANN application and the other one to evaluate the sensitivity of the ANNS to input variation. The use of ANNs to backcalculation can be improved by using dedicated networks, instead of a general one, mainly due to the decrease of the number of outputs. Therefore, different ANNs were developed for subgrade thickness and for layers moduli estimation, respectively. Consequently, the ANNs performance generally increased and the errors obtained were 60% less in case of subgrade thickness and 40% less in case of E2 and E3. In case of E1, the errors obtained were small, of about 1.7%, in both approaches. Then, for a better understanding of the application of the proposed methodology, to pavement evaluation, a parametric study of ANNs performance to input variations was performed. This analysis has shown that variations in individual deflections in the order of 10%, for example due to problems with one of the deflection sensors, may have some impact on the ANN response. On the other hand, variations within the accuracy range specified by manufacturers, which are, in case of GPR horn antennas below 5% and, in case of FWD equipment below 2%, will not significantly affect the ANN response. Finally, the results of this work confirmed that the use of ANN in backanalysis of FWD test results presents important advantages. Although training of an ANN is somewhat time consuming, once this is done for a specific pavement structure, it allows for a drastic reduction in computation time and an efficient interpretation of all FWD test results, using thickness obtained with GPR. Since the answer is derived from the data used in the training, it is possible to include some engineering judgment in the processing by limiting the range of pavement structure parameters. However, the applicability of ANNs is restricted to the range of testing conditions and pavement structures used for training.

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REFERENCES Al-Qadi, I. L. and Lahouar, S., 2004. Use of GPR for thickness measurement and quality control of flexible pavements. J. Assoc. Asph. Pav. Techn., Proc., 501-528. Antunes, M. L., 1993. Pavement Bearing Capacity Evaluation Using Dynamic Non Destructive Tests. Ph.D. thesis, Lisbon. (in Portuguese) COST 336, 2002. Falling Weight Deflectometer, Final report of the Action, Final Draft. CROW, 1998. Deflection profile not a pitfall anymore Record 17, Ede. Cunha, D., 2009. Application of neural networks for pavement evaluation. M.S. thesis, Lisbon. Fontul, S., 2004. Structural evaluation of flexible pavements using non-destructive tests. Ph.D. thesis, Lisbon. Fontul, S. and Antunes M.L., 2006. Optimising the use of non-destructive tests in pavement evaluation. Proc. 9th International Road Conference Budapest. (CD-ROM) Fontul, S.; Antunes, M. L., Fortunato E. and Oliveira, M., 2007. Practical application of GPR in transport infrastructure survey. Proc. International Conference on Advanced Characterisation of Pavement and Soil Engineering Materials. (CD-ROM) Grogan, W. P.; Freeman, R. B. and Alexander, D. R., 1998. Impact of FWD variability on pavement evaluation. Journal of Transportation Engineering ASCE, September/October. Irwin, L. H., 2002. Backcalculation: An overview and perspective. FWD/ Backcalculation Workshop 3-6th International Conference on the Bearing Capacity of Roads, Railways and Airfields BCRA 2002, Cascais. Loizos, A.; Boukovalas, G. and Karlaftis, A., 2003. Dynamic Stiffness Modulus for Pavement Subgrade Evaluation. Journal of Transportation Engineering ASCE, July/August. Maser, K. R., 1996. Condition Assessment of transportation Infrastructure Using GroundPenetrating Radar. Journal Infrastructure Systems, June, 94-101. Meier, R. W. and Tutumluer, E., 1998. Uses of Artificial Neural Networks in the MechanisticEmpirical Design of Flexible Pavements. Proceedings of the International Workshop on Artificial Intelligence and Mathematical Methods in Pavement and Geomechanical Systems, Florida, USA. Scullion, T. and Saarenketo, T., 2002. Implementation of ground penetrating radar technology in asphalt pavement testing. Ninth International Conference on Asphalt Pavements, Copenhagen, Denmark. Silva, J., 1998. Application of neural networks in geotechnical engineering. Proc. 3rd International Workshop of Applications of Computational Mechanics in Geotechnical Engineering, Porto. TRB, 1999. Use of Artificial Neural Networks in Geomechanical and Pavement Systems. Transportation Research Circular Number E-C012. Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C. Ullidtz, P., 1998. Modelling flexible pavement response and performance. Technical University of Denmark. Ullidtz, P., 2002. Analytical Tools for Design of Flexible Pavements Keynote International Society for Asphalt Pavements (ISAP) - 9th International Conference on Asphalt Pavements, Copenhagen. Wasserman, P. D., 1989. Neural Computing: Theory and Practice. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. Williams, T. P. and Gucunski, N., 1995. Neural networks for backcalculation of moduli from SASW test. Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering, Vol. 9, No 1, January.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Construction of New Road Infrastructure in Poland with Emphasis on Bridge Structures

J. Biliszczuk & J. Onysyk Department of Civil Engineering, Wrocaw University of Technology, Poland jan.biliszczuk@pwr.wroc.pl; jerzy.onysyk@pwr.wroc.pl M. Suchy BBKS-Projekt Ltd, Wrocaw, Poland msuchy@bbks-projekt.pl

ABSTRACT: Poland is a medium-sized country in East-Central Europe. Its turbulent history in the 19th and 20th century resulted in lack of a developed road infrastructure. The turning point in building of motorways and expressways took place only after 1990. As far as civil engineering is concerned Poland is currently a big construction site. The paper presents the plan of building of motorways and the design process in the light of the required technical standards, especially the ones connected with durability and protection of the environment. Much attention is being devoted to bridges and viaducts. There are presented structures ranging from typical motorway viaducts to structures of exquisite architecture. They fulfill the specific role of landmarks, helpful for the users of motorways, and create a new quality of spatial development along the motorways. KEY WORDS: Transport Infrastructure, Poland, Roads, Bridges, Structures

1. MOTORWAY AND EXPRESSWAY BUILDING PLAN IN POLAND The motorway building plan was being created for 40 years. During this period, it was frequently changed depending on the countrys economic potential, external circumstances, funding of the construction works and the countrys transport policy. Ultimately, after changes introduced to the former plans, the plan of 2001 is being executed. It provides for circa 2000 km of motorways and 5300 km of expressways. So far, 885 km of motorways and 620 km of expressways have been built. The motorway network presented in Figure 1 should be accomplished by 2015. However, the basic road network will consist of expressways, most of which are expected to be built after 2012. Some sections of the expressways often form ring roads of towns and cities.

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Figure 1: Network of motorways and expressways in Poland; the plan of 2001 (red lines motorways, green lines expressways). 2. TECHNICAL AND EXPLOITATION CONDITIONS The design, formal acceptance and maintenance of roads and motorways guidelines that are in force in Poland are similar to the guidelines valid in other European countries. The guidelines place emphasis on safety and comfort of the road users as well as on durability of road elements and environmental protection. When designing roads and motorways, much attention is being paid to the construction of road surfacing considering the climate (big temperature differences) and heavy traffic load resulting from the fact that Poland is a transit country. Although in Poland bituminous surfacing prevails, the routes which carry the most traffic loads are constructed by means of cement concrete (Figure 2). Experience of those European countries that have been applying this technology for a long time now, such as Germany, France or Belgium, is useful when designing, constructing and exploiting these routes. The regulations valid in Poland ensure that the durability of the designed bituminous surfacing cannot be lower than 20 years and the durability of concrete surfacing cannot be lower that 30 years. The surfacing is, therefore, designed so as to manage the anticipated number of vehicles exerting pressure of 115 kN on every axis. In order to enable dynamic reaction to changeable road conditions, the motorways and other roads are equipped with information systems allowing traffic management. These systems are expected to cooperate with similar systems in towns and cities in case a motorway runs through an urban area. When designing motorways and roads, the future final stage is taken into account and, therefore, strips of land are kept in reserve for construction of additional lanes and the interjections are designed in a way that will enable joining additional routes (Figure 3).
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Figure 2: Example of a Polish motorway with concrete surfacing; segment of A4 Motorway opened in 2009 (background: a typical viaduct and a cable-stayed viaduct).

Figure 3: One of the interjections along the A8 Motorway Ring Road of Wrocaw; the final stage. 3. ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS In Poland, like in other countries of the European Union, much attention is being paid to environmental issues when designing, constructing and exploiting roads and motorways. The questions concerning protection of the natural environment are of great significance already during the initial stages of designing. In the following stages, the chosen option undergoes a very detailed analysis and optimization, and a lot of equipment and road elements are designed in order to minimize the effect on the environment. Such elements are, among others, the noise barriers, underpasses for small animals, crossings under or over a road for bigger animals, green belts, systems purifying water from motorway drains, bird screens. The elements destined for improving environmental protection are more and more often designed with aesthetic care (Figure 4).

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Figure 4: Example of a structure connected with protection of the environment: a noise barrier along the A8 Motorway Ring Road of Wrocaw (computer image). In places where the running road has effect on the particularly valuable natural areas compensation actions are provided for. The design stage takes into consideration the impact of a road on the environment during the construction and exploitation period. A number of actions concerning environmental protection are recommended to the contractor as well as to the administrator of a road. Like in other European Union countries, the environment protection procedures are formalized and strictly determined by law in Poland and the achieved results are subject to periodical surveillance. 4. BRIDGE STRUCTURES It is essential that a considerable number of bridge structures be erected in order to obtain proper traffic and capacity conditions. Their number depends on the lay of the land and the degree of urban development. On average, 1 km of a motorway in Poland is estimated to require about one engineering structure (bridges, viaducts along and over the motorway, as well ass underpasses of various size). Reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete structures definitely prevail among all of the motorway structures. Typical prestressed concrete prefabricated elements are used only in case of smaller structures, with spans up to 30 m. In multiple span systems, they are made continuous by reinforced concrete connections on supports (cast in-situ). When similar lengths are concerned, monolithic slab spans and post-tensioned prestressed concrete spans are most often applied (Figure 6). Viaducts similar to those presented in Figures 2 and 3 are also erected along all other types of roads. However, the investor and the designer often wish to diversify the monotony of the motorway running across a flat area which lacks scenic qualities. Structures of unusual, very characteristic shapes are then erected, becoming the landmarks for the motorway users. Figure 7 presents two such viaducts.

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Figure 5: Typical viaduct over a motorway made of prefabricated prestressed concrete beams and monolithic reinforced concrete connections.

Figure 6: Typical motorway viaducts of small and medium spans; a slab viaduct (reinforced concrete) and a beam viaduct (post-tensioned prestressed concrete).

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Figure 7: Examples of two viaducts over the motorways of unusual shape being landmarks for the travelers: a) steel arch viaduct of a 50 m long span b) steel-concrete viaduct; double-beam superstructure of prestressed concrete; steel pylon (spans of 2*45.0 m) The above remarks refer also to smaller structures, such as footbridges, since, as it should be noted, they are utilized by the motorway users at the rest areas.
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Figure 8: Examples of footbridges of unusual shape: a) over a motorway b) over a national road Single structures take unusual shapes. They are, however, untypical by nature, for example wildlife crossings over the motorway.

Figure 9: A crossing for big animals located in a woodland area; a reinforced concrete arch structure with a tie bar, consisting of four sections in the cross-section
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Figure 10: A multi span viaduct (750 m) along the Motorway Ring Road of Wrocaw; prestressed concrete box structure with cantilevers supported by steel pipes (truss system).

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Figure 11: Cable-stayed bridge along the Motorway Ring Road of Wrocaw; prestressed concrete deck, reinforced concrete pylon. In case of spans 40.0-60.0 m long, double-beam box spans made of prestressed concrete are considered the standard. They are erected by means of traditional scaffoldings, mobile scaffoldings or by the longitudinal launching method. The spans of this type can also be diversified, as in the case of the Motorway Ring Road of Wrocaw in the neighborhood of the stadium designed for Football Championships EURO 2012 (Figure 10). In this case, due to the considerable width of the deck, a system of steel pipes was applied to support the girders of the box. Also, the coloring was designed.
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The lay of the land and terrain obstacles enable sometimes erecting structures of original shape involving complex building technologies. Figure 11 presents a bridge designed as a cable-stayed structure with concrete pylon and deck. Characteristic feature of the structure is the separation of spans (separate spans under each carriageway of the motorway) which are supported by one (common) pylon. The bridge is currently under construction. It is going to become the landmark of the motorway running near the area destined for EURO 2012. 5. CONCLUSIONS The network of motorways and national roads being still developed in Poland meets the European standards and reflects the character of terrain and environment in the broad sense. It has created a chance of introducing a new way of thinking as far as shaping of the structures and use of new technologies are concerned. This paper offers a condensed overview of the state of transport infrastructure development in Poland. REFERENCES Styrylska, J.; Boniecki, T.; Biliszczuk, J.; Barcik, W.; Rudze, J. and Stempin, P., 2005. Footbridges on the Odra`s islands in Wroclaw. Footbridge 2005, Second International Conference, Italy, December. Biliszczuk, J.; Barcik, W.; Hawryszkw, P. and Sadowski, K., 2006. Examples of newly built footbridges in Poland. 6th International Symposium Steel Bridges, Czech Republic, MayJune. Biliszczuk, J.; Onysyk, J.; Barcik, W.; Prabucki, P.; Szczepaski, J. and Sukowski, M., 2007. Bridges along highway ring road of Wrocaw. IABSE Symposium Imporoving Infrastructure Worldwide, Germany, September. Biliszczuk, J.; Barcik, W.; Onysyk, J.; Sadowski, K. and Tadla, J., 2008. Curved CableStayed Bidges. 17th Congress of IABSE Creating and Renewing Urban Structures, Chicago, September.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Use of Trenchless Repair and Renewal Technologies in Roadway Drainage Infrastructure Management
O. M. Salem
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Syracuse University, USA omsalem@syr.edu

B. Salman
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Cincinnati, USA salmanb@mail.uc.edu

M. Najafi
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Texas at Arlington, USA najafi@uta.edu

A. Moawad
Department of Civil Engineering, Al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt ahmed.moawad@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT: Developing comprehensive asset management strategies which aid the decision makers in terms of identifying correct treatment choices is gaining importance due to rapid deterioration and aging of infrastructure elements. Trenchless technologies can be used to inspect, construct, repair, rehabilitate and replace buried pipes cost-effectively without disrupting the adjacent properties or public. These methods have essentially emerged from the buried infrastructure renewal industry, and several state departments of transportation (DOTs) utilized these methods on culverts and drainage structures without establishing a clear standard methodology. The objectives of this study include identifying the characteristics of trenchless technologies that may be used for culvert repair and renewal; and providing a decision support methodology in order to help decision makers identify the most preferred repair/renewal procedures given the condition of the culvert. The limitations of trenchless technologies in terms of applicability to culverts were also investigated. KEY WORDS: Roadway Drainage, Trenchless Technologies, Asset Management 1. INTRODUCTION Following an unprecedented rate of development and expansion in the 20th century, infrastructure systems are now causing problems due to deterioration and deferred maintenance activities. According to ASCEs most recent grade report the overall condition of Americas Infrastructure Systems received a grade of D (ASCE, 2010). Condition ratings of specific infrastructure systems according to this report are provided in Table 1. Deterioration of infrastructure elements caused significant changes in the management strategies employed by public agencies. Most notable of these changes is the shift from focusing on building new infrastructure elements to preserving and sustaining the existing ones. Asset management strategies were established in order to assure that right treatment actions were taken at the right time.

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Table 1: Infrastructure Grade Report (ASCE, 2010) Infrastructure System Condition Roads DBridges C Drinking Water DWastewater DRail CEnergy D+ A formal definition of asset management was made by Federal Highway Administration as follows: A systematic process of maintaining, upgrading, and operating physical assets costeffectively... It combines engineering principles with sound business practices and economic theory, and it provides tools to facilitate a more organized, logical approach to decisionmaking. Thus, asset management provides a framework for handling both short- and longrange planning. (FHWA, 1999). While asset management strategies were being developed for visible roadway infrastructure elements such as pavement and bridges, invisible portions such as culverts were neglected with an out of sight out of mind philosophy. These infrastructure elements constitute an important part of roadway infrastructure that requires periodic inspections, and timely repair and renewal procedures. Culvert failures may result in sinkhole formations and road closures. Depending on the size of culvert, these failures may have consequences ranging from moderate, due to emergency repair and replacement cost, to severe resulting from a combination of direct costs to the agency, and user costs due to delays and fatal or nonfatal injuries as a result of potential accidents. Increasing deterioration rates due to deferred maintenance activities and wide variation in environmental and structural characteristics necessitate development of an asset management strategy for these roadway infrastructure elements. 2. CULVERT ASSET MANAGEMENT In order to implement a culvert asset management strategy, the following steps should be followed: Establishing an inventory database Establishing an inspection (condition assessment) database Deterioration Modeling Prioritizing culverts based on probability and consequences of failure Creating a decision making system to analyze the outcomes of alternative treatment options Establishing an inventory protocol and generating a computerized inventory database is the first step of implementing a culvert asset management program. The inventory database provides valuable information such as the size, location, material, etc. of each culvert the agency is responsible of managing. Once the inventory database is completed, the condition of culverts in the inventory should be assessed based on a predetermined set of inspection guidelines. Inventory and inspection protocols for culverts were developed in a previous study. (Najafi et al. 2008).

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Deterioration models are used to predict future condition ratings of culverts based on a set of predictor variables. Variables are extracted from inventory and inspection datasets and a relationship between the condition rating and physical or environmental attributes of the culvert are established. Deterioration models should be combined with potential consequences of failure in order to prioritize culverts that require attention. Consequences of a culverts failure mainly depend on the type of roadway, location of the roadway, amount of traffic, and size and depth of the culvert. Once the set of culverts that require immediate attention are identified a decision support system should be developed in order to identify the most appropriate repair or renewal option given the site conditions and condition of the culvert. Two major categories of repair and renewal options are traditional open-cut method and use of trenchless technologies. In the following sections trenchless technologies that can be used for culvert repair and renewal operations will be presented. Also, a decision support system which can be used to identify the most appropriate repair or renewal alternative will be presented. 3. TRENCHLESS REPAIR AND RENEWAL METHODS Trenchless technologies can be used to repair, rehabilitate or to replace existing buried structures in a cost effective manner without disrupting traffic, and damaging the roadway above the pipe. Trenchless repair activities are those activities which do not provide a new design life to the overall structure. They may be used to provide both structural and nonstructural solutions for the defected portions of the pipeline. Trenchless renewal activities provide a new design life to the pipeline by improving the condition of the whole portion of the pipeline. Renewal activities can be divided into rehabilitation and replacement. Rehabilitation activities involve relining of the pipelinesor forming a new pipeline within the existing one. Replacement activities involve destruction of the existing pipe and installation of a new pipeline with a same or greater diameter size to the same location of the existing one. Detailed information on trenchless inspection, construction, repair and renewal methods can be found in Salem et al. (2008). 3.1. Trenchless Repair Trenchless repair activities can be examined under Point Source Repair methods and Invert Paving. Point source repairs are used when a localized problem occurs in a buried pipe which is structurally in good condition when the overall structure is considered. Robotic repair, grouting, internal sealing, and point cured-in-place-pipe (CIPP) are examples of trenchless point source repair methods. Robotic repair is mainly used to eliminate infiltration and cracks in gravity pipelines. Grouting is a repair method which is mainly used to stop infiltration by applying a chemical mixture through defected joints. Internal seal method offers structural solutions where a segment of the pipe or a pipe joint fails. In point CIPP, lining material is applied to the desired location by the use of an inflatable packer and cured by the use of hot water or steam (Najafi 2004). Invert paving is a procedure to protect inverts of culverts from further deterioration due to corrosion and abrasion. The detailed explanation of invert paving procedure can be found in FHWAs Culvert Repair Practices Manual Volume 2 (1995). Table 2 summarizes characteristics of trenchless repair methods (adapted from Najafi 2004 except for invert paving).

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Table 2: Characteristics of trenchless repair methods Method Invert Paving Robotic Repair Grouting Internal Seal Point CIPP Minimum Diameter 48 8 3 6 4 Maximum Diameter 30 180 110 48 Provides Solutions Against Structural problems Joint infiltration Joint infiltration Structural problems, corrosion, joint infiltration Structural problems, corrosion, joint infiltration Relative Cost Low High Low Medium High

3.2. Trenchless Rehabilitation Trenchless rehabilitation (relining) of buried pipes can be performed by either inserting a lining material into the existing pipe or lining the inner surface of the pipe by applying shotcrete/gunite. Cement mortar lining and epoxy lining can also be considered under trenchless rehabilitation; however, the primary purpose of these methods is to increase resistance against corrosion but not to provide structural improvements. Examples of pipe lining methods include sliplining, cured-in-place pipe (CIPP), close-fit pipe, thermoformed pipe, panel lining, spiral wound pipe, and formed-in-place pipe (Najafi 2004). Sliplining is a simple renewal technique which involves inserting a new pipe into an existing pipe and filling the annular space by grouting. Due to its simplicity it has been one of the oldest trenchless renewal techniques. In the most commonly employed version of CIPP lining, a fabric tube which holds a thermosetting resin is inverted inside a pipe by using hydraulic pressure and resin is cured by heating the water. Steam can also be used to cure the resin. Close-fit pipe renewal method involves inserting a polyethylene pipe which has a modified cross sectional area into a deteriorated pipe and returning the polyethylene pipe into its original shape by pressurization. This method is generally employed in the renewal of pressurized pipelines. Thermoformed Pipe is a rehabilitation method in which the existing pipe is lined with an HDPE or PVC pipe that initially has a reduced and modified cross sectional area and returned to its original state within the existing pipe after insertion. Thermoformed pipe renewal method can be applied in three different options, namely fold and formed, deformed and reformed, and fused and expanded (Najafi 2004). Panel lining renewal method is a man-entry procedure in which segments of the new lining pipe are connected inside the existing pipe and the annular space between the new pipe and the existing pipe is grouted. In spiral wound pipe method, a special winding machine is used to form a PVC pipe inside the existing pipe. PVC profiles are fed to the machine and the machine forms a continuous pipe by welding the PVC profiles. Once the PVC pipe is placed within the existing pipe, the annular space is grouted. Formed-in-place pipe method involves insertion of two or more high density polyethylene (HDPE) sheets to the existing structure and filling the space between these sheets with an appropriate grout (Najafi 2004). The studs located on the outer surface of the inner HDPE sheet create the space between the liners. When the grout hardens a rigid pipe forms which fits closely to the existing pipe. In trenchless lining methods hydraulic capacity may be reduced due to decrease in cross sectional area; however, using a lining material with a smoother surface may compensate for this loss. Table 3 (adapted from Najafi) summarizes characteristics of trenchless rehabilitation methods.

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3.3. Trenchless Replacement Trenchless replacement methods can be examined under pipe bursting and pipe removal. In the pipe bursting method, the existing pipe is fractured and pushed into the soil whereas in pipe removal the existing pipe is destroyed by horizontal directional drilling methods or microtunneling procedures (Najafi 2004). Table 3 (adapted from Najafi) summarizes characteristics of trenchless replacement methods. Table 3: Characteristics of trenchless replacement methods Method Cured in Place Pipe Segmental Sliplining Close-Fit Pipe (Structural) Thermoformed Pipe Formed-in-place Panel Lining Spiral Wound Pipe Shotcrete-Gunite Lining Pipe Bursting Pipe Removal Minimum Diameter 4 24 3 4 8 48 6 48 4 12 Maximum Diameter 108 160 24 30 144 108 180 48 36 Provides Solutions Against Structural problems, corrosion, joint infiltration Structural problems, corrosion, joint infiltration Structural problems, corrosion, joint infiltration Structural problems, corrosion, joint infiltration Structural problems, corrosion, joint infiltration Structural problems, corrosion, joint infiltration Structural problems, corrosion, joint infiltration Structural problems, corrosion, joint infiltration Structural problems, corrosion, joint infiltration Structural problems, corrosion, joint infiltration Relative Cost High Medium Low Low Medium Medium Medium Low Medium High

3.4. Limitations of Trenchless Repair and Renewal Methods The trenchless technologies presented in this section were mainly developed to be used in the management of water and sewer networks. Limitations of trenchless repair and renewal methods presented in this paper in terms applicability to culverts are summarized in Table 4.

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Table 4: Limitations of Trenchless Repair and Renewal Methods Repair/Renewal Method Invert Paving Robotic Repair Limitations

Limited durability of the paved section. Limited diameter range (8 to 30 in.) Not applicable to noncircular pipes Grouting Limited durability of the grout Internal Sealing Not applicable to noncircular pipes Point CIPP Limited diameter range (4 to 8 in.) Cured-in-place pipe Removal of the curing water from the site can be a problem Sliplining Renewing culverts with excessive bends and deformations is not possible. Renewal of noncircular structures and pipes with varying cross sectional areas may cause very significant reductions in the hydraulic capacity. Large staging area is required Close-Fit Pipe Limited diameter range (Up to 24 inches for structural renewal and 63 inches for nonstructural). Requires large working area. This method cannot be used to renew pipes with bends, cross sectional variations and noncircular shapes. Thermoformed Limited diameter range (4 to 30 inches) Pipe Panel Lining Applicable for man entry buried sized pipes (Diameter larger than 48 in.) Hydraulic capacity can be reduced significantly. Shotcrete / Gunite Applicable for man entry sized buried pipes. (Diameter larger than 48 Lining in.) Hydraulic capacity can be reduced significantly Pipe Bursting Applicable to buried pipes with diameters up to 48 inches. May not be suitable for non brittle pipes. Pipe Removal Applicable to buried pipes with diameters up to 36 inches. 4. DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM Depending on the site specific characteristics and the condition of a culvert, selecting the most appropriate repair or renewal procedure can be a complex decision making problem. Life cycle cost analysis can be used in order to choose the option that provides least costs when future maintenance needs are considered. However, estimating future maintenance needs (both time and cost of future maintenance) is a difficult task due to scarcity of data. Furthermore, this type of decision making procedure does not take user costs into account. User costs can increase substantially in case of open cut replacement method. Therefore, a method which will provide flexibility in terms of incorporating site specific factors and also will allow the decision maker to make comparisons between alternatives based on his/her experience is needed.

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4.1. Analytical Hierarchy Process Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) is a suitable decision making procedure to identify the alternative that best suits the decision makers criteria which requires the decision maker to identify important factors, compare these factors against each other in order to obtain relative weights and compare alternatives in terms of these factors. The following steps should be followed in order to determine the most preferred repair or renewal method for a culvert by using AHP: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Determine the structural condition of the culvert Identify potential repair or renewal alternatives Determine factors which have an effect on the decision making process Build the hierarchy based on factors and alternatives Make pairwise comparisons to determine weight of each factor For each factor, make pairwise comparisons to determine performance of each alternative 7. Calculate the weighted sum of performance of each alternative Structural condition of the culvert should be determined based on a standardized inspection procedure. Potential repair or renewal alternatives should be determined based on limitations of repair/renewal options and the structural condition of the culvert. It should be noted that culverts with several localized defects may require several localized repairs. The decision maker can compare employing several localized repairs with a major renewal procedure by using AHP. In these situations each alternative should be defined as the collective amount of work required to bring the culvert back to a newly-built condition. The third step is to determine the factors that play an important role in the decision making process. Direct cost to the agency, user costs due to workzones and delays, hydraulic capacity after repair or renewal procedure, availability of contractors, previous experience with the method, estimated service life after repair/renewal, and working space requirements are among some of the factors that can be considered by the decision maker. Once the factors are determined, the hierarchy which summarizes the factors and alternatives should be generated. Hierarchical representation of factors helps the decision maker to perform pairwise comparisons in a structured way. For example, for the factors listed above, cost can be a parent factor and direct cost and user costs can be sub-factors. Pairwise comparisons are performed at each level of the hierarchy. For example, for the factors listed above, direct cost and user costs are compared against each other in terms their importance under the factor cost and cost, hydraulic capacity after repair or renewal procedure, availability of contractors, previous experience with the method, estimated service life after repair/renewal, and working space requirements are compared against each other in terms of their overall importance. Pairwise comparisons matrices are created by using cross tables in which all the factors that are being compared are entered at the first row and column. A range of 1-9 is used to indicate the relative importance of a factor. Relative importance values below the diagonal are reciprocals of the ones above the diagonal. Weight of each factor is obtained by using average of the normalized columns method (Saaty 1982). This method is an approximate method of determining eigenvectors. This method involves the following steps: Summation of the values in each column of the matrix Dividing each value to the corresponding column total Taking the average of the values in each row

537

Same procedure is repeated for alternatives in which each alternative is compared to other alternatives in terms of its performance under the factor of interest. Performance of an alternative in terms of the factors is calculated by using normalized columns method. Finally, the overall score for each alternative is calculated by summation of the product of the weight of the factor and the performance value for each factor. As an illustrative example, suppose that an agency wishes to find most preferable option to renew a 72 inch diameter culvert located at a depth of 15 feet. The culvert does not have excessive misalignment problem; however, due to high number of localized problems point source repair options are not considered. Alternatives considered in this illustrative example are cured-in-place-pipe, sliplining, formed-in-place-pipe, panel lining, spiral wound pipe, and shotcrete/gunite lining. Assume that the culvert is located under a suburban roadway with medium traffic level. The factors to be considered are the same as above and the most important factors are cost, hydraulic capacity after renewal and estimated service life after renewal. It is assumed that direct cost and user costs are equally important to the agency while considering cost of the renewal methods. Based on the information provided in the illustrative example, the following pairwise matrix is created for the factors (see Table 5). Table 5: Pairwise comparison matrix for factors Factor Cost Space Design Life Experience Hydr. Capacity Contr. Avail. Cost 1 2 1 3 1 3 Space 0.5 1 0.5 1 0.5 0.5 Design Life 1 2 1 3 1 3 Experience 0.33 1 0.33 1 0.33 0.5 Hydr. Capacity 1 2 1 3 1 3 Contr. Avail. 0.33 2 0.33 2 0.33 1 In order to find the weight of each factor normalized column method is employed. First each value is divided by the corresponding columns total value and the average of the resultant values in each row is calculated. Table 6 summarizes this procedure: Table 6: Calculation of Factor Weights Factor Cost Space Design Life Experience Hydr. Capacity Contr. Avail. Cost Space 0.24 0.12 0.24 0.08 0.24 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 Design Life 0.24 0.12 0.24 0.08 0.24 0.08 Experience 0.230769 0.076923 0.230769 0.076923 0.230769 0.153846 Hydr. Capacity 0.24 0.12 0.24 0.08 0.24 0.08 Contr. Avail. 0.272727 0.045455 0.272727 0.045455 0.272727 0.090909 Factor Weight 0.237249 0.097063 0.237249 0.077063 0.237249 0.114126

0.08 0.2

Based on the results of normalized columns procedure the weight of each factor was calculated. The weights for direct cost and user cost were assumed to be equal; therefore, they are simply equal to half of the factor weight value of cost. In the next step, pairwise comparison of each alternative in terms of seven factors (direct cost, user cost, space requirements, estimated service life, previous experience, hydraulic
538

capacity after renewal, and contractor availability) is performed. It should be noted that while making comparisons higher relative values should be assigned to alternatives that correspond to higher preferences. For example, alternatives with lower cost are preferred to alternatives with higher cost therefore highest relative comparison values should be assigned to alternatives with lower costs. An example of a pairwise matrix where the alternatives are compared in terms of hydraulic capacity after renewal is provided in Table 7. Table 7: Pairwise comparison in terms of hydraulic capacity after renewal Hydraulic Capacity CIPP SL FIPP PL SWP S/G Open Cut CIPP 1.00 0.33 0.50 0.33 0.50 0.50 1.00 SL 3.00 1.00 2.00 1.00 2.00 2.00 3.00 FIPP 2.00 0.50 1.00 0.50 1.00 1.00 2.00 PL 3.00 1.00 2.00 1.00 2.00 2.00 3.00 SWP S/G 2.00 0.50 1.00 0.50 1.00 1.00 2.00 2.00 0.50 1.00 0.50 1.00 1.00 2.00 Open Cut 1.00 0.33 0.50 0.33 0.50 0.50 1.00 Performance Score 0.24 0.07 0.13 0.07 0.13 0.13 0.24

Performance scores of alternatives in terms of each factor are provided in Table 8. Table 8: Performance scores of alternatives Alternative CIPP SL FIPP PL SWP S/G Open Cut Direct Cost 0.07 0.21 0.11 0.21 0.13 0.21 0.07 User Cost 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.03 Space 0.22 0.11 0.10 0.11 0.22 0.22 0.03 Design Life 0.23 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.05 0.23 Experience 0.09 0.19 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.17 0.28 Hydr. Capacity 0.24 0.07 0.13 0.07 0.13 0.13 0.24 Contr. Avail. 0.13 0.22 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.22 0.22

Finally, the overall score of each alternative is calculated by calculating the weighted sum of performance values in terms of each alternative. Results of overall score calculation are provided in Table 9. Table 9: Overall Scores for each Alternative Alternative Overall Score CIPP 0.18 SL 0.14 FIPP 0.12 PL 0.12 SWP 0.13 S/G 0.14 Open Cut 0.17 Based on the results Cured-in-Place-Pipe is the most suitable renewal method for this particular culvert.

539

5. CONCLUSIONS Culverts are important roadway infrastructure elements which require periodic inspections, and timely repair or renewals. Implementing culvert asset management strategies will result in fewer unexpected failures. Trenchless technologies can be used to repair or renew culvert without disrupting traffic or damaging roadways. Each trenchless technology has its own advantages and disadvantages; therefore, a decision making strategy which will aid in a systematic evaluation of alternatives is required. Analytical hierarchy process can be used to select the most preferable repair or renewal option based on the relative comparison factors and alternatives. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research project was performed through a grant from the Midwest Regional University Transportation Center (MRUTC) at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, the Ohio Department of Transportation (ODOT), and the Michigan Department of Transportation (MDOT). REFERENCES ASCE. (2010). Report Card for Americas Infrastructure. <http://www.infrastructure reportcard.org/ > (April 25, 2010). FHWA. (1995), Culvert Repair Practices Manual Volume 2, Report No. FHWA RD 95 089, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC. FHWA. (1999). Asset Management Primers, Office of Asset Management, Federal Highway Association, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC. Najafi, M. (2004). Trenchless Technology, McGraw-Hill. Najafi, M.; Salem, O.; Bhattachar, D.; Salman, B.; Patil R. and Calderon, D. (2008). An Asset Management Approach for Drainage Infrastructures and Culverts. Midwest Regional University Transportation Center, College of Engineering, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Wisconsin Madison. MRUTC 06-08. Saaty, T. L. (1982). Decision Making for Leaders, Lifetime Learning Publications. Salem, O.; Najafi, M.; Salman, B.; Calderon, D.; Patil, R. and Bhattachar, D. (2008). Use of Trenchless Technologies for a Comprehensive Asset Management of Culverts and Drainage Structures. MRUTC 07-15.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

HMA Composition vs. Surface Characteristics: Issues and Perspectives to Optimise Road Asset Management
Pratic F. G.(1), Vaiana R.(2), Moro, A.(3), Iuele T.(4)
DIMET Department, Mediterranea University, Reggio Calabria, Italy. filippo.pratico@unirc.it, antonino.moro@unirc.it (2, 4) DiPiTer Department University of Calabria, Arcavacata di Rende - Cosenza, Italy vaiana@unical.it, teresa.iuele@unical.it
(1, 3)

ABSTRACT: As is well known surface characteristics (texture, friction, reflectivity, roughness) greatly affect road safety. As a matter of fact, accident ratio in wet conditions depends both on texture and friction. Further, surface properties are a vital property of the road in many road conditions and affect maintenance and rehabilitation activities. Although such relevance, the prediction of surface properties based on hot mix asphalt (HMA) bituminous mix composition and construction still calls for further research. Indeed, there is not a clear framework for a mix design oriented to surface properties. In the light of the abovementioned facts authors efforts were focused into the analysis of literature on the topic and the proposal of a conceptual framework for the derivation of surface properties based on mix composition. Many experiments were planned and carried out in order to obtain information on method suitability. Although other experiments are needed, results confirmed that some of the proposed models are well-grounded in logic and can be considered a first step in the aim of formalizing an algorithm able to give practical answers to the abovementioned issues. KEY WORDS: Pavement, Surface characteristics, Texture, Mix design, Safety. 1. INTRODUCTION Pavement characteristics play a fundamental role in road safety. Surface friction, developed at the tire-pavement contact, largely depends on pavement surface properties. Skid resistance is an essential component of traffic safety because it provides the grip that a tire needs to maintain vehicle control and for stopping in emergency situations (especially in wet conditions). Skid resistance is related to pavement texture and, consequently, accident ratio depends both on texture and friction. Several works showed that (Figure 1): a) Mean accidents risk (y-axis, Figure 1a) decreases when skid resistance (estimated from SCRIM) increases. In particular, mean accidents risk was calculated over 100,000 personal injury accidents, recorded in the period between 1994 and 2000 in UK. Non-event

541

roads refer to roads without junctions or crossings or notable bends or gradients (Viner et al., 2004); b) Accident rate (y-axis, Figure 1b) decreases with Friction Number (FN valuated with Stradograf device). Accident rates were derived from a two-lane highway in Denmark (Wallman and Astrm, 2001); c) For four lanes separated Italian roads, accident rate (=T.I, y-axis, Figure 1c) increases when CAT decreases (where CAT=SFC measured with SCRIM). Skid resistance has a negligible influence on accident rate for CAT0.75. On average, when CAT decreases of 0.1, accident rate increases of about 40% (Caliendo et al., 2003); d) for four lanes separated Italian roads, accident rate (y-axis, Figure 1d) decreases with increasing surface macrotexture (TEX, x-axis). In particular (Caliendo et al., 2003), accidents rate increases of around 50% for a decrease in texture from 1.2 mm to 0.8mm (or from 0.8 mm to 0.4 mm); e) Crash rate (y-axis, Figure 1e) decreases with increasing skid resistance (measured with SCRIM, New Zealand highway network, Davis et al., 2005). Four sets are considered; f) Accident percentage (y-axis, Figure 1f) of pavements with texture depth (measured according to the Sand Patch Test, mm) shallower than 1mm is significantly higher (around 50%) than for the case of pavements with texture depth deeper than 1mm.

a)

b)

c) 2 3

d)

2 3

e)

f)

Figure 1: Relationships between accident ratio and friction or surface texture: literature review.

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(Viner et al., 2004), see Figure 2, also showed the effect of both friction (measured with SCRIM) and texture depth (SMTD, Sensor Measured Texture Depth, mm) on accident rate. An increase in texture depth from 0.3 mm to 1.5 mm reduces accident rate of around 50%.

Figure 2: Accident rate on single carriageways vs. skid resistance and texture depth.

2. FACTORS AFFECTING SURFACE TEXTURE 2.1. What is road surface texture? ISO Standards 13473-1 defines texture as: the deviation of a pavement surface from a true planar surface. Because of the geometric heterogeneity of the elements that compose surface layers, surface texture can be supposed to be the superposition of "many" elementary components (harmonics). Four specific domains can be defined: micro, macro, mega and roughness. Each one has a given range of amplitudes and wavelengths (x-axis) and affects tire-road interaction (see Figure 3a).
WAVELENGTH

0,5 mm
microtexture

50 mm

Tire footprint

0,5 m

50 m
roughness

RANGE OF TEXTURE

macrotexture

megatexture

Skid resistance Drainage Splash&Spray

INFLUENCED PERFORMANCE

Riding comfort Roadhold Dynamic loads

SURFACE PERFORMANCE Intrinsic properties Surface Texture

[ Z(x,y) or Z(x) ]

Extrinsic properties
Friction Sheet flow Drainability Noise Vibration

Optical properties Tire/road noise Int. & Ext. External Production Reduction Rolling resistance = Fuel consumption Vehicle wear Tire wear Tire damage To avoid

Aggregate descriptors

Spectral descriptors

EVALUATION

Necessary

Figure 3: a) Texture and tire-road interaction; b) Road surface performance Assessing the relations between intrinsic and extrinsic properties can be useful in modelling road-tire interaction.

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In studying road-tire interaction, road contribution may be analysed by individualising two particular sets: extrinsic or functional and intrinsic properties and criteria, see Figure 3b and Figure 4 (Boscaino G. and Pratic F.G., 2001): - Intrinsic criteria are based on surveying and analysing surface geometry and interpreting it by appropriate algorithms and hypotheses; - Extrinsic criteria are based on the analysis of pavement texture by strictly correlated parameters, such as outflow or friction parameters. Intrinsic criteria may be divided into two other sets: - aggregate descriptors, which are referred to all the surveyed wavelengths; - space-frequency or spectral descriptors; these are obtained by considering pavement profile as the superposition of many elementary components (harmonics), each one properly related to a single wavelength, by Fourier analysis.
Aggregate intrinsic descriptors, part A.
01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 n/L Rmax Rt Rz MAA,(h/n) (h/n) (h/n)/(L/n ) Ra Ru Rm Rp PD; MPD (MPD Short) z4 Rq, ; z1; SD; SMTD; CSMTD TDMA [L-1] [L] [L] [L] [L] [L] [Lo] [L] [L] [L] [L] [L] [L] Average asperity density Maximum peak-to-valley height Peak-to-valley height Average peak-to-valley height Mean Apparent Amplitude Average Asperity height Average shape factor zmedia=izip(zi). Mean line, arithmetic mean Ra=izi zmediap(zi). Average Roughness or Centre-line average zmax-zmedia. Levelling Depth, Mean Depth. The RMD Rut Mean Depth as defined in E1703-E1703M-95 ASTM can be related to this parameter. Rp=i(zmax-zi)p(zi). Depth of surface roughness Profile Depth; Mean Profile Depth measured for wavelengths of between 2.5 and 100 mm). The parameter MPD Short (measured, for example, with a Texture Meter mounted on a SCRIM) is however measured for wavelengths of between 2.5 and 10 mm. z4=[(xi)+- (xi)-]/L. Parameter involving the number of profile segments with a positive difference in elevation Rqz1[(z-zmedia)2p(z)]0.5. Root-mean-square roughness; Standard Root-mean-square Standard Deviation; Sensor Measured Texture Depth Corrected SMTD; . Texture depth of macrotexture
3 3

22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43
44 45

Sk K z2 z3 re 27. Df 28. W 29. D S VarW VarD VarS NumGRV NumGRVD(xi) NumGRV W(1/8) NumGRV G(1/8) TAWRG MPDwG MPDnoG Ar Aw
lt (c) a

[L0] [L] [L0] [L-1] [L] [L0] [L] [L] [L] [L2] [L2] [L2] [L0] [L0] [L0] [L0] [L0] [L] [L] [L] [L] [L]

p Sk=-3(z-zmedia)3 p(z). Skewness Sk=-4(z-zmedia)4 p(z). Kurtosis z2=[z2p(z)]0.5. RMS difference in elevation z3=[z2p(z)]0.5. RMS value of second derivative re=r*Nk. Effective radius l=k*u1-Df. Fractal dimension Df Mean groove width Mean groove depth Span (pitch) Variance in width W Variance in depth D Variance in span Number of grooves Number of grooves with depth D less than or equal to xi; xi is generally expressed in inches Number of grooves in the section of profile with width W less than or equal to 1/8 (3.175 mm) Number of grooves with width W or Depth D less than or equal to 1/8 Total area within the 10 foot segments with recognizable grooves Mean profile depth (MPD) with grooves; Mean profile depth (MPD) with no grooves Ar=n-1(ari). Roughness width (Mean distance between the peaks n in the profile) Aw=n-1(awi). Mean waviness width (Mean distance between the peaks n in the profile) lt(c)=li(c). Bearing length at height c from mean line =2Ra/(mean slope). Average wavelength

15 16 17 18 19 20 21

[L0] [L]

[L]
0

Main disaggregate intrinsic indicators

62 63 64 65 66 67 PSD; PS; ck, LT a5, amega; HAPL; INBO; [L3] [L2] [L0] [L] [L] [L0] Spectral descriptors: 62. Power Spectral Density (PSD); 63. Power Spectrum (PS); 64. Texture amplitudes ( ck), Texture Level (LT); 65. Texture amplitude for the wavelength of 5mm (a5, established with reference to the band centres of 4mm, 5mm and 6.3mm) or 25mm (amega, based on the amplitudes for 20mm, 25mm and 31mm); 66. Amplitude of the irregularities for a zone with a specified wavelength (HAPL); 67. Class of indicators that are determined by associated a scalar quantity of between 0 and 10 to short, medium and long waves (INBO, Notation par Bandes dOnde - NBO Wave Band Rating). By extension, with reference to the transverse profile of the pavement surface the RMD (Rut Mean Depth) also be linked to the parameter HAPL according to E1703-E1703M-95 ASTM.

Main Extrinsic descriptors

68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 a, a0; BPN; SFC [CAT]; GN; Drainability; IRI; RCI; IFI; [L0] [L0] [L0] [L0] [L3/T] [L0] [L0] Extrinsic descriptors (related to texture but not geometry): 68. a: sound absorption coefficient ( noise nuisance); a0: sound absorption coefficient in normal incidence ( noise nuisance); 69. British Portable Tester Number (BPN, pendulum friction measurement); 70. Sideway force coefficient - SFC (measured, for example, by SCRIM); 71. Grip number GN (device: Grip Tester) 72. Drainability; 73. International Roughness Index ( Comfort); 74. Riding Comfort Index ( Comfort); 75. International Friction Index.

Figure 4: Main extrinsic or functional and intrinsic descriptors/indicators. 2.2. What are the main factors which affect texture? It is possible to subdivide the factors that influence pavement surface texture into two different sets: the first concerns mix composition; the second deals with road construction techniques (see Figure 5). Mixes Composition. Among the different factors, aggregate gradation seems to have an absolutely primary role. In particular, by examining the literature relating to macrotexture prediction models (see Table 1), the following factors can be pointed out: - shape, uniformity and curvature of aggregate particles size distribution; - distance from Fuller and Thompson's equation (equation of maximum density gradation for a given maximum aggregate size); - percentage of fine aggregates (sand and/or filler); - maximum aggregate size in mix; - asphalt binder content.

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Note that petrography and polishing resistance properties of aggregates (Lde et al, 2005) can affect microtexture, but these factors will not be discussed in this paper. Road Construction Techniques. In this case, compaction efforts, type of compaction and thickness of asphalt layer are the most relevant factors. It is well-known that air voids content decreases when changing from static to vibrating compaction. In a study by (DAndrea A. and Loprencipe, G., 2000), both static and vibrating compaction were used for dense-graded hot mix asphalts. They observed a positive correlation between air voids content and macro-texture indicators (aggregate and spectral). No direct correlation was found between the type of compaction (static or vibrating) and the macro-texture indicators. In fact, macrotexture prediction models (See Table 1) take into account for compaction performance in terms of HMA volumetric properties, which are linked to the composition factors. Further, several studies (Boscaino G. et al. 2009) remarked the relationship between wearing course thickness and macro-texture (aggregate and spectral intrinsic indicators): the higher the thickness the lower the texture level, for a given wavelength.
MACRO-TEXTURE INDICATORS

(aggregate and spectral) COMPOSITION FACTORS

SHAPE UNIFORMITY CURVATURE DISTANCE FROM

COSTRUCTION FACTORS
COMPACTION EFFORTS AND TYPE (STATIC OR VIBRATING)

VOIDS IN MINERAL AGGREGATE AIR VOIDS BULK DENSITY

FULLER AND THOMPSON'S AGGREGATES GRADATION

EQUATION PERCENTAGE OF FINE AGGREGATES (SAND AND/OR FILLER) MAXIMUM AGGREGATE SIZE

WEARING COURSE THICKNESS

ASPHALT BINDER DOSAGE

Figure 5: Macrotexture dependence on composition and construction Table 1 offers a resum on macrotexture dependence on the abovementioned main parameters. ETD, MPD, MTD are the dependent variables, while independent variables relate to aggregate gradation, asphalt binder content and HMA volumetrics. Table 1: Summary of macrotexture prediction models
ID [1] Model
ETD = 0.01980MAS 0.004984P + 0.1038Cc + 0.004861Cu 4.75
Where: ETD : estimated texture depth [mm] (ASTM E965/E1845) MAS : maximum aggregate size of the mixture [mm] : percent passing the 4.75 mm sieve. P
4.75

Notes
Data from: Experimental measurements in situ during NCHRP 441 for a segregation study; Mixes examined: DGFC (a limited HMA set); Data analysis: ETD estimation for SMA and OGFC to be optimised; ETD outliers when the percent passing the 0.075 mm sieve size exceed 10%; Model statistics: R2=0.65.

Reference
(Stroup-Gardiner and Brown, 2000) (Flintsch et al, 2003) (McGhee et al, 2003)

Cc :
Cu :

coefficient of curvature = (D ) 2 /(D D ) 30 10 60 coefficient of uniformity = D /D 60 10

D i : sieve associated with 10%, 30%, 60% passing [mm]

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ID [2]

Model
[a] MTD = 0.6421FM [b] MPD = 0.4973FM [c] MPD = 0.2421FM

Notes
Data from: [a][b] Experimental measurements on the 2000 NCAT Test Track (after 2 years of in-service aging); [c] Experimental measurements on the replacement sections of 2003 NCAT Test Track; Mixes examined: [a] SuperPave; [b] SuperPave, DGFC, OGFC, Novachip; [c] SuperPave, DGFC, OGFC, Novachip, PGFC Model statistics: [a] R2=0.62; [b] R2=0.84; [c] R2=0.93 Data from: Experimental measurements in situ on 17 NCAT accelerated pavement performance test cells; Mixes examined: DGFC, SMA, OGFC. Model statistics: R2=0.96

Reference

5.235FM + 11.224
3.926FM + 8.287

1.576FM + 2.727

Where: MTD : mean texture depth [mm] MPD : mean profile depth from CT Meter (ASTM E2157) [mm] FM : fineness modulus calculated by summing the cumulative percentages retained on specific sieves and divided by 100 (ASTM C125)

[3]

MPD = 0.025

+ 0.037 0.0265Pb + 0.052

Where: MPD : mean profile depth [mm] : weighted distance from the maximum density line (*)

N d = abs i D i =1

where: di= SivS : sieve size [mm] D= MaxAgg : maximum aggregate size in mix [mm] Pi%= %pass : percent of mixing passing the sieve size Pb: percent binder by weight N: number of sieves

(*) Note: in these cases algorithms were modified with respect to the original version.

[4]

MPD = 3.596 + 0.1796 NMS + 0.0913 PP200 0.0294 VTM

Lab

+ 0.1503VMA

Lab

[5]

MPD = 2.896 + 0.2993NMS + 0.0698VMA

Where: MPD : mean profile depth [mm] NMS : nominal maximum aggregate size [mm]. VMA : voids in the mineral aggregate [%]

Data from: Experimental measurements in situ on 12 sections at the Virginia Smart Road. Mixes examined: 5 SuperPave, 1 SMA, 1 OGFC Model statistics: R2=0.965 Data from: Experimental measurements in situ at the Virginia Smart Road. Mixes examined: 5 SuperPave, 1 SMA, 1 OGFC Data analysis: Better performance for the non traditional coarser SMA and OGFC mixes than Model [1] Model statistics: R2=0.88 Data from: Experimental measurements on field specimens taken from selected section during the City of Ottawas annual resurfacing program (2004); Mixes examined: Superpave 12.5mm FC1, Superpave 12.5mm, SMA 12.5mm, HL3 and HL1 modified (standard Marshall mixes used by Ontario municipalities); Model statistics: R2=0.95

Where: ETD: estimated texture depth [mm] (ASTM E965).

ICCTEX = 2.896 + 0.2993NMAS + 0.0698VMA

where: ICCTEX : ICC (International Cybernetic Corporation) estimated texture/profile depth [mm] NMAS : nominal maximum aggregate size [mm]. VMA : voids in the mineral aggregate [%]

[7]

MTD = 0.24 + 0.981

Where: MTD : mean texture depth [mm] (ASTM E965) FM : fineness modulus fineness modulus calculated by summing the cumulative percentages retained on specific sieves and divided by 100 (ASTM C125) VMA : voids in the mineral aggregate [%] : percent passing the 4.75 mm sieve P
4.75 BRD :

bulk relative density of the compacted field

546

(Goodman et al, 2006)

FM VMA P4.75 BRD

(Flintsch et al, 2002) (Flintsch et al, 2003) (Hanson and Prowell, 2003) (McGhee et al, 2003)

[6]

ETD = 0.78ICCTEX - 0.38

(Davis et al, 2001) (Davis et al, 2002)

(Davis et al, 2001)

Where (*): MPD: mean profile depth [mm] NMS: nominal maximum aggregate size [mm]. PP200: percentage passing the #200 sieve size [%] VTMLab: total voids in the mix [%] VMALab: voids in the mineral aggregate [%]

Data from: Experimental measurements in situ at the Virginia Smart Road; Mixes examined: 5 SuperPave, 1 SMA, 1 OGFC; Data analysis: Issues in terms of the sign of VTMLab and constant. MPD is expected to increase with higher VTMLab; Model statistics: R2=0.97

(Sullivan, 2005)

0 .45

d 100 P % i i 100

(Hanson and Prowell, 2003)

2.4. How do the models work? In order to obtain information on how the above mentioned models work a simulation was performed on four classes of HMA (see table 2): GA (Gussasphalt- SN 640 440), DGFC (Dense-Graded Fiction Course - ANAS 2009), SMA (SplittMastix 0/8 - CIRS 2001) and PEM (Porous European Mix- ANAS 2009). The following compositions were supposed (see table 2): Table 2: Composition's factors for the different classes of HMA examined
100 90 80 % Passing 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0,01 0,1 1 Sieve Size[mm] 10 100 GA DGFC SMA PEM

Asphalt Binder Content [%] Bulk Specific Gravity Total Aggregate [g/cm3] Bulk Specific Gravity Compacted Mix [g/cm3] Max Theoretical Specific Gravity [g/cm3] Air Void in Compacted Mix [%]

GA 8.5 2.77 2.38 2.40 0.7

DGFC 5 2.86 2.51 2.62 4.2

SMA 7.4 2.81 2.42 2.50 3.0

PEM 4.9 2.85 2.14 2.64 18.8

Typical expected spectra and average values are reported in figure 6.

DGFC

SMA 0/8

PEM

Texture Indicator MPD ETD MTD

DGFC mean 1.15 1.1 0.88 range 0.9 1.4 0.9 1.3 0.8 0.95 mean 0.8 0.85 0.60

SMA range 0.55 1.05 0.65 1.05 0.45 - 0.75 mean 2.8 2.43 3.85

PEM range 2.7 2.9 2.35 2.5 3.7 4.0

Figure 6: Examples of roughness depth spectra, y-axis: rms, 10-6 m; x-axis: third octave band wavelength in mm (Beckenbauer, 2007); Examples of typical range values for texture depth (Boscaino G. et al. 2001). Based on the volumetrics reported in table 3 the values below summarized in table 4 were obtained.
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Table 3: Parameters of models for the different classes of HMA examined

VMA (Voids in Mineral Aggregate) [%] VTM (Total voids in mix) Va (Air voids in mix) [%] (Weighted Distance from Maximum Density Line) PP200 (Percentage passing #200 sieve) [%] P4.75 (Percentage passing 4.75 mm sieve) [%] FM (Fineness Modulus) NMAS (Nominal Maximum Aggregate Size) [mm] MAS - MS (Maximum Aggregate Size) [mm] Cc (Coefficient of Curvature) Cu (Coefficient of Uniformity) BRD (Bulk Relative Density) [g/cm3] GA 20.8 0.7 8.0 34.0 68.0 3.5 11.2 16.0 0.3 50.8 2.38 DGFC 16.4 4.2 6.12 8.0 47.0 4.6 15.0 25.0 2.2 55.2 2.51 SMA 19.8 3.0 9.34 10.0 52.0 4.5 8.0 12.7 19.0 79.4 2.42 PEM 28.4 18.8 8.61 6.0 19.5 5.8 15.0 25.0 16.7 37.5 2.14

Table 4: Models outputs for the different classes of HMA examined

ID Models [1] [2a] [2b] [2c] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] Tex Indicator ETD MTD MPD MPD MPD MPD ETD MTD MPD GA 0.26 0.74 0.62 0.18 1.73 3.80 1.91 1.11 0.21 DGFC 0.75 0.76 0.78 0.63 1.05 2.17 2.74 1.76 0.39 SMA 2.35 0.69 0.71 0.56 2.38 1.64 0.88 0.31 0.46 PEM 2.31 2.49 2.27 1.75 2.09 3.36 3.58 2.41 3.64

Table 5: Summary of mixes ranking according to different criteria

1 2 3 4 Tex. Est.Tex PEM PEM DGFC DGFC & SMA SMA GA GA VMA VTM PEM PEM SMA GA DGFC PEM SMA SMA GA DGFC GA DGFC P200 PEM DGFC SMA GA P4.75 PEM DGFC SMA GA FM PEM DGFC SMA GA NMAS BRD DGFC PEM PEM GA GA SMA SMA DGFC C u SMA DGFC GA PEM Cc SMA PEM DGFC GA

: 4>3>2>1; : 1>2>3>4.

Table 5 summarizes mixes ranking according to different criteria. On a general standpoint it is relevant to point out that: - fine aggregate content (i.e. P200), being intrinsically related also to asphalt binder content, resulted well correlated with texture (negative correlation); in contrast, , NMAS, Cc and Cu, being related to less general instances, didnt achieve an appreciable level of correlation; - VTM (and BRD) resulted better correlated to texture than VMA. More precisely, note that, according to both the abovementioned models and actual surveys, it resulted usually: ETDGA<ETDDGFCETDSMA<ETDPEM On the other hand, it resulted: VMADGFC<VMASMA<VMAGA<VMAPEM This fact brings out that VMA is not an effective indicator of macrotexture. As for the content of air voids, importantly, macrotexture and VTM resulted well correlated (see table 5). Indeed, VTM, differently from VMA, results affected by asphalt binder content. As a consequence it resulted: VTMGA<VTMSMA<VTMDGFC<VMAPEM Note that it resulted: VTMSMA<VTMDGFC This fact can be interpreted as a result of a very high asphalt binder content and dust proportion in SMAs. Finally it resulted: P200GA>P200SMA>P200DGFC>P200PEM. This fact brings out that P200 can give appreciable information on macrotexture.
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As for NMAS, it resulted: NMASSMA<NMASGA<NMASDGFCNMASPEM This fact highlights the relevance of NMAS as related to the maximum room to contain or to fill. Though this, NMAS doesnt appear relevant in assessing the level of macrotexture of a pavement. 5. MAIN FINDINGS AND FUTURE RESEARCH Traditional mix design focuses on the relationship mixture recipe vs. volumetrics and mechanics. Road asset management depends on the consequent expected lives. For friction courses, the above approach is always highly justified but it results partly inconsistent with the need to guarantee a sufficient transmission of shear forces in pavementtyre interface. As a consequence, it becomes more and more relevant to propose a rational approach for the transition from the abovementioned fundamental approach to a new one (for friction courses exclusively) in which the objective function is modified in order to take into account also for friction and texture instances. In the light of the abovementioned facts, in the paper many models were considered and analysed in the field of composition vs. texture relationship for four different types of bituminous mixes. Based on the abovementioned analyses the following conclusions can be drawn. Fine aggregate content appears to be well correlated with texture, as well as VTM. GA texture level results usually the lowest, while PEM texture level results usually the highest. DGFC and SMA texture levels appear to be substantially equivalent in many prediction models. On the other hand, some doubts emerge on VMA effectiveness in predicting texture indicators. As for NMAS, results highlight the relevance of NMAS as related to the maximum room to contain or to fill. Though this, NMAS doesnt appear the main factor in assessing the level of macrotexture of a given pavement. Future research will aim at gaining a better understanding of the investigated relationships, based on a robust experimental plan. REFERENCES Viner, H.; Sinhal, R. and Parry, T., 2004. Review of UK Skid Resistance Policy. Paper prepared for 5th International Symposium on Pavement Surface Characteristics Road and Airports, Toronto, Ontario, Canada 2004. Wallman, C. and Astrom, H., 2001. Friction Measurements Methods and the Correlation Between Road Friction and Traffic Safety- A Literature Review. Swedish National Road and Transport Institute, 2001. Caliendo, C.; Parisi, A. and Villani, P., 2003. Analisi dellincidentalita sulle strade a carreggiate separate in relazione alle caratteristiche dellinfrastruttura e dellintensita di pioggia. XIII S.I.I.V. National Congress, Padova, 30/31 October 2003. Davies, R.; Cenek, P. and Henderson, R. J., 2005. The effect of skid resistance and Texture on crash risk. International Conference for Surface Friction for Roads and Runways, Christchurch, New Zeland, May 2005. Oliver, J., 2005. WA Skid Resistance Program - Stage 2: Development of Intervention Limits. Draft Report. ARRB Transport Research Limited, Leederville, WA, Australia, 2005.

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Lde, V.; Delalande, G. and Dupont, P., 2005. Adhrence et Granulats. Bulletin des Laboratoires des Ponts et Chausses n 255, Avril-Mai-Juin 2005, pp. 91-116. Boscaino, G. and Pratic, F. G., 2001. Classification et inventaire des indicateurs de la texture superficielle des revtements des chausses. Bullettin des Laboratorie des Ponts et Chausses n 234, Sept-Octo 2001. Stroup-Gardiner, M. and Brown, E. R., 2000. Segregation in Hot-Mix Asphalt Pavements. NCHRP Report No. 441, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., 2000. Flintsch, G. W.; de Leon, E.; McGhee, K. K. and Al-Qadi, I. L., 2003. Pavement Surface Macrotexture Measurement and Applications. In Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No. 1860, Washington, D.C., 2003, pp. 168-177. McGhee, K. K.; Flintsch, G. W. and de Leon Izeppi, E., 2003. Using High-Speed Texture Measurements to Improve Uniformity of Hot-Mix Asphalt, VTRC 03-R12, Virginia Transportation Research Council, Charlottesville, VA, 2003. Hanson, D. I. and Prowell, B. D., 2004. Evaluation of circular texture meter for measuring surface texture of pavements. NCAT Report 04-05, September 2004. Sullivan, B. W., 2005. Development of a foundamental skid resistance asphalt mix design procedure. Surface Friction Conference, New Zeland, May 2005. Davis, R.; Flintsch, G. F.; Al-Qadi, I. L. and McGhee K. K., 2002. Effect of Wearing Surface Characteristics on Measured Pavement Skid Resistance and Texture. Preprint, Presented at the 81st Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC, January 13-17, 2002. Davis, R., 2001. Comparison of Surface Characteristics of Hot-Mix Asphalt Pavement Surfaces at the Virginia Smart Road. Master's Thesis - Master of Science, Department of Civil Engineering, Blacksburg, Virginia, June 2001. Flintsch, G. W.; Al-Qadi, I. L.; Davis, R. and McGhee, K. K., 2002. Effect of HMA Properties on Pavement Surface Characteristics - FWD Users Group Presentations. Goodman, S. N.; Hassan, Y. and Abd El Halim, A. O., 2006. Preliminary Estimation of asphalt pavement frictional properties from superpave gyratory specimens and mix parameters. TRB Annual Meeting. Santagata, E. and Graffi, C., 2002. Analisi della dissipazione dellenergia e dellaccumulo del danno per la valutazione del comportamento a fatica del Gussasphalt. XII International SIIV Conference, Parma, 30/31 October. SN 640 440 (prEN 13108-6), Asphalte coul routier MA (Mastic asphalt), Norme Suisse. ANAS 2009, Norme Tecniche Pavimentazioni Stradali / Autostradali - ANAS S.p.A. CIRS 2001, Norme tecniche di tipo prestazionale per capitolati speciali d'appalti. Boscaino G. et al. 2004, PRIN 2001 Catalogo prestazionale dei manti bituminosi superficiali. Final Report 2004. Boscaino, G.; Celauro, B.; Celauro, C. and Amadore, A., 2009. Evaluation of the laboratory prediction of surface properties of bituminous mixtures. Construction and Building Materials n23, 2009, Elsevier, pp. 943-952. DAndrea, A. and Loprencipe, G., 2000. Influenza delle modalit di messa in opera sulla tessitura delle pavimentazioni stradali. SIIV 2000, Acireale (CT), Italy. Beckenbauer, T., 2007. Pilot study noise reduction potential road surfaces. Mller-BBM, Mnchen, February 2007, Swedish Environmental Protection Agency.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

New Methods of Traffic Growth Forecasting for MechanisticEmpirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG)
K. Hall, X. Xiao, Y. Jiang and K. Wang
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, USA kdhall@uark.edu

ABSTRACT: Traffic is one of the most significant inputs in pavement design. Although traffic spectra are used in the new design method, named Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG), the same method as in AASHTO 1993 Guide is applied to estimate future traffic: assuming either linear growth or compound growth with an estimated growth factor. This process makes the selection of growth function and estimation of traffic growth factor extremely significant in MEPDG. A little change of the growth factor may significantly influence the pavement performance because of Miners hypothesis of distress accumulation. This paper uses traffic data in Arkansas Pavement Management System (PMS) to investigate the feasibility of some new methods for traffic forecasting. Suggestions on how to determine the most suitable method in different situations by statistical testing are given. Engineers in the future could refer to the suggestions and follow the proposed procedure to select the best function and growth factor for a specific design project. It is found that current methods are not the best forecasting method. Some advanced models such as the self-adaptive filtering method and the grey system theory-based method are recommended to be introduced into MEPDG software. KEY WORDS: Traffic growth factor, MEPDG, Regression analysis, Exponential smoothing.

1. INTRODUCTION Traffic is one of the most significant inputs in pavement design. In AASHTO 1993 Design Guide, traffic is converted to a standard reference axle (18 kip single axle load) by Load Equivalency Factors (LEF). Then the base-year Equivalent Single Axle Load (ESAL) is projected to the whole design life by assuming linear growth or compound growth with a traffic growth rate. Finally, the last-year ESAL is input into empirical design equations to determine the required structural number or slab thickness (AASHTO, 1993). Instead of using ESAL, the new design method named Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG) considers full traffic spectra. MEPDG calculates the total truck load for each truck class at each period, followed by mechanistic modeling of pavement damage in

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that period. The traffic spectra of base year are carried towards the end of the design life by using the same method: assuming either linear growth or compound growth with an estimated growth rate (ARA, 2004). Figure 1 is a screenshot illustrating the traffic growth factors in MEPDG.

Figure 1: Traffic growth factors in MEPDG

This process makes the selection of growth function and estimation of growth rate extremely significant in MEPDG. A little change of the growth rate may dramatically influence the pavement performance due to Miners hypothesis of distress accumulation. In addition, temporal (hourly, monthly and seasonal) variation and spatial variation of traffic data make the forecasting being a complicated task. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate other forecasting methods which could provide better prediction than linear and exponential regression. Due to the difficulty of traffic data collection, the first step of traffic forecasting is quality check of the available traffic data. For example, it was found that the historical data and monitored data in the Long Term Pavement Performance (LTPP) database might not match (Byrum and Kohn, 2002). Some apparent errors due to wrong decimal point location were also identified. By manually review the data for unusual trends and errors, the quality of forecasting could be improved. However, it is impractical to conduct manual check on thousands of locations. Therefore, Kingan and Westhuis (2006) introduced three methods for outlier detection and robust regression, including residual standard deviation, Cooks distance, and least trimmed squares regression. Although many works have been done to analyze raw traffic data and prepare the required traffic inputs for MEPDG, traffic growth forecasting is not the focus. Arkansas found that the vehicle class distribution and axle load distribution were significant for MEPDG, but no research was conducted on traffic forecasting (Tran and Hall, 2007a, 2007b). California
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concluded that there was a fairly linear trend in the data series, and a simple linear regression model fitted the data better than a nonlinear regression model (Lu and Harvey, 2006). Prozzi and Hong (2006) suggested that long-term annual growth and short-term seasonal variation should be considered simultaneously, and seasonal time series models were proposed. In a project to develop regional traffic data for MEPDG, it was concluded that recommending traffic growth factors for Ontario was not feasible due to changes in truck volumes, axle weights, truck technology and other issues (Swan et al., 2008). Three advanced methods were proposed in NCHRP Report 538 (2005), including multivariate linear regression, growthfactors methods, and travel demand models. However, these methods were seldom used because many data other than traffic were required, such as economic forecasts, vehicle inventory and use survey, and truck-trip generation. These data are essential for statewide development plan, but it is cost-prohibitive for the purpose of pavement design. 2. OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE The goals of this paper are (1) to investigate the feasibility of some new methods for traffic forecasting; and (2) to propose a procedure that prepares traffic growth data for MEPDG. Only annual growth is investigated using yearly traffic data in Arkansas Pavement Management System (PMS). Seasonal variation and class specific volume are not discussed. Influences from socioeconomic factors are beyond the scope of this paper. 3. METHODOLOGIES In order to find out the most suitable method to predict traffic growth, seven widely used forecasting models were selected and tested on the same datasets, using the same software and identical statistical indices. In general, these methods can be divided into three categories: traditional regression analysis, exponential smoothing methods, and advanced forecasting methods. A brief introduction of these methods is described as following. 3.1. Traditional regression analysis As stated before, linear regression analysis and exponential regression analysis are the stateof-practice methods for traffic forecasting in MEPDG, because of their simplicity. Linear regression analysis is a classic and the basic form of regression analysis. It refers to any approach that models the relationship between a variable, y, and one or more variables, X, such that the model depends linearly on the unknown (Kutner et al., 1996). Most commonly, the model takes the following form:

y = X +

(1)

where is regression coefficients written in vector form; denotes the error. Exponential regression is a type of nonlinear regression analysis, in which observational data are modeled by a function which is a nonlinear combination of the model parameters and often has the following form:

y(t ) = a * b t / T
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(2)

where: the constant a is the initial value of t; the constant b is a positive growth factor; and T is the time required for y to increase by a factor of b (Beirlant et al., 1999). 3.2. Exponential smoothing method In statistics, exponential smoothing is a technique that can be widely applied to time series data to make forecasts. Compared to the simple moving average forecasting method, exponential smoothing forecasting methods assign exponentially decreasing weights over time instead of equal weights (Gardner, 1985). Usually, it takes the predicted value in smoothing value made of selected time series. When the sequence of observations begins at time t = 0, the simplest form of exponential smoothing is given by the formulas:

S 0 = x0 S t = xt 1 + (1 ) S t 1

(3) (4)

where {xt} is the observed dataset; {St} is the estimation; and is the smoothing factor, 0 < < 1. Exponential smoothing method has different forms based on how the value is determined and the number of the smoothing factors. Among all the exponential smoothing methods, Holt linear exponential smoothing method, Brown linear exponential smoothing method and Damped trend exponential smoothing method are widely used in practice, and therefore, being investigated in this paper (Brown, 1963; Holt, 2004a, 2004b; Gardner, 1985, 2006). 3.3. Advanced forecasting method The sixth method discussed in this study is the grey system theory-based forecasting method. Grey system theory is an interdisciplinary scientific area that was first introduced in early 1980s. Because of its ability to deal with grey system, it becomes popular as a useful tool for forecasting and decision-making. Unlike conventional statistical models, the grey system theory-based forecasting models require only a limited amount of data to estimate the behavior of unknown systems (Deng, 1989). The seventh method is the self-adaptive filtering forecasting method. It is known for its ability to self-adjust its linear regression coefficients according to an optimizing algorithm which uses feedbacks to refine the coefficients during an iterative process. This method was proved to be an advanced forecasting method for time series with extensive applications. Due to its complicity, it is not described here. Users can refer to Haykin (1996) for further information.

4. DATA PROCESSING 4.1. Data source In this paper, 24 sites with annual average daily traffic (AADT) data during 1986-2008 were selected from Arkansas Pavement Management System (PMS). These sites were determined to cover all regions and roads of all functional classes, as shown in Figure 2. In average, 17
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data points are available for each site. AADT ranges from 500 vehicles per day to 60,000 vehicles per day. Furthermore, the sample contains different traffic growth trends such as increasing, decreasing, jumping, first increasing then decreasing, and the inverse. Figure 3 shows five of the datasets. Data quality control was conducted by plotting the time series traffic record. Unusual trend, suspicious outliers and missing data points were identified. It should be noted that all datasets were reviewed using the same processing method to avoid changing any data arbitrarily.

Figure 2: Locations of sites

35,000 30,000 25,000 AADT 20,000 15,000 10,000 5,000 0 1985

070018,Class1 R50067,Class6

090001,Class2 110413,Class7

R00152, Class2

1990

1995

Year

2000

2005

2010

Figure 3: Annual traffic record in Pavement Management System

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4.2. Data analysis programs It is impractical to manually analyze 24 datasets with seven different forecasting methods. Additionally, to avoid uncontrollable errors during manual operation, statistical software packages were used in this research. Although there are some powerful commercial software for statistical analysis, none of them contains all of the seven methods proposed in this paper. Therefore, SPSS Version 17.0 was selected to conduct linear regression, exponential regression, and exponential smoothing (Brown, Holt and Damped trend). MATLAB was used for the grey system theory-based method and the self-adaptive filtering method. Two files named grey.m and adaptive.m were developed. 4.3. Statistical testing index In order to compare the seven selected forecasting methods, some statistical testing indices are required. Generally, the forecasting performance is relevant to the errors or the difference between the predicted value and the observed value. Considering the great changes of traffic volume among the selected datasets, an index called Mean Absolute Relative Error (MARE) is used as the testing index to evaluate the performance of each method on each site.

MARE =

i =1

y i yi / yi n (5)

where: yi is the observed traffic; y i is the predicted traffic; n is the number of traffic records available for a specific site. To evaluate the overall performance of each method on all datasets, the mean of MARE is calculated by equation

MMARE =

MARE
j =1

(6)

where m is the number of datasets, and m=24 in this research. Obviously, the smaller of MMARE is, the better of the relevant method performs.

5. RESULTS ANALYSIS Data analysis on 24 sites using seven different forecasting methods was conducted in SPPS and MATLAB environment. The results are listed in Table 1. Note that only the key words are used to represent each method due to the restriction of paper size. MARE is the result from data analysis programs. The performance rank is determined based on MARE of each method on each specific site, or row in the table. In other words, for each site, the best method is ranked as 1 and the worst method is ranked as 7. In this way, the method which is ranked as 1 for the most times will be considered as the best forecasting method. The summary of data analysis is shown in Table 2. Based on data analysis, the following conclusions can be drawn.

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Table 1: Results of data analysis

Site

Year

001765 009918 009948 050073 060536 070018 070079 070138 080093 090001 110413 R00152 R00055 R20149 R30112 R40107 R50017 R50067 R50084 R80025 R80065 R80067 R80094 R90116

1986-2008 1992-2008 2000-2008 1999-2008 1986-2008 1986-2008 1987-2008 1986-2008 2000-2008 1986-2008 1986-2008 1986-2008 1986-2008 1990-2008 1986-2008 1987-2008 1986-2008 1986-2008 1986-2008 1986-2008 1986-2008 1986-2008 1986-2008 1986-2008

Adaptive Rank MARE 1 9.72 1 6.70 7 9.79 1 2.81 1 6.95 1 4.94 1 4.31 2 5.00 7 22.46 1 6.66 2 8.21 1 8.97 1 5.90 1 6.96 6 9.92 1 6.12 1 5.98 1 5.37 4 8.83 1 6.95 1 6.99 1 4.99 4 6.93 2 5.64

Grey Rank MARE 5 10.67 2 7.51 3 3.88 4 10.17 5 7.76 3 9.34 6 5.61 4 6.58 1 14.19 3 6.76 6 8.73 5 12.07 3 9.43 2 7.13 1 8.84 3 8.68 6 12.29 2 8.84 3 8.62 7 10.53 2 8.06 3 14.83 2 6.63 5 5.81

Holt Rank MARE 2 10.43 3 7.63 1 3.49 6 10.18 2 7.57 4 9.60 3 5.38 5 7.45 4 16.21 4 6.81 5 8.34 4 11.64 4 9.56 6 7.96 4 9.60 5 8.86 3 10.95 5 9.45 6 9.20 3 9.36 3 8.19 4 15.03 3 6.93 4 6.58

Brown Rank MARE 7 13.82 7 11.11 6 6.39 7 11.76 7 11.90 6 10.04 7 5.84 3 5.82 6 17.73 7 9.61 7 11.48 7 13.28 7 11.03 7 8.46 7 10.35 7 10.99 7 14.75 6 9.51 2 8.22 6 9.74 7 9.56 7 17.13 7 7.69 7 6.11

Damped Rank MARE 4 10.60 6 7.88 4 3.94 2 8.26 6 8.26 2 7.90 2 5.33 1 4.86 5 16.49 6 6.83 1 8.17 2 10.26 2 9.26 3 7.67 5 9.69 2 8.59 2 10.32 7 9.66 1 6.92 2 9.26 5 8.30 6 15.92 6 7.35 6 5.93

Linear Rank MARE 2 10.43 3 7.63 2 3.49 5 10.18 3 7.57 4 9.60 4 5.40 5 7.45 3 16.21 4 6.81 4 8.34 3 11.64 4 9.56 5 7.96 2 9.44 6 8.90 3 10.95 4 9.44 5 9.20 3 9.36 3 8.19 4 15.03 2 6.93 1 5.62

Exponential Rank MARE 6 10.95 5 7.65 5 3.94 3 10.69 4 7.60 7 10.17 4 5.40 7 7.79 2 15.84 2 6.75 3 8.27 6 12.27 6 9.98 4 7.95 3 9.52 4 8.70 5 12.02 3 9.19 7 9.27 5 9.57 6 8.83 2 14.75 5 6.97 3 5.65

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Table 2: Summary of analysis results MMARE Times of rank 1 Times of rank 7 Rank of Performance

Adaptive 7.38 16 2 1

Grey 8.87 3 1 3

Holt 9.02 1 0 5

Brown 10.51 0 17 7

Damped 8.65 3 1 2

Linear 8.97 1 0 4

Exponential 9.16 0 3 6

The two mostly used methods, linear regression and exponential regression, are ranked in the 4th and 6th respectively. Therefore, it is recommended to introduce other forecasting models into MEPDG software. In general, the self-adaptive filtering method performs better than other methods. It is ranked as no.1 for 16 times in the 24 sites. Therefore, this method is worth recommending for traffic forecasting. The shortcoming of this method is that no commercial software is available now. The damped exponential smoothing method and the grey system theory-based method are promising candidates for traffic forecasting. Their overall performance is ranked as the 2nd and 3rd, respectively. It is proved that the Brown linear exponential smoothing method is the worst method, being ranked as no.7 for 17 times. In the case of forecasting based on limited traffic records, which is common in practice, the grey system theory-based method is recommended, and the self-adaptive filtering method should not be used.

6. CASE STUDY A case study is presented to illustrate the procedure of traffic forecasting, and to show the difference between the proposed new methods and conventional methods. Traffic forecasting process is composed of four steps. First, traffic records are plotted to identify any unusual trend, suspicious outlier, missing data and other errors. Other quantitative methods can also be conducted (Kingan and Westhuis, 2006). The original data of site 070018 is shown in Figure 3. The second step is data analysis using commercial software or programs. Although some advanced forecasting methods are not included in commercial software now, they are expected to be available as software develops. Outputs are recorded for further analysis. In addition, the estimated traffic from all forecasting methods and the original monitored traffic can be plotted in a graph, as shown in Figure 4. Engineers can clearly see the difference between these methods. It is worth noting that there is little difference between different forecasting methods on observed data, but the difference becomes dramatic in 2020. Therefore, traffic forecasting method should be carefully selected. However, the final decision should not be determined only according to this graph. Third, statistical indices are calculated. The summary table for site 070018 is shown in Table 3. The last step is to choose the optimal model. The best forecasting method for site 070018 is the self-adaptive filtering method. In 2020, the difference of AADT between self-adaptive filtering method and linear regression, exponential regression are 3,878 and 11,106 vehicle/day, respectively.

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50,000 Original 45,000 40,000 35,000 AADT 30,000 25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 1985 1990 1995 2000 Year 2005 2010 2015 2020 (Site: 070018) Brown Holt Damped Adaptive Linear Exponential

Figure 4: Traffic forecasting of site 070018 Table 3: Statistical results and ranking of site 070018 070018 MARE Rank Adaptive 4.94 1 Grey 9.34 3 Holt 9.60 4 Brown 10.04 6 Damped 7.90 2 Linear 9.60 4 Exponential 10.17 7

7. CONCLUSIONS The goal of this paper is to investigate the feasibility of some new methods of traffic forecasting for MEPDG. Totally seven methods were analyzed on 24 sites in Arkansas. These methods are linear regression, exponential regression, exponential smoothing methods (Holt, Brown and Damped Trend), grey system theory-based forecasting method, and the selfadaptive filtering forecasting method. Based on data analysis, the following conclusions can be made.

It is proved that the conventional methods (linear regression and exponential regression) are not the best method. Other promising methods such as the selfadaptive filtering method and the grey system theory-based forecasting method are recommended to be introduced into MEPDG. The self-adaptive filtering method performs better than other methods in 16 sites out of 24 sites. This may be contributed to its ability to self-adjust its linear regression coefficients. The shortcoming is the lack of commercial software and its requirement of many data points. The Brown linear exponential smoothing method is found to be the worst method, and therefore, the application of this method is not suggested. Traffic forecasting has always been a challenging task. Since traffic development is influenced by many socioeconomic factors such as functional classification, population and income per capital, further researches are recommended.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This paper was prepared under research project TRC-1003, Local Calibration of the Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide, sponsored by the Arkansas State Highways and Transportation Department and the Federal Highway Administration. The authors would like to thank Andrew Warren and Vu Nguyen for their comments. REFERENCES AASHTO (1993). AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures. Washingtion D.C.: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. Applied Research Associates (2004). NCHRP 1-37A MEPDG Design Guide. Accessed on 9/12/2009. http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/archive/mepdg/guide.htm Beirlant, J.; Dierckx, G.; Goegebeur, Y. and Matthys, G. (1999). Tail Index Estimation and an Exponential Regression Model, Extremes, 2, 177-200. Brown, R. G. (1963). Smoothing, Forecasting and Prediction of Discrete Time Series, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Byrum, C. R. and Kohn, S. D. (2002). Cumulative Traffic Prediction Method for Long-Term Pavement Performance Models. Transportation Research Record 1819, 111-121. Deng, J. (1989). Introduction to Grey System Theory. Journal of Grey System, 1, 124. Gardner, E. S., Jr. (1985). Exponential Smoothing: the State of the Art, Journal of Forecasting, 4, 1-28. Gardner, E. S., Jr. (2006). Exponential Smoothing: The State of the Art Part II, International Journal of Forecasting, 22, 637-666. Haykin, S. (1996). Adaptive Filter Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 3rd edition. Holt, C. C. (2004a). Forecasting Seasonals and Trends by Exponentially Weighted Moving Averages, International Journal of Forecasting, 20, 5-10. Holt, C. C. (2004b). Authors Retrospective on Forecasting Seasonal and Trends by Exponentially Weighted Moving Averages, International J. of Forecasting, 20, 11-13. Kingan, R. J. and Westhuis, T. B. (2006). Robust Regression Methods for Traffic Growth Forecasting. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board. No. 1957, 51-55. Kutner, M. H.; Nachtsheim, C.; Nachtsheim, C. J., and Neter, J. (1996). Applied Linear Regression Models, the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 4th edition. Lu, Q. and Harvey, J. T. (2006). Characterization of Truck Traffic in California for Mechanistic-Empirical Design. Transportation Research Record: Journal of Transportation Research Board. No.1945, 61-72. NCHRP Report 538 (2005). Traffic Data Collection, Analysis, and Forecasting for Mechanistic Pavement Design. Transportation Research Board. Washington, D.C. Prozzi, J. A. and Hong, F. (2006). Seasonal Time Series Models to Support Traffic Input Data for Mechanistic-Empirical Design Guide. Transportation Research Record: Journal of Transportation Research Board. No. 1947, 175-184. Tran, N. H. and Hall, K. D. (2007a). Development and Influence of Statewide Axle Load Spectra on Flexible Pavement Performance. Transportation Research Record: Journal of Transportation Research Board. No. 2037, 106-114. Tran, N. H. and Hall, K. D. (2007b). Development and Significance of Statewide Volume Adjustment Factors in Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide. Transportation Research Record: Journal of Transportation Research Board. No. 2037, 97-105.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Analyzing the Sensitivity of Error in Data Collection for Pavement Overlay Designing
M. Khabiri
Civil Engineering group, Vali-Asr University, Rafsanjan, Iran khabiri@mail.vru.ac.ir

ABSTRACT: Data collection in determining the overlay thickness has an important role. The most cost of the repairing infrastructure and planning of the maintenance have been belonged to data collection. For increase accuracy must have been paid more cost for more workers and more equipment activity and they were reasons for delaying in implement projects. In this research, some deliberate errors ingratiate in the data, to standard procedure, to apply the calculation of the pavement overlay thickness. Changing in the overlay thickness under deliberate error ingratiate measured and compare with real data. The results show more error in overlay thickness due error and careless in determining the existence of the pavement thickness and their properties. Therefore the pavement overlay design is required to be extra accuracy in the assessment present pavement depth and their properties. KEY WORDS: Pavement, Overlay Design, Accuracy, Data Collection, Sensitivity Analyzing.

1. INTRODUCTION The measurement of the design parameters in designing the process has an important role for designing in engineering. Many parameters are interfered in flexible pavement overlay designing such as; Loading, thickness and strength of material existent of the pavement and strength of the overlay materials have key task. There are two types of flexible pavement; thin one (To create smooth surface) and performance one to support extant pavement. In this research purpose of overlay is structural (Huang, 1993). Methods that are used for designing the overlay are difference in every country. Designing of the Pavement overlay thickness is done by two methods; direct and indirect (Yoder, Witczak, 1975). Indirect method in Iran pavement design code (IPDC) is based on AASHTO1993 procedure. The centennial of this paper is determining error in various parameter measurements and the effect of these errors in overlay thickness was assessable. If accuracy in parameter measurements was increased, cost of the parameter provided increases too. The current work assesses an asphalt overlay design process by IPDC approach for a certain reliability rank and attempts to study the result of errors on estimating the overlay design thickness (Mahoney, et al, 1989). The effect of errors in data to pavement overlay design was an unseen assessment in the effort past research report, but there are some investigations in influence of data error in pavement design. The results of this research introduce important parameters in determining
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the overlay thickness, which have major role and designer must attend to these parameters and factors. The objectives of this study are as trail (Bhavanam, 2008): Parametric studying on the effect of errors on the overlay thickness Studying on the economy of the overlay pavement design considering with and without accurate in determining of existence of the pavement and subgrade in situ structural condition Estimation of the more importance factors and parameters in determining the overlay thickness For determining the final errors in pavement overlay thickness, choose one accessory road and equivalent standard axle load, layers thickness and property of the extant pavement material and potency of the subgrade changing (5, 10, 15 and 20 percent) and calculated variation in final overlay thickness. At the end comparison between overlay thickness with no-error and overlay thickness with major error too. The main objectives of this study are to complete a sensitivity study of the input overlay design procedures considerations. The assessments cover a range of subgrade and other material characteristic, and traffic factor. The sensitivity study is performed by several key input variables. Exacting highlighting is committed to influence of the reliability by ranks on the assessments. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Because the traffic mass and weight of truck in their life are increasing the need for repairing and protecting of pavement is growing, for this reason that the model of pavement performance has made. Protection and repair of pavement have got a science like the design process for asphalt coating. The non destructive test methods are expanding and also the knowledge about mechanistic method is expanding. Usually, the overlay design techniques based on analysis has three forms (Mahoney, et al, 1989): Overlay componnet analysis;(experimental method or visual evaluted) Deflection calculation ;( experimental method or visual evaluted)and Mechanistic analysis(based on theory relations) In code of practice AASHTO-1993 has noticed to probability and errors in pavement and S overlay designing and also 0 and Z R parameters are applied in formula. One of design method characters is to pay attention to reliability level of loading quantity and pavement material performance (AASHTO, 1993). Reliability level, Z R and an overall standard S deviation, 0 are the required input parameters for calculating steadfastness. In IPDC for overlay design this coefficient is respectively 95% and 0.35. Different traffic levels and design parameters used for four overlay design that was done in Louisiana Transportation Research Center. Four kinds of overlay design method were used for specific overlay thickness based on non-destructive (NDT).The result should the amount of SN parameter foe r existing pavement by method AASHTO-1993 is more than what it should be. So, the overlay thickness is less than what we need (Zhong et al, 2008). The result of another study about pavement overlay design in-E method is considering here. In this study, the traffic lane was changed in given reliability level and its effect on calculated overlay thickness examined. By continuing the study, a suitable design process, which notices to overall cost, developed (Bhavanam, 2008). Another research about significant data and information for designing, that their sensitivity is important in pavement design, is done. Some changes created in numerical parameters. The
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conclusion referred that changes in thickness base layer has that least effect in fatigue cracks and permanent deformation. If thickness of pavement layers increases, it will have less effect in reduction of vertical strain in bottom layer (Schwartz, Carvalho , 2007). Pavement overlay design usually is needed to measuring thickness and present pavement condition. Refer to error and accuracy of data collection and unfixed layer thickness and other parameter in road length determine that nomination of an accurate and antiseptic number is impossible. Therefore every parameter can used in overlay calculate relation and these indecision in data can cause indefinite results in the output of the design. 3. STUDY METHOD The current IPDC overlay design technique follows the 1993 AASHTO pavement design guide. Overlay thickness design technique in 1993 AASHTO utilizes the effective thickness standpoint. The required thickness of the asphalt concrete (AC) overlay is the function of the structural quality that is required to have the adequate demands of traffic prospect and the structural quality of the existing asphalt covering as determined by the following design relation(AASHTO,1993): Dol = 2.5 ( SN f SN eff ) aol (1) (2)

SNef =

1 (a1 D1 + a2 m2 D2 + a3 m2 D3 ) 2.5

Where Dol = required thickness of asphalt overlay; SN f = necessary structural number of asphalt overlay to carry prospect traffic; aol = structural layer coefficient of asphalt overlay, SN eff = fully effective structural number of the presented pavement before to overlay. ai = layer coefficients, Di = actual thickness of courses; and mi = drainage coefficients for granular courses. Figure 1 shows condition of the pavement layer that is used in this study. The pavement condition is used to access the road in rural zone (thickness of the layer is minimum adopted by IPDC).
Asphalt layer (8 Granular Base layer (15

Subgrade

Figure 1: Condition of existing Pavement Structure and property

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Condition of the surface layer in this study indicates that small mosaic crack with intensity less than 10% have been observed in the surface of the layer. Little amount of fine material pervade in granular base and so decrease of drainage particular a little too. Subgrade adopted 5 by nominates AASHTO classification is A-4. Load repetition is 1.5 10 Standard Axle Load (8.2 ton) for total overlay life. Table 1 shows changing in subgrade property and load repetition in critical manner about decreasing or increasing 5, 10, 15 and 20 percent. CBR of subgrade multiply by 0.95, 0.90, 0.85 and 0.80(decreasing) and loading repetition multiply by 1.05,1.10,1.15 and 1.20 (increasing). In the two end columns in table 1 can observe required overlay thickness and changing percent of them. Table 2 shows changing in layer depths and base and surface layer. Thickness of surface layer is 8 and base layer 15 centimeters and them multiply by 0.95, 0.90, 0.85 and 0.80 (decreasing) and load repetition multiply by 1.05,1.10,1.15 and 1.20 (increasing). In the two end columns in the table 1 you can observe required overlay thickness and changing the percent of them. Table 1: Changing in subgrade property and load repetition and effective of them on overlay thickness Changing Quantity 6 CBR of Subgrade 5.7 5.4 5.1 4.8 150,000 Load repetition 157,500 165,000 172,500 180,000 Changing Percent (%) 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 Overlay Thickness(Cm) 3 3.25 3.5 3.75 4.0 3 3.15 3.25 3.45 3.7 Changing Percent (%) 0 8 17 25 33 0 5 8 15 23

If you attended to tables 1 and 2 you can draw various diagrams of layer thickness that is affected by other parameters as subgrade property surface and base thickness and load repetition. Figure 2 show the percentage of overlay thickness changing. 4. COST COMPARISON Complete evaluation and assessment of pavement condition need to cost payment. Expense spending of assessment activity can be suit for errors and inaccuracy decreasing. Tables 3 display expenditure of measurement of pavement condition and pavement overlaying implement.
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Table 2: Changing in Layer thickness and effective of them on overlay thickness Changing Quantity Changing Percent (%) 8 7.6 7.2 6.8 6.4 15 14.25 13.5 12.75 12 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 Overlay Thickness(Cm) 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3 3.1 3.1 3.2 3.3 Changing Percent (%) 0 3 9 12 15 0 2 3 7 10

Surface layer thickness

Base layer thickness

Figure 2: Comparison of influence errors in effective parameter in overlay thickness calculation Table 3: Effective of changing in Layer thickness on overlay thickness Row Work statement 1 Investigation of pavement condition and complete checklist 2 checklist Assessment and study another document and determine particular pavement condition 3 Purvey and dispread material for Prime-coat (CutBack Bitumen) 4 Purvey , dispread and compact material for pavement overlaying (per each centimetre of overlay thickness) Costs $ per Unit 0.65 $per person in hour 8.30$ per person in hour 0.41 $per kilogram 0.54 $per square meter

*Costs in this table give from road and pavement maintenance price in IPDC

The cost analyzing for a kilometer of access road, which its width is 5.5 m are done adopted costs from table 3. If Investigation of pavement condition and completing checklist are done perfectly, it need about 8.9$ per pavement length unit. Each centimeter of overlay
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thickness (maximum dimension of grain is about 12.5 mm) need about 16.5$ per pavement length unit. Refer past tables and calculations for this research particular pavement, if any errors not be in pavement overlay design parameter need paying expenditure about 25$ per pavement length unit for this overlay thickness. When wasnt paid any cost for accuracy for data collection (maximum error about 20% was in data) need paying expenditure about 32$ per pavement length. Therefore when increase accuracy in data collection for overlay design (arrive actual data) can decrease total the cost of project. 5. RESULTS This research determined important parameters in overlay pavement thickness calculation hence main factor can be measurement in high accuracy level. Flowed Results would been obtained when involve variation in overlay design factors: - Minor error influence can be observed in base thickness that 20% errors in base thickness only product10 % error in overlay thickness, namely1 % in base thickness estimation makes0.5 % wrong. - Major error depend on measurement in present CBR of subgrade pavement, when20 % error occurs in CBR of subgrade, Error in calculated overlay thickness had been observed about33 %. Namely1% in estimating of load repetition makes1.5 % wrong. - Needful for decreasing cost of pavement maintenance and repair cost, expense of accurate data collected for pavement overlay design paid by road and pavement managers. The profit of this enterprise is that it lessens the total maintenance of the project cost (about50 % for this study). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This manuscript is based upon work supported by the Engineering Department and research deputy of Vali-Asr University. We would like to be grateful other researcher for his openhanded sharing of their publication. REFERENCES American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), 1993, AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures, Washington, D.C. Bhavanam, R. R.,2008, Overlay Design by Mechanistic Empirical Method, Civil Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur, India. Huang, Y. H., 1993, Pavement Analysis and Design. 1st Ed., Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Mahoney, J. P.; Lee, S. W.; Jackson, N. C. and Newcomb, D. E. 1989, Mechanistic-Based Overlay Design Procedure for Washington State Flexible Pavements, Washington State Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C. January. Schwartz, C. W. and Carvalho R. L., 2007, Implementation of the NCHRP 1-37A Design Guide ,Evaluation of Mechanistic-Empirical Design Procedure, University of Maryland, February Yoder, E. J. and Witczak, M. W., 1975, Principles of Pavement Design. 2nd Ed., Wiley, New York. Zhong,Wu; Xingwei, Chen; Kevin, G. and Zhongjie, Zh., 2008, Structural Overlay Design of Flexible Pavement by Nondestructive Test Methods in Louisiana, 87th Transportation Research Board Annual Meeting, Washington, D.C. January.
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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Additional Road User Costs due to Pavement Conditions and Maintenance Actions: Initial Approach for Portuguese Conditions
B. Santos
Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Beira Interior, Covilh, Portugal bsantos@ubi.pt

L. Picado-Santos
Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, IST, Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal picado.santos@civil.ist.utl.pt

V. Cavaleiro
Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Beira Interior, Covilh, Portugal victorc@ubi.pt

ABSTRACT: A simplified Road User Costs model and input data for Portuguese trunk road networks were defined in a research work conducted in 2004-2007 for Portuguese conditions. The developed model allows the calculation of average road user costs values (2006 base year) considering the vehicle operating, accident and time costs. This paper describes the first activities conducted to refine the model in order to include specific conditions, namely, the consideration of pavement conditions and maintenance actions (work zones) influence. The study was conducted to perform the refinements of the model which allowed the identification of sensitive parameters for the specific conditions mentioned above, as well as the comparison with the sensitive parameters identified in several international models in use and the verification of the Portuguese legal framework for the road work zones and together with the specific values for the Portuguese conditions, a proposal of an improved formulation. The paper also presents model applications to Portuguese road networks under private concession and compares the average costs values to the ones obtained for specific work zones and pavement conditions scenarios. The conducted and ongoing research will provide the needed tool to integrate road user costs in Portuguese Pavement Management Systems economic analysis since nowadays no structured road user costs model is being used in Portugal. KEY WORDS: User Costs, Roads, Pavement Conditions, Work Zones, Mathematical Models.

1. INTRODUCTION Currently, the Portuguese Road Administration does not consider Road User Costs (RUC) in the evaluation process of road design, maintenance or rehabilitation; therefore the estimation of road life cycle costs does not include this important aspect.

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Taking into account the described situation, a research work was defined in two Portuguese universities in order to develop a simplified RUC model to obtain road user cost as a function of the available official data. The simplified RUC model was developed in 2004-2007 and has provided the needed toll to consider these costs in the asset of management systems (Santos, 2007). This model is based on the simplifications of the HDM-4 (Bennett et al., 2001), COBA (Department for Transport et al., 2002) and JAE (Portuguese Road Administration, designated, at the time, as JAE Junta Autnoma de Estradas) (GEPA, 1995) road user costs models, providing average cost values. The three main components of road user costs considered were vehicle operating, accident and time costs, along with a component related with tolling costs. The model was also developed aiming at simplicity, reduced data requirements (selected data is usually available), easy calibration, easy application and trustworthy results. However, the effect of pavement conditions and maintenance actions in RUC estimation are not considered in the simplified model developed. So, model refinements to include these important aspects are proposed in this paper to enable a more realistic road cost analysis, since they were not explicitly considered in the initial formulation. To sustain the refinements made in the model, the analysis to identified critical parameters, a study of the approaches taken by some international models in use and the characterization of Portuguese legal framework, were performed. These aspects have been incorporated in the formulation without neglecting the objective of obtaining a simple model with reduced data requirements. 2. INITIAL RUC FORMULATION The model for Portuguese conditions was developed taking into account several main aspects, specifically: the recognized conceptual principles, application to trunk roads, the impact of each component on the total users costs and the availability of Portuguese official information, moreover, four vehicle classes were considered, passenger car (PC), utility (U), heavy truck (HT) and heavy bus (HB). The results of these considerations leaded to a Portuguese model with the three main costs components identified above: the vehicle operating costs (VOC), including costs for fuel, tires, vehicle preventive maintenance and depreciation; the accident costs (AC), considering costs for accident (police and medical assistance by accident type) and casualty costs (fatalities, serious and slight injuries); and the value of time (VOT) for work and non-work travels. Eventually a component related to tolling costs (Toll) may also be added. The cost basis used is only related to direct costs for the user. The model developed has the following general formulation:
RUC = VOC + AC + VOT + Toll

(1) (2)

VOC = AADT (VOC i p i )

i =1

3 3 AC = AADT AC j + CCk k =1 j=1

4

(3)

VOT = AADT ( VOTi p i )

i =1

(4)

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Toll = AADT (ctolli pi )

i =1

(5)

Considering by vehicle class:

VOCi = Cf i + Ct i + Cmi + Cd i
VOTi = 1 2 (TCm OR i,m ) si m=1

(6)
(7)

And for the set of all vehicle classes (without vehicle class disaggregation):
AC j = AR j ac j

(8)

CC k = ANCk cc k AR j
j=1

(9)

Where, AADT is the annual average daily traffic [vehicles/day]; AC is the accident cost [/km/day]; ACj is the accident j cost [/km/vehicle]; acj is the accident j cost (police time cost) [/accident]; ANCK is the average number of k casualties by accident [casualties/accident]; ARj is the accident j rate [accidents/vehicle/km]; CCk is the casualty k cost [/km/vehicle]; cck is the casualty k cost [/casualty]; Cdi is the vehicle depreciation cost for vehicle i [/km]; Cfi is the fuel cost for vehicle i [/km]; Cmi is the maintenance cost for vehicle i [/km]; Cti is the tire cost for vehicle i [/km]; ctolli is the toll cost for vehicle i [/km/vehicle]; i is the vehicle class: i=1 for Passenger Car; i=2 for Utility; i=3 for Heavy Truck; i=4 for Heavy Bus; j is the accident class: j=1 for accidents with slight injury; j=2 for accidents with serious injury; j=3 for accidents with fatalities; k is the casualty class: k=1 for slight injury; k=2 for serious injury; k=3 for fatalities; m is the travel purpose: m=1 for travel in work time; m=2 for travel in non-work time; ORi,m is the occupancy rate for vehicle i and travel purpose m [occupant/vehicle]; pi is the vehicle proportion of each class i for the AADT considered; RUC is the Road user cost [/km/day]; si is the average operating speed for vehicle i [km/h]; TCm is the time cost for travel purpose m [/h/occupant]; Toll is the Toll cost [/km/day]; VOC is the Vehicle operating cost [/km/day]; VOCi is the VOC for vehicle i [/km]; VOT is the Value of time [/km/day]; VOTi is the Value of time for vehicle i [/km/vehicle].

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The input model values for average situations were also defined for Portuguese conditions, using 2006 as the base year. This definition took into account the values used and recommended by the existing methodologies and, in particular, the values obtained from the Portuguese haulers association, companies and official bodies such as the police and emergency services. The complete formulation, as well as the defined input values for passenger car and heavy truck, can be consulted in papers presented at international conferences (Santos et al., 2008; Santos et al., 2007). 3. ADDITIONAL RUC DUE TO PAVEMENT CONDITIONS AND MAINTENANCE ACTIONS Additional RUC due to maintenance intervention periods (work zones) and changes in pavement conditions can easily be included in the proposed RUC formulation by considering specific parameter values defined for a certain maintenance strategy or for a particular pavement quality index. Several variability studies were carried out to identify the sensitive parameters of the model. These studies simulated a variation of 20 to 30% of the average values adopted for operating speed, fuel consumption, tire service life, vehicle service life and annual average kilometrage. The results obtained show that the proposed model, as most of the existing ones, is mainly sensitive to changes in the average operating speed defined for each vehicle class and type of road; and fuel consumption and cost. Besides being identified as critical parameters, speed and fuel consumption and cost are also the main factors in the VOT and VOC definition, and those that best reflect the additional RUC due to pavement conditions and maintenance actions on the network (work zones). Thus, the definition and consideration of correction factors that can be applied to the average values defined for these parameters is critical to forecast additional RUC in sections where maintenance actions are planned, or to compute the benefits associated with a better pavement condition. 3.1. Pavement Conditions Changes in operating speed and the consequent additional travel time due to the pavement conditions can be easily incorporated into the proposed model formulation by considering the section length within a certain pavement quality index and lowers operating speeds. However, the pavement conditions of the most important networks, as the national ones, do not reach in general such a degradation level that influences, in a significant way, the values of the normal operating speed. Moreover, pavements in good conditions allow vehicles to perform higher speeds with greater comfort and security, reducing travel time and accident costs. It also allows reductions in operating costs in terms of tires, maintenance and depreciation of the vehicle, but not necessarily in fuel. Opposite situation occurs for pavements in poor conditions. The condition of the road network pavements was integrated in the VOC calculations through a quality index representing the functional and structural state of the pavements. The index adopted in the proposed model was the Present Serviceability Index (PSI), which ranges from 0 (for a pavement in a poor state) to 5 (for a new pavement). Equation (10) presents a PSI formulation developed for Portuguese trunk roads (PicadoSantos et al., 2006). This formulation is currently used by the Portuguese Road Administration and was adopted in the proposed RUC model in order to obtain PSI values to use in the calculation of additional VOC due to pavement conditions.
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The changes in VOC as a function of PSI (or IRI International Roughness Index) have been obtained from expressions developed by applying regression analysis to real data, resulting in several formulations such as those presented in HDM-4 (World Bank, 2007), TRB (TRB, 1983), ASTM (ASTM, 1983) and by Picado-Santos et al. (Picado-Santos et al., 2006) for Portuguese conditions. The study of these formulations, as well as an analysis of recent data on Portuguese trunk road pavements condition (Picado-Santos and Pereira, 2009) and average user cost (Santos, 2007) was used to develop an equation that reflects the change of VOC as a function of PSI. This analysis allowed the definition of Portuguese average and extreme values for the relation VOC PSI. These values, presented in Table 1, were used to calibrate the Portuguese mathematical model (see equation (12)). Table 1: PSI versus RUC values for specific Portuguese scenarios PSI
0 2.0 3.5 4.7 5.0

IRI (m/km)
4.25 3.50 2.00 0.50 -

Correction factors for VOC

1.15 1.05 1.00 0.95 0.95

The refinements proposed to include the consideration of pavement conditions in RUC calculations are presented in the equations (10), (11) and (12). (10) (11) (12) Where, RUCPSI is the incremental increase or decrease in RUC owing to PSI [/km/day]; PSI is the present serviceability index [0-5]; FVOC,PSI is the VOC correction factor for a certain PSI value; IRI is the international roughness index [mm/km]; R is the mean rut depth [mm]; C is the total cracked pavement area [m2/100m2]; S is the total pavement disintegrated area (with potholes and raveling) [m2/100m2]; P is the pavement patching area [m2/100m2]. Figure 1 shows the curves obtained from the VOC correction factors recommended by TRB-ASTM, a Portuguese model (UC-UM) (Picado-Santos et al., 2006) and the proposed one (RUC PT). The TRB study only presents a correction factor for fuel consumption in USA road networks. This study was completed by ASTM for non-fuel VOC components (engine oil, tires, maintenance and repair, and depreciation expense). Still, the correction factors presented in Figure 1 for TRB-ASTM approach were obtained by applying the Portuguese VOC values (Santos, 2007) to the disaggregated correction factors for fuel and non-fuel components.

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By the analysis of figure 1 it is possible to conclude that the trend of the proposed mathematical model is similar to the ones studied, even if the correction factors for worst pavements are smaller. This can be justified by considering technological advances in vehicles and the type of road network (trunk road), where low PSI values are not common.

Figure 1: VOC correction factors for different PSI values Sensitivity analyses considering changes in VOC with IRI were also carried out, since most of the existing formulations use IRI as the main parameter for compute PSI in trunk road networks. In Figure 2 are presented the curves obtained from HDM-4 and JAE RUC when applying: the Portuguese 2006 VOC values to PC and HV in HDM-4 and JAE model; HDM-4 default values for T7 (AADT=6500) and T8 (AADT=20000) traffic classes; and the values proposed (RUC PT) in this study.

Figure 2: VOC correction factors with IRI For trunk roads and current values of IRI (up to 3.5m/km) most of the models presents similar results. Higher values of IRI, as the ones considered in HDM-4, are not frequent in Portuguese freeways networks under concession. Thus, it was considered a significant increase in the user cost for an IRI equal to 4.25 when compared with the models studied. It must be considered in the interpretation of Figure 2 that the index adopted in the proposed model for the definition of the VOC correction factor was PSI, which calculation depends not only on IRI, but also on pavement superficial degradations (such as rutting, cracking, potholes, raveling and patching). Moreover, the pavement management system adopted by the Portuguese Road Administration considers that an intervention is justified when PSI is equal to or less than 2.0, corresponding to an IRI of about 3.5m/km.
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3.2. Work Zones The main parameters that can lead to additional RUC in work zones have been identified, in several models in use, as being the decrease of operating speed, which increases the VOT, and the consequent additional fuel consumption, increasing the VOC values. However, of the two parameters, the most significant influence on RUC values occurs due to changes in operating speeds. These changes and the consequent additional travel time can be incorporated into the proposed model formulation by the consideration of section length with work zones and lower operating speeds. Regarding fuel consumption, data collected, empirical models developed from that information (which usually relate fuel consumption to the operating speed of vehicles) and mechanistic models for fuel consumption (which relates this consumption to the forces opposing motion and allowing applications under different conditions), show that maximum fuel consumption occurs for low and high speeds, and minimal fuel consumption for speeds of 40 - 60km/h (Bennett et al, 2001) (Department for Transport et al., 2002). Thus, for trunk roads with high operating speeds (with at least two lanes in each direction), and considering the Portuguese legal framework which limits the road private concessionaires to guaranty operating speeds greater than or equal to 2/3 of normal operating speed in work zones (up to 10km per set) at day time (7h-21h), there is actually a decrease in fuel consumption. Lower speeds, up to 1/3 of normal operating speed, are allowed in work zones during the night time. In such cases there is a high probability of frequent stops, resulting in an increased fuel consumption associated with the movement at very low speeds. These cases are more common in two lane roads (one in each direction). Taking into account the scenarios described above, additional RUC in work zones due to changes in fuel consumption were only considered in Portuguese National and Regional Roads with two lanes (one in each direction) operating at lower speeds (up to 1/3 of normal operating speed), and in these cases an increase of 20% in fuel consumption was considered. The choice of this value took into account PC representative vehicle manufacturer information that points to urban fuel consumption values of 20-30% higher than the combined ones and, for HT, the additional values of 30-40% that are commonly obtained in fuel consumption models simulations. When traffic diversions are needed, changes in operating costs and travel time should be considered in the same manner as described above. The refinements proposed including the aspects mentioned above are presented in the following equations: (13)

for

(14)

(15)

(16)
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Where, dCf is the incremental increase in fuel cost owing to M&R actions [/km/day]; dVOT is the incremental increase in the value of time owing to M&R actions [/km/day]; ENs are the National Roads with two lanes (one in each direction) and medium design standards; ERs are the Regional Roads with two lanes (one in each direction) and medium design standards; RUCM&R is the road user cost in maintenance and rehabilitation zones [/km/day]; sM&Ri is the average operating speed in M&R sections, for vehicle i [km/h]; VOTM&Ri is the value of time in M&R sections, for vehicle i [/km/vehicle]. 4. MODEL APPLICATIONS The RUC formulation and input model values proposed were applied in two Portuguese freeways (multilane) networks under concession (Scutvias and Aenor) with good results. Table 2 includes the data provided by the private road concessions for RUC calculations. Some applications results are shown in Table 3. Table 2: Data provided by road concessions for 2006 Data
Network length (km) Total AADT pi (1) PC U HT HB Accidents With slight injury With serious injury With fatalities Casualties Slight injury Serious injury Fatalities Approximate toll cost (/km)

Scutvias (A23)
177.5 10290 0.7987 0.0628 0.1295 0.0090 68 6 2 89 9 2 0.20 (virtual toll(2))

Aenor (A7, A11)

165.4 7769 0.8255 0.1337 0.0308 0.0010 55 9 0 89 9 0 0.07 (PC) 0.18 (HT)

Note to Table 2: (1) Information processed. (2) The approximate toll cost values provided by Scutvias correspond to a uniform rate for all vehicle classes.

For the two RUC applications some differences can be found in the average values presented for the VOC and the toll cost. This is caused essentially by the AADT values found for each freeway and by the different toll cost and system of toll charging. Virtual toll charging is adopted by Scutvias (the toll is paid by the taxpayer) and real charging by Aenor (the toll is paid directly by the users). From the results obtained we can confirm the main role of the VOC (approximately 50%) and the VOT (approximately 20%) in total RUC. Therefore, knowing that the VOC is mostly influenced by pavement condition and the VOT by maintenance interventions, in a temporary basis, a decrease in RUC is expected when a care pavement maintenance program is applied, reducing at the same time the number of accidents. Moreover, it is also possible to conclude that toll costs have also a significant contribution in RUC (approximately 20%), and still, despite the small contribution of the AC component
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in the results obtained for the analyzed networks, must be also considered in the calculations, since it has a more significant impact in low-medium design standard roads. Additional RUC due to a maintenance/rehabilitation and pavement condition scenario in a section with 1km long, a speed reduction to 2/3 of normal operating speed (to 80km/h), PSI equal to 2,0 and no deviations was tested (see table 3). This scenario takes into account the Portuguese legal framework described above for main road network with work zones operating during day time. Table 3: Portuguese RUC model application results (2006 values) Scutvias (A23) Average values Costs VOC AC VOT Toll RUC Scutvias (A23) Work Zone PSI=2,0 Aenor (A7 and A11) Average values Aenor (A7 and A11) Work Zone PSI=2,0

RUC RUC RUC RUC RUC RUC RUC RUC (/km/day) (%) (/km/day) (%) (/km/day) (%) (/km/day) (%)
2.267 83 703 742 3.795 60% 2% 19% 19% 100% 2.384 83 1.055 742 4.264 56% 2% 25% 17% +12% 1.352 73 505 637 2.567 53% 3% 19% 25% 100% 1.421 73 758 637 2.889 49% 3% 26% 22% +12%

In this scenario, because fuel consumptions associated with high speeds, as the ones practiced in freeways, are high, the occurrence of lower speeds allowed by law for work zones does not increase fuel consumption, thus it was not considered in the analysis. The total RUC obtained considers only additional time costs and non-fuel components costs, resulting in an increase of 12% when compared to the average values of RUC. 5. CONCLUSIONS Many road user costs models with strong conceptual frameworks have been developed in the past and are in use, however, many countries or regions that wish to consider RUC in their road life cycle costs analysis lack the means to obtain and update all the data required for the application of these models. The RUC model defined for the Portuguese highway network fills this gap and can be used as a tool in road management systems as, currently, no RUC model is being used by the Portuguese road administration. The simplified formulation presented in this paper allows an easy, fast and reliable integration of these costs in realities that, until now, were not considered. The performed simulations clearly show the importance of the consideration of additional RUC due to the occurrence of maintenance actions. For pavements condition similar results were found, however, with less influence when compared to work zones additional cost. The inclusion of these aspects on RUC calculations, through the definition of correction factors to be applied on the sensitive parameters of the model, will increase the accuracy of the RUC values (for total service life) to be used in asset management systems. Thus, it will be possible to identify the best strategic programs and reach optimal solutions with good benefits/cost relations, contributing to the sustainability of the infrastructures through an extended transport costs consideration (construction, maintenance and user costs).

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REFERENCES ASTM, 1983. Measuring Road Roughness and Its Effects on User Costs and Comfort. ASTM-STP 884, p. 127-142. Bennett, C.; Greenwood, I., 2001. Modelling road user and environmental effects in HDM-4, Volume 7. The Highway Development and Management Series, PIARC, Paris, France. Department for Transport, Scottish Executive Development Department, Welsh Assembly Government / Llywodraeth Cynulliad Cymru, The Department for Regional Development / Northern Ireland, 2002. Design Manual for Roads and Bridges, Volume 13: Economic Assessment of Road Schemes, Section 1: The COBA Manual. UK. GEPA Gesto de Pavimentos, Lda., 1995. Sistema de Gesto da Conservao. Sistema de Custos dos Utentes. JAE Contrato 4915, Lisboa. Picado-Santos, L.; Ferreira, A. and Pereira, P., 2006. Estruturao de um Sistema de Gesto de Pavimentos para uma Rede Rodoviria de Carcter Nacional. CEC Revista Engenharia Civil, N. 26, p. 45-59. Picado-Santos, L. and Pereira, P., 2009. Relatrio de Caracterizao do Estado do Pavimento, IC1- Costa de Prata (Pavement Characterization Report, IC1- Costa de Prata). ACIV, DCE - University of Coimbra, Report AENOR n1 (confidential report until released by contractor). Santos, B., 2007. Modelao dos Custos dos Utentes na Gesto da Estrada (in portuguese). PhD Thesis, Covilh, Portugal. Santos, B.; Picado-Santos, L. and Cavaleiro, V., 2007. Vehicle Operating, Accident and User Time Costs in Pavement Management Systems: Approach for Portuguese Conditions. The Fifth International Conference on Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Pavements and Technological Control, Utah, USA. Santos, B.; Picado-Santos, L. and Cavaleiro, V., 2008. A Road User Costs Model for Portuguese Trunk Roads. Proceedings of the 3rd European Pavement and Asset Management Conference, CD edition 1027, Portugal. The World Bank, 2007. HDM-4 Road User Costs Model. Version 1.20, Washington D. C. Zaniewski, J., 1983. Fuel consumption related to roadway characteristics (Discussion and closure). TRB.

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Analysis of Aircraft Inflatable Slide Evacuation Events

V. Motevalli
Mechanical Engineering Technology, Purdue University motevalli@purdue.edu

ABSTRACT: The US Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR Part 121) requires that aircraft exits at heights higher than 1.8 m (6 feet) from the ground to have inflatable slides. Use of such slides for evacuation of the aircraft during accidents is critical as a number of recent accidents have shown. This paper examines emergency evacuation of commercial aircrafts under this CFR provisions which occurred via slides during the period of January 1st, 1996 to June 30th, 2006. The period was chosen so that reporting and possible investigation would have been completed. Primary data sources included the FAA, NTSB, and commercially available databases. In addition, data was colleted from Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting (ARFF) groups of major airports throughout the United States. During this period, 142 emergency evacuation events were identified. The data shows a significant annual variation in number of emergency evacuation events. Furthermore, over this period, about 50% of the emergency evacuations result in injuries. However, nearly 90% of all injuries are minor. The injuries during emergency evacuations were analyzed using AIS (Abbreviated Injury Scale) and the mechanisms of injuries are discussed when adequate information were available from the accident investigation. Only about 10% of injuries examined in this study may be classified under AIS3, serious, and the remaining 90% would be classified under AIS 1 and 2, minor to moderate, respectively. Finally, an analysis of issues surrounding large aircraft slide evacuation such as B747 and A380 are discussed. The study also reveals evacuation of aircrafts using slides ordered under perceived or false emergencies. There have also been instances of inadvertent or intentional slide deployment by passengers or crew. Deployment of slides has operational and financial consequences for airlines and airports. Many of such evacuations have also led to injuries. KEY WORDS: emergency evacuation, slide, injuries, commercial aircrafts

1. INTRODUCTION U.S. air transport system has enjoyed a very safe period over the past decade when accident rate has been at historical lows. During this period, there has been a number of accidents that have highlighted the effectiveness and necessity of the aircraft evacuation standards, i.e. evacuation of passenger aircraft under 90 seconds using only half of all aircraft exits. A number of recent accidents are testimony to this fast: a) Air France A340 crash in Toronto in 2005 (no fatality and all passengers evacuated through half of the exists using inflatable slides prior to aircraft being completely destroyed by fire),
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Figure 1: Air France Airbus A340 jet slid off the runway and crashed at Toronto Pearson International Airport in Toronto, Wednesday, Aug. 3, 2005. All 309 passengers and crew aboard the Air France jet survived the crash Tuesday afternoon. Associated Press photo. b) China Air B-737-800 that caught fire upon landing due to fire in the right engine on August 20, 2007 at Naha airport in Okinawa, Japan. All 165 passengers and crew were able to evacuate via the available inflatable slides before the plane was fully engulfed in fire.

Figure 2: 20 AUG 2007 (10:35), Boeing 737-809, Operated by China Airlines, OkinawaNaha Airport (OKA) (Japan) c) USAIR A320, flight 1549, lost engines due to air strike and managed a water landing on the Hudson river in New York on 15 January 2009. All passengers and crew exited the aircraft and used inflatable slides to avoid drowning. These events are outside the scope of the study, but are a great examples of the need to better understand these events. There is a danger of complacency as overall aircraft crashes have reduced, however, these events also demonstrate how closely we have come to avoiding disasters. At the same time, new challenges may be on the horizon when dealing with a very large air transport such as the Airbus A380. The certification process for the evacuation provided some very interesting data and a range of technical and non-technical issues. In this paper, some of these matters are addressed as well.

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Figure 3: USAIR A320, flight 1549, after water landing on the Hudson river in New York on 15 January 2009 Aside from actual incidents or accidents leading to slide deployment, any required, cautionary or inadvertent deployment of evacuation slides can results in injuries that need to be addressed. In parallel, given the current financial pressures on the aviation industry as whole and the US industry in particular, there are settle drivers for crew to avoid calling for emergency evacuation. Erring on the side of caution has been a trademark of aviators, but costly deployment of slides in conditions when judgment must be exercised may result in increased risk. At the same time, studies of historical emergency evacuations have shown that problems can occur during use of inflatable slides which pose threat to lives of passengers and crew members during evacuation (NTSB, 1974; NTSB, 2000; TSB, 1995; and Fedok, 2001). These competing factors must be balanced.

Figure 4: Airbus A380 evacuation certification test for the 90 second evacuation.

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This paper summarizes and builds on the result of a study conducted for the National Academies, Transportation Research Board Airport Cooperating Research Program (ACRP) 11-02(003) quick response study project (Motevalli, et al, 2008). Previous studies conducted by NTSB examined similar issues over a longer time period. The referenced study focused on evaluating relevant process and procedures exercised by airlines, Airport Rescue and Fire Fighting (ARFF) units and airports as well as examining the injury mechanisms. Other effects such as external factors, for example; wind, fire and smoke outside the aircraft as well as large aircraft characteristics are considered as well. The study period was set for nearly 10 years to provide a reasonably large data base of operations and potentially significant number of events. Since some time must elapse to ensure incident and accident reports are compiled, working back from a latest possible date of June 2006, the period of January 1, 1996 June 30, 2006 was selected. The following parameters are used to compile the relevant events:
US air transport operations under Part 121 (both scheduled and non-scheduled) Deployment of inflatable slides during emergency evacuation Accidents and incidents as defined by NTSB and FAA

(http://www.ntsb.gov/aviation/report.htm) 2. RESEARCH APPROACH 2.1. Data Bases Used Several data bases and sources were consulted in compiling the evacuation incident and accident data: 1. 2. 3. 4. FAA incident data base NTSBs accident database CASE Database produced by Airclaims RGW Cherry & Associates Limited database which has been designed on behalf of the Airworthiness Authorities participating in the Cabin Safety Research Technical Group (in the early nineties, the aviation authorities of North America including Canada and United States, Europe, and Japan formed the Cabin Safety Research Technical Group to bring together their respective cabin safety research efforts. For additional information visit http://fire.tc.faa.gov/cabin.stm) Service Difficulty Report (SDR) Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS) Direct survey from ARFF groups of thirty major airports throughout the United States Direct survey of airlines which are ATA members

5. 6. 7. 8.

We have also examined the potential use of Service Difficulty Reports (SDR) and the Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS). The former has very large number of entries that may require data mining tools to use and this is outside the scope of this project. However, examination of the SDR has given us some qualitative assessment of the extent of information available. The ASRS is difficult to use since much of the information is de-identified and the narratives often are also not detailed enough on the cases we have located. Each of the databases noted above was queried separately using the parameters outlined in the scope and for aircraft that have inflatable slides. Those aircraft that are not large enough to have such slides are not included in this study.

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2.2. Challenges with accuracy of data The Code of Federal Regulations (49 CFR 830.5) requires operators to notify the NTSB of any deployment of inflatable slides. Such deployment may range from inadvertent, uncommanded, maintenance related to an actual emergency. According to Hynes (Hynes, 2000), such accidents or incidents do not always get reported to the NTSB. Based on discussions with airline safety officers, such reporting may take the form of a phone call to the NTSB and if the event has not resulted in damage or injuries of any kind, it may not be even logged by NTSB and would certainly not be investigated. This makes it difficult to establish a base total number of events when slides are deployed or emergency evacuations using slides have occurred. However, more challenging is that fact that based on the review of these data bases, not all incidents (as opposed to accidents) are included in the FAA database. While, as expected, all accidents were noted in the NTSB database, a few accidents were not included in the FAA database. Note that the FAA accident database is not available on the FAA web site and was obtained directly from FAA. All incidents involving slide deployment were also expected to be recorded on the NTSB database due to the reporting requirement. However, perhaps due to the less formal reporting mechanism noted above, incidents that did not involve major injuries are not recorded. It was surprising that some of these type incidents were included in the FAA database, although there were only a few discrepancies of this nature. Since there were discrepancies between the four databases, our search was supplemented by contacting airlines directly as well as airport fire and rescue units. The collective compilation of information from all these sources, make it reasonable to assume that nearly all cases of passenger and crew evacuations using inflatable slides for the stated period have been identified. In order to accurately identify cases resulting in injuries and more importantly to examine the injury mechanisms, additional information from any record of the incident/accident or investigation was sought. In cases that were identified as an accident and involved the NTSB investigation, the report and narratives, particularly those compiled by the Survivability Factors Group at the NTSB, contain very useful information. Unfortunately, most narratives do not contain enough details, particularly regarding mechanisms of injuries. The most critical issue is that not every accident has been investigated; therefore it is almost impossible to obtain enough detailed information on all injury mechanisms. 3. RESULTS Reports or detailed information for a total of 142 emergency evacuation events were collected using different databases. For these events a total of 441 minor injuries and 35 serious injuries were identified. A complete list of these events is published by the TRB (Ref Report). Statistical analyses were performed on the collected data illustrated in the following figures. Figure 5 shows a significant annual variation in the number of emergency evacuation events involving slides. By examining the annual rate of emergency evacuation, one can observe that there seems to be a general reduction, but given the low number of total events, such observation is not statistically significant. Although the overall number of cases is low, about 50% of the emergency evacuation events result in injuries. The nature of injuries varies significantly depending on the cases and condition of evacuation. The injuries were predominantly minor, such as Friction abrasions, sprains, scrapes or strains, and serious injuries were limited to fractured ankles, broken legs or Laceration.
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Figure 5: Annual Number of Emergency Evacuation Events Using Slides Based on collected detailed reports of the emergency evacuation events, nearly 90% of reported injuries due to use of inflatable slides during emergency evacuation have been minor injuries. However, in 2004, there were only 2 injuries reported and the 50% split between minor and serious injuries is entirely coincidental. Overall, the data showed that less than 20% of emergency evacuation events caused serious injury on an annual basis. There is no particular trend or underlying reason for variations in number of incidents or accidents and their severity. Analysis of data does not reveal any dependency on size and type of the aircraft or operation (e.g. cargo versus passenger) and behavior of passenger and crew numbers as a significant factors in the risk exposure levels. Furthermore, in some cases it is difficult to ascertain if all injuries have occurred on and or in conjunction with the use of inflatable slides. This is due to poor documentation of injuries especially minor injuries which occur during evacuation of commercial aircraft. Since number of incidents is much larger than accidents, as illustrated in Figure 6, lack of documentation of minor injuries is prevalent. While the trend of data in Figure 6 is not statistically significant, it is clear from both figures 5 (in terms of rate) and 6 that compared to a decade ago, there is an appreciable reduction in emergency evacuations. Figure 7 shows a comparison of emergency evacuation of commercial aircraft involving slides per 100,000 departures for flights operating under provisions of Part 121 and accident rate per 100,000 departures for flights operating under Part 121 on an annual basis. The rate of emergency evacuation is lower than the total accident rate despite the fact that the emergency evacuation rate involves both accidents and incidents.

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Figure 6: Number of Incidents and Accidents Involving Emergency Slide Evacuation per Year

Figure 7: Comparison of Rate of Emergency Evacuation Events Involving Slides per 100,000 Departure and Accident Rate per 100,000 Departures for part 121 reported by NTSB 4. LARGE AIRCRAFT EVACUATION Review of large aircraft evacuation issues was done as part of the aforementioned study (Motevalli, et al, 2008) to address this as an emerging issue. The data analysis showed that level and type of injuries that are prominent in the accident and incident data for slide evacuation directly related to speed. Aside from psychological issues, the primary difference for large aircraft evacuation (i.e. upper deck of A380 and B747) is the increased height which may results in a higher speed. There have been several studies and papers focused on emergency evacuations of large transport aircraft evacuation, especially with largest commercial aircraft, the Airbus A380 (Verres, 2003; Jungermann, 2000 & Jumgermann et al., 2001). A one year study done for the European Commission, called the Very Large Transport Aircraft (VLTA) Emergency Requirements Research Evacuation Study (Wilson et al., 2003), was carried out to investigate
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evacuation challenges of future aircraft. Clearly the Airbus A380 is categorized as a VLTA as perhaps B747 can be. This treatment also includes potential future designs such as blendedwing body aircraft. A computer model for the simulation of an evacuation as well as a double-deck large cabin simulator was used to analyze these issues. VLTA Emergency Requirements Research Evacuation Study (Wilson et al., 2003) includes results of the first evacuation research trials of large double-deck aircraft and recommendations. Also, Helmet Jungermann discusses the issues of emergency evacuation from a doubledeck aircraft in several papers (Jungermann, 2000 & 2001), of one which was presented at the International Aircraft Fire and Cabin Safety Research Conference in Atlantic City in 2001. He developed a model to analyze how factors such as slide design, visibility and passenger safety instruction would influence an individuals performance and observed the reactions to different situations. He also studied the psychological effects of the upper deck height on human performance. He found out that additional research had to be done but found out that a difference in the hesitation time between individuals from the upper versus main deck. In this paper the single most important issue of the speed of the passenger on the slide is examined. A dynamic mathematical model was developed to bound the problem and present a tool to perform relative comparison of speeds on slides based on total length, an angle of inclination and height of the exit sill from the ground. Details of the dynamic model is reported by Motevalli et al (2008). This dynamic model was developed based on an assumed curvilinear path with friction to calculate the velocity of a person at any given location (x,y) on the inflatable slide. Several assumptions are needed to compute the velocity including: initial velocity, constant coefficient of friction, constant curvature of the slide and no deflection due to weight of individuals on the slide. The parameters required are: the total length of the slide, the initial velocity of an individual and the coefficient of friction. These parameters are changed to see the effect they have on the velocity. For this model, conservation of energy is employed including friction but air drag effect on the evacuee is neglected. Typical friction coefficient of 0.4 noted in Part 5.5.4.3.1 of TSO-C69c (1999) was used as a starting point. Figure 8 shows the relationship between the velocity of an individual sliding down the A380 upper deck slide and the time. It can be seen that when the coefficient of friction increases, the time it takes for an individual to slide down increases. Also, at higher coefficient of frictions, the maximum velocity and velocity at the bottom of the slide are lower. With an initial velocity of 6 ft/sec (1.83 m/sec), the velocity of an individual at the

Figure 8: Velocity versus Time of an individual sliding on the A380 Upper Deck Evacuation Slide with an initial velocity of 6ft/sec (or 1.83 m/sec) with different coefficient of friction
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bottom of the slide is 5.49 m/s for a coefficient of friction of 0.6 whereas it is 8.52 m/s when the coefficient of friction is 0.4. This dependence on coefficient of friction is noteworthy resulting in terminal velocity variation of about 50%. The time required to slide down to the bottom is 1.94 seconds when the coefficient of friction is 0.4 versus 2.17 seconds when the coefficient of friction is 0.6. The model results showed that the initial velocity of passenger jumping onto the slide within the typical range of 2-2.6 m/s (6-8 ft/s) has small effect on the final speed of the passenger on the slide. The distinguishing parameter for the final speed is the coefficient of friction. Figure 9 shows the comparison in results obtained between the A380 and B747 upper deck slides assuming the same initial velocity and two separate coefficients of frictions. Regardless of the specific accuracy of the model, the results illustrate that there is a small difference in the maximum velocity and velocity at the bottom of the slide between the upper deck of the A380 and upper deck of the B747. The time it takes to reach down the slide is about the same due to the slight difference in the length of the slides and heights to the top of the slides from the ground. From the results obtained, at an initial velocity of 6 ft/sec and coefficient of friction of 0.4, it takes about 1.94 seconds to slide down from the upper deck of the A380 versus 1.88 seconds to slide down from a B747 upper deck slide.

Figure 9: Velocity versus Time of an individual sliding on the A380 and B747 Upper Deck Evacuation Slide with an initial velocity of 6ft/sec (1.83 m/sec) The computations, given equal conditions, show that there is very little difference between the two aircrafts aside from the exposure of larger number of passengers in the A380 being evacuated from the upper deck and the fact that in B747, passengers are generally directed to use the exits in the lower deck even in an emergency evacuation. 5. CONCLUSIONS The collection of data shows that not all slide deployment events are documented well and most are not thoroughly investigated for root cause and contributing factors. The data shows that over the studied period, there is a significant annual variation in number of emergency evacuation events and that on an average, nearly 50% of the events result in injuries. It is noteworthy that based on collected detailed reports of these emergency evacuation events, nearly 90% of reported injuries are minor such abrasions, burses, cuts, and sprains. It is proposed here to use the AIS scale for injuries so that reporting of injuries during aviation incident and accidents can become uniform and better understood. Based on
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this scale, 90% of injuries would be classified under AIS 1 or 2 and the rest under AIS 3. No injury above AIS 3 was identified. Very large aircraft such as A380 evacuation has come under scrutiny and public interest. A mathematical model was developed to study the key issue of speed of a passenger coming down a slide. While no attempt has been made to quantitatively evaluate the accuracy of the model, a qualitative comparison with A380 evacuation seems to make the results reliable. The model was used mostly as a relative comparison tool and shows that evacuation rate and passenger speed from the upper deck of an A380 is essentially the same as the B747 upper deck. REFERENCES Code of Federal Regulations, Title 14, Aeronautics and Space, Vol. 1 (1998). Fedok, J. T., Evacuation Slide and Slide/Raft Reliability, National Transport Safety Board (NTSB), International Aircraft Fire and Cabin Safety Research Conference (2001). Jungermann, H., A psychological model of emergency evacuation from double-deck aircraft, Australia (2000). Jungermann, H.; Fischer, K.; Beherendt, L. and Gauss, B., Evacuation from the Upper Deck: Merely and Exit Problem? (if a problem at all), Atlantic City (2001).
Motevalli, V.; Monajemi, L. and Rassi, M., Evaluation and Mitigation of Aircraft Slide Evacuation Injuries, Transportation Research Board Special Publication, National Academies Press, ACRP Report 2, p. 77, 2008.

NTSB, Safety Aspects of Emergency Evacuations from Air Carrier Aircraft, National Transportation Safety Board, Special study NTSB-AAS-74-3 (1974). Technical Standard Order, Subject: TSO-C69c, Emergency Evacuation Slides, Ramps, Ramp/Slides and Slides/Rafts, Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Aircraft Certification Service, Washington, DC (1999). TSB, A Safety Study of Evacuations of Large, Passenger Carrying Aircraft, Transport Safety Board Canada, Report (1995). Wilson, R. L.; L. J. Thomas; H. C. Muir; E. R. Galea; S. J. Blake; A. J. P. Dixon and S. Gwynne (2003). VLTA Emergency Requirements Research Evacuation Study. Paper and PowerPoint presented at the Fourth Triennial International Fire and Cabin Safety Research Conference, November 15-18, Lisbon, Portugal.

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Freight Traffic on High Speed Rail Line

D. Leal
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Coimbra, Portugal diana@dec.uc.pt

L. de Picado-Santos
Dep. of Civil Engineering and Architecture, IST, Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal, picado.santos@civil.ist.utl.pt

ABSTRACT: The railway freight transportation presents one of the biggest demands to the competitiveness of many industries and to the economy of European countries. The case study presents the High Speed Railway (HSR) connection Lisbon to Madrid, where the introduction of freight-rail service will propose new trade markets and commercial opportunities. This cargo system (for add-value cargo and not regular "rail freight") could provide a critical link in the national freight transportation system, serving not only trucking and maritime shipping, but also supporting the Portuguese intermodal trade and global competitiveness. This paper proposes a methodology based on different business models, that could support operation and investment decisions based on the Lisbon Madrid HSR service considering freight on the envelop. The model integrates technical data from different rail operators and also data provided by stakeholders that are outside of the rail system but have interests in this possibility. Henceforth using a new approach for transportation problems (MATE - MultiAttribute Tradespace Exploration), it will be possible to evaluate different strategic scenarios through different times and helping the decision making process about the introduction of freight on a HSR line. KEY WORDS: high-speed rail line, freight-rail services, MATE, aid-decision process. 1. INTRODUCTION The transportation system is a sustainable and economic efficient system, satisfied in the quality of mobility and accessibility of people and goods. This system enhances national goals of economic development and social equity, land use, planning and territorial cohesion. Moreover the transport system plays a social role and acts on improving conditions and the quality of life. Portuguese economy in the transport sector represents a value close to 4% of GDP (MOPTC, 2009). The Portuguese state is the primary care provider of transportation infrastructure. It operates through its subsidiaries an important part of public transport passengers supply and acts as a regulator on transport operations. (MOPTC, 2009) The discussion about the economic benefits of high-speed rail investment and the opportunity of devoting public funds to its development is usually too imprecise, based on

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economic development arguments, common to the literature on infrastructures and growth (Gramlich, 1994). Decisions to build HSR lines are taken, in general, without any clear overall plan (Vickerman, 1997). Besides, the Trans-European Transport Network program suffers from problems of moral hazard, given the mixed financial responsibilities and the presence of non-economic objectives (Sichelschmidt, 1999). A truth must be underlined: the economic benefits of the construction of a new high-speed rail are very sensitive to the volume of demand (Rus and Nombela, 2007). The high-speed train is a technological break-through in passenger transport which has allowed increasing railways to share on a split modal, catering to medium range distances (in the range 200-700km), and competing with road and air transport. This paper proposes a first approach methodology for estimating the feasibility connection between the main sea ports, logistical platforms, roads and the conventional rail with the new HSR line Lisbon-Madrid. It is based on a model/tool capable of generating scenarios to support strategic options during the life cycle time of the infrastructure, helping the decision makers to establish the investment prioritization. 2. PROJECT OVERVIEW The current participation of railways in the international freight transport between Spain and Portugal is just over 5% of the total volume of goods. The share of railways is even less significant in the movements between Portugal and the rest of Europe (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Exports () of goods from Portugal (INE, 2010) The low attractiveness of the railway to transport goods between Portugal and Spain has several reasons. The main ones are the low regularity of supply, the lack of complementary infrastructure (as intermodal freight facilities). Other reason is the strong competition from road transport both in price and flexibility of access and broadcasting, especially at distances of medium type, like the one between Portugal and Spain. Travel time is usually not a determining issue on freight transport, because it does not directly influence the modal choice. Security in delivery is more significant. However these elements are hampered by the change of gauge operations in the Iberian and European Networks. The change in the railway network planned for Portugal and Spain is analyzed in this paper. It intends to analyze and propose resolutions to some of the difficulties of cargo transport. The improvement of rail infrastructure will not only increase the capacity and speed
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of transport for passengers and goods, but also reducing the travel time and the regularity of service. Despite the uncertainty about the continuity of Madrid-French border line in UIC gauge, it could be crucial to modify the current modal distribution, taking into account the additional cost associated with the gauge change. The Lisbon-Madrid line, in UIC gauge and with mixed use, will allow the Portuguese network connection to the Spanish Extremadura and the Autonomous Community of Madrid. In this way, it will be possible to create new trade markets. It is expected that Lisbon-Madrid connection (Figure 2) could work as the backbone of all the transport infrastructure design for this alignment. In this way a good articulation between conventional line roads, intermodal freight facilities, sea ports and even the new airport will be, more than expected, required.

Figure 2: Lisbon-Madrid link With this new perspective of investment it will be possible to contribute to a more efficient distribution both of goods and passengers. The Lisbon-Madrid connection has been modelled to have a travel time of 2h45m for direct connections between the two capitals. The extension of the project will be 645km, 200 of which will be inside Portugal. The lifecycle investment will be made over a period of 40 years and this includes the project, construction, financing, maintenance and prevision of all rail infrastructures. 3. SCOPE OF THE PROJECT The main idea of this project is to prove that the investment in cargo-rail services could provide a critical link in the national intermodal freight transport system, serving not only trucking and maritime shipping industries, but also supporting the Portuguese intermodal trade and global competitiveness. In order to allow the feasibility of cargo introduction in a HSR line, this project considers two main pre-established analysis conditions: 1- The rolling stock required for cargo delivery will have similar characteristics as passengers rolling stock chosen, as well as the load per axel and the traffic load (tonnage) running on the line (Profillidis, 2006). These are critical factures for track and subgrade fatigue control and all the maintenance aspects of the line. 2- The products to be delivered are high value products such as post, pharmaceutical items, fresh produce flowers, fish, vegetables or fruit, or even, for instance, electronic components in order to provide a one-day (or-less) stock operation for the final destination industries.

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4. METHODOLOGY The Multi-Attribute Tradespace Exploration (MATE) method has been then selected for the purpose of identifying the preferable options for this type of HSR study. The method classifies the options into a ranking and allows for the establishment of a trade-off between countable numbers of criteria and to understand the space of possible solutions in depth. This knowledge is useful not just for finding the best solution, but it is to be used to make the best decisions according to a range of options. The goal of the method (Figure 3) is to create a system that fulfils some of the needs as well as need, while efficiently utilizing resources within some context. The context surrounds the entire endeavor, including the roles of participants and their domain influence. The Stakeholder role includes influence over the definition and evaluation of the needs. The Funder role includes influence over the allocation of the resources. The Decision Maker role acts as the gatekeeper of needs and resources, determining whether to pursue a system development effort. The Design role includes influence over the definition of the system, while efficiently utilizing resources and fulfilling needs, as determined by the Decision Maker (Ross A., 2006).

Figure 3: The goal of design (Ross A. , 2006) The fleet model tool based on MATE approach follows the idea of scenarios generation in order to obtain the Best Value based in a sensitive analysis (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Structure Process

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4.1. Stakeholders According to Sussman (Sussman, 2000), is stressing that stakeholders are organizations and individuals that may not be users of transportation, explicit suppliers of service or goods to transportation organizations, but vitally concerned with transportation enterprises and their operating and investment practise. Another assumption according to the same author is that the general public is in a very real sense, a stakeholder in the transportations enterprise. There is a relationship between transportation and economic development and quality of life all interests are of great interest to the general public. So, to a greater or less extent, everybody is a stakeholder in transportation. To this case study several entities were select in other to integrate the stakeholder group (Table 1): Table 1: Stakeholders group
Political Decision Makers Operation Managers Infrastructure Managers Users Portugal, Spain, EU, Private Investors RAVE, RENFE, AVEP CP, CP-Carga, Takargo, others Passengers Logistic Companies

The study done in this paper is referred to the Political Decision Makers. 4.2. Attributes Each decision-maker has a set of objectives. In this case study, a metric for meeting objectives will be called attributes. An attribute (Ross A., 2003) is a decision maker-perceived metric that measures how well a decision maker-defined objective is met. According to the same author, the characteristic of an attribute includes its definition, units and range from least to most acceptable values. Due to the fact that this is a transportation study, decision-makers have a massive list of objectives, multiple objectives, and therefore a set of attributes. Keeney and Raiffa (Keeney and Raiffa, 1993) defined the attribute set as complete, operational, decomposable, nonredundant, minimal, perceived and independent. An example set of attributes for this study are exposed in Table 2: Table 2 - Attributes
Attributes Definition Total cost of the engineering, planning, infrastructure, construction, stations and border connection from LisbonMadrid. Maintenance cost per kilometre Operation cost per kilometre Travel time without stops Range Units

Total Project Cost

[8-10]*106 [3035]*103 [1843]*106 [2.75-4]

/km

Maintenance Cost Operation Cost Net Travel Time (Passengers)

/km /km Hr.cent

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Net Travel Time (Cargo) Number of Stops Overall Travel Time (Passengers) Overall Travel Time (Cargo) Max Throughput Max Capacity

Travel time without stops Total number of stops Overall travel time related to passenger trains Overall travel time related to freight trains Maximum load capacity per day in the line Maximum capacity for passengers per day Ease of transference cargo from the train to trucks or from the intermodal freight facilities. 1 means the difficulty to load/unload and 5 is the best scenario with perfect conditions to transfer. Associated to the private investors. Denotes the best or worst ability to invest their money in this project. Level of risk applied to this mean of transport

[5-7.20] [1-8] [0-10] [0-30]

Hr.cent # Min Min ton/day pass/day

Interoperability

[1-5]

Risk Safety

[1-9] [1-5]

After the attributes have been determined, the utility function, which captures the perceived value under uncertainty for each attribute, can be elicited. These curves will translate the stakeholders expectative regarding the attributes according to the project evaluation. A multi-attribute utility function can be formed, aggregating the single attribute utility values into a single decision metric (Ross A. , 2006). In order to calculate it, Keeney and Raiffa (Keeney and Raiffa, 1993) defined the multi-attribute function as:
KU (U ) + 1 = Kk iU i X i + 1 , where K + 1 = [Kk i + 1]
i =1 i =1 M

( ) ]

and U ( X ) is the multi-attribute utility function, K is a normalization constant, is ki the i i i relative weight for attribute X and U X is the single attribute utility function for i attribute X . The multi-attribute utility value represents the satisfaction of a decision maker. These functions are defined over the range of 0 to 1. A utility value of zero corresponds to an attribute at its least acceptable level and a utility value of one corresponds to an attribute at its best level, beyond which no additional value is perceived.

( )

4.3. Design Variable According to Ross (Ross A., 2006) a design variable is a designer-controlled quantitative parameter that reflects an aspect of concept, which taken together as a set uniquely defines a system or architecture design. The design variables are the key quantitative tradable parameters. Some examples of design variables and its units are expressed in Table 3.

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Table 3: Design Variables Example

Design Variables Network Routing Loads Capacity Intermodal Freight Facilities Number of connections /stops HSR Link to Sines Cost share Portugal Cost share operations Portugal Rail Tarification Definition Units Different route options that can be chosen Discrete choice Maximum load ton/axle Technical specifications envisaged by the Dependent on the manufacture and the specific internal configuration brand agreed with the buyer. Better location regarding shipping and unshipping Feasible Locations loads regarding trains and trucks. Number of stops and stations on the Portuguese [13] line Connection to Sines. If there is a connection it will be defined as 1, and 0 means conventional [0-1] connection Project Cost supported by Portugal % Portuguese cost related to operations Charged paid by the users of the rail service %

4.4. Epoch Variables The system lifecycle is used to characterize the phases of a system during its lifespan, from initial concept to end of life. System lifecycle processes are beneficial to the designer for organizing the various activities required to design, develop, and operate a system. The system lifecycle is comprised of phases that have defined end points, but these are typically based on the resources available to complete a set of phase activities (Ross and Rhodes, 2008). These variables can be obtained from interviewing system stakeholders, from domain experts or from historical analysis of past context changes for similar systems. The epoch vector contains these epoch variables representing context and needs changes. Some examples of the epoch variable chosen, for the first model approach are shown in Table 4: Table 4: Epoch Variables
Epoch Variables Demand level Demand level Connections Definition Demand for cargo/freight Demand for passengers New connection in the line (e.g. new intermodal freight facilities) Economic State of the Portuguese Economy. Level 1 denotes economic recession, shortage of capital, public investment are in fierce competition to each other. In Level 5 the economy is booming and public investment is available. Analysis of rail cargo volume with changes in fuel price Units ton/year pass/year [0-1]

Portuguese Economy Fuel Price

[1-5] Volume/

In this approach it has not considered yet the epoch variables in the equation resolution.

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The use of Epoch-Era Analysis, as part of tradespace exploration, provides a means for the natural extension of static views to the dynamic view that is essential for designing systems for changeability.

4.5. Tradespace The tradespace analysis includes not only the space of the design but also the space of attribute trades. The main objective is to find the highest utility at a given cost level. This is done through the Pareto frontier of solutions. The decision maker is allowed to decide the most appropriate trade off resource. Figure 5 shows the utility-cost tradespace for some of the first designs. This design undertakes the feasible solution set. The feasible solution set may conversely contain solutions that meet or exceed the decision makers needs. The tradespace may function as a communication tool between the analyst, designer, users and stakeholders. The typical tradespace plot displays the system design on a Utility-Lifecycle Cost space, showing the resources required (cost) and value delivered (utility) for the system in a concise format.

Figure 5: Utility-cost tradespace

5. CONCLUSION This paper present the description of a methodology applied to a life-cycle approach design for high-speed rail line. With this methodology will be expected to have an answer about the options done (not only the past decisions but also some future strategic options), in the Lisbon-Madrid rail connection. The goal is to create a model that fulfils some need, while efficiently utilizing resources. This model includes not only the most properly stakeholders, funds and decision makers of the project, but also the operational and maintenance concerns supported by life cycle analysis.

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It is expected that this fleet tool to be an efficient support to deal with strategic options in high speed rail investment (Figure 6).

Figure 6: Lisbon-Madrid high speed rail connection in MATE The result is the tradespace. There, it will be possible to find the best solution related with the best scenario in study. The scene includes all information concerning with stakeholders expectation, network model, state of the line and different changes that could occur during the lifecycle time of the high-speed rail connection between Lisbon and Madrid. REFERENCES Gramlich, E. (1994). Infrastructure investment: A review essay. Journal of Economic Literature, 32, 1176-1196. INE. (2010). Instituto Nacional de Estatstica. Retrieved from www.ine.pt Keeney, R. L. and Raiffa, H. (1993). Decisions with Multiple Objectives - Preferences and Value Tradeoffs. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. MOPTC. (2009). Plano Estratgico de Transportes 2008 - 2020. Profillidis, V. (2006). Railway Management and Engineering (3rd Edition ed.). ASHGATE. Ross, A. (2006). Managing Unarticulated Value: Changeability In Multi-Attribute Tradespace Exploration. MIT. Ross, A. (2003). Multi-Attribute Tradespace Exploration with Concurrent Design as a ValueCentric Framework for Space System Architecture and Design. Cambridge, Ma: Massachussetts Intitute of Technology. Ross, A. and Hastings, D. (2005). The Tradespace Exploration Paradigm. INCOSE. Ross, A. and Rhodes, D. (2008). Using Natural Value-Centric Time Scale for Conceptualizing Systems Timelines Through Epoch-Era Analysus. INCOSE.

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Rus, G. D. and Nombela, G. (2007). Ins Investment in High Speed Rail Socially Profitable? Journal of Transport Economics and Policy, 41 (1), 3-23(21). Sichelschmidt, H. (1999). The EU pregramme Trans-European Network - a critical assessment. Transport Policy, 169-181. Sussman, J. (2000). Introduction to Transportation Systems. Artech House. Vickerman, R. (1997). High-speed rail in Europe: experience and issues for future development. The Annals of Regional Science, 21-38.

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Sustainable transportation and urban development

iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Multimodal Transport Infrastructure Policies to Support Efficient and Reliable Freight Transport Operations: A Case Study of the United States
G. P. Ong Department of Civil Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore cveongr@nus.edu.sg

ABSTRACT: A significant amount of transport infrastructures and adequate capacities of ports, rails and highways are essential for efficient multimodal freight operations. In recent years, the state of freight transportation in the United States has come under public scrutiny. This is partly due to concerns on the financial viability of freight operations under challenging economic times, and the inadequate (and deteriorating) transportation infrastructures in America. Recognizing the importance of freight transportation to the national, regional and local economies, there has been a slew of infrastructure initiatives aimed at promoting efficient and reliable freight transport operations. This paper therefore discusses some of the major infrastructure polices aimed at improving multimodal freight transport capacity in the United States. The paper first describes the recent trends in freight transportation across multiple modes (land, sea and multimodal) in the United States and the adequacy of current infrastructural capacity to meet projected demand. The paper then describes some of the recent infrastructure policies aimed at improving multimodal network capacity and reliability. Examples include major highway, rail and port infrastructure improvement projects. Finally, the paper discusses the lessons learned from these policies and the important characteristics of an integrated multimodal transport infrastructure management policy. KEY WORDS: Multimodal infrastructure policy, Multimodal infrastructure management, Freight transportation, Transportation policy. 1. INTRODUCTION In order to have a safe, efficient and reliable multimodal freight transport operations, it is essential for a nation to invest significantly on their transport infrastructures. In recent years, the state of freight transportation in the United States has come under public scrutiny. The efficiency and effectiveness of freight transportation have become threatened by capacity bottlenecks in the transportation system, inefficient use of freight transport infrastructure, interference with passenger transport, vulnerability to disruption in the supply chain, and concerns on emission and climate change (Hillestad et al., 2009). In addition, most transport infrastructures in the United States are deteriorated to a level of concern, as noted by the America Society of Civil Engineers in their 2009 Report Card for Americas Infrastructures. It was estimated that more than US$1.4 trillion of investment is required to prevent a catastrophic failure of the entire transportation network (ASCE, 2009). This is coupled by the fact that there is a lack of funding to support the much required infrastructure improvements.
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In order to ensure that the transportation network is capable of handling projected freight transportation demand, several initiatives were initiated. These initiatives were aimed at improving international and domestic freight transport infrastructures across all modes (sea, land, air and inland waterways). This paper therefore discusses some of the major infrastructure polices aimed at improving multimodal freight operations in the United States. The paper first describes the trends in freight transportation demand across multiple modes (land, sea and multimodal) in the United States and investigates the adequacy of current infrastructure capacity to handle future demand. The paper then describes some of the major infrastructure initiatives aimed at improving multimodal network capacity and reliability. Finally, the paper discusses the major lessons learned from the presented case studies and the need for an integrated multimodal freight transportation infrastructure management policy. 2. STATE OF MULTIMODAL FREIGHT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM IN THE UNITED STATES 2.1. Freight Transportation Characteristics in the United States The freight transportation system in the United States is an interdependent network consisting of seaports, airports, highways, railroads, pipelines, inland waterways and vehicles. In 2008, about $16.7 trillion (in 2002 prices) in freight value and 21.5 trillion tons are being transported in the United States multimodal transport network (FHWA, 2009). It is projected that by 2035, the total freight value transported and the weight of shipments will increase to $29.6 trillion (in 2002 prices) and 37.2 trillion tons respectively. The projected increase in freight transportation demand can pose a severe strain on existing transport infrastructures. Domestic freight movements tend to dominate international movements in both value and tonnage (FHWA, 2008). In terms of modal share, most freight is moved by trucks (85% by value and 90% by tonnage). Modal share across rail and truck modes becomes more distributed if freight weight-distance (measured in ton-miles) were considered (22% for rail and 34% for truck). One reason is that freight rail in the United States tend to carry heavier bulk commodities over long distances. High-value goods are typically intermodal, i.e. brought into the ports and shipped across the United States by trucks in containers. International merchandise trade value has dramatically increased since the 1950s. Most of these international trade comes from major trading partners such as Canada, China, Mexico, Japan, and Germany, all of which accounted for more than 50% of the U.S. total trade in 2008 (U.S. Department of Commerce, 2008). Nearly 80% of international freight tonnage is transported by sea. For the land-based border gateways (i.e. Canada and Mexico borders), truck and rail are the main freight movers. 2.2. Freight Transportation Infrastructures in the United States While demand of freight transportation has increased rapidly, there has not been a corresponding increase in investment on transportation infrastructure in recent years. Currently, the United States has more than 6.5 million km of public roads (of which 263,000 km belong to the national highway system), 274,000 km of railroads, 17,500 km of inland waterways and 2.7 million km of oil and gas pipelines, which is not too different from what was available a decade ago (FHWA, 2009). The below sub-sections describe some of the essential infrastructure characteristics associated with each transport mode and their capacity adequacy in handling future demand.

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2.2.1. Freight Trucking and Highways The National Highway System (NHS) has been serving the freight industry for many decades and currently serves more than 8.5 million trucks that may be on the road at any time (BTS, 2008). Figure 1a illustrates the national network where conventional combination trucks are allowed to travel on and Figure 1b shows the parts of the network where longer combination vehicles (LCVs) (i.e. combination trucks longer than 18.3 m or 60 feet) are allowed.

Interstate Non-Interstate NHS Non-NHS Other NHS

Doubles less than 30 m Doubles more than 30 m Doubles less than 30 m and Triples Doubles more than 30 m and Triples

(a) Conventional Combination Trucks

(b) Longer Combination Trucks

Figure 1: National highway network for trucks in 2008 (FHWA, 2008)

(a) 2002

(b) 2035

Figure 2: Growth in freight trucking demand from 2002 to 2035 (FHWA, 2008) Most of the traffic is concentrated on the Interstate system, as shown in Figure 2a. Truck traffic is expected to reach 965 million vehicle-miles per day by 2035 (Figure 2b), highlighting the imperative need for a more efficient highway infrastructure network to deal with future demand. Growth is expected to be the highest in the heaviest truck category (more than 130,000 lbs) and the lightest truck category (less than 6,001 lb), due to increases in longhaul shipments, time-sensitive shipments in small truck sizes and hub-and-spoke distribution system in trucking (Hillestad et al., 2009). Highway freight capacity is influenced by several factors, including free flow speed of highway segment, number of lanes, congestion level, types of vehicles using the highway, urban density and land use pattern surrounding the highway, operating speed range allowed on highway and whether any of the lanes are dedicated for other purposes (e.g. highoccupancy vehicle lane and dedicated truck lane). Over the past 20 years, the growth of traffic has clearly outpaced the increase in U.S. road infrastructure capacity. This has resulted in increase road congestion. It was estimated that truck delay as a result for congestion amounts
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to 243 million hours annually. This approximately translates to a trucker delay cost of about $7.8 billion per year (Cambridge Systematics and Batelle Memorial Institute, 2005). By 2035, there will be a traffic volume of at least 10,000 trucks per day on approximately 23,000 km on the NHS (Figure 2b). If the expected growth is not matched by an increase in infrastructure capacity, appropriate trucking policies and use of technological improvements in operations management, truckers will most likely face even longer travel delays. Industries relying on time-sensitive movement of goods will eventually have difficulties adapting to a less responsive freight-transport network and may become less competitive. 2.2.2. Rail and Rail Operations U.S. freight railroads are classified into four categories: Class I, regional, local line-haul and switching and terminal railroads. Currently there are seven major Class I railroads in the US. Even though the Class I railroads account for only 1% of the entire freight railroad network, they generate more than 93% of total freight railroad revenue, employ 90% of freight-line employees and own 97% of the tracks in mileage (AAR, 2009). In recent years, rail freight transportation has experienced a substantial growth in tonmileage (2,250 ton-km in 1996 to 2,850 ton-km in 2005) (Dennis, 2007). The demand for freight rail transportation is expected to increase, as shown in Figure 3. This imposes severe pressure on maintaining adequate level of service if freight rail infrastructures are not improved.

(a) 2005

(b) 2035

Figure 3: Growth in rail freight demand (Cambridge Systematics, 2007)

(a) 2005

(b) 2035

Figure 4: Capacity utilization of major rail freight corridors (Cambridge Systematics, 2007)

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Rail freight capacity is affected by a number of factors, such as the amount of railroad tracks and rolling stock, the type and number of locomotives, the topographical grade of the region utilizing rail, freight-car rail size and weight limits, the operating speed ranges, they types of signal and control systems and the operating strategies of railroad companies. Figures 4a and 4b show the capacity utilization (in terms of level of service, which is a function of volume-capacity ratio) of major rail freight corridors in 2007 and the projected utilization in 2035 given existing infrastructural capacity. It is noted that if demand were to grow as projected in Figure 3b, users of the network would observed long and highly variable delays and time-sensitive industries will choose to shift to the truck mode, further aggravating highway congestion. 2.2.3. Port, Port Operations and Sea Shipping Ports in the US vary significantly in size, type of cargo handled and operations. Figure 4a and 4b illustrate the top 25 ports in the US by tonnage (bulk commodities and container cargo) and by container cargo. These 25 ports handle more than 98% of the container trade in the country. The Ports of Los Angeles, Long Beach, Oakland, Tacoma and Seattle are the major ports on the West Coast, while the Port of New York and New Jersey, Norfolk, Charleston, Savannah, Everglade and Miami are the major ones on the East Coast. Houston and New Orleans are the primary gulf ports, with the latter being the gateway of the Mississippi River inland waterway network (MARAD, 2009). For major ports, about 50% by value and 15% by weight of the goods imported and exported are container-based.

(a) By tonnage

(b) By container cargo

Figure 4: Top 25 water ports in the U.S. (US Corp of Engineers, 2007; MARAD, 2009) Table 1: Productivity Measures of Selected Leading Container Ports
Port/Terminal Los Angeles, CA Long Beach, CA Kwai Tsing, Hong Kong Singapore Rotterdam, Netherlands Antwerp, Belgium Hamburg, Germany Tacoma, WA Klang, Malaysia Throughput (TEUs, 2004) 7,321,440 5,779,852 13,425,000 20,600,000 8,300,000 6,063,746 7,321,479 1,798,000 5,243,593 Throughput Density (TEUs/acre) 4,342 4,501 19,070 24,582 7,168 5,041 7,285 3,519 13,549 Throughput/ Crane (TEUs) 106,108 84,998 156,105 174,576 89,247 97,802 126,232 81,727 119,173 Throughput/ Quay Length (TEUs/ft) 229 210 480 523 251 196 304 190 339

Adapted from Le-Griffin and Murphy (2006).

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Port capacity is determined by several factors. These include landside physical factors (for example local road connectivity, terminal space, local rail, labor efficiency, local prime movers, berthing space, available land for movement and storage of containers, long-shore cost and capacity, and on-dock rail); waterside factors (such as pilotage, tug and tow services and ocean transportation intermediaries); ability to flow freight onto off-port road and rail; and coordination of policies among stakeholders. Many forms of productivity measures can be used to measure the utilization of the port, such as the one shown in Table 1. While Table 1 only highlights the physical and operational aspects of the port, it is noted that capacity is more than infrastructure and is also dependent on demand patterns, modal productivity and port user objectives. 3. RECENT POLICIES IN MULTIMODAL TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURES: A CASE STUDY OF THE UNITED STATES Recognizing that current infrastructural capacity is unable to meet future freight transportation demand, a series of major infrastructural policies and projects were embarked in the United States to promote efficiency in freight transportation. The following sub-sections shall discuss some of these major projects. 3.1. Highway Corridor Improvement Projects An important indicator of inadequate highway capacity is traffic congestion. In the United States, several highway infrastructure-related initiatives were initiated in recent years to reduce congestion and to minimize truck user delay and cost. One initiative is the Corridors of the Future Program (CFP), which is an US Department of Transportation effort to reduce congestion on the national highway system. The emphasis in this project is to encourage state governments to explore innovative financing as a tool to reduce congestion and improve freight efficiency on some of the nations most critical trade corridors. On September 10, 2007, the U.S. Department of Transportation announced six interstate routes that will be the first to participate in this initiative (Figure 5). The routes received the following funding amounts to implement their development plans: $21.8 million for I-95 from Florida to the Canadian border; $5 million for I-70 in Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio; $15 million for I-15 in Arizona, Utah, Nevada, and California; $15 million for I-5 in California, Oregon, and Washington; $8.6 million for I-10 from California to Florida; and $800,000 for I-69 from Texas to Michigan (USDOT, 2009). Besides the above mentioned other large-scale infrastructure projects were started to improve multimodal freight efficiency. They include (Blank et al., 2008): Alameda Corridor: This corridor was opened for operations in 2002 at a cost of $2.4 billion, including $400 million in government loans and the issuance of revenue bonds as part of the total funding package. The project enabled a more efficient movement of containers within and away the congested port facilities at Los Angeles and Long Beach, thereby expanding both ports capacity. Heartland Corridor: The Heartland Corridor rail line expansion project from Virginia to Ohio was proposed to support the Port of Norfolks efforts to service its hinterland. In particular, it is aimed to make the shortest route to Chicago accessible to double stack trains, allowing more efficient movements for connections between the east and west coasts (a day reduction on the routes between Asia and Chicago via Suez). This $309 million project includes $140.4 million funding from the federal government, some state

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level funds, and funds from the Norfolk Southern Railway. The project is coupled with the $500 million Maersk container terminal project in Norfolk.

Figure 5: Corridors of the Future in the United States 3.2. Preliminary National Rail Plan The Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) is required by the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) to develop a Preliminary National Rail Plan in addressing the rail needs of the nation. The plan sought to promote rail as a viable mode choice that improves safety, limits environmental damage, reduces energy use, creates livable communities and spurs economic growth. Some objectives and actions of the preliminary national rail plan are (FRA, 2009): Increased passenger and freight rail performance: Freight shippers not consider only the cost of rail when deciding their mode choices, but also take into account the reliability of rail services and convenience of the mode to reach its destinations. As such, the national rail system has to improve its performance to make it a viable freight transport mode. Actions that can be taken include, expanding rail capacity, improving intermodal connections, reducing chokepoints, and providing new and expanded services. Multimodal integration: The inclusion of multimodal options in the national transportation system allows shippers to make better choice related to costs and services. Concrete actions need to be taken in terms of rail capacity expansion and improving intermodal connections to alternative modes (e.g. trucking). Select corridor projects of national significance: Public projects must aim to reduce congestion on highways by promoting mode-shift of passengers and freight to the rail network. Critical rail projects such as joint passenger-freight rail and high speed intercity rail along major corridors might be pursued. Particularly, the passenger high speed intercity rail network is touted to be a major development in the near future and would consist of 100 to 600 miles of intercity corridors that connect communities in the country (Figure 6). Also, innovative financing methods are explored. Technologies to improve safety: The Risk Reduction Program (RRP) was embarked by FRA, calling for a strong safety culture within the rail industry and actively identifying risk areas, performing corrective actions and setting safety goals. In 2008, RRP is mandated in the Railroad Safety Improvement Act. New technologies that have the potential to reduce accidents are explored, including positive train control (PTC) and electronically controlled pneumatic (ECP) brake technologies.

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 Energy-efficient railway system: While current rail technologies are proven to be more energy-efficient than trucks, future advancement in energy technologies have to be adopted to further improve the environmental sustainability of rail operations. Also, the Clean Air Act administered by the US Environmental Protection Agency is to be continually enforced within the rail industry. Increase public awareness: Many of the rail projects require public support and there is a need to ensure that public information and hearings are performed to enhance awareness on the benefits of multimodal transportation.

Legend
Mega Regions Existing Amtrak 90-125 mph 125-200 mph 200+ mph Congress Designated Routes to be studied Vision not fully developed

Figure 6: High-speed/intercity rail corridors under consideration by multiple entities (FRA, 2009) 3.3. Port Infrastructure Improvement Projects Port infrastructural expansion projects can include measures to increase efficiency through better technologies, labor efficiency, terminal space, berth space and channel depth; more terminals; expanded use of short-sea or barge feeders; development or expansion of inland ports comprising of rail and truck facilities (Maloni and Jackson, 2005). Table 2 summarizes some of the capacity expansion projects that are currently under way at several major US ports. Besides these infrastructural projects, other schemes that can be implemented to reduce the adverse effects of port congestion include streamlined security processes and regulations, and spreading of port activities across different times of the day. For example, the Ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach instituted a program called PierPASS in July 2005 (BST Associates, 2008). Terminals in the ports offered off-peak shifts on nights and weekends. To promote traffic shift to off-peak hours, a fee is imposed on cargo movements between ports during daytime peak hours: $50 per TEU or $100 for a 40-foot container. 3.4. Integrated Approach to Improve Freight Transport Infrastructure Capacity Based on the various freight infrastructure improvement strategies presented in the previous sub-sections, it is learned that there is a need for an integrated and multimodal approach in freight transport infrastructure management to deal with the potential increase in freight transport demand. Elements of this approach include: Multimodal approach in increasing capacity of freight transportation systems through operational and infrastructure improvements: Enhancing capacity of freight transportation
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system does not necessarily mean adding or upgrading infrastructures. It simply means looking at all possibilities including policies, pricing, technology and selective infrastructure improvements. More importantly, capacity improvement must be multimodal in nature and use of alternate modes for freight transport must be promoted. Improvements can be classified to be operational and infrastructural. Operational improvements include intermodal freight info-structure to coordinate intermodal movements and policies to favor truck movements, and selective infrastructure improvements include the various capacity improvement projects mentioned in the previous sub-section. Table 2: Current Port Capacity Expansion Projects in US
Port Port of New York and New Jersey Port of Houston Port of Charleston Port of Seattle Port of Tacoma Port of New Orleans Port of Savannah Current Capacity Expansion Projects $1.7 billion project to reconfigure existing terminals, deepening harbor channels and berths, and improve inland access by rail and barge. $1.4 billion project in Bayport Container Terminal to expand capacity to 2.3 million twenty-foot equivalent units (TEU) per year. $792.7 million project in a 280-acre container terminal on former Charleston Naval Complex to increase capacity by 1.4 million TEUs. Includes capital improvements, harbor deepening and Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge maintenance and improvements. $368 million in terminal expansions, pier side rail-spur developments and harbor deepening. $404 million to increase container movement space, increase efficiency and capacity of rail yards and complete cleanup projects of port owned properties. $1 billion investment for an additional container terminal to increase capacity to 1.3 million TEUs per year. Include dockside cold storage, additional building and shed construction and additional container cranes. $1.2 billion investment in operational-efficiency improvements. Include acquisition of 25 post-panamax container cranes and 86 gantry cranes, and harbor dredging to deepen water way. Expected to increase capacity to 6 million TEUs per year by 2018.

Adapted from Hillestad et al. (2009)

Creating a freight transportation system that is adaptable, less vulnerable and more resilient: High-value freight industries often run on the just-in-time principle and requires a great amount of dependability and reliability in the transport network. An integrated system-level modeling of U.S. freight system that consider multiple modes, regions and components of freight infrastructures is a must in order to determine the redundancy of the system handling possible disruptions and natural disasters. Another method to improve the resiliency of freight transport system is to introduce separate freight and passenger movements on the highway and rail, so that when one system is down, the other will not be affected by the disruption. Last, innovative sea freight pricing strategies can be implemented to enable a more attractive use of maritime transportation for international freight movements between the coasts. Creating a freight transportation system that is energy-efficient and environmentallyfriendly: With more concerns on energy independence, the nations freight transportation system must be energy efficient and environmental impacts of freight movements have to be reduced. This include more fuel-efficient engines and use of alternative fuel for all transport modes (vehicles and infrastructures); removing unnecessary trips through infostructure, and use of more fuel efficient transport mode such as rail and sea. Public-private investment: Recognizing that funding is limited, equitable and sustainable funding strategies have to be adopted. Public-private partnerships could be developed wherever it is possible. Also, investments have to be prioritized and selective, i.e. projects that are deemed to have the greatest impacts to freight transportation should be performed first.

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4. CONCLUSION This paper has examined the freight transportation characteristics in the United States. Based on current freight demand trends across all modes (highway, rail and sea), it is noted that current infrastructure capacity cannot handle future increases in freight transportation demand. This has serious consequences on the society in terms of economic development, safety, environment, climate change and energy use. Through the case studies presented in this paper, it is noted that many infrastructure initiatives are recently launched to improve multimodal network capacity and efficiency. Lessons are drawn from these case studies and it is noted that an integrated approach for multimodal freight transportation system is required. This may warrant the need for a national freight transportation policy in the near future. REFERENCES AAR. 2009. Overview of U.S. Freight Railroads. Association of American Railroads, Washington D.C. ASCE. 2009. 2009 Report Card for Americas Infrastructures. America Society of Civil Engineers, USA. Available online: http://www.infrastructurereportcard.org/index Blank, S.; Parson, G. and Villa, J. C. 2008. Freight Transportation Infrastructure Policies in Canada, Mexico & the US: An Overview and Analysis. North American Centre for Transborder Studies, Arizona State University. Bureau of Transportation Statistics. 2008. Transportation Statistics Annual Report 2008. Washington D.C. Cambridge Systematics. 2007. National Rail Freight Infrastructure Capacity and Investment Study. Cambridge, Massachusetts . Dennis, S. M. 2007. A Decade of Growth in Domestic Freight: Rail and Truck Ton-Miles Continue to Rise. Bureau of Transportation Statistics, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington D.C. FHWA. 2008. Freight Analysis Framework, Provisional Estimates. Office of Freight Management and Operations, Federal Highway Administration, Washington D.C. FHWA. 2009. Freight Facts and Figures 2009. Office of Freight Management and Operations, Federal Highway Administration, Washington D.C. FRA. 2009. Preliminary National Rail Plan. Federal Railroad Administration, Washington D.C. Hillestad, R.; Van Doo, B. D. and Yoho, K. D. 2009. Fast Forward Key Issues in Modernizing the U.S. Freight Transportation System for Future Economic Growth. RAND Corporation, California, USA. Le-Griffin and Murphy. (2006). Container Port Productivity: Experiences at the Ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach, National Urban Freight Conference 2006, 1-3 February 2006, Long Beach, California. Maloni, M. and Jackson, E. C. 2005. North America Container Port Capacity: A Literature Review, Transportation Journal, 44(2), pp. 16-36. MARAD. 2009. U.S. Waterborne Trade Container Trade by U.S. Custom Ports, 1997-2008. Maritime Administration, Washington D.C. U.S. Department of Commerce. 2008. The Transportation Challenge: Moving the U.S. Economy. Washington D.C. U.S. Department of Transportation. 2009. Corridors of the Future. Available Online: http://www.corridors.dot.gov/.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Role of Multimodal Urban Transportation Infrastructures in Sustainable Integrated Transportation and Urban Planning: Lessons Learnt from the United States and Asia
G. P. Ong Department of Civil Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore cveongr@nus.edu.sg

ABSTRACT: In recent years, there has been much interest among urban and transportation planners to integrate urban transportation and land development planning in metropolitan areas. This is very much driven by concerns on sustainability. The provision of adequate multimodal transportation infrastructures is a critical component in the integrated urban transportation-land use planning process. This include the provision of intermodal passenger transfer facilities, presence of walking and bicycling infrastructures, availability of infrastructures to promote the use of alternative modes, compact transit infrastructures, and roadway infrastructures using green materials. This paper shall examine the various multimodal infrastructure options that can be used by transport and urban development agencies to promote sustainability. A number of cases studies in the United States and Asia are presented and lessons are drawn from the implementation of these strategies. Efforts in developing countries in multimodal urban transportation infrastructure and urban planning for sustainability are also discussed. KEY WORDS: Multimodal infrastructures planning, Urban transportation policy, Transportation planning, Urban development, Sustainability. 1. INTRODUCTION Transportation infrastructure and urban land use development share a symbiotic relationship. Infrastructures such as roads, railroads and waterways are often means to connect urban centers to allow passenger travel and commerce. Through the provision of these infrastructures, accessibility and mobility are increased, and the intensity and distribution of land use patterns in an area are altered. The change is mostly manifested in terms of increase in land values, population, commerce and urban development. Changes in land use patterns in turn generate more transportation demand, and spurs further transport infrastructure development which in turn increases accessibility and mobility. This cycle continues until it is halted by natural limitation, policy or system equilibrium. The intertwined relationship between transport and urban development has reshaped the balance between metropolitan and non-metropolitan areas as formerly isolated rural areas are made more accessible than they were before. In the United States, accessibility was further enhanced with the mass production of automobiles in the 1908 with the Ford Model T. Together with increasing disposable income after World War II, the middle-class found it to be much more affordable and convenient to own a car and drive. Urban sprawl single use
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zoning, low-density land use, excessive dependence on automobiles, soaring automobile ownership and the decline of public transportation became a reality. Urban sprawling and overdependence on automobiles for travel has led to serious consequences in terms of increasing road congestion in metropolitan areas, declining road safety, the depletion of non-renewable energy sources and the spectre of climate change. Congestion not only results in the loss of economic productivity, but also results in excessive energy consumption. It was estimated that congestion cost the U.S. economy $87 billion annually in the form of 4.2 billion lost hours and 2.8 billion gallons of wasted fuel (TTI, 2009) and resulted in increased air pollution and carbon dioxide emission (TRB, 1997). The heavy use of automobiles results in the overdependence on imported petroleum where approximately 20.7 barrels of oil were consumed in USA in 2007 out of which approximately two-thirds were spent on transportation (BTS, 2008). Urban sprawl and high auto ownership and usage also have adverse impacts on health and quality of life. There could be a significant connection between sprawl, obesity, and hypertension in an automobile centered setting as people are forced to drive, thus walking far less than they would otherwise. The current growth in automobile use in developing countries follows similar trends experienced by the United States and other developed countries several decades earlier. Even though there is much awareness of and knowledge about sustainability, private vehicle ownership and use continue to grow at an accelerating pace as personal incomes rise and the desire to experience faster and more reliable transportation spreads. This has become more apparent in Asia where more than almost two-thirds of the worlds population lives in Asia. Asia has been rapidly urbanizing, where it was estimated that about 50% of Asians will be living in urban areas by 2025, up from the current 35%. The number of megacities in Asia is also increasing, as shown in Table 1, where seven out of ten of the largest metropolitan areas in the world are in Asia. Table 1: Largest Urban Areas in the World
Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Urban Area Tokyo-Yokohama Jakarta New York Seoul-Incheon Manila Mumbai Sao Paulo Mexico City Delhi Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto Country Japan Indonesia USA South Korea Philippines India Brazil Mexico India Japan Population (2008) 34,250,000 21,800,000 20,090,000 20,010,000 19,550,000 19,530,000 19,140,000 18,430,000 18,000,000 17,270,000 Area (km2) 7,835 2,720 11,264 1,943 1,425 777 2,590 2,137 1,425 2,720 Density (people/km2) 4,371 8,015 1,784 10,299 13,719 25,135 7,390 8,624 12,632 6,349 GDP per capita in 2008 $34,099 $3,975 $46,716 $27,939 $3,510 $2,972 $10,296 $11,495 $2,972 $34,099

Source: Demographia (2010), World Bank (2009).

Asian megacities tend to be more densely populated than megacities in the United States. Urban density, expressed in the number of people and/or jobs per unit of land, is the key indicator of the level of automobile ownership and use, and of associated parameters of sustainability (Sinha, 2003). As personal incomes rise, an individuals choice of residential and job location increases, causing a decrease in urban density and affecting the relative use of private transportation and mass transit. Even a small increase in urban density can have profound impacts on sustainability of urban area by slowing or reversing the growth in private automobile use and making transit and other alternative modes attractive and viable (Table 2). This calls for the role of multimodal transport infrastructure planning and development in the context of an integrated transportation-urban development planning framework. This paper therefore discusses some of the various multimodal infrastructure planning options that
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can be used by transport and urban development agencies to promote sustainability. A number of cases studies in the United States and Asia are presented and lessons are drawn from the implementation of these strategies. Efforts made in developing countries in Asia in multimodal urban transportation infrastructure planning are also discussed. Table 2: Relationships between urban density and sustainability parameters (Sinha, 2003)
Independent variable (y) Urban population density (persons/hectare) Urban population density (persons/hectare) Urban population density (persons/hectare) Urban population density (persons/hectare) Urban population density (persons/hectare) Urban population density (persons/hectare)
Source: Sinha (2003).

Dependent variable (x) Cars per 1000 people Transit boardings per capita per year Transportation energy consumption by private modes (MJ/capita) Car kilometers of travel per capita per year Carbon dioxide emissions from transportation (kg/capita/year) Transit cost recovery factor

Equation y = 627.58 e -0.0106x

R2 0.838

Elasticity (at mean) -0.0106x (-0.57) [ln(x) 1.9769]-1 -0.636

y = 5138.37ln(x) 2273.54 y = 277,345x0.6358

0.705 0.797

Semielasticity (A) Elasticity (B) (A) An increase of 10 persons/ hectare in population density decreases the number of cars per 1,000 people by 10.6%. (A) A 10% increase in population density increases transit boardings per capita per year by about 14. (B) A 10% increase in population density decreases transportation energy consumption by private modes per capita per year by 6.4%. (B) A 10% increase in population density decreases car kilometers of travel per capita per year by 7.4%. (B) A 10% increase in population density decreases carbon dioxide emissions from transportation per capita per year by 6%. (A) A 10% increase in population density increases transit recovery factor by 0.027.

y = 65,743x0.7351 y = 18,189x0.5992

0.827 0.812

-0.735 -0.599

y = 0.2696ln(x)0.3511

0.622

[ln(x) 1.3023]-1 (0.35)

2. ROLE OF MULTIMODAL TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURES IN INTEGRATED TRANSPORTATION-URBAN PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT 2.1. Multimodal Transport Infrastructures in Transportation Management Many options can be adopted or considered to promote sustainability through various transportation policies and measures, as listed in Table 3. Table 3: Transportation Policies and Measures
Transport Supply Measure Road construction Rail investment/construction Improved public transportation Traffic management Provision of Park and ride Pedestrian areas Bicycle and walk ways
Source: Banister (2005).

Transport Demand Management Road pricing Toll charges Parking control Auto restricted zones Goods traffic restraint Pedestrian/Bicycle/Bus priority Traffic calming Carpooling/Carsharing

Targets and Standards Air pollution standards Noise level standards Road safety standards Fuel consumption controls Emission standards Carpooling policy Public transit use policy

In general, strategies can be categorized as transportation supply and demand management measures or specific transportation policies targeted at improving sustainability. It is noted that there is a need to ensure adequate multimodal transport infrastructural support during the land use-transportation planning process, such as: Public transportation investment and construction: This has been one of the most popular measures adopted in metropolitan areas and large cities in the United States and Asia.
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Examples are the existing metro systems in cities such as New York, Washington D.C., Tokyo and Singapore. Road construction: Road construction has been historically used to relieve congestion. In recent years, innovative green construction techniques such as recycled materials are used to promote sustainability of road infrastructures. Infrastructures for car pooling/sharing and high-occupancy vehicle priority: Highoccupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes are increasingly being used for vehicles with multiple occupants such as buses. Also car-pooling and car-sharing are also attractive options to reduce vehicular traffic on congested urban roads. However, implementation of such measures requires infrastructure support such as adequate parking facilities and barriers for lane segregation. Congestion pricing: Congestion pricing creates a market for road use based on the willingness of drivers to travel during peak periods. Most of the congestion pricing schemes in the USA are implemented through the conversion of high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes to high-occupancy toll (HOT) lanes. Active HOT lanes are in operation in the states of California (I-15 in San Diego, 91 Express Lanes in Orange County), Colorado (I-25 in Denver), Minnesota (I-394 in Minneapolis), Texas (I-10 and US-290 in Houston), Utah (I-15 in Salt Lake City), and Washington (SR-169 from Auburn to Renton). Congestion pricing has also been prominent in Singapore, which has implemented road pricing since 1975. Pedestrian priority and provision of bicycle ways: Pedestrian priority and the provision of bicycle ways have been implemented in some areas in the USA to promote neighborhood accessibility and to improve safety and thus contributing to the community quality of life. The non-motorized transportation pilot program (NTPP) under the recent federal legislation is an example of this initiative where funding is provided to four communities (Columbia, MO; Marin County, CA; Minneapolis Area, MN; Sheboygan County, WI) to improve walking and bicycling networks and to increase rates of walking and bicycling. Recent initiatives in Singapore also sought to promote bicycling as a viable mode of transportation. Such initiatives require the planning and construction of biking facilities (such as bicycle lanes and parking facilities for bicycles) and perhaps, a revamp of the urban transportation system. Intermodal transfer facilities: To facilitate connections between multiple modes (carpublic transport, within different public transportation services, bicycling-public transportation and others), it is absolutely essential for investments in intermodal transfer facilities to provide seamless transfer between different transportation modes and services.

2.2. Multimodal Transport Infrastructures in Urban Planning and Development The implementation of an effective land use planning and management is required for sustainable urban development. Wheeler and Beatley (2004) suggested a definition for sustainable urban development as "development that improves the long-term social and ecological health of cities and towns." It was hypothesized that a sustainable city would include compact, efficient land use; less automobile use yet with better access; efficient resource use with less pollution and waste; the restoration of natural systems; good housing and living environments; a healthy social ecology; sustainable economies; community participation and involvement; and the preservation of local culture and wisdom. Table 3 illustrates some of the planning measures that have been employed around the world. Multimodal transportation infrastructure planning features prominently in urban planning and development. This is especially true when planners are advocating issues like smart

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growth, transit-oriented development, and walking and bicycling communities. The smart growth concept advocates the creation of compact and livable urban neighborhoods as means to arrest urban sprawl. Efforts include adopting redevelopment strategies and zoning policies that channel housing and job growth into urban centers and neighborhood business districts, to create compact, walkable, and bicycle and transit-friendly hubs. Transit-oriented development (TOD) involves the design of an urban area using mixed-use/compact neighborhoods to maximize access to public transportation. Walkable and bike-able communities advocate walking and bicycling as viable transport modes through the provision of such facilities with a mixed land use patterns with housing, offices, retail areas and services such as transportation facilities, schools, and libraries located within a safe and easy distance for users. It is noted that successful implementation often require not only regulatory changes in urban land use patterns, but also require the provision of multimodal transport infrastructures for parking, walking, bicycling, public transportation and intermodal transfer. Table 3: Urban land use development policies and measures
Planning Measures Zoning ordinances (single use, mixed use, densities etc.) Emphasis on economic growth of principal city centers Designated cities or areas for growth/control over the pattern of development Relocation of particular employment groups/sectors Use of preferred locations for travel generating activities (i.e. town centers) Fiscal inducements to relocate in designated areas Growth boundaries around urban areas Regeneration of brownfields and other decaying areas (inner city centers) Improvement to housing and neighborhood quality/facilities Parking standards for new developments Environmental impact assessment Smart growth provisions
Source: Adopted from Levy (2009).

3. CASE STUDIES OF MULTIMODAL TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT IN USA AND ASIA This section presents some case studies in the United States and Asia on multimodal transportation infrastructure planning and development within a sustainable transport and urban development plan. 3.1. Transit Oriented Development at Pearl District, Portland, Oregon Oregon does not allow inclusionary zoning and requires compact infill development as an outcome of urban growth boundaries around all urbanized areas. These two conditions have helped set the stage for the redevelopment of Pearl District where new mixed-use neighborhoods with mixed-income housing, shopping, employment and public open space are encouraged. As a part of Portlands broader strategy to improve mass transit throughout the region, the streetcar system was built as a downtown circulator. The initial 2.4 mile segment of the line was completed in 2001 and was subsequently extended twice. The line now has 38 closely spaced stations, each a few blocks apart, allowing the streetcar to serve as a pedestrian accelerator and producing increased walking trips and less demand for parking (Figure 1). The average weekday ridership in 2006 exceeded 7,000, which is almost double the amount in 2001. Journey-to-work travel within the streetcar district consists largely of transit and walking trips (30%) without many auto trips (40% of total), verifying the role
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proper land-use transportation planning plays both within the downtown area and between other transit options. It was found that households living within the streetcar corridor transit zones also are more likely to use transit for commuting to work than households located elsewhere in the region. Most striking, and reflective of the urban environment and proximity to central business district, over 30% of the people in the district walk or bike to work and less than 40 percent commute by automobile. This is in contrast to the Portland regions modal split of 82% work trips by automobile, 6% transit and 4% walk/bike (Reconnecting America, 2007). This case study highlights the important role of public transit infrastructures and proper urban land use planning in sustainable urban development. It is clear that the levels of density could not have been achieved in the Pearl District without the streetcar, given the amount of parking that would otherwise have been necessary.

Figure 1: Portland streetcar route information (Pearl district in N-E corner) 3.2. Walkable Communities in Arlington, Virginia, USA Arlington adopted a smart growth planning approach which places dense, mixed-use, infill development at five Metro stations - known as the Rosslyn-Ballston Corridor - and tapers it down to residential neighborhoods (Figure 2) (Arlington County Government, 2010). Incentive zoning was used to attract private-sector transit-oriented development. The development plans within the corridor follow set goals for type of use, open space, infrastructure, and design with each plan focusing on growth within a walkable radius of the stations. Pedestrian access and safety are emphasized and public art, pocket parks, wide sidewalks are incorporated with restaurant seating, bike lanes, street trees, traffic calming, and street-level retail. Traffic circles, raised crosswalks, speed bumps, and other design elements are used as traffic calming measures (Lehman and Boyle, 2007) and pedestrian routes are linked to the D.C. Metro. As of 2004, there were over 21 million square feet of office, retail, and commercial space; more than 3,000 hotel rooms; and almost 25,000 residences, creating vibrant urban villages where people live, shop, work, and play using transit, pedestrian walkways, bicycles, or cars. Metro ridership doubled in the corridor between 1991 and 2002. Nearly 50% of corridor residents commute by transit. In terms of transportation modal share, 47% of the residents use modes of transportation other than automobiles to get to work and 73% arrive at the rail stations by walking. This model shift has provided cost savings since the county no longer needs to provide long term commuter parking and in addition, the land parcels previously used for parking have been developed. About 40,000 commuters board daily at the five urban stations in the Rosslyn-Ballston Corridor. About 29,000 riders board at the four suburban

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stations further out in the Orange Line with some 15% arriving on foot and 58% by car (Dittmar and Ohland, 2004). This case study shows that in order for a community to be walkable, it must have an adequate pedestrian network, a safe and pleasant environment, and ample destinations, in addition to a reliable public transportation system. This shows that the provision of adequate pedestrian movement, biking and public transportation infrastructures within an integrated transport-urban development plan is capable of promoting sustainability and improving quality of life.

Figure 2: Biking and walking along Rosslyn-Ballston metro corridor, Arlington, VA 3.3. Integrated Multimodal Transport Infrastructure-Urban Development in Singapore Singapore, as a tiny island nation had 710.2 km2 land area in 2008, with little natural resources (Singapore Department of Statistics, 2008). As such there is always a pressure to maintain a sustainable and efficient transportation system without compromising economic growth. Singapore has long had a reputation for innovative approaches to transport policy and management (Spencer and Chia, 1985). The Area License Scheme was introduced in 1975 to reduce congestion, and its rail and bus systems are among the few to operate without government subsidy. Some of the multimodal transportation infrastructure features of the land transportation system are described below: Highway and roads: New highways and road were constructed steadily since the 1980s. In 2008, Singapores road network extends over 3,325 km, covering 12% of the land area. It includes nine expressways with a total length of 161 km (Figure 3). Average speed during peak hours was 63.3 km/h on expressways and 26.7 km/h on arterial roads. The average annual km travelled per private car was 19,700 km (LTA, 2009). Public Transport: The main components of Singapores public transport infrastructure include the mass rapid transit (MRT) as the backbone of the system, the Light Rapid Transit (LRT), buses as feeder services to the MRT, and taxis as high end services. Singapores MRT covers 118.9 km with 68 stations. The LRT network has 28.8 km with 33 stations. The MRT and LRT networks form Singapores rapid transit system. By 2020, Land Transport Authority (LTA) plans to double the rail network to 278 km by adding new lines and extensions (LTA, 2008). The average bus fleet operated in 2008 was 3268, and the number of bus routes in operation was 344 (LTA, 2009). In 2008, there were 24,300 taxis in operation (LTA, 2009).
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Bicycling and Walking: Efforts are put in to improve bicycle and pedestrian infrastructures to promote biking and walking as viable transport modes. Currently there are 21 km of covered link-ways for pedestrian movements. In 2009, LTA initiated an S$43 million program to design and construct dedicated cycling tracks next to pedestrian footpaths in five residential estates. More than 6.9 km of bicycle lanes are been constructed since June 2009 and another 7.5 km will be constructed in 2010. Integrated transportation-land use planning: In 1971, the first concept plan was formulated with the help of planning experts from the United Nations Development Program. Main features of the 1971 Concept Plan include organizing land use into high density groups which are connected through their centers by a planned transportation network (cars, public transport and passenger rail). Design of other elements in the public transport network and the road system were also integrated with land use through careful coordination in physical planning. There is macro level coordination between rail lines and new towns, and micro level integration around rail transit stations (Newman and Kenworthy, 1999). The concept plan was subsequently updated in 1995. In the latest land transportation review conducted in 2008, it was announced that public transportation will be the centerpiece of the people-centered land transportation system, as means to keep congestion in check and to protect the environment. This includes centralized bus planning, distance-based through fares to facilitate transfers, bus priority measures to speed up buses, integrated public transport hubs in residential estates, integrated public transport service information system, doubling of rail infrastructure network by 2020, improvement of wheelchair accessibility in public transport infrastructures and mode and facilitation of cyclist movements (LTA, 2008). It can be seen that that a proper public transportation-land use planning and development is essential for the development of a city-state like Singapore. Besides the importance of transport demand management, the importance of adequate multimodal transport infrastructures cannot be underscored. This is especially true when the intention is to promote modal shift from automobiles to alternative transport modes.

Figure 3: Expressway network in Singapore 4. EFFORTS IN ASIAN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES TO PROMOTE INTEGRATED MULTIMODAL TRANSPORT AND URBAN PLANNING Demand for more mobility, accessibility and personal space will always exist. It is up to planners and policy makers to implement innovations necessary to meet these demands and
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yet compatible with the concept of sustainable development. Automobile-based public transportation has to be made safe and green, public transportation system should be designed to complement automobiles, and efforts must be made to minimize the need for travel. The case studies presented in the previous section yield useful lessons. It is important to implement an integrated land use-transportation planning system that minimizes the use of private automobiles in order to improve sustainability. In this aspect, it is necessary that such planning must recognize the significant role multimodal transport system and infrastructures play in reducing automobile demand. Some of the developing nations in Asia have started to address urban sprawling by tightening their land use policies. China, for example, has taken a strong stand against sprawl by approving the 2006-2020 land use plan to ensure proper use of arable land and guarantee a minimum of 120 million hectares of arable land, amid concerns of urbanization on grain security (Xinhua News Agency, 2006). Besides urban sprawl control laws, cities also have to think about integrated land usetransportation plans. For example, the Chinese government formulated the Priority Program for Chinas Agenda 21 covering aspects of sustainable development, social equity, urban planning, multimodal transportation and the environment (China Agenda 21, 2010). Integrated land use-transportation planning can play an important role in this program where Chinese cities such as Beijing, Tianjin and Wuhan have revised their urban development master plans to incorporate aspects of sustainability. Chinas Decree #46, as approved by the Chinese State Council in October 2005 (State Council of the Peoples Republic of China, 2005) advocates the development of transit systems (e.g. bus rapid transit and rail transit). The policy is primarily aimed at increasing transit mode share by absorbing formerly nonmotorized trips and new induced trips before becoming motorized. The current challenge that city planners and managers face is to find ways in which cities can be designed and managed for people, not for cars analogous to the people-centered transportation system advocated by Singapore and make sure that adequate multimodal transport infrastructures are provided to ensure that the alternate modes are viable choices. Similarly in Thailand, Bangkok Agenda 21 was initiated in 1998 as the blueprint for development of the citys urban environment and quality of life. Within the agenda, the Metropolitan Master Catalogue plans for the physical development of Bangkok and is based on the strategic agenda, community regulations concerning land use, building and the environment, and a databank based on a GIS system. The Bangkok Comprehensive Plan further highlights targets and strategies on air pollution abatement. The agenda also emphasizes future efforts on the development of mass transit, establishing vehicle emission testing programs to identify polluting vehicles, promoting non-motorized transportation and the use of alternative fuels such as ethanol or natural gas (The Cities Alliance, 2007). 5. CONCLUSION This paper has various multimodal infrastructure planning options that can be used by transport and urban development agencies to promote sustainability. From the case studies, the provision of multimodal infrastructure cannot be underemphasized within the integrated transport-urban planning process. Developing countries in Asia has already recognized its importance and are active in developing strategies to spur economic growth without compromising environmental sustainability. Through an active integrated, multimodal transportation and urban development program at the local, regional and national levels, we can greatly reduce the use of non-renewable energy, improve environment, arrest climate change and thus achieving sustainability of the world around us.

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REFERENCES Arlington County Government. (2010). WALKArlington. http://www.walkarlington.com (Last accessed: 15 April 2010). Banister, D. (2005). Unsustainable Transport: City Transport in the New Century. Routledge. Bureau of Transportation Statistics. (2008). National Transportation Statistics 2007. Federal Highway Administration, Washington D.C. China Agenda 21 (2010). Priority Program for China's Agenda 21. Website: http://sedac.ciesin.org/china/policy/acca21/21desc.html (Last accessed 15 April 2010). Demographia. (2010). Dittmar, H. and Ohland, G.. (2004). The New Transit Town: Best Practices in TransitOriented Development. Island Press, Washington D.C. Land Transport Authority (2008). Land Transport Masterplan. Singapore Land Transport Authority (2009a). Singapore Land Transport Statistics in Brief 2008. Singapore. Lehman, M. and Boyle, M. (2007). Healthy and Walkable Communities. Institute for Public Administration, College of Human Services, Education & Public Policy, University of Delaware. Levy, J. M. (2009). Contemporary Urban Planning. 8th Edition. Pearson, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Newman, P. and Kenworthy, J. (1999). Sustainability and Cities: Overcoming Automobile Dependence. Island Press, Washington, D.C. Reconnecting America. (2007). Portland Streetcar Corridor, In Realizing the Potential: Expanding Housing Opportunities Near Transit. FTA Report No. CA-26-2004, prepared by the Center of Transit Oriented Development for the Federal Transit Administration, 136-160. Singapore Department of Statistics. (2008). Singapore in Figures 2008. Singapore Parliament. (1996). A World Class Land Transport System: White Paper. Land Transport Authority, Singapore. Sinha, K. C. (2003). Sustainability and Urban Public Transportation. ASCE Journal of Transportation Engineering, Vol. 129, No. 4, 331-341. Spencer, A. and Chia, L. S. (1985) National policy towards cars: Singapore. Transport Reviews, 5(4), 301324. State Council of the Peoples Republic of China. (2005). Decree Number 46 (2005): Priority in Urban Public Transportation Development. Beijing, China. (in Chinese). Texas Transportation Institute. (2009). Mobility Report. Texas Transportation Institute. College Station, Texas. The Cities Alliance. (2007). Liveable Cities: The Benefits of Urban Environmental Planning. Cities Alliance, the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives and the United Nations Environment Program, Washington D.C., USA. Transportation Research Board. (1997). Toward a Sustainable Future: Addressing the Long Term Effects of Motor Vehicle Transportation on Climate and Ecology. Special Report 251. Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Washington DC. Wheeler, S. M. and Beatley, T. (2004). The Sustainable Urban Development Reader. Routledge. World Bank. (2009). World Development Indicators 2008. Xinhua News Agency (2006). China to Conserve 120 Million Hectares of Arable Land till 2020. October 18, 2006. China.

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New Bus Rapid Transit System: Significant Contribution to Public Transit Infrastructure of Istanbul
S. Topuz Kiremitci, S. Iyinam, A. F. Iyinam & M. Ergun
Department of Civil Engineering, Technical University of Istanbul, Turkey topuzsa@itu.edu.tr, siyinam@ins.itu.edu.tr, afiyinam@ins.itu.edu.tr, ergunmur@gmail.com

ABSTRACT: With a population of more than 15 million the metropolitan area of Istanbul is one of the worlds largest metropolitan regions. The population of Istanbul has increased tenfold within the last 50 years. The transportation problems associated with it are omnipresent in Istanbul. The existing transportation related infrastructure can only inadequately contain the increasing traffic which causes an immense congestion problem. As an answer to the growing traffic and congestion, Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality started to plan and implement a Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system in 2004. Separated from the remaining traffic, the bus line is operated on a private lane and therefore is not affected by congestion and long waiting times. The first phase of the BRT-line was taken into service in September 2007, it was 17 km long. After a year its opening, the BRT-line was frequented by around 240,000 passengers daily. Due to high demand, the line was extended to 29 km in 2008 as the second phase and afterwards it was extended 20 km more in, passing the Bosporus Bridge, finally reaching to Asian side of Istanbul. By the numbers of September 2009, everyday more than 460,000 passengers are using this line. This study concerns with the investigation of BRT systems, which has been popular again recently and their effects on transportation infrastructure in both Turkey and the world. In the first section of this study the importance of the BRT in transportation system is examined and compared with other transportation modes. After the introduction of the BRT applications in other countries, importance of BRT systems on transportation infrastructure of Istanbul, construction phases of the system and travel demand changes following every phase is explained. Also a comparison with other BRT systems in the world is done in terms of construction costs, operation and travel demand. KEY WORDS: Bus Rapid Transit, Public Transport, Traffic Congestion.

1. INTRODUCTION Istanbul is the one of the most populated city in the world. This high population and density brings many disadvantages in every stage of life, and transportation is one and might be the most disturbing one also. Istanbul city is located on two continents, Europe in the west and Asia on the east. In 70s with the first Bosporus Bridge, city started to develop on east-west direction. Mainly Asian side grew as a residential area and European side as commercial and industrial area. This situation caused a high daily transportation demand, even after the opening of second Bosporus Bridge this demand increased instead of decreasing.
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In Istanbul there are three basic transportation infrastructures in use. These are highway, railway and seaway networks. Figure 1 shows the transportation network of Istanbul. According to 2007 data 88.6% of the daily trips are on highway and 23.9% of these trips are made by private car (IMM, 2007). This circumstance makes traffic inextricable in Istanbul.

Figure 1: Transportation system of Istanbul Solution of this problem should be a well organized mass transit, particularly with a sufficient subway system. But railway infrastructures are expensive and long-term investments. Comparisons of investment costs of railway and BRT systems are shown in Table 1. Table 1: Investment costs of transportation systems (Wright & Hook, 2007) LRT Infrastructure Costs (million Euro/km) ( 2 lane) Vehicle Costs (thousand Euro) Economic life (year) Subway Commuter Rail 5-20 1800-3000 25-50 BRT Bus lane 0.006-0.3 112-185 8-20 Bus way 2.5-14 112-185 8-20

3-58 800 2000 22-50

50-150 ~6000 25-50

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The question what is BRT? has got many answers. The Federal Transit Administration, defines BRT as a rapid mode of transportation that can combine the quality of rail transit and the flexibility of buses (Thomas, 2001) or a high-quality bus based transit system that delivers fast, comfortable, and cost-effective urban mobility through the provision of segregated right-of-way infrastructure, rapid and frequent operations, and excellence in marketing and customer service. BRT essentially emulates the performance and amenity characteristics of a modern rail-based transit system but at a fraction of the cost. (Wright and Hook, 2007). For that matter, Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality decided to build up a Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system, which is easy and cost-effective to construct. Operating characteristics of BRT and its comparison with other transportation modes is shown in Table 2. Table 2: Operating characteristics of transportation modes LRT System Capacity (passenger/h) Operating speed (km/h) Lane width (2-lane) (m) Station interval (m) Design: Low floor Safety air quality climate change noise Subway Commuter Rail 10.000 30.000 40-70 5.5-7 BRT (Metrobus) Bus Bus lane 600 15-20 6-8.5 200 600 Yes High + 0 + No High 0 0 0 No Med 4.500 7.500 17-25 6-8 200 600 Yes Med 0 0 0 Yes High 0 0 0 Bus way 4.500 25.000 22-50 8-13

21.000 21-45 5-6.5 250 1000 Yes High + 0 +

12.000 40.000 25-60 5-6.5

2. BUS RAPID TRANSIT APPLICATIONS Modern BRT applications first started in US cities during 1970s, because of the need for upgrading bus systems operations and services, but in late 1970s most of these lines turned in to HOV (High Occupancy Vehicle) lines which decreases efficiency of BRT. The most extensive and highest-capacity busways has been successfully developed in several Brazilian cities, notably Sao Paulo, Manaos and Curitiba, as well as in Bogota,
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Environmental effects

Colombia and in several European and Asian countries, such as Turkey and Indonesia (Vuchic, 2007). In Figure 2 average trip speeds and in Figure 3 Trips per kilometer values of some BRT lines can be seen.

Figure 2: Average trip speeds (Hidalgo et al., 2007)

Figure 3: Trips per kilometer (Hidalgo et al., 2007) 3. BRT SYSTEM OF ISTANBUL 3.1. General Information BRT system of Istanbul is called as Metrobus and constructed in three phases. When the first phase was taken in service, rapidly BRT become one of the most important transportation modes of Istanbul. Route of the system passes through D-100 Expressway which is an arterial road of Istanbul with a very dense traffic.
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First phase started to operate in September 2007, which serves between Avcilar Topkapi. Second phase was taken in service in September 2008 and serves between Topkapi Zincirlikuyu and the third phase was completed September 2009 which passes Bosporus Bridge and serves between Zincirlikuyu and Sogutlucesme. Figure 4 shows these three phases of Metrobus and Table 3 gives line characteristics. When third phase was finished the BRT system was connected to Asian side of Istanbul through Bosporus Bridge. This connection makes Metrobus the most important transportation mode in Istanbul.

Figure 4: BRT system of Istanbul Table 3: Line characteristics of Metrobus Lenght (km) 18.0 11.3 11.1 Number of Stops 13 10 6 Average Trip (pass/day) 170,000 340,000 460,000 Average Travel Time (min) 26 22 20

Phases 1. Phase 2. Phase 3. Phase

Name AvcilarTopkapi TopkapiZincirlikuyu ZincirlikuyuSogutlucesme

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3.2. Cross section BRT system of Istanbul is constructed on the median of D-100 Expressway which was built as a motorway but in time with rapid increase in the residential area, now serving as a main arterial. Figure 5 shows a typical cross section of the BRT. Only in third phase, the BRT doesnt have a private lane for 2.8 kilometers length including the Bosporus Bridge passing. The reason of this application is to avoid reducing 3 lanes per direction to 2 lanes per direction on the bridge which is one of the main arterial of Istanbul. Contrary to expectations this neither considerably reduces the efficiency of BRT system nor causes an increase in traffic congestion on the bridge. Because traffic flow is generally fluent on the bridge but there are congestions on the on-ramps and approaching roads and Metrobuses involve in mixed traffic after the last on-ramp of D-100 before the bridge and leaves the mixed traffic after passing through the bridge. Bosporus Bridge is only allowed to use by private cars and public buses and Metrobus line and overtaking is forbidden along the bridge.

50 35 3 0

METROBUS WAY

METROBUS WAY

34 BHR 1982 34 BHR 1982 34 BHR 1982

34 BHR 1982 34 BHR 1982

34 BHR 1982

34 BHR 1982

34 BHR 1982

34 BHR 1982

34 BHR 1982

Figure 5: Typical cross-section of BRT system of Istanbul 3.3. Vehicle Characteristics BRT service can be provided using a wide variety of vehicles. These vehicles range from the conventional 12 meter, 60 to 80 passenger buses (low or high floor) to electrically powered, 40 meter trams capable of carrying 120 to 200 passengers (CTTP, 2002).

Figure 6: Vehicles operating in BRT system of Istanbul

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In BRT system of Istanbul two different types of buses are operating, Phileas and Capacity buses (Figure 6). Characteristic of these buses are seen in Table 4. Total bus capacities seems to have a contradiction because capacity of Phileas buses is calculated for 6 persons per square meter while Capacity buses calculated as 8 person per square meter, and also interior design of buses changes their capacity too. Both buses use hybrid engines which makes them more sensitive towards environment than buses use fossil fuel. Table 4: Vehicle Characteristics (Mercedes-Benz and Phileas, websites)
MODEL Length Width Height Minimum Turning Radius Lane width (single) Lane width (double) Capacity seat / handicapped / on foot Total PHILEAS 26 m 25,97 2,55 3,20 12,50 4,40 6,60 50 / 2 / 133 185 CAPACITY 20 m 19,50 2,55 3,20 11,50 4,40 6,60 43 / 150 193

3.4. Investment Costs As seen in Table 5 construction costs per kilometer are approximately 5 million Euros per kilometer which may be considerable below average. Despite of construction costs, vehicle costs are much more greater than average vehicle costs on the world because half automated vehicles with two sided door has hybrid engines, and they have an ability of horizontal movement. As seen in Table 6 this property increases the cost of these vehicles. Table 5: Construction Costs of BRT system in Istanbul Phases 1. Phase 2. Phase 3. Phase Total Construction Cost Lenght Construction Cost (km) (million Euro/km) (million Euro) 60 50 80 190 18.00 11.30 11.10 40.40 3.33 4.42 7.21 4.70

Table 6: Vehicle Costs Cost (Euro) Capacity 300,000 Phileas 1,200,000 Vehicles Vehicle Capacity 193 185

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4. CONCLUSION After successfully completing those three stages, Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality started to plan two new Metrobus routes between Edirnekapi Vezneciler and Avcilar Beylikduzu. First one is vertical to current route and second one is the extension of Topkapi Avcilar line, towards to European side of Istanbul. There have been some criticisms to Municipality about constructing BRT instead of subway system and BRT vehicles costs but in the end those critics did not affect the demand for BRT and Metrobus system has become the most important transportation mode in Istanbul. The reasons of the success of BRT system in Istanbul can be summarized as: 1. The route of BRT system passes through the most dense arterial road (D-100 Expressway) and highly populated old settlement areas of Istanbul. 2. Operating speed of BRT system is 40 km/hour. During peak hours, speed of private cars reduces up to 10 km/hours because of the dense traffic. 3. Construction of BRT system is easy, rapid and has considerably low costs. There is renewed interest in many developing and developed countries in finding ways of providing efficient and effective public transport that does not come with a high price tag (Hensher and Golob, 2008). Beyond any doubt BRT systems are successful examples of that. REFERENCES CTTP 2002 , Calgary Transit Transit Planning, 2002. A Review of Bus Rapid Transit. Hensher, D. A. and Golob, T. F., 2008. Bus rapid transit systems: a comparative assessment, Transportation Business and Economics, Springer Netherlands. Hidalgo, D.; Custodio, P. and Graftieaux, P. 2007. A Critical Look At Major Bus Improvements In Latin America And Asia: Case Studies Of Hitches, Hic-Ups And Areas For Improvement; Synthesis Of Lessons Learned, Summary Presentation, The World Bank, April 2007, http://go.worldbank.org/HBZWUBDN10. IMM, 2007. Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality, The Study on Integrated Urban Transportation Master Plan for Istanbul Metropolitan Area in the Republic of Turkey, Draft final report. Mercedes-Benz Website. http://www.mercedes-benz.com.tr/ Phileas Website. http://www.apts-phileas.com/ Thomas, E., 2001. Paper presentation at the Institute of Transportation Engineers Annual Meeting. Chicago, IL. Wright, L. and Hook, W., 2007. Bus Rapid Transit Planning Guide, 3rd edition. Institute for Transportation and Development Policy, New York. Vuchic, V., 2007, Urban Transit Operations, Planning, and Economics. Wiley, New York.

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Connecting two Continents: Marmaray Rail Transit Project of Istanbul

C. A. Kiremitci, P. Alpkokin, M. Ergn and S. Topuz Kiremitci
Department of Civil Engineering, Technical University of Istanbul, Turkey kiremitci@itu.edu.tr, alpkokinp@itu.edu.tr, ergunmur@gmail.com, topuzsa@itu.edu.tr

ABSTRACT: Istanbul is the only metropolis that settled on two continents in the world. As the former capital of three successive empires, Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman, Istanbul connects Asia and Europe. With an approximately population of 15 million, Istanbul is the fifth most populated city in the world and first in Turkey. In addition city is also cultural and financial capital of Turkey. However, the quality of life in Istanbul have been diminished because of traffic congestion, currently highway network roads are carrying almost 2 million automobiles. Blessed with graceful natural beauty as well as a rich historical urban fabric, Istanbul faces serious challenges in trying to accommodate an additional 100,000 cars every year. As a result, city is now overwhelmed by an inadequate highway network and insufficient public transportation system. The Marmaray Rail Transit Project (MRTP) is the most important and with a cost of almost 4 billion USD, most expensive infrastructure investment in the history of Turkey to solve citys traffic problem. Project is to link one new track including the immerse tube and approaching tunnels to two reconstructed tracks on both sides of Istanbul. When finished, it will serve almost 1.5 million daily passengers. Project started in August 2004, in 2009 construction of immerse tube tunnel is finished and whole project is supposed to finish by 2014. The main aim of this paper is to briefly evaluate Marmaray Rail Transit Project and explain the possible effects of this infrastructure investment on the transportation problems of Istanbul. In this paper, after an introduction about Istanbul and its transportation systems, different phases of the Marmaray Project including immerse tunnel, approach tunnels and stations, are explained. Finally importance of this project in the transportation infrastructure of Istanbul is emphasised. KEY WORDS: Railway, Public transit, Traffic congestion, Marmaray, Istanbul

1. INTRODUCTION Istanbul is a cultural and economic crossroad between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea as well as between Europe and Asia, acting as a bridge between the trading centers of Europe and the Middle East. Istanbuls urban growth has been accelerated in relation with the changes in national industrial policies in the 1970s, which triggered the industrialization of Istanbul. From then on industry-lead urbanization continuously stimulated the in-migration of population into Istanbul and expanded its urban areas outward. As seen in Table 1, in this process, Istanbul grew from a city of 3.0 million to a city of 10 million people in 30 years.

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Table 1: Population growth of Istanbul (IMM, 2007) Population Share to Turkey (%) Population growth rate (%) 1970 3,019,032 8.5 1980 4741890 10.6 4.6 1990 7195773 13.0 4.3 2000 10018735 14.8 3.4 2005 11606341 15.9 3.0

In 1950, Istanbuls urban area was limited to the coastal areas along Marmara Sea and the Bosphorus Strait with small sea-port towns including the historical peninsula, Zeytinburnu, Bakirkoy, Uskudar, Kadikoy, and other areas from where Istanbul towns and urban areas developed and expanded. As seen in Figure 1 these expanded built-up areas were merged into large urban areas on the European and Asian sides respectively (IMM, 2007)

Figure 1: Expansion of urbanized area of Istanbul (IMM, 2007) The Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality has faced a large increase of car ownership in recent years in conjunction with current population increase and economical growth in association with large vehicle increase rate as 9.2%. One of the distinctive transportation issues in Istanbul is the gap between Bosphorus crossing traffic demand and supply side shortage by current two bridges. Private vehicles have created serious problems like traffic congestion, insufficient parking supply and environmental pollution in the urban centers. Train operation between Halkali and Gebze seperated by the Bosphorus Strait plays a significant role not only for commuters on both sides of the stanbul area, but also in serving inter-city and international passengers (JBIC, 2007). In general, the public transportation of the city is dominated by highway transportation (Figure 2). Railway transportation in the city has a scattered composition compared with highway transportation. Several different types of rail transport are in service all around the city (Figure 3). In Table 2 the percentages of passengers using each type is given (Governorship of Istanbul, 2009).

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Figure 2: The splits according to modes (Governorship of Istanbul, 2009)

Figure 3: Road map of the existing railroad system (IMM, 2007)

Table 2: Percentages of passengers using railways (Governorship of Istanbul, 2009) Route Kabatas-Zeytinburnu Taksim-4. Levent Aksaray-Havaalani Haydarpasa-Gebze Sirkeci-Halkali Edirnekapi-S.Ciftligi Gungoren-Bagcilar Taksim-Kabatas Other Type Tram Metro LRT Commuter Commuter Tram Tram Funicular Length (km) 13,2 8,5 19,6 44,7 27,6 12,4 5,2 0,6 Daily passengers carried 210467 142437 179783 70000 61000 45000 55923 39193 12596 Percentage 26% 17% 22% 9% 7% 6% 7% 5% 2%

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2. MARMARAY PROJECT The Marmaray Project is not the first project conceived underwater crossing of the Istanbul Strait. The idea was first produced in the Ottoman Empire in 1860. A design was prepared for a submerged tube through the sea that rests on columns (Figure 4). Providing a railway connection between Europe and Asia the project will offer a long term solution to the transport problems of Istanbul (Lykke and Belkaya, 2005).

Figure 4: First project of immerse tunnel in 1860 (Lykke and Belkaya, 2005). The Marmaray Project offers many special challenges of which the most important ones are (Lykke S. and Belkaya H., 2005): The Immersed Tunnel under the Bosphorus will be the deepest built so far with its deepest point being some 58 m under the water surface. The area of Istanbul will most likely experience a seismic event of up to magnitude 7.5 during the lifetime of the Project. The deep stations and tunnels will have to be constructed in an area where civilization can be traced more than 7,000 years back in time. Preservation and rescuing of Historical Heritage is therefore a focus point not to be neglected. The geotechnical conditions of the Bosphorus Strait are of such a nature that the connection between the Bored Tunnels and the Immersed Tunnels will constitute a special technical challenge when it comes to seismic conditions. The ultimate capacity of the Commuter Rail system will be not less than 75,000 passengers per hour per direction. This places special requirements on safety of people in the tunnels and deep stations. The marine works will have to be performed in very deep waters in a waterway that carries more than 50,000 ships every year through it and on top of that a vast number of ferries and passenger boats crossing the Strait. Marmaray Rail Transit Project is to link one new track including immerse tube and bored tunnels to two reconstructed tracks of the Turkish State Railways on both sides of the Bosphorus Straight (JBIC, 2007). Total length of project alignment is 76.3 km. When finished there will be 40 stations on the alignment including 37 above ground and 3 underground stations. New underground stations will be built by cut-and-cover method at Yenikapi, Sirkeci, and Uskudar and other 37 at-grade stations along the line will be rebuilt or refurbished (IMM, 2007).
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70 60 Depth (m.) 50 40 30 20 10 Thimble Shoal Channel Baltimore Channel Marmaray Tube Hampton Roads 1 Hampton Roads 2 Fort McHenry Tama River Bay Town BART 0 Interstate Parana 58 41 37 37

36

33

32

32

31

31

30

Figure 5: The depths of major immersed tunnels in the world (Gokce et. Al., 2009) The first part of the project is the railway Bosphorus tube crossing tunnels and stations constructions. The length of the immersed tunnel on the seabed is 1.387 m. It consists of 11 immersed tube elements that have 2 compartments. The tube elements are 8.75 m. high and 15.5 m. wide. The deepest point of the tunnel will be approximately 58 meters under the water surface level; this depth makes the immersed crossing the deepest tunnel of the world (Figure 5). This tube tunnel will be accessed by bored tunnels from Kazlicesme on the European side and Ayrilikcesme on the Asian side (Figure 6).

Figure 6: First part of the Marmaray Project (Taisei, 2009) The immersed tube tunnel is made of components built in a dry dock or shipyard, later to be towed by purpose-built barges to the final destination (Figure 7). Before being immersed, each segment is outfitted with temporary bulkheads to allow them to float while the insides remain dry. Once towed to the appropriate location, the tunnel segments are given sufficient weight to be lowered and buried in a pre-dredged trench. When connected with other
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prefabricated, immersed components, the joint between the segments is dewatered; resulting in the compression of a rubber sealing gasket on the sections other end, to form a water tight seal on the joint. The segments are held in place with temporary supports until the foundation is completed, after which the trench is backfilled (Figure 8).

Figure 7: Immerse tunnel component (Gokce et. Al., 2009)

Figure 8: Longitudinal section of immersed tunnel (Taisei, 2009) The tunnels between Ayrilikcesme - Uskudar, Sirkeci Yenikapi and Yenikapi Yedikule are constructed using Tunnel Boring Machines (TBM). There are five TBMs, one of EPB (Earth Pressure Balance) type and the others are slurry type. EPB-TBM type is used for the
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tunnels between Kazlicesme and Yenikapi. The other TBMs are used between YenikapiSirkeci and Uskudar-Ayrilikcesme. Sirkeci station is constructed using the New Australian Tunneling Method. Amongst the three underground stations in the project, Sirkeci station is the only one constructed by NATM (Figure 9).

Figure 9: Longitudinal section of part 1 of the project (Taisei, 2009) The second part of the project is to upgrade the commuter rail between Gebze-Haydarpasa and Sirkeci-Halkali. With the start of the upgrading process commuter rail lines at both sides of Istanbul will be temporarily out of service. The line at the European side is serving between Sirkeci and Halkali. The length of the track is 27 km with 28 stations and 102 trains operated daily. Average number of passengers of this line is about 70000 per day. On the other hand, the suburban rail line at the Asian side is servicing between Haydarpasa and Gebze. The length of the track is 44 km with 26 stations and 80 trains operated daily. Average number of passengers of this line is about 55000 per day (Tezcan et. al., 2006). The third and last part of the project will be rolling stock production. When finished during peak hours the tunnel crossing between Ayrilikcesme - Kazlicesme will only be used by commuter trains. Intercity trains will use the Bosphorus crossing outside peak hours and freight trains at night between 00:00-05:00 hours. 3. CONCLUSIONS Marmaray project is commonly referred to as "Project of the Century" in Turkey. Such an ambitious evaluation of the project is well appropriate on the basis of three facts introduced in this study. Firstly, a tunnel to connect two continents under the Bosporus Strait has been a longstanding project since the era of Ottoman Empire and therefore has particular importance to the Country and has been carrying a very cultural and strategic role of connecting Europe and Asia through a rail system. Secondly, from the technical points of view, the project justifies its superiority of being a very important construction project of the century, particularly for far exceeding the world's previous deepest immersed tunnel, and being the World's current deepest immersed tunnel
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placed under the Bosporus Strait where there is high speed and different directions of currency and where there is the high risk of earthquake. Finally, Marmaray project is substantially important for policy aims of developing into a sustainable city by extensively improving the rail network and serving the southern part of the city consistently with the land use master plans which aim to control any developments in the northern green part of Istanbul. Additionally, this project will obviously contribute to ensure a better balance in modal split for Bosporus crossings, as currently the share of car use between the two sides of the city is much higher than the average of the car mode share in the city. Unfortunately, Marmaray Project shall take longer than originally planned and shall not be completed before 2014. However, once the metro system starts operating under the Bosporus Strait, the project will definitely and strongly justify its value to the city and to the Country. REFERENCES IMM, 2007. Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality, The Study on Integrated Urban Transportation Master Plan for Istanbul Metropolitan Area in the Republic of Turkey, Draft final report. JBIC, 2007. Special assistance for project implementation for Bosphorus rail tube crossing project, Final report, June Gokce, A.; Koyama, F.; Tsuchiya, M. and Gencoglu, T., 2009. The challenges involved in concrete works of Marmaray immersed tunnel with service life beyond 100 years, Tunneling and Underground Space Technology 24 (2009) 592-601. Governorships of Istanbul, 2009. http://english.istanbul.gov.tr Lykke, S. and Belkaya, H., 2005. Marmaray project: The project and its management, Tunneling and Underground Space Technology Volume 20, Issue 6, November 2005, Pages 600-603. Taisei 2009, Railway tunnel across the bosphorus construction work, Contract BC1, presentation. Tezcan, H. O.; Kesten, A. S. and Topuz, S., 2006. Suburban Rail System of Istanbul: Current Situation and Probable Impacts after Temporary Termination, International Railway Symposium, Istanbul, pp. 611-621.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Effect of Transportation Infrastructure Investments on Urban Development; Case of Istanbul

Y. Eryilmaz & M. Ergn
Department of Civil Engineering, Technical University of Istanbul, Turkey eryilmazy@itu.edu.tr, ergunmur@gmail.com

ABSTRACT: Many big transportation infrastructure investments involve not only satisfying the transportation demand, but also physical action. They are very important decisions that affect city, local or regional development and economy. Transportation infrastructure investments may reshape a city and may cause big changes in the urban area. New transportation infrastructure investments could change the urban macroform and may emerge new settlements. These kinds of investments will naturally cause urban sprawl. Investments in transportation infrastructure will not only affect present transport demand citywide but also affect development of the citys future. For sustainable, healthy urban development and environment, transportation infrastructure investments must be used effectively. They mainly change urban transportation modal split patterns. Change in modal split impacts demand on the highway and/or the railway system. The change in average trip time and the average distance of trips made with motor vehicles will also affect the whole network of the city. Changes in the trip choices could mean reshaping the working areas and the residential areas. Similarly, the population density differences will also create new residential areas and working areas. This demand will stimulate the need for labor force. For this reason, we will likely see mass migration from the rural areas to urban areas, especially to the metropolitan areas. Thus, the increase in the population and migration will lead to a boom in the urban population and cause many problems in the urban environment. Insufficient and mostly highway related transportation infrastructure investments cause large traffic problems like that which Istanbul Metropolitan City faces. These problems include: an increase in the average travel time and the average travel distances, an increase in trip costs, a decrease of the level of service in transportation system, and an unhealthy urban environment. The aim of this paper is to evaluate the effects of transport investments on Istanbul metropolitan area. To reach this aim, the effects of transportation infrastructure investments on the land use, and change of population structure are compared with other cities. A detailed comparison between Istanbul and other world cities such as London, Mumbai, and So Paulo are made. KEY WORDS: Transportation, Investment, Land Use, Urbanization, Istanbul.

1. INTRODUCTION Cities in the industrialization age were able to grow and thrive faster than ever before in this century all over the world. This growth was largely due to physical and economical development is basement of that case. Additionally, the agricultural areas have been insufficient to support rural inhabitants and the new labor demand increased in developing cities. This causes continued migration from rural areas to developing cities. Increases in
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population changes the citys transportation systems, residential and work related land use, and recreational areas. Cities confronted vital problems in that era and were made very sensitive by them. The land demand increases in cities also increased the land prices. Transportation is an important indicator of city development, which is not only physical but also economical, social, and cultural indicator. In addition to this, all transportation investment decisions, individual or public, change the perception and use of this service. Transport infrastructure is the most important element to develop a city or region. Research shows that there is a relationship about the transportation infrastructure and gross domestic product (GDP). Hence, the economic concerns to build or not to build transportation infrastructure always influences local authoritys investment decision-making process. Local authorities generally act quickly, because they are interested in short time benefits. However, transportation infrastructure investments may reshape a city and cause long term changes in the urban area. These are very important decisions that affect city, local or regional development, and the economy. Transportation infrastructure investments not only involve satisfying the transportation demand, but also a physical action that can change urban macroform and may influence emerge new settlements. The main objective of this paper is to explain how transportation infrastructure investment affects city development, and city life. The metropolitan city of Istanbul is selected as a case area, because Istanbul is the one of the important, historical cities in the world. Today the extents of industrialization and migration have caused huge population and environmental problems. Traffic jams, emissions, noise, increasing transport demand, city sprawl, and new settlements communication to CBD, poor and unhealthy slums, and rising average trip time are all examples related to transportation system that challenge quality of urban life. Some studies show that the comfort of citizen is increased but some inconsistent policies have caused troubles to city commuters. 2. HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE OF ISTANBUL For this paper, Istanbul city is studied especially with infrastructural decisions and reflected physical and economical outputs such as workforce, buildings, and transportation data. That case includes the city of Istanbul transforming to a metropolitan area and global city with growing population and workforce. Istanbul is selected for analysis because its industrial capacity, workforce, population, and trips rates in respect of all cities in Turkey. Infrastructure investments such as Taksim-4.Levent Metro Line, Trans Europe Motorway, bridges serve to connect the cities east and west parts and ports for seaways planned and built to solve the traffic problems in the past costing billions of dollars. In addition, these highways extended to suburbs to service new developments that occurred near and basins forests that are more vital to cities future. A transportation infrastructure affects city's macroform, thereby if planned incorrectly; they can cause negative urban development. All cities in the world are unique and have different geographical, economical, population problems. However, authorities can analogy other cities to challenge deficiencies in the infrastructures. Nevertheless, infrastructures lead influence the future of cities, thus those people affected by the infrastructure must select different ways to solve the problems they encounter throughout the city's life. User optimums and system optimum in transport infrastructure is an important element to well arranged city planning. Neither users nor infrastructure can run system economically alone. So all parts of transport system coordination contribute to the system achievement. The Istanbul metropolitan area, a rapidly developed city in Turkey, is where and more all modes of transport infrastructure have been built. Especially after the 1950s the city of
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Istanbul, grew due to migration. First, sprawling area grew near the west-east highway line (named E5 or D100), therein overpopulated areas like the slums and spread out fringes. Global influence and Turkeys industrial policy transformed it into a metropolitan and global city. Headquarters of firms choose Istanbul because of its strategic location and well developed transport facilities. The mode of seaways, railways, highways, and airways serves enough capacity to the firms. First, the bridge named Bogazici Bridge, constructed in 1973 to link the Europe and Asia sides of city has six lanes, two dungeons, and spans 1074 meters. The capacity of the bridge was 32,520 passenger car unit (pcu)/day for its first years. The unpredicted rise in population and car ownerships changed citys macroform and caused a change in transportation choice of people. The bridge capacity was increased in 1987 to 130,000 pcu/day and traffic congestion became inevitable in the following years. To solve the traffic congestion, a second bridge called Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge was planned with 4 lanes in each direction and construction started in December 1985. It opened two and half year later in May 1988. Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge and transportation facilities such as ring roads convert the house work balances of city and city form. More people living on the Asia side and make trips to the European side for work in the morning and come back at night. Residential areas on the Europe side are not sufficient and unusable for citizens even if more houses are constructed. Nowadays traffic problems seen in rush hours, and trips that involve access crossing the bridge takes about two hours (at 6-8 km/hour speed of vehicle). Government authorities propose a new bridge to solve traffic chaos, but some peoples think that traffic problem would be adversely affected by construction of a new bridge or ring roads. The location of a new bridge and ring roads will negatively affect the forest area and the catchment area of basin at northern part of city. The majority of transportation engineers say that new bridges would cause complications in the transportation system and would affect land use. Mayor and council of Istanbul metropolitan city legitimatized a new metropolitan plan that scales 1/100,000 and there is no sign of a new bridge, new highway, or ring roads. However, the central authority has power over local authorities and the transportation minister says a third bridge will be constructed because it is essential for international and national freight transportation and to relieve congested traffic on the second bridge. If a new bridge and ring roads are built, another important problem will be the shift in the modal split. Railway trips are increasing today with extension of railway lines. The Marmaray project is a railroad system that has intercontinental linkage under the Bosporus, between Aegean Sea and Black Sea, continued along the 13 years. The first feasibility report was issued in 1985, and second report prepared, and route updated in 1997. The Metro line capacity is 70,000 passenger/hour and headway is 2-5 minutes in the Marmaray project. When Marmaray metro line opens, rail system will augment passengerfreight transportation and the model split change direction will be to railways. Additionally, Marmaray commuter railways will extend to peripheral areas and extensive residential zones. Nevertheless, contradictory works simultaneously continue such as: new various intersections, seven road tunnel projects, and new road infrastructures built in the metropolitan area. Planning of a third bridge will automatically increase the automobile usage. All of these investments will change macroform of city, emerge new settlements, and increase motorization. Transportation investments changed average trip times and modal split of construction periods. 3. LAND USE AND TRANSPORTATION RELATIONS Migration from rural areas and minor cities affected metropolitan cities, especially Istanbul, Ankara, and Izmir. Although city planners and experts cautioned about this obliquity, land use and transport planning works failed behind. Migration to Istanbul rose especially after 1950.
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Industrialization and development policies are emphasized the metropolitan cities and new settlements are supervened. Unlawful buildings are proliferated; unhealthy residential areas flourished in the cities fringes with shortage of facilities like hospitals, education infrastructure, or recreational parks. Istanbul is the largest population in Turkey. In 2009 year, 12 915 158 persons lives, and shared 17.8 percentage of Turkey's population (72 561 312). Table 1 shows the population of Istanbul from 1950 to recent (UAP and TUIK, 2009). Istanbul is located on two continents, Asia and Europe. Figure 1 shows the change in the built up area of Istanbul in 1950, 1965, 1985, 2002. Table 1: Population of Istanbul Year 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 Population 1,166,477 1,533,822 1,882,092 2,293,823 3,019,032 3,904,588 4,741,890 Year 1985 1990 1997 2000 2005 2009 Population 5,842,985 7,195,773 9,057,747 10,018,735 11,606,341 12.915.158

1950 built-up area

1965 built-up area

1985 built-up area

2002 built-up area

Figure 1: The change of build up areas in Istanbul Istanbul was fragmented into Bakrkoy, Uskudar, Kadkoy, and small towns on shorelines in 1950. During important years of 1965-1970 it became a metropolitan city because of urbanization speed and rising population. Expanded built-up areas were attached, and urban macroform linearly shaped each side (Tezer, 2002).
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In east section, D100 road affect urbanization from Uskudar and Kadkoy to east direction. It has CBD in historical peninsulas that grow up and it expanded the Levent-Maslak line. Residential and working areas in west side expanded along D100 road and coastal line. The two bridges built in 1973 and 1988 affected more population and transport system. They induced motorization. Car ownership and traveled kilometers by vehicles increased very quickly. Residential areas on the east side are more than on the west side, so daily home based trips account for 11%, nearly 1.1 million people use these two bridges. Because the east side is a convenient space for house or business area, it attracts population and construction. The two bridges affect this trend positively. District population on the East side boomed more than on the west side as show in Table 2. Population of the East side was 677. 5 thousands in 1970 year; it multiplied 6 times and reached about 4 million in 2005. In addition, the west side attracts population too. The population was 1485,5 thousands in 1970 and reached 6,25 million in 2005. Table 2: Distribution of Istanbuls Population Year West side East side 1955 80 20 1960 79 21 1965 79 21 1970 76 24 1975 73 27 1980 70 30 1985 67 33 1990 68 32 1997 65 35

New road system and decentralization policies expanded city borders further on fringes. Figure 2 shows this trend. Fringe growth rate is more than 5% and historical residential areas lose population and suffer negative growth rate (JICA, 2009).

Figure 2: The change of build up areas in Istanbul Enormous differences in transportation investments in Istanbul shaped the citys life. The population of the city rose and new settlements and districts were created. Many local municipalities were constituted (named Belde municipality that was independent with more than 2000 people living there). The new municipalitys population rises, and residential, working, recreational areas are planned by without considering Istanbul Metropolitan Municipalitys development plan because of lack of metropolitan city law. Rapidly urbanized Belde Municipalities faced problems such as lack local services, electricity, transportation problems and insufficient accessibility. A metropolitan city act changed to solve them and all Belde Municipalities were abolished and connected to metropolitan city (CEKIC and GEZICI, 2009). The border of municipality of Istanbul extended the city's borderline by a government act. Metropolitan area plan and metropolitan transportation plans were renewed.
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Some policies like decentralization affect the metropolitan form, and encompass new CBDs and settlements near ring roads and shorelines. When we looked at the change of transportation statistics related to the time in Istanbul, the big difference was seen as shown in Table 3 (ITMP, 2007). As shown in Table 3, Private car ownership increased nearly 5 times in 30 years, average mobility increased nearly 250% in 30 years, the model split of trips shifted from mass transportation to private car with 300%. The number of private car increased nearly 21 times. Mass transportation proportion is lessening from about 90% to 60%. That trend shows it is not sustainable transportation system. Future infrastructure should be more in mass transportation. Environmental and economical system cannot compensate private car dependent transportation that pollutes air quality and produces green house gas (GHG). Table 3: Data of Istanbul transport master plan studies
Year 1973 1975 1982 1983 1985 1986 1988 1996 1997 2007 Population 3,647,000 4,792,000 5,784,160 5,760,000 9,057,747 12,006,999 Employment 1,193,000 1,924,000 2,035,000 2,532,211 3,957,336 Private car 71,700 223,900 297,693 375,200 889,342 1,522,521 Private car /1000 person 22.0 47.2 51.0 71.0 76.0 111.0 Average Mobility 0.72 1.03 1.44 1.54 1.74 Modal split (%) Private Mass Car transp. 10.4 11.4 32.5 30.0 40.0 29.0 89.6 88.6 67.5 70.0 60.0 71.0

Figure 3 shows built up areas in Istanbul historically. Istanbul developed from historical peninsula, first north side of golden horn; secondly residential areas emerged at shore lines. Then transportation links connect villages. That built up area sprawl to north side of city and threatens the forests located north side.

Figure 3: The build up areas in Istanbul historically

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Figure 4 shows the last 70 years of urban macroform changes in Istanbul. Affected prime development is shown in first zone red areas, highways, the first bridge and second development zone is shown in brown areas and second bridge and tied highways affected zones are mapped in yellow. Today third bridge project is stated at north side of Istanbul by authorities, it will cause city boundary to move to the north shore line near Black Sea.

Figure 4: The development areas in Istanbul, from south to north 4. COMPARISON OF ISTANBUL WITH OTHER WORLD CITIES When comparing the numbers related to the transportation system, Istanbul is between developed cities and developing cities as shown in Table 4. Public transport mainly made by bus in Istanbul, but public transport is mainly made by railways in London, New York, and San Paulo. Due to this unbalanced transportation modes, Istanbul has major traffic problems. Table 4: The numbers related to the transportation system City
Car ownerships Road Fatalities System length (Metro linekm) Public transport (%) Private motorized (%) Walking (%)

Istanbul New York Shanghai London Mexico city Johannesburg Berlin Mumbai So Paulo

139 209 73 345 360 206 319 36 368

2,7 4,1 2,5 1,1 28,7 25,5 2,0 4,4 14,0

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32 392 152 367 187 145 92

41 56 19 37 79 32 27 36 32

14 30 22 40 16 37 37 5 29

45 11 29 20 31 25 56 33

From the land-use point of view, Istanbul is the one of the densest cities considering the residential area. GDP of Istanbul is nearly in between developed and developing cities, it is one of the lowest in the quality of life index; and the increase in the population is in the fifth order as shown in Table 5. Table 5: The numbers related to the land-use City
Residential Densities (Pp/km2 ) Central area -10km radius(Pp/km2 ) Quality of life (HDI INDEX) Metropolitan Region population Population growth since 1900 (%) GDP Per capita ($)

Istanbul New York Shanghai London Mexico city Johannesburg Berlin Mumbai So Paulo 5. CONLUSIONS

2376 783 2862 679 3796 520 801 4090 2420

20116 15361 24673 7805 12541 2270 7124 34269 10299

820 971 841 981 871 748 939 667 828

12697164 18815988 18150000 7556900 19239910 3888180 4300000 19280000 19223897

1305 447 1715 16 4536 369 59 1978 7916

12856 55693 8237 60831 18321 9229 34017 1871 12021

Transportation investments are important decisions to shape city macroform. After 1950, industrial development decision and incitements attracts population to metropolitan cities. In Istanbul, highways investments caused sprawl and transportation policies affected modal split. Due bridges that link to eastern and western side of city population, employment and land use to structure changed on a large scale. Urbanized areas along D100-TEM highways expanded. Beginning new settlements such as bedroom community connected CBD; first transportation demand was solved mainly by paratransit systems. After the independent businesses and working areas come in this area and increased transportation demand of these areas, the transportation mode share was changed. This caused the rising private car use, congested traffic, emissions, and noise. Congestion is one of the biggest problems. Land use policy decisions and contradicting applications would enhance the problem. The demand increase in the traffic requires new roads and will quickly provoke the traffic demand. This is a vicious circle. New transport infrastructure changes CBD in metropolitan areas. Consequently, conventional CBD loses firms and employments because new settlements have economically affected land and transportation facilities. Durable economic pattern in new settlement attracts firms. Transport costs and residential rents at new secondary CBD are lower than the conventional city center. Product, material, and employment transport costs are important consideration for firm profit margins. When the accessibility is convenient by new transport infrastructure, customer oriented firms will locate to secondary CBD because of preferred reduced costs of products. New transportation buildings may impact overall transport system and the accessibility would change. Average trip time and average trip cost are dependent on transportation infrastructure system. User cost of transport by car, bus or railway is based on transportation demand. Land use policy affects peoples modal split share and transport demand. If infrastructure is planned accordingly with city development (zoning) plan and the sections show harmony, there will be less problems to face.
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REFERENCES CEKIC, T. and GEZICI, F., Gated communities leading the development on the periphery of Istanbul metropolitan area, ITU A|Z VOL: 6 NO: 2 73-97, 2009. JICA, 2009, Draft Final Report, The study on Integrated Urban Transportation Master Plan for Istanbul Metropolitan Area in the Republic of Turkey. http://www.marmaray.com.tr/mr/marmaray-anasayfa http://www.ibb.gov.tr/en-US/Pages/Home_Page.aspx http://www.ibb.gov.tr/en-US/Organization/AuthorityArea/Pages/AnaSayfa.aspx Istanbul 1. Kentici Ulasm Suras, 14-16 Mart 2002, Istanbul. Urban Age Istanbul Conference 4-6 November 2009. ITMP, 2007, Istanbul Transportation Master Plan Report, The study on Transportation Master Plan for Istanbul Metropolitan Area, Istanbul Metropolitan Planning Bureau , 2007. IBB, 2002, Workshop for Istanbul City Transportation, Metropolitan City of Istanbul, Istanbul, Turkey.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Optimization of Bus Transport in Istanbul

A.S. Kesten & M. Ergn
Department of Civil Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey askesten@ins.itu.edu.tr, ergunmur@gmail.com

ABSTRACT: Istanbul public transport is very complex with many interactions between different modes of transportation, carriers and new projects. Public buses are one of the most important components of Istanbuls mass transit. However, bus transportation network optimization and lane determination is a critical issue and should be dealt comprehensively. Modification of bus lanes should be performed with respect to the land use pattern and other infrastructural changes of the region. Otherwise, the inefficient operating conditions may occur and this would raise the total operating cost and increase the average travel time and therefore decrease the level of service in transportation system. This study proposes either time savings for passengers or economic benefits for operators can be accomplished with the bus lane optimization. It is shown that, positive effects for passengers and operators can be achieved by different kinds of optimization techniques. The optimization results yields shortening of the most of the lines analyzed. With all the measures proposed, a considerable amount of bus kilometers per day can be saved. The total savings from reducing parallel capacities to Bus Rapid Transit (Metrobus) and tramway or Light Rail Transit(LRT), in addition by reducing headways in low occupied sections and by accelerating bus lines is determined for both of the operator and user perspective. The average speed of buses increased after the optimization and leads to two impacts which are time and economic savings. The optimization of the bus lanes has also impacts on other modes, such as private buses, are also investigated. In conclusion, the optimization results are interpreted for the complete region of Istanbul with in the light of quality of service measures. KEY WORDS: Bus transport, Optimization, Economic analyses, Time savings.

1. INTRODUCTION As most of the cities in the world Istanbul is strongly dependent on bus transportation. According to the 2006 IETT (Istanbul Electric Tramway and Tunnel Operator) data (IETT, 2006), buses are responsible almost 70% of the public transport trips. In the last decade, due to the economic changes the debate on efficiency of publicly or even privately operated urban buses has become a critical issue either practically or academically. There are numerous of studies on bus network efficiency for European, North American and Australian cities in addition to some guidelines and synthesis reports (Benn,1995), (Pratt and Evans, 2004). Istanbul is the most populated city in Turkey near 13 million population and geographically the city is fairly large. Given that size of transit operation, there are a number of problems existing such as monitoring system performance and management. Although smaller organizations are considered as manageable manually, additional unavoidable costs may occur at the level of a large scale system (Van der Perre and Van Oudheusden, 1996).
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System efficiency and effectiveness are the main objectives for a bus system alteration projects. Routing and coverage changes may affect transit system efficiency, effectiveness. Hence, the adjustment or extension of the existing routes and/or creation of new bus routes should be dealt adequately. Such alterations should contribute preserving or enhancing the mobility and accessibility of the non-driving population, create alternative competitive modes to car use, and, especially in congested or sensitive areas, to minimize auto travel and related auto facility requirements. Conversely, transit route and coverage curtailment may be undertaken as a cost-cutting measure (Pratt and Evans, 2004). In this paper, the focus is given on the bus network optimization and alteration of bus routes study conducted in Istanbul in 2007. Data collection process and the types of data are initially described. Following this, the statistical facts and analyses are identified with the emphasis on current situation. The bus transport modeling methodology which allows investigating the critical routes is described in detail at the succeeding section. Finally, the optimization of bus network is given, the results are displayed and the conclusion and recommendations are drawn. 2. DATA COLLECTION In order to conduct a bus network optimization study, a representative model of the current public transport is a prerequisite. In addition, the mode preferences and the other factors affecting trips such as car ownership, traffic network and congested sections of the network should be taken into consideration. As in most of the studies, it is not possible to collect the data about entire network which yields development of simple representative models with the data available. In this study, the basic information of the model (e.g. bus stops, line routes, departure times ) acquired from IETT, SERTEM and ZIV(SERTEM and ZIV, 2007) with mostly different data types and formats. Numerous transformations and adaptations are performed while the development of the public bus transport model. Finally, all the different data was inserted within the specific format requirements of the used macrosimulation program (VISUM, Version 9.44 from PTV). The dependencies of the different types of transport like railway, seaways and bus made it necessary to build up a model that reproduces the status quo of the current public transport situation. After the iterative and long lasting calibration of the model with the repetitive changes of network parameters (e.g. line length, speed, capacities ) and checks with the given basic data, the calibration process completed. With the given project goals and the tight schedule, this study only covers the public transport view. Nevertheless, the network model gives consistent information about the general impact of the suggested improvements of the transportation network. The basic data concerning the geographical situation of the Istanbul road network and the existing bus stops was generated on Geographical Information System (GIS). The need of even more detailed data for the running bus lines on the given road information was another challenge to receive a working public bus transportation model. For example small gaps in the digital data between the roads and links had to be manually closed, multiple existing link sections had to be erased carefully and a lot of bus stops had to be aggregated to transfer points which the stops belong to. The allowed and possible speeds on the links are given for some parts of the road network. Missing speed information is assumed with a load factor which is a function of the density on the road and integrated in the network. In order to calculate the amount of needed public transport vehicles on all network links, it is essential to know the maximum possible capacity of each vehicle. The capacities of each

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vehicle are provided via IETT. The timetable information of the vehicles operating on the designated routes was digitalized by SERTEM in different data formats. Some missing timetable data are gathered via searching the website of IETT. Transfer points play an important role and it is also included in the model. Another work is combining different data formats in a unique format. The entire data collected and generated are integrated and used in the network model. With this information together with the schedules, bus stops and speeds, the current demand and over-crowded sections in the public transport model and the IETT bus network is determined. 3. STATISTICAL FACTS AND ANALYSES The average speed of the bus lines in Istanbul is different at three regions as; 16,7 km/h in Anadolu, 13,5 km/h in Beyoglu and 15,9 km/h in 2005 in Istanbul. With an overall speed of 15,4 km/h the Istanbul metropolitan region is at the same level as e.g. Bucharest (15 km/h) and London (14 km/h) and far better off than Beijing at the level less than 10 km/h. But there are also cities with a faster public bus transport such as Budapest (25 km/h) and Athens (22 km/h). Indeed, there is a potential in Istanbul to accelerate the bus lines. For this acceleration, several different measures have to be taken. One of the measures would be the introduction of separate bus lanes. In Dublin for example, a remodeling of the major highways leading to the city, the so called Quality Bus Corridors proved a big success. Reduction of the travel time in the public transport system of 30 to 50 % and increase of the passenger numbers of 20 to 100 % is achieved (depending on the corridor). Moreover, car use decreased over 25% in 2006 in comparison to the year 1996 (Dublin Transportation Office, 2006). The average age of the 2.800 IETT busses in Istanbul is 12,2 years. Compared to other European cities this is very old. In order to improve the comfort for the passengers and to enhance the reliability of the busses, the modernization of the IETT bus fleet should be steadily continued. One of the most important components for a consistent representative model is the reliable OD demand matrix for public transit. This data is adopted by SERTEM for the 452 traffic zones. In general, the more traffic zones are used, the better the result gets. On the other hand increasing the zone number would yield complex model which requires high capacity computers and obviously more time. The OD matrix includes whole passenger trips of IETTbuses, railways (including LRT and tram) and seaways. Although there is no reliable data available for the minibuses and private buses, these lines and schedules are integrated in the digital public transport model with an assumption of a certain amount of demand. The

Figure 1: Distribution of the Demand and ODmatrix trips between zones(>1.000 persons/day)
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following Figure 1 shows the process of distributing the demand on the public transport network in the public transport model developed and the OD trips between zones. It is worthy to note that most of the routes are found very dense even every each OD pair have enough potential to require an own direct bus line that travels every hour or every 30 minutes in the peak hours. Despite the situation is more catastrophically dense around the central part of the city, it is not feasible to operate additional buses due to the congested lanes. Another important topic to mention is that the original OD-Matrix had to be modified after the introduction of the different planning proposals in the developed public transport model. New transportation alternative yields a change on mode preferences. It is expected that more people will use it, when travel times are reduced and the mode is more convenient. Thus, the OD matrix is modified according to the prospected land use and planning policies. The entire network model data attributes used for the public transport model and the benchmark values are shown in Table 1. Table 1: The network model data and the benchmark values
Attribute Districts Lines shared with private busses Lines served by IETT busses Zones Stops Bus stops Nodes # 33 152 437 452 981 4.100 62.218 Benchmark values Km of total length of lines Passengers in the morning peak hour Bus kilometers per day Passenger hours per day Passengers per day Passenger kilometers per day 24.150 212.500 490.000 1.400.000 1.900.000 26.000.000

4. MODELLING BUS TRANSPORT The process of modeling the public transport system requires some necessary assumptions in order to rebuild the real situation consistently. Transfer time between vehicles of the same system including the walking and waiting time is taken globally 10 minutes. The transfer time between systems, such as between bus and rail or ferry, is also taken as 10 minutes. The time to reach the first bus stop from the zones is assigned as 5 or 10 minutes, depending on the size of the zone. Model is based on the peak-hour demand, which is estimated 11,3 % of OD matrix. 4.1. Methodology As for the network performance, three categories built for the roads distinguished by their general importance and speed. In addition, the roads are classified depending on the density of the surrounding road network. Therefore, the average observed speed at the main roads in densely populated areas or in the city centre is much lower than at the same road-type in the outer areas. In Table 2, the classification of roads and general speed and density classes of the network, which are used to identify a road type factor are given. Table 2: Speed and density classes of roads
Road Type Local Road Arterial Highway Speed Interval <= 25 km/h <= 50 km/h > 50 km/h Factor 0,70 1,00 1,50 Density of Road Network High Moderate Low Color Red Orange Green Factor 0,70 1,00 1,50

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The basic speed of the IETT bus lines is 17 km/h. the average speed is recalculated according to the density and road type factor as; Speed = Avg. speed * road type factor *density factor. This gives the exact speed for each road that we can now use in the model. In example, the speed of a local road at a highly dense neighborhood is: 17*0,7*0,7 = 8,33 km/h and the speed on a moderately dense highway is: 17*1,5/1,0 = 25,5 km/h. This speed seems relatively low, only as we did not calculate the real dwelling times at the bus-stops and also the speed is the average travel speed of the bus.

Figure 2: Average link speeds of the network Passenger behavior plays an important role for a coherent estimation of demand and modal split. In this study, not only had the pure technical parameters to be modeled, but also the individual behavior of the passengers. In a variety of former studies regarding the passengerbehavior, transfers form bus to another bus not only time consuming, but also it is not preferred even if it takes a little longer to reach the destination without a transfer. Consequently, the model uses additional parameters to take these kinds of individual comfort aspects in regard. But these parameters are not distinguished between the different user groups or geographical regions. Concerning the calibration of the model, successive and iterative changes performed to check the parameters and results. Eventually good representative model is generated which is a representative in terms of passenger demand and network capacity. 4.2. Investigation of Critical Routes Within the complete public transport network, the network structure of the IETT bus lines is very homogeneous and the importance of the lines does not distinguished. It is exceptional, that for almost all regions there is a direct access to the IETT bus network. From the passenger point of view this would be convenient and comfortable for the, on the contrary it leads IETT to a bulky and almost unmanageable complex network. Another important fact is that the railway related high quality public transport is much more developed in the European side. Thus, on the Asian side, the bus traffic has even more important role, but unfortunately without well defined high quality backbone on the network.

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The current capacity usage of the bus lines cannot be given exactly for each bus line out of the public transport model, but the capacity usage of the network sections can be given as a percentage over the whole day. The following figure shows the daily capacity usage of all means of public transport as bus and Bus Rapid Transit (Metrobus in Turkey) on the different roads.

Figure 2: Capacity Usage of the whole bus network This capacity usage figure can be used very efficiently to search for regions, where an alteration required for a more efficient operation or where an increase of transportation service needs to be offered. 4.3. Optimization of Bus Transport Planning proposals for optimization is initially discussed with IETT authorities in order to determine the policy guidelines. The optimization objective is to operate the bus network more efficiently and increasing the quality of service without any cost increase. During this stage major prospected transportation projects concerning the new LRT and Metrobus lines are considered as realized. These new lines also have been inaugurated in 2007 or 2008 as it was foreseen. Parallel bus lines to lines of Light Rail Transit or the Metrobus are one of the biggest concern of IETT as they have similar routes and serving at close stations of the same region. The bus lines that run within little distance of the railway lines (Commuter rail) and the Metro (4. Levent Taksim) are not affected, as these transport systems have greater distances between the stops so that the busses can be used for providing a feeder service. In order to increase the on time performance and decrease the operation cost, another policy proposed to IEET such as all lines not to be longer than 20 km maximum. Therefore, all lines longer than 20 km is analyzed to be eligible to split into several parts. All lines longer than 20 km have been split into two or more only if it is not practical (e.g. lines with a length of 25 km where only a very small part of the line would be left) or not possible lines are longer than 20 km. For some cases it is not possible to cut line routes which bounds for different zones and dwell at the same stops through some stretches. If the lines split in reality this would cause a decrease in service coverage. For these lines, if necessary, line routes have to be modified at first. One obvious result of this splitting is a highly increased number of line routes and trips with changes. Splitting lines is not a method of optimization but an alteration. Especially with the passenger aspect, travel times would be
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higher than before as the number of changes increases. The increased number of changes also leads to higher trip costs for passengers. Both effects can induce a different behavior in favor of other modes available. Increasing the speed of buses is one of the most efficient ways of utility maximization. At the same time, it is also the most challenging way requires an intensive effort.

Figure 1: Cutoffs for splitting long routes Yet, reliability and speed of the bus network can be increased and decreased travel times make the system more attractive for passengers and the operator can save up to a more efficient system. To receive an optimum result of the acceleration of bus lines different measures should be taken such as; bus lanes on important city-corridors(main arterials), bus lanes on highways (e.g. by use of highway-safety-lanes or extra lanes), sharing of lanes by tramway and busses, bus priority signaling. Existing data only include the daily traffic flow and the amount over time for the whole day. Due to the fact that we do not have data about the traffic flow for specific hours it is not possible to distinguish between the morning and the evening peak hour. For the reasons mentioned above, the proposals for the optimization of the capacity usage base on the daily traffic flow. Additionally, capacity utilization may be low only on specific sections of a line, but not on the entire route. In this case, runs can be saved only on the section with low utilization. The model shows the area where the capacity usage changes from a higher to a lower utilization. In reality the utilization changes gradually, in the model it changes at a specific stop. The average speed increase yields in increase of the reliability of travel time of public transport, increase of the attractiveness of busses to the bus users, facilitation of the bus circulation and improve accessibility, decrease operating costs via less crew and decreased fuel consumption. Figure 6 explains schematically, how the acceleration of buses helps in saving. Basically, it is obvious that the faster you operate busses, the fewer vehicles and crew are required. Acceleration of busses will play a key role for the successful modernization of Istanbuls public bus transportation. Metropolitan cities having a global importance like Istanbul should find ways to operate the existing network with higher efficiency in order to supply economically sustainable transportation service.
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Figure 6: Bus speed increase and savings 5. RESULTS The length of a huge amount of bus lines will be changed due to the planning restrictions given by IETT. The cutting was done for all variations as IETT only, shared lines and private bus lines only. The amount of bus lines and their percentage before and after the optimization are given as well as the variation in percent in Table 3. The result of the cutting of lines is evident. The number of longer bus lines is reduced drastically and the number of shorter lines increased. After this cutting, a new arrangement of lines between IETT and private busses could make sense to increase the efficiency and profit for both participants. Nevertheless, it is necessary to split the passengers point of view and the IETTs point of view, because sometimes the gains of stakeholders are not equal. The following statistics in Table 4 shows the effects for the passengers, when all the described measures realized in the bus network of Istanbul. Table 3: Statistic of bus lines before and after optimization
Length of IETT lines (km)
>= 25 >= 20 >= 15 >= 10 >= 7.5 >= 5 <5 Total Length of IETT lines (km) >= 25 >= 20 >= 15 >= 10 >= 7.5 >= 5 <5 Total

Before Optimization
Length (km) 66 49 100 126 55 28 13 437 Before Optimization Length (km) 63 30 56 59 24 8 3 243 % 15 11 23 29 13 6 3

Before Optimization
Length (km) 23 36 90 147 56 39 28 419 Before Optimization Length (km) 14 24 60 76 25 16 14 229 % 5 9 21 35 13 9 7

Variation (%)
-10 3 1 -6 -1 -3 -4 Variation (%) 23 7 9 6 4 -1 -2

% 26 12 23 24 10 3 1

% 3 6 14 18 6 4 3

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Table 4: Trip statistics of passenger

Attribute Average trip time (min) Average trip time (including in access time and waiting time) (min) Average trip Length (km) Ratio of trips without transfers (%) Ratio of trip with one transfer (%) Ratio of trip with two or more transfers (%) Average speed of trip (km/h) Average speed of vehicle (km/h) Daily total trip time (h) Daily total trip time (including in access time and waiting time) (h) Passenger hours per day Total Trip Length Directness (Transfer/Trip) Before Optimization 79 54 24 51 25 14 18,2 34.3 2,318,000 1,599,000 1,232,000 22,700,000 0,651 After Optimization 68 44 24 49 35 16 21 44 2,045,000 1,316,000 979,000 23,202,000 0,703 Variation (%) -14 -19 0 -4 0 15 15 28 -12 -18 -21 2 8

Considering the economic value of one passenger hour (3,75 YTL), therefore the economic saving would be 273.000 trip hours per day and 99.645.000 trip hours per year which corresponds 373.668.750 TL monetary saving for base year of 2007. This huge amount of total economic saving can legitimate the investment in acceleration of busses or investing economic and environmentally sustainable modes of transport. For the IETT, there will be a considerable amount of savings of bus kilometers and bus hours, resulting from the proposed changes. In Table 5, savings of IETT are given out of the developed public transport model. Table 5: Savings of IETT after optimization
Attribute Passengers per day Passengers in morning peak Number of bus stops Lines served by IETT buses Number of IETT buses in daily service Total length of lines (both direction) (km) Bus kilometers per day Bus hours per day Average speed of buses (km/h overall) Cost per day for all bus kilometers (TL) Savings per day for all bus kilometers (TL) Before Optimization 1,879,000 216,085 3,641 437 2,500 14,400 488,000 34,000 14.4 1,664,080 After Optimization 1,909,000 319,535 3,617 419 2,170 12,500 436,000 21,700 20,1 1,486,760 177,320 Variation (%) 2 2 -1 -4 -13 -13 -11 -36 40 -11

6. CONLUSIONS The IETT bus network has a good standard on a worldwide scale. Nevertheless, there are still potential for optimization, mainly by increasing the average travel speed and by route alteration with respect to the changes of the transportation network. The developed digital model can be benefited for the future research including scheduling and fleet management. The model should be maintained and kept up to date. Faster travels between the transfer points and on the backbone connections will improve the quality for service and at the same time will increase the transit system efficiency.

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REFERENCES Bielli, M. and Carotenuto, P., A New Approach for Transport Network Design and Optimization, 38th Congress of the European Regional Science Association, Aug. 1998. Christine Taylor and Olivier L. de Wecky, Integrated Transportation Network Design Optimization, 47th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materials Conference 1 - 4 May 2006, Newport, Rhode Island. Fang, Zhao and Xiaogang, Zeng, Optimization of transit route network, vehicle headways and timetables for large-scale transit networks, European Journal of Operational Research 186 (2008) 841855, March 2007. Dobruszkes, F. and Fourneau, Y., The direct cost and geography of Brussels mass transports operating delays, the e-journal for academic research on Brussels Issue 7, 24 May 2007 www.brusselsstudies.be Howard, P. Benn, Synthesis of Transit Practice 10 Bus Route Evaluation Standards, BartonAschman Associates, Inc. Jan, Owen J., A Simple Bus Line Model for Optimization of Service Frequency and Bus Size, Journal of Transport Economics and Policy, Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 53-80 Published by: University of Bath and The London School of Economics and Political Science, Jan., 1980 Mark, E. and Horn, T., Fleet Scheduling and dispatching for a demand responsive passenger services, Transportation Research Part C 10 2002. Peter, P. G.; Van der Perre, Dirk and Van Oudheusden, D. L., Reducing depot-related costs of large bus operators a case study in Bangkok, European Journal of Operational Research 96 (1996) 45-53, March 1996. SERTEM and ZIV, Report on Optimization of Bus System for IETT, Grater Municipality of Istanbul, 2007. Wojciech, O.; Waldemar, O. and Pawe, K., Simulation Of City Bus Operation Processes As Transportation System Realization, Proceedings 15th European Simulation Symposium (c) SCS European Council / SCS Europe BVBA, 2003 ISBN 3-936150-28-1 (book) / 3936150-29-X (CD).

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Sustainable Personal Rapid Transit Strategies for Congested Cities and Urban Communities
W. Uddin
University of Mississippi, USA cvuddin@olemiss.edu

U. Uddin
Booz Allen Hamilton, Virginia, USA usmanuddin@gmail.com

ABSTRACT: This paper reviews the ever increasing mobility and emission problems in congested cities of the U.S. and rapidly growing urban areas in emerging economies and developing countries. Traffic congestion and gridlock in most metropolitan cities and urban/ suburban areas have been growing worse over the years. Commuters waste millions of hours in traffic jams in the U.S. although substantial investments in traditional mass public transit modes have been made by the federal and state transportation agencies. The resulting vehicle emissions have adverse impacts on the environment, both in air quality degradation and increases in greenhouse gases. High-speed electric trains and short-haul air transportation are sustainable solutions for regional travel problems. These technologies are not appropriate solutions for urban commuters due to land costs and lack of space in high density metropolitan areas. The paper reviews the people mover transits in Detroit and Morgantown which use traditional power source. The paper further evaluates the use of elevated structures and cleaner fuel technologies of electricity and/or maglev for personal rapid transit operations. These innovative multimodal strategies have great potential to increase mobility, reduce congestion in city centers, and decrease adverse impacts on the environment. KEY WORDS: Multimodal, Transportation, Commuters, Air Quality, GHG, Sustainability. 1. BACKGROUND The world is undergoing the largest wave of urban growth. For the first time in history, more than half of the worlds population is living in towns and cities as of 2008, as reported by the United Nations (UNPF, 2009). Urbanization is very high in industrialized and developed countries, where 75% of the population lives in urban areas as of 2000. Thus the number of cities with 5 million inhabitants or more is expected to increase from 40 in 2001 to 58 in 2015 according to the United Nations study. The urban growth during the last five decades has increased travel demand, which is the reason for frequent traffic jams and long peak hours. As reported in TIMES, the term gridlock apparently came into common use in New York City during a transit workers strike in 1980, when a surge of commuter autos paralyzed Manhattans street grid (TIMES, 1988). Increased car ownership and congestion on two-lane highways in the 1950s were the impetus for accelerated construction of the 68,475-km
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(42,797-mile) Interstate highway system, which was officially completed in the early 1990s at an estimated final cost of $108 billion; but the Interstate highways eased overcrowding only temporarily until the 1980s. In 2005 Interstate travel accounted for 24.30% of the total miles traveled although the Interstate length was only 1.17% of the total paved road length according to the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT, 2006). Traffic congestion on roads and resulting gridlock has spread to many suburbs and medium-size cities that seldom experienced it before. American workers are increasingly caught in traffic because commuting patterns have changed drastically in recent decades. The evolving gridlock problems and their societal and environmental impacts require innovative solutions as the urban growth and vehicle use increase. 1.1. Objectives The primary objectives of this study are to (1) review congestion problems associated with urban growth, (2) evaluate congestion impacts on travelers and the environment, and (3) identify efficient and less polluting multimodal transportation technologies for regional travel needs and urban/suburban travel demands. 2. SOCIETAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF TRAVEL DEMAND 2.1. Trends of Population, Vehicle Ownership and Travel Pattern Changes Figure 1 shows percent change of transportation, economic and population indicators during 1980 2005 in the U.S. (DOT, 2007).
120

Percent Change

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Figure 1: Changes of Transportation, Economic and Population Indicators, 1980-2005 According to a recent study by the Transportation Research Board (TRB), travel purposes and patterns have changed over the last four decades (Pisarski, 2006), as follows. The 1956 Chicago area transportation study identified about two trips per day per capita of which 40% were work trips. During the 2000s this travel pattern has increased to four trips per day per capita with work trips well below 20%. Currently, travel demand includes the following activities in a typical metropolitan transportation system: o Commuting to work o Other resident travel
656

Em

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io n

o o o o o o

Visitor travel Public vehicle travel Urban goods and services travel Utility services travel Passenger through-travel Freight through-travel

During 1950-2000, suburban population increased from 23% to 50% for most metropolitan areas in the U.S. The 2001 travel share distribution by purpose includes only 14.9% commuting to work and 2.9% work-related business, compared to 22.5% family/personal business, 19.8% shopping, and 18.4% other social/recreational. This travel pattern has also increased daily person trips by car owners resulting in $7,759 or 19.07% average spending on transportation by 2.5-person/2-vehicle household (Pisarski, 2006). The 1988 TIMES article (TIMES, 1988) states, , the movement of women into the work force has produced a second commuter in most households. A suburban, two-income family typically owns two cars for the parents and often a third car for teenagers to take to a school or the mall. In the affluent Washington suburb of Fairfax County, Va., the number of autos has increased almost 84% since 1975, nearly three times as fast as the population growth of 31%......... For many suburbs, the beltway serves as Main Street, lined with office buildings, shopping complexes and Cineplexes that attract more and more home buyers. The Washington Beltway is a notoriously clogged 64-mile loop that carried an estimated 466,000 vehicles a day in 1976 and now handles 735,000. The average speed for Beltway commuters driving across the Woodrow Wilson Bridge from Virginia suburbs to Maryland communities is currently 23 m.p.h., down from 47 m.p.h. in 1981. During the 1990-2010 period average travel time over 30 miles, mostly on the beltway between suburban areas of Maryland and Northern Virginia, has typically increased by 50% although several lanes have been added in both directions. The change in travel pattern has significantly impacted travel demand on roads, which is typically indicated by average annual daily traffic (AADT) volume and vehicle-mile-traveled. These statistics have been steadily increasing over the years, as shown in Table 1 (DOT, 2007). Of the roughly 30 million vehicles added between 1990 and 2000, more than 13 million were added to households that already had two or more vehicles (Pisarski, 2006). Table 1: Changes in Travel Demand Indicators in the U.S. (Source: http://www.bts.gov/publications/national_transportation_statistics/) Travel Demand Indicator
Number of vehicles registered Total vehicle-miles (billions) Total ton-miles (billions) Fuel economy increase Fuel use increase Average miles traveled per vehicle

1970 2000 Data

57.8% increase 2,746.9 (Year 2000); 148% increase 1,203 (Year 2000); 161% increase 62% (Passenger cars) 74% (2-axle 4-tire vehicles) 8% (Passenger cars) 330% (2-axle 4-tire trucks)

2007 Data
254.4 million; 93.3% (cars, 2-axle 4-tire vehicles) 3.5% (2-axle 6-tire or more trucks, combination) 3,029.8 billion; 58% cars and 41% trucks 1,293 (Year 2005); 2007 data not available 20.4 miles per gallon (cars) 5.9 miles per gallon (trucks) 11,720 miles (cars); 25,141 miles (trucks)

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2.2. Environmental Impacts of Travel Demand and Congestion Urban growth is inevitable worldwide because the city provides more job opportunities and better community facilities to people migrating from rural areas. To sustain resident population and its transportation needs, the city needs more energy sources, more built-up impervious areas, and adequate transportation infrastructure. This creates many adverse impacts on the environment in and around cities. Recent Department of Energy (DOE) data in the U.S. shows about 25% consumption of all world petroleum production (EIA, 2007). This is the primary source of carbon emissions. The U.S. consumption of petroleum by end-use sector during 1982 and 2002 increased from 15.3 to 19.74 million per day or 29.02% increase in 20 years at the rate of 1.45% per year. About 66.5% of this is used by the transportation sector in the U.S. Consumption of fossil fuel produces carbon dioxide (CO2) that is distributed by source in the U.S. as: 42% from petroleum, 37% from coal, and 21% from natural gas. The burning of petroleum-based fuel emits 82% CO2 and several primary pollutants: hydrocarbons, volatile organic compounds, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxides, as well as particulate matter. These emissions contribute greatly to pollute air and cause smog, groundlevel ozone, cancer, lung diseases, and respiratory diseases. The carbon emissions from transportation account for 27% of all anthropogenic greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions in the U.S. About 81% of GHG emission comes from onroad vehicles, as shown in Figure 2 for 2004 emission inventory in the U.S. (EIA, 2007). Emissions from mobile sources have grown 29% during 1990-2004. The GHG emissions are well known contributors to global warming, stratospheric ozone layer depletion, increasing sea levels and temperatures, and climate change mechanisms. These environmental impacts are well recognized by now. Traffic congestion increases GHG emissions. Figure 3 shows that road bottlenecks and traffic incidents contribute 65% to congestion, which causes the following adverse societal and environmental impacts: Wastage of gasoline fuel due to traffic jam, gridlock, and stop-and-go travel GHG emissions and air pollution Risk to road safety and traffic incidents Road user delays and associated cost Increase in the total cost of moving people and goods As for motorists, the DOT estimated 43.8 million total person-hours delay in 2003 at 25 hour delay per person cost in urbanized areas resulting in 15 gallons fuel wasted per person (DOT, 2006).
Motorcycles, Pipelines and Lubricants 2% Mobile AC and Refrigerated Transport 2%

Locomotives 3% Ships and Boats 3% Aircraft 9% Heavy-Duty Vehicles 19%

Special Events Poor Signal Timing

Passenger Cars 34%

Bad Weather

15%

40%

Bottlenecks

Work Zones

10%

25%

Light-Duty Trucks 28%

Traffic Incidents

Figure 2: Transportation Related GHG Emissions in the U.S., 2004

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Figure 3: Causes of Congestion in the U.S., 2005

2.3. Sustainability Concerns Associated with Transportation Infrastructure Solutions Sustainable transportation and development policies strive to meet the current needs without depleting natural resources and compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs for sustaining a comfortable quality of life. It is recognized that the worldwide reduction of greenhouse gases and the efficient use of energy are important sustainability issues facing the human race. Sustainable transportation network and urban infrastructure facilities are warranted to support urban communities in view of the demand of energy, reduce public health hazards resulting from air pollution and urban smog, and mitigate adverse impacts of GHG emissions on the environment. In 2005, public mass transportation in the U.S. reduced carbon emission by 6.9 million metric tons and avoided 400,000 tons of other GHG emissions (Uddin et al., 2009). However, Less than 10% of people used public transport, taxi cab, or motorcycles and 77% used cars for work related trips in 2005. Congestion and gridlock events increase GHG and other vehicle emissions because average speed reduces, travel time increases, and combustion engines burn more fuel, as shown in Figure 4.
40

y ,

,
VOC CO NOx

64

Emission Rate, g/veh/km

30

Notes: 1) Consider only emissions from Light-Duty Gasoline Vehicles (LDGV) and Heavy-Duty Diesel Vehicle 8A (HDDV8A) with percentage proportion = 92.3:7.7 2) Consider only exhaust running emissions 3) Consider only emissions from vehicle on highway

20

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16
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32

48
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112

Figure 4: Vehicle Emission Rates for Average Vehicle Speeds and Vehicle Mix on Mississippi Highway 6, Oxford, Mississippi Smart management of traffic flow is being implemented in most cities and suburbs through video surveillance and other intelligent transportation system (ITS) technologies to reduce gridlock occurrences, delays, and emissions. However, the key to success for achieving sustainability in transportation system is to reduce the number of vehicles and number of trips on roads. Sustainable solutions to mobility requires a combination of multimodal strategies with reduction in gasoline vehicles, increase in mass transit running on compressed natural gas (CNG) and other energy efficient technologies, and reduction of cars on congested roads. The effects of transportation-related emissions and air pollution on public health and associated medical costs are reviewed and summarized by Uddin (2006). These cost models, congestion pricing, and carbon emission taxes can be used for a comprehensive life-cycle analysis to evaluate sustainable alternative transportation strategies as a part of value engineering analysis. The strategies for sustainable transportation system should consider: Reducing congestion, user delays, and wastage of fuel in queues Improving mobility using multimodal approach as a part of space planning concept Using transit modes operating on alternative less polluting energy Increasing mass transit mode share by increasing car parking prices Increasing revenues by collecting higher fuel taxes on gasoline and diesel
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Constructing more green spaces and promoting non-motorized cycling and walking Monitoring air quality and striving for less air pollution and cleaner air Reducing backlog of infrastructure and preserving state of good repair Serving more people and creating/preserving jobs

Commuters need to have sufficient and safe mobility in order to be productive in the workplace, and commercial businesses need to flourish without losing potential customers. College campuses face similar challenges of inadequate parking space and polluting transport services. Recent transportation policies and strategies, such as congestion pricing and the use of bus rapid transit (BRT) and light rail transit (LRT) have shown only minor benefits by reducing the number of cars on roads. Most car owners in the U.S. do not use public transit due to love of the freedom offered by driving their cars and because public transit is looked upon as for use by only the poor community. Two different types of strategies are discussed in the following sections to address the mobility problem and sustainable solutions on a regional level and local level. 3. REGIONAL TRANSPORTATION STRATEGIES Highways are the primary mode of regional travel in the U.S. and its share has increased since the terrorist attack of September 11, 2001 due to more hours spent on short-haul airports for security related and flight delays. High speed rail (HSR) technology operated by electric power is a good solution for regional travel and highway congestion problems connecting origin and destination points separated by 100 kilometers or more. The justification of investment in HSR is highly dependent on local conditions concerning local airport capacity, rail and road network situation, and existing demand volumes. The U.S. DOT and state agencies are investing heavily in high speed rail technology in pursuit of sustainable solutions for regional travel problems (Figure 5).

(Left) Shanghai Maglev System

http://home.wangjianshuo.com/archives/20030 809_pudong_airport_maglev_in_depth.htm

(Right) Las Vegas Maglev HSR (planned)

Figure 5: High Speed Rail Transportation System for Long- Haul Mobility A formidable alternative to both the auto and airplane travel modes for regional transportation needs is the magnetic-levitation train, or maglev (TIMES, 1988), which has been a candidate HSR technology since the early 1980s. Supported, guided, and propelled by the force of powerful electromagnets, the streamlined maglev technology could reach speeds of 480 km or 300 miles per hour or more. Reliability and design problems have plagued its full commercial potential. One proposed high-speed maglev route in the U.S. is a 230-milelong link between Los Angeles and Las Vegas, a five-hour auto trip that the maglev could cover in about 70 minutes (TIMES, 1988). The world's first commercial automated "urban

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maglev" system commenced operation in March 2005 in Aichi, Japan. This is the nine-station 8.9 km long Tobu-kyuryo Line, otherwise known as the Linimo. The line has a minimum operating radius of 75 m and a maximum gradient of 6%. The linear-motor magnetic-levitated train has a top speed of 100 kilometres per hour (62 mph). West Germany and China have implemented the German-built Transrapid train system to serve Shanghai International Airport at a cost of 9.93 billion yuan to build. This is the only operational maglev high speed train network in the world (Wikipedia, 2010). Inaugurated in 2002 in Shanghai, it transports people 30 km (18.6 miles) to the airport in just 7 minutes 20 seconds, achieving a top speed of 431 km/h (268 mph), averaging 250 km/h (160 mph). The U.S. Federal Railroad Administration gives an estimated 2008 capital cost of 4.361 billion US$ for 39.1 miles, or 111.5 million US$ per mile (69.3 million US$ per kilometer) for a proposed Baltimore-Washington maglev project (Wikipedia, 2010). After 22 years since the TIMES report, the Obama Administration has just now invested billions of dollars to develop and implement such high speed train networks in the U.S. 4. PEOPLE MOVER AND RAPID TRANSIT FOR URBAN/SUBURBAN COMMUTING 4.1.2. Overview The high speed rail technology requires costly right-of-way due to expensive real estate prices in cities and metropolitan areas. These are not appropriate solutions for urban and suburban commuters. Costs are also very high for adding more bus lanes to expand BRT operations. In many densely populated urban and suburban metropolitan areas there is simply no more space for expansion of surface transportation facilities or no further underground space to extend subway systems. Using the space planning concept in place of traditional land-use planning opens up new innovative strategies to solve urban commuter transportation problems. This will also reduce congestion in cities and metropolitan areas and improve air quality. Dedicated elevated transportation pathways maximizing the use of existing right-of-ways of public roads are the answer to the urban commuter problem. The key to the success of this approach is in selecting the right vehicle technology for a personal rapid transit (PRT) system that can be light-weight and energy efficient. Dedicated use of the people mover and PRT systems have been in operation on some airports. For example, SF People Mover is a driverless system serving mainly San Francisco International Airport area, similar to DFW International Airport people mover on dedicated tracks. These airport systems run on traditional electric power. 4.1.2. Review of Existing Systems Detroit People Mover The Detroit People Mover is an automated driverless transit system which operates on a single set of tracks, and encircles the central business district of downtown Detroit, Michigan extending to about 2.9 miles or 4.7 kilometers. Detroit, the Motor City, was designed for cars. The city has no commuting subway or train system like other major cities. The People Mover was cited as the only possible rail transit system based on the budget by Detroits City Council. The elevated light-rail system was completed by 1987 (Figure 6). The People Mover uses driverless cars. The train travels one direction around a three-mile long, elevated track that circles the perimeter of downtown. It has 13 stops and takes about 15 minutes to travel (Detroit, 2010). Commuters from the suburbs who do not want to drive in the downtown area mainly use this system. For this purpose, it has proven to be successful keeping car traffic
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down in the city. The system was projected to have 67,700 riders daily, but opened in 1987 with only 11,000 average daily riders in the first year. As of 2008, the system only moves about 7,500 people per day, which is about 2.5% of its capacity of 288,000 that the system can handle at full capacity. The system runs clockwise, which makes the trains much faster but also louder. The People Mover was designed to move up to 15 million riders a year, but only saw 2 million riders in 2008. The cost per user is $0.50, but the city spends roughly $3.00 for every rider to keep the system running. The art dcor at each station is a definite perk for users of the train to make their time spent waiting go by faster. The art work has become a point of pride for the city. One major issue of the system though, is that it only goes in one direction. This forces some users to complete an entire circuit to go a matter of blocks, which is undesirable.

Figure 6. (Left) Detroit People Mover System; (Right) Morgantown PRT System Morgantown Personal Rapid Transit The Morgantown Personal Rapid Transit (WVU PRT) is a people mover system in West Virginia (U.S.), which connects three Morgantown campuses of West Virginia University (WVU) as well as the downtown area. The Morgantown system has been in operation since 1975 as a result of a government-funded experiment in PRT systems. The Morgantown PRT is the only commercially operated example of this class of rapid transit. The economy of Morgantown boomed in the 2000s and the city became famous for having the lowest unemployment rate in the U.S., heavily due to the PRT system that spurred growth of the city. The future outlook seems optimistic for the system as it is looking to double in size by doubling its length. Early in the 1960s, Morgantown experienced heavy traffic congestion due to the increased university population. All the roads were led through the city center, and multiple campuses were sprung up in the surrounding area that led to an increased bottleneck in the city area. This congestion led the development of the PRT concept, and Boeing was contracted in 1970 to design and build the PRT system. The estimated cost to implement the system was around US $20 million dollars, but ended up costing US $62 million dollars at project completion. The dedicated guideway system was delivered in 1975 (Morgantown, 2010). The system consists of 8.2 miles of guideway, five passenger stations, and a fleet of fully automated rubber-tired vehicles. It is widely perceived as reliable and inexpensive to operate. The system has had no injuries and offered on-time service rates far surpassing the bus services it replaced while eliminating the gridlock that had locked up the city center. Roughly 2.25 million riders annually ride the train, and about 16,000 riders per day on average as of November 2007. The fares are US $0.50 which is included in tuition fee and covers about 60% of the costs. As of 2006, the system had an availability rate of 98% and has recently received funding to improve efficiency by reducing its vehicle downtime (Morgantown, 2010).
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4.1.3 Modern Personal Rapid Transit Initiatives The paper further evaluates the use of elevated structures and cleaner fuel technologies of electricity and maglev for PRT operations designed to reduce congestion and impacts on the environment. The Swedish and Brazilian versions of PRT vehicle systems (Figure 7) are reportedly being implemented (SkyCab, 2009; Eduardo, 2009; Stephan, 2010).

Figure 7: (Left) Swedish SkyCab PRT; (Right) Brazilian Cobra Maglev PRT Modern PRT concepts provide the most appropriate and cost-effective strategy for solving urban commuter transportation problems. The SkyCab is a Swedish PRT initiative that is being planned for some cities in Sweden. This is based on the use of traditional electrical power. A conceptual design of a maglev-operated PRT is being planned for Las Vegas, Nevada. The Brazilian Cobra Maglev PRT system has been engineered for construction on the federal university campus of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The Cobra PRT system is planned to operate on superconductor maglev technology which is more energy efficient than the Shanghai Maglev HST system. This innovative superconductor maglev technology is a costeffective and quieter sustainable solution for urban areas and cities. Due to the light weight vehicle system the elevated infrastructure can handle steeper grades. Its dedicated pathway structure can be installed within the common railroad track. The energy cost is expected to be from 2 to 6 times less than other mass transit options (Stephan, 2010). 5. COMPARISON OF ECONOMIC COST AND VALUE ENGINEERING ANALYSIS The rationale for HSR or PRT investment is similar to other public investment decisions such as roads, waste, water management, schools, etc. If the social benefits are greater than the next best alternative to high-speed rail, then public funds should be allocated to this mode of transport. The approach to determine economic cost is derived from a complex study of the volume traffic data where new lines are built, users time savings, number of users willing to pay for such a transport, release of capacity in congested roads, release of capacity in regional airports, release of capacity of conventional rail lines, reduction in congestion and delays in roads and airports, reduction in road crashes and incidents, reduction in environment impacts, and broader economic benefits including development of less developed regions and creation of jobs. In a nutshell, the economic evaluation determines whether the direct user benefits and societal benefits are high enough to compensate the infrastructure and operating costs of the new transport alternative. The life cycle economic evaluation includes several financial considerations such as present worth analysis of benefits and costs over a reasonable analysis period of 60-70 years considering 5% discount rate and calculating net present value (NPV) of minimum two alternatives. The base alternative is do-nothing, and the reduction in user delay hours and emissions are considered indirect benefits from the new alternative transit strategy. Road vehicle operating cost (Figure 8) is a large component of road user cost (Uddin, 2005), which
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is substantially reduced as a proportion of the road users who switch to the new transit technology. Other benefits include reduction in fuel and low pollution cost. Agency cost for building a lower speed PRT on elevated alignment may cost around 4 million US$ per km. However, its annual operating cost will be lower than a HST alternative due to energy efficient and less polluting vehicle technology. Public-Private Partnership (PPP) is probably the best way of securing funds to build and operate these innovative energy efficient and cleaner mass transit solutions in metropolitan areas and other large cities, if disincentives are in place to discourage commuters to ride their cars.
Tire 8.4% Vehicle Repair & Maintenance 30.5% Gasoline 34.7% Oil 1.6% Depreciation 24.8%

5 4 PSI 3 2 1

Pavement Serviceability Index (PSI)

10

20

30

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50

voc % Increase in VOC

Figure 8: Vehicle operating Cost Components (Uddin, 2005) Value engineering approach is used to illustrate economic feasibility of PRT system. Assuming PRT construction cost of 10-km stretch is about 40 million dollars with annual 0.5 million dollar operating cost. Let us assume that each person using the PRT system saves annually 25 hours of delay at $16 per hour and avoids wastage of 15 gallons of fuel and oil at $3 per gallon. For 20,000 commuters (or 20% car owners in the daily traffic volume) using PRT instead of driving cars, the total user saving is about 9 million dollars annually. This example implies that the PRT cost is covered within 5 years. Additionally, the societal benefit will be enormous in terms of reduction in CO2 at 2,765 tons daily or about one million tons annually. Other indirect benefits include less air pollution, reduction in associated public health cost, less risk of on-road crashes, and increased productivity. 6. CONCLUDING REMARKS The paper reviews the high speed rail technology for regional transport and urban people mover transits in place in Detroit and Morgantown. These mass transit technologies can alleviate plaguing problems of traffic congestion, wastage of gasoline fuel, vehicle emissions of criteria air pollutants, and GHG emissions. Dedicated elevated transportation pathways for PRT systems maximizing the use of existing right-of-ways of public roads are the answer to the urban commuter problem. The key to the success of this approach is in selecting the right vehicle technology that can be light-weight and energy efficient. The paper further evaluates the use of elevated structures and cleaner fuel technologies of electricity and maglev for personal rapid transit operations designed to reduce congestion and impacts on the environment. Several initiatives are underway, such as the Swedish and Brazilian versions of PRT vehicles. Costs of building and operation versus benefits are discussed. The benefits include: reduction in travel time, number of new jobs, manufacturing jobs to build new vehicles, societal benefits like reduction in GHG emissions and other pollutants. Life-cycle analysis of costs and benefits is recommended as a part of value engineering to compare economic viability and environmental sustainability of this innovative approach with traditional transit modes.

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REFERENCES Detroit, 2010. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit_People_Mover Accessed May 6, 2010. DOT, 2006. U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Highway Statistics 2005, Washington, DC, 2006. DOT, 2007. Highway Statistics 2007. U.S. Department of Transportation. Federal Highway Administration. http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policyinformation/statistics/2007/vm1.cfm Accessed March 9, 2010. Eduardo, Goncalves D., 2009. O Futuro Das Estradas Rio deJaneiro, Brazil, 2009. EIA, 2007. Energy Information Administration. http//www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/ggrpt/pdf/chapter2.pdf, p. 16 Accessed August 20, 2010. Morgantown, 2010. Accessed April 20, 2010. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgantown_Personal_Rapid_Transit#cite_note-ry6-12 Pisarski, Alan E., 2006. Commuting in America, NCHRP Report 550, National Cooperative Highway Research Program, TRB, Washington, DC, www.trb.org Skycab, 2009. http://www.skycab.se/eng/?vision Accessed April 23, 2009. Stephan, R.M. 2010. Reflexes sobre o projeto trem-bala, Folha de So Paulo. seo Tendncias e Debates, pg A3., January 1, 2010.0 http://www.dee.ufrj.br/lasup TIME, 1988. Koepp, Stephen. Gridlock!. TIME Magazine, September 12, 1988, pp. 52-60. Uddin, W., 2005. Life-Cycle Societal Costs and Benefits for Sustainable Transportation Decision Making. CD Proceedings, MAIREPAV4 4th International Conference on Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Pavements and Technological Control, Ulster University, Belfast, Northern Ireland, August 18-20, 2005. Uddin, W., 2006. Air Quality Management Using Modern Remote Sensing and Spatial Technologies and Associated Societal Costs. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, ISSN 1661-7827, MDPI, Vol. 3, No. 3, September 2006, pp. 235-243. Uddin, W.; Brown, C.; Dooley, E. Scott and Wodajo, B. T., 2009. Geospatial Analysis of Remote Sensing Data to Assess Built Environment Impacts on Heat-Island Effects, Air Quality and Global Warming. Paper 09-3416, CD Proceedings, 88th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, January 11-15, 2009. Washington, DC. United National Population Fund (UNFPA), 2009. http://www.unfpa.org/pds/urbanization.htm Accessed July 19, 2009 Wikipedia, 2010. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maglev_(transport) Accessed May 10, 2010.

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Environmental and social impact assessment

iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Tribological and Environmental Effects in Dry and Wet Pavementtyre Interaction: Modelling and Experiments
F. G. Pratic, R. Ammendola & A. Moro
DIMET Department, Mediterranea University, Reggio Calabria, Italy filippo.pratico@unirc.it, rachele.ammendola@unirc.it, antonino.moro@unirc.it

ABSTRACT: Polishing and ravelling deteriorations are responsible for a decreased level of road safety (especially in wet conditions), and relate to a decreased thickness of the wearing course, which is, as a matter of fact, a mass loss which is responsible for inflammatory reactions in mouse macrophage cells. Further, hot mix asphalt (HMA) polishing and ravelling resistance interacts with chemical resistance when a lubricated contact is involved after, for example, a fuel spillage. All these facts have environmental and financial consequences and though procedures for improving the resistance to wear and polishing of new pavements, and for correcting worn or needs and the associated problems were studied, many issues still call for further research. In the light of the above facts, a model for the analysis of the mass loss per brushing under different boundary conditions was formulated and experimentally validated through a new device, the Brush TesteRC. Different types of mixes (DGFCs-Dense Graded Friction Courses and PEMs-Porous European Mixes) and different boundary conditions were investigated. Advanced tests on HMA volumetrics, asphalt binder characteristics and HMA erosion tolerance were carried out. Results demonstrated that asphalt binder, aggregate properties and mix volumetrics affect the involved phenomena. The simple addition of a phase of soaking in water before the test in dry conditions resulted to affect appreciably the results. The obtained results provided information and findings for practical benefit of the work. KEY WORDS: Wear, Chemical resistance, Pavement, Porosity, Asphalt binder content. 1. INTRODUCTION The potential for significant performance in tyre-pavement interface depends on mix composition, compaction, weather conditions, traffic volume and spectrum, tyre characteristics, and a number of boundary conditions such as wet or dry contact, and nature of the lubricating substance (water or fuel or other hazardous materials-hazmats). Practical advantages of high resistant hot mix asphalts (HMA) include increased ability to withstand high loads, severe environments, and high speeds, without excessive wear, also when hazmat spillages do occur. On the other hand, polishing deterioration is responsible for a decreased level of road safety (especially in wet conditions) and relates to a decreased thickness of the wearing course, which is, as a matter of fact, a mass loss. Ravelling deterioration is another important issue. Studded tires damage hot mix asphalt and concrete pavements, wearing away the pavement and eventually forming ruts on the pavement surface.
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Ravelling on hot mix asphalt comes primarily from studded tire wear with a lesser portion coming from general tire wear. Moreover, note that wear particles generated from studded tires and pavement induce inflammatory reactions in mouse macrophage cells. Further, HMA polishing and ravelling resistance interacts with chemical resistance when a lubricated contact is involved after, for example, a fuel spillage. All these facts have environmental and financial consequences and though procedures for improving the resistance to wear and polishing of new pavements, and for correcting worn or needs and the associated problems were studied, many issues still call for further research. In the light of the above facts, a model for the analysis of the mass loss per brushing under different boundary conditions was formulated and experimentally validated through a new device, the Brush TesteRC, useful for performing accelerate loading tests (ALT). Paper is organized into two main sections: modelling and experiments. 2. MODELLING This section covers the modelling of problem. Equations 1 to 11 refer to stresses, strains and deformations. Equations 12 to 14 refer to the consequences, of mass losses in terms of emissions and texture. Equations 15 to 23 refer to the modelling of the brush test (i.e. the above-mentioned ALT). Equations 24 to 41 refer to wear resistance. 2.1. Tyre pavement interaction and its consequences In pavementtyre interface several phenomena occur. They originate: friction, bearing performance, mass loss, PM 10 emissions (particulate matter or fine particles -diameter <10 m), rolling resistance, vertical deflections, mechanical wear (polishing), binder removal, etc (Palasantzas, 2005; Bendtsen, 2004). Many of the above-mentioned phenomena depend on the following stresses: p, x, y (see Figure 1). As a consequence, the following indicators can be defined (see equations 1 to 14).
Fx = x ( x, y )dA
A

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

x

Fy = y ( x, y )dA
A

Fz = p( x , y )dA
A

M x = p( x , y ) ydA
A

My =

p( x , y )xdA = [ ( x , y ) x
A A y

( x , y ) y ] dA

(6) (7)

=
f =

Fx

(8) p where: Fx: Tractive Force (longitudinal force); Fy: Lateral Force (side force); Fz: Normal Force (vertical force); Mx: Overturning Torque; My: Rolling Resistance Torque; Mz: Aligning Torque. and f are different ways to express the friction coefficient.

Fz

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As for rolling resistance, My, it is related to the asymmetry of pressures distribution, p, in tire-pavement interface. This fact affects both the integration to obtain Fz (normal force between tire and pavement) and the integration to obtain My. The coefficient of rolling resistance, fr, dimensionless, is given by:
fr=My/(Fz rk), (9) where rk is the distance between the wheels centre of mass and the bearing surface during rolling, called the rolling radius. In the elastic case, it results: fr=a/(5rk 10) where a is the contact-spot half length. In the visco-elastic behaviour case, it results (Dovgyalo, 2008; Svendenius, 2007; Snilsberg et al., 2008) f=F(w)(2gE0bA*a04)/(Ph(2r2-a02)),

(11)

where F(w) is a function of w, w=v/(a0), v is the speed of the vehicle, a0 is a characteristic value of a, and A* are visco-elastic coefficients of the tread material of the tire, g is a coefficient related to the saturation of the tire tread pattern (Dovgyalo, 2008), E0 is the young modulus of the tread, b is the wideness of the tire, h is the tread thickness, r is the radius. As for environmental issues and their consequences it is possible to suppose that the higher the M related to the above-mentioned stresses, the higher the Ex (increase in g/m3) in PM10. M(t)Ex (12) Note that the Norwegian Institute of Public Health (2005) (Snilsberg, 2008; Hussein et al., 2008; Gustafsson et al., 2008; Dahl et al., 2006) has proposed an equation, which estimates the change in number of incidents of health damage for the population in a given area if the concentration of airborne particulate matter changes as a result of different measures. The equation is expressed as follows: PM = D0 * RR * Ex/10 g/m3 (13) where: PM = Number of incidents caused by an increase in concentration of PM10; D0 = Total number of incidents per year/area; RR = Increase in relative risk; Ex = Increase (g/m3) in PM10. Importantly, mechanical wear originates mass losses but also texture variations and texture changes relate to friction changes (Boscaino et al., 2005); especially in microtexture (<0.5 mm) and macrotexture (0.5mm50 mm) domains:
W (t ) = (1 mi )H i (t ) Ai
i

(14)

where the subscript i refers to the i-th wavelength. Importantly it is possible to suppose that there is no simple correlation between friction and wear. It is reasonable to expect situations in which there are higher frictional forces to be also those involving high wear. Friction stresses and forces relate mostly to the area of sliding (front area), while adhesion is the main factor in the rear area. The duration of the binderrenewal period is approximately 6 months ~ 2 years (Do et al., 2009; Bellanger, 1993). It is commonly assumed that when the friction evolution curve reaches a maximum the binder is completely removed. After this phase there is on average a decrease while seasonal effects originate sinusoidal variations. Note that equation 31, below described, could be related to such phenomena occurring during the first phase of the life of the surface of HMA specimens. In contrast it is possible that very similar frictional forces correspond to very different wear rates.
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2.2. Modelling Brush test It is important to remark that many methods for simulating pavement or aggregate wear are available (Boscaino et al., 2005): the Troger test (described by EN 1871:2000 annex K), the Prall test (EN 12697-16: 2004), the Los Angeles test (EN 1097-2:1998), the Nordic ball test (EN 1097-9: 1998), the micro-Deval test (EN 1097-1:1996), EN 12697-43: 2005; the PSV test (Polished Stone Value test) (EN 1097-8: 2000), the Brush test (EN 12697-43: 2005). The standard EN 12697-43:2005 provides an accelerate wearing test for in-lab simulation on HMA specimens (see Figure 2) previously conditioned in a fluid. There are two synergetic components in the action of the brush: rotation with respect to the axle of the brush (154 rpm) and rotation with respect to the centre, C, of the brush tester (60 rpm). From equation 3, it follows:
Fz =
Ab

pdA p A

(15), where refers to the ratio between the actual (Aa) and the

nominal (Ab) contact areas between brush and specimen. The following setting parameters are used (see Figure 2): Force between specimen and brush: 140 N; pressure between specimen and brush (deducted): (0.5 ~0.9) N/mm2; Surface between specimen and brush (deducted): (1.6~2.8) cm2; Angular speed: satellite (60 rpm); brush (154 rpm); Sliding speed (deducted): 0.3 m/s ~ 0.6 m/s (due to the synergetic rotation of satellite and brush); asperity attack angle ~90 degree.
M Ex f
V1 + V3

z R0

My

z
V3 V1 Brush

Stresses Strains Deformations

=
V4

V2+V4

+
V2

2 2 2 2 ~2 r1 (l1 + l2 + l3 ) + r2 (l3 + l2 / 2)

O v

HMA Pavement

HMA Pavement

~2r2(l3+l2/2) ~2r1(l1+l2+l3)

Aa

C l3 l2 l1
HMA specimen

Legend: = Slip Angle; = Camper; W = wear; M = mass loss; Ex = increase in PM10; f = friction; My = rolling resistance; p = vertical stress; x, y = tangential stresses.

Figure 1: Pavement tire interaction

Figure 2: Modelling brush test.

As above-mentioned, in the standard EN12697-43: 2005 both soaking (i.e. immersion in a fluid) and shear (per brushing) actions are considered and two indicators (A and B) are defined. As is well known, A is the loss of mass after soaking in fuel: A=i Ai/3, (16) with i=1, 2, 3 (specimens), Ai=((m1,i m2,i)/ m1,i)100 (17) where: m1,i = initial dry mass of the i-th specimen for soaking in fuel, in grams (g), m2,i = mass of the i-th dry test specimen after soaking in fuel, in grams (g). The parameter B introduced in the standard EN 12697-43:2005 is there defined as the loss of mass after the brush test:
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B=i Bi/3, (18) with i=1, 2, 3 (specimens), Bi=((m2,im5,i)/ m2,i)100, (19) where: m2,i = mass of the i-th dry test specimen after soaking in fuel, in grams (g), m5,i= mass of the i-th test specimen after soaking and after 120 s of brushing, in grams (g). Note that a third indicator, C, was introduced by the Authors (Pratic et al., 2008) in order to combine soaking & brushing. C=i Ci/3, (20) with i=1, 2, 3 (n specimen), Ci=((m1,i m5,i)/ m1,i)100 (21) As for relationship between B and M(t) (mass loss at the time t), it is possible to write M t B= (22) M where t =120s for both DGFCs and PEMs. By referring to the analysis of the parameter C, it is important to observe that it results: Ci = Ai+(m2,i/m1,i)Bi (23)

()

2.3. Modelling HMA wear during Brush test As above-mentioned, the -p superposition originates, at the time t, mechanical wear and therefore a mass loss (M(t), M(t)%) and thickness loss (H(t), H(t)%): where M(t)=M(t)-M(0) (24) M(t)%=100(M(t)-M(0))/M(0) (25) H(t)=H(t)-H(0) (26) H(t)%=100(H(t)-H(0))/H(0) (27) In order to model mechanical wear over the time, let us suppose that the work carried out by the tangential stresses i, for the i-th elementary element (surface area Ai) can be expressed as a function of the deformation imposed to the elementary cantilever of length li (see Figure 3 and (Pratic et al., 2010)). It follows: M(t)=kt(E0+Jtc)-1=t(a+btc)-1, (28) Where a, b, c are calibration coefficients. It can be supposed that they depend on mix type and characteristics, and on mix susceptibility to the weakening effect of interface/soaking fluids. Note that in the model here set out, it results: lim M(t)=t1-c/b, (29)
t

Optimum t-value: top= c

a , b(1 c) Local Maximum: M(top) The following boundary conditions must be considered: 1-c 0 2-c0

(30)

(31) (32) (33) (34)

a , (if real) b (-a/(b(1-c)))^(1/c), (if real) where, for the ALT under consideration (Brush test), =30 s can be assumed.

673

S F

Figure 3: Modelling mechanical wear during BT The relationship height vs. mass losses depends on the geometric features of the interaction brush-specimen (see Figure 2). Under the hypotheses of homogeneous wear and homogeneous HMA, height versus mass losses can be related as follows: M(t)=-M(t)+M(0)=-H*(t) (t) A+ H(0) (0) A (35) 3 Where (t) is the density (g/cm ) of the tested material at the time t. Let us suppose that (t)= (0), and (36) H*(t)= H(t)+(-H(t)+H(0))m (37) where m is 1/3 for conical wearing and 0 for cylindrical wearing. It follows: M(t)/((t)A )= -H(t)-(-H(t)+H(0))m+ H(0) (38) M(t)/((t)A )=(1-m)[H(0)- H(t)] =(1-m) H(t) (39) 3 3 Note that the wear W (cm , when M:g and : g/cm ) can be expressed as: W(t)= M(t)/(t) (40) It follows: W(t)=(1-m)H(t)A (41) Note that due to eq. 39 to 41 can be easily extended to M (%), H, H(%) and W. 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Figures 4 to 7 and Tables 1 to 3 summarize experiments and results. Two mix types were considered (j=1, 2): Dense-graded friction courses (DGFC) and porous European mixes (PEM). For each mix, 15 specimens were produced, compacted (Marshall compaction) and tested. The following tests and procedures were carried out: Volumetric tests (see Table 1); Storing at room temperature (between 20C and 25C) for five days; Conditioning, C, (example: air: J1,J2,J3; water: J1w,J2w,J3w; diesel oil: J11,J21,J31; jet fuel: J12,J22,J32; avion 100: J13,J23,J33). The immersion time was always 24h30 min at room temperature (between 20 and 25C); Cleaning of specimen until the acidity of the water PH was 7.00.5; Brush test, BT, according to the standard EN 12697-43:2005. Note that the following time sequence was used: Determination of Ajk, Bjk, Cjk: total brush time= 120s, divided into three periods (30+30+60), as in the EN standard; Determination of Mj(t), Mjw(t), etc: total brush time = 1800 s (15 cycles of 120s), each cycle divided into three periods (30+30+60).
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The following indicators were determined: M(t) (g), M(t) (%), mass losses; Mjw(t) (g), Mjw(t) (%), mass losses; Hj(t)(mm), Hj(t)(%), height losses; Hjw(t)(mm), Hjw(t)(%), height losses; Wj(t) (cm3), wear; Wjw(t) (cm3), wear. Table 1 refers to preliminary tests on mixes. Bitumen (B, as a component of DGFCs and PEMs), aggregates (AG) and mixes (M) were tested (control factors). Table 1:Asphalt binder and mix characteristics (averages)
PEM pen (penetration test) Softening Point B @ 160C (Viscosity) Frass Point Elastic recovery G (aggregate gradation) NMAS (Nominal Maximum Aggregate Size) a (aggregate apparent specific gravity) (aggregate specific surface) PSV (Polished Stone Value) 0.1 mm C Pas C % 2/10 0.075/2 0/0.075 mm g/cm3 m2/kg % 80 3 5 19 2.862 6.94 46 55 63 0.4 -13 64 61 29 5 10 2.670 7.67 43 5.8 12.19 22.46 2.107 2.192 10.3 2.432 9.85 3.84 DGFC Standard/References (AASHTOT 49-07, UNI EN1426:2007) (UNI EN 1427:2007, ASTM D36 06, AASHTO T 53-08) (ASTM D4402-06, AASHTO T 316-06 UL) (UNI EN 12593:1999) (UNI EN 13398:2004, AASHTO T301-08, ASTM D6084-06) (EN 12697-2: 2008; ASTM D6913-04) (ASTM C 125) (AASHTO T-85:2004) (Barnes, 2008; Rohde et al., 2008) (CNR 140/92; UNI EN 1097-8: 2000; BS 812:Part 114:1989) (ASTM 6307-05) (UNI EN 12697-8:2003, ASTM D 3203-94) (UNI EN 12697-8:2003, ASTM D 3203-94) (AASHTO T 269; EN 12697-6: 2003) (ASTM D6752; ASTM D6857) (UNI EN 12697-8:2003, ASTM D 3203-94) (ASTM D6752; ASTM D6857) (ASTM D6752; ASTM D6857) (Barnes, 2008; Rohde et al., 2008)

AG

%b (asphalt binder content as a % 4.2 percentage of aggregates) VFA (Voids Filled with % 8.26 Asphalt) VMA (Voids in the mineral % 31.66 aggregate) Gmbdim (mix bulk specific 1.901 gravity dimensional) M Gmbcor (mix bulk specific gravity 2.039 vacuum sealing method) AV (Air Voids content) % 23.4 GmbAO (mix bulk specific 2.621 gravity after opening) neff (mix effective porosity) % 22.19 k (richness modulus) 3.28 Symbols: B: bitumen; AG: aggregate; M: bituminous mix.

Table 2 refers to linear regressions (y=intercept + slopetime). Note that the first column of tables refers to mix type, while the second column deals with the value of the indicator for t=1800 s. Slopes resulted always positive. This fact agrees with equation 32. Intercepts resulted always positive or almost positive and R-square values were in the range 0.87~0.99. PEMs after immersion in air resulted often less prone to mechanical wear than DGFCs-air. As for mechanical wear after soaking in water, DGFCs resulted usually less susceptible to mechanical wear than PEMs. This fact can originate from the different air voids content: 23.4 % for PEMs and 10.3% for DGFCs (averages). The higher the air voids content, the higher the permeability to water, the higher the specimen surface exposed to the action of water, the higher the weakening power and effectiveness of the soaking process. The differences between PEMs and DGFCs resulted appreciable only in the behaviour after soaking (DGFCW vs. PEM-W).
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Table 2: Modelling of losses- Linear regressions

Mass losses Mj (t)[%], Mjw(t) [%] MIX J % Slope DGFC 1.39 0.001 DGFC W 2.61 0.001 PEM 1.78 0.001 PEM W 7.11 0.003 Height losses Hj (t)[%], Hjw (t)[%] MIX J % Slope DGFC 10.43 0.005 DGFC W 27.53 0.016 PEM 19.54 0.011 PEM W 29.57 0.016 Wear Wj(t), Wjw(t)[cm3] MIX J cm3 Slope DGFC 6.86 0.003 DGFC W 13.02 0.006 PEM 8.27 0.005 PEM W 33.55 0.012 Mj(t)[g], Mjw(t) [g] MIX J g DGFC 15.11 DGFC W 28.45 PEM 16.96 PEM W 68.30

Intercept 0.366 0.371 0.079 2.709 Intercept 0.568 -0.156 1.292 3.818 Intercept 1.807 1.846 0.378 12.779

2 0.94 0.98 0.95 0.87 2 0.94 0.99 0.98 0.97 2 0.94 0.98 0.95 0.87

Slope 0.007 0.014 0.009 0.024

Intercept 3.981 4.053 0.743 26.18 Intercept 0.360 -0.101 0.790 2.386

2 0.94 0.98 0.95 0.87 2 0.94 0.99 0.98 0.97

Hj (t) [mm], Hjw (t)[mm] MIX J mm Slope DGFC 6.62 0.003 DGFC W 17.68 0.011 PEM 12.06 0.007 PEM W 18.48 0.010

Table 3 and Figures 4 to 6 refer to non-linear regressions. As for mass losses, the coefficient a ranged from -3 up to 52, b from 0 up to 11, while c from 0 up to 1. R-square values resulted in the range 0.98 ~ 0.99. Similar considerations can be done for the wear, W, and for mass losses in percentage (M%). On the contrary, as for height losses, a ranged from 50 up to 100, b from 0 up to 35 and c from 0 up to 2. R-square values confirmed to be very appreciable (0.97~1.00). Note that in some cases local maxima near the origin were obtained as first approximation, while, by introducing boundary conditions in eq. (34) phenomena were calmed and smoothed. Finally Table 4 refers to the influence of different fluids (air, water, diesel oil, jet fuel, avion 100) on mass losses per soaking (A), per brushing after soaking (B), or per soaking and brushing (C). Avion resulted to be the most aggressive among the considered hazmats (hazardous materials), while, of course, air (which acted as a control fluid) resulted without weakening power. Note that the influence of water on mass losses did not appear relevant because of low brushing times. This facts suggest to search for a more accurate and general model in which various fluids are considered through specific indicators which merge in a more general equation.

Figure 4: t vs. M %

Figure 5: t vs. H %

Figure 6: W vs. t(s).

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Table 3: Modelling of losses through the model

Mass losses Mj (t)[%], Mjw(t) [%] MIX J a b DGFC -125.17 68.26 DGFC W -282.86 317.09 PEM 178.32 35.17 PEM W -3.48 2.04 Height losses Hj (t)[%], Hjw (t)[%] MIX J a b DGFC 115.91 3.94 DGFC W 60.35 0.00 PEM 62.32 0.02 PEM W 30.91 0.02 Wear Wj(t), Wjw(t) MIX J a b DGFC -25.46 13.87 DGFC W -109.59 70.77 PEM 97.91 1.79 PEM W -0.74 0.43 Mj(t)[g], Mjw(t) [g] MIX J a DGFC -3.19 DGFC W -2.94 PEM 52.43 PEM W 0.00

c 0.46 0.19 0.50 0.65 c 0.75 2.08 1.34 1.00 c 0.46 0.22 0.62 0.65

2 0.99 0.99 0.95 0.98 2 0.98 0.99 1.00 1.00 2 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.98

b 5.55 10.96 0.53 0.18

c 0.57 0.28 0.55 0.68 c 0.32 2.06 1.34 1.00

2 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.98 2 0.97 1.00 0.99 1.00

Hj (t) [mm], Hjw (t)[mm] MIX J a b DGFC 85.81 35.33 DGFC W 93.45 0.00 PEM 100.45 0.03 PEM W 49.55 0.03

Table 4: A, B, C
A (EN 12697-43:2005) AI WA DO JF DGFC 0 0 1 5 PEM 0 0 19 30 AVI 9 68 B (EN 12697-43:2005) AI WA DO JF 0 1 6 8 0 0 37 43 AVI 7 100 C (eq. 23) AI WA 0 1 0 0 DO 8 49 JF 12 59 AVI 14 100

AI = Air; WA = water; DO = Diesel Oil; JF = Jet Fuel; AVI = Avion 100.

4. CONCLUSIONS Based on the model set out and on results, the following conclusions can be drawn: 1. wear processes involving HMAs are intrinsically monotonical over the time, as stated in the model, even if variance and bias in the time-dominion around the zero can cause local maxima or/and phenomena related to high variability; 2. wear mechanics is affected by water or hazmat fluids influence; whatever is the chemical interaction, water or fuels originate a weakening of hot mix asphalts. Such effect entails a strong variation in terms of HMA susceptibility to wear and brush actions; 3. as far as linear or non-linear regressions are concerned, the following key-factors can be useful for researches in the field: slopes tend to approach a quasi constant value and R-square values (for linear or more complex regressions) are always appreciable if an appropriate monotonic behaviour is supposed. These facts can have a considerable importance in terms of road maintenance, rehabilitation and management; 4. as for strategies involving HMA management, risks result related to susceptibility to the fluid, i.e. to HMA air voids content and to the aptitude of the fuel to debound the aggregate-bitumen link; 5. mix type and in particular volumetrics seem to play an appreciable role in terms of wear susceptibility to water influence. Future research will aim at gaining a better understanding on the relationship between inlab accelerated test and on-site phenomena.

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REFERENCES Barnes, J., 2008. Bitumen Emulsion for Binding Dust from Stone Aggregate Surface. Total Bitumen UK, ISAET, September. Bellanger, J., 1993. The performance and skid resistance of road surfaces (in French). Bulletin de Liaison des Laboratoires des Ponts et Chaussees 185. 129-37. Bendtsen, H., 2004. Rolling resistance, fuel consumption - a literature review. Danish Road Institute Technical note 23, 2004, Road Directorate Ministry of Transport Denmark, ISSN electronic 1395-5530, ISBN electronic 87-91177-53-7. Boscaino, G.; Pratic, F. G. and Vaiana, R., 2005. Time-Dependent Surface Properties Of Asphalt Friction Courses: Earlier Experiments By A New Accelerated Test. 3rd SIIV International Congress people, land environment and transport infrastrucutres reliability and development, Bari. Dahl, A.; Gharibi, A.; Swietlicki, E.; Gudmundsson, A.; Bohgard, M.; Ljungman, A.; Blomqvist, G. and Gustafsson, M., 2006. Traffic-generated emissions of ultrafine particles from pavementtire interface. Atmospheric Environment 40 (2006) 1314-1323, doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv. 10.029. 2005. Do, M. T.; Tang, Z.; Kane, M. and De Larrard, F., 2009. Evolution of road surface skidresistance and texture due to polishing, Wear 266 (2009) 574-577. Dovgyalo, V. A.; Bochkarev, D. I.; Chernous, D. A. and Anfinogenov, S. B., 2008. Interaction in the Pneumatic Wheel-Track System of a Combination Traveling Transport Vehicle. ISSN 1068-3666, Journal of Friction and Wear, 2008, Vol. 29, No. 6, pp. 441-447. Allerton Press, Inc.. Gustafsson, M.; Blomqvist, G.; Gudmundsson, A.; Dahl, A.; Jonsson, P. and Swietlicki, E., 2008. Factors influencing PM10 emissions from road pavement wear. Atmospheric Environment (2008) 1-4, doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.04.028. 2008. Hussein, T.; Johansson, C.; Karlsson, H. and Hansson, H. C., 2008. Factors affecting nontailpipe aerosol particle emissions from paved roads: On-road measurements in Stockholm, Atmospheric Environment 42 (2008) 688-702, doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.09.064. 2007. Palasantzas, G., 2005. Comparison of hysteric and adhesive coefficient of friction for rubbers sliding onto self-affine rough surfaces. Journal of applied physics 97, 034906. Pratic, F. G.; Ammendola, R. and Moro, A., 2008. Fuel resistance of HMAs: theory and experiments, International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology, Vol. 1, No. 3. Pratic, F. G.; Ammendola, R. and Moro, A., 2010. Factors affecting the environmental impact of pavement wear. Transportation Research Part D 15 (2010) 127-133, doi:10.1016/j.trd.2009.12.002. Rohde, L.; Pereira Ceratti, J. A.; Nez, W. P. and Vitorello, T., 2008. Using APT and laboratory testing to evaluate the performance of high modulus asphalt concrete for base courses in Brazil. Federal Univ. of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre RS Brazil, June. Snilsberg, B., 2008. Pavement wear and airborne dust pollution in Norway - Characterization of the physical and chemical properties of dust particles. Thesis for the degree doctor ingenir, NTNU- Norwegian University of science and technology, Trondheim, June. Snilsberg, B.; Myran, T.; Uthus, N. and Aurstad, J., 2008. Evaluation of different laboratory methods for simulation of pavement wear and road dust generation from studded tires. Inserted thesis for the degree doctor ingenir, NTNU- Norwegian University of science and technology, Trondheim, June. Svendenius, J., 2007. Tire Modeling and Friction Estimation. Department of Automatic Control, Lund University, Lund, April.

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Urban Road Safety Evaluation of Road Safety Measures

C. Carvalheira
Department of Civil Engineering, High Institute of Engineering of Lisbon, Portugal carmen@dec.isel.pt

L. de Picado-Santos
Dep. of Civil Engineering and Architecture, IST, Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal, picado.santos@civil.ist.utl.pt

ABSTRACT: A research project, IRUMS Safer urban roads, was aimed to develop a procedure for the explicit consideration of safety issues in the decision making process of urban road networks and in the allocation of resources for the network layout renewal in order to mitigate road accidents. More specifically, a criterion for selecting dangerous urban sites (areas or sections) in terms of road safety was defined and a procedure for selecting efficient infrastructure corrective measures was developed. For this, road accident records from the past five years were used as well as data on road infrastructure characteristics, traffic and land use information. This data was integrated in a Geographic Information System, where all the information can be graphically visualized and analysed. An analysis tool developed to be used within the Information System, allowed, to spot certain insafe areas, as well as the treatment of each accidents characteristics, identifying the type of accident and, in function of this, the possible road layout remedial measures that could contribute to the mitigation of that accident type. A methodology to prioritize the remedial measures across the network was also developed in function of demand, severity of the accidents, construction costs and effectiveness of each proposed remedial measure. This paper describes all the features that constitute this new methodology developed to help the decision making process of intervention in an urban road network in order to improve safety. KEY WORDS: GIS integrated accidents databases, GIS analysis, Urban Road Safety, Road Safety Measures,

1. INTRODUTION Even though the number of registered accidents have shown an improvement over the past decade, in reality these high values demonstrate that the objectives set by the European Union have not yet been achieved, for example the objective of a 50% reduction in the number of deaths and serious injuries by 2010 compared to the average of 1998-2000. These objectives were reached in Portuguese numbers of deaths and serious injuries. Although urban areas are still the most problematic environment in terms of road safety. In 2006, around 70% of the total accidents which occurred, 68,7 % of the accidents involved fatalities and 41,4% of the fatalities occurred in urban areas, which have very high expensive direct and indirect costs.
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Knowing where accidents occur and in what circumstances contributed to these accidents is sometimes the key to finding solutions to minimize casualties and deaths on the road. Although there is information of accidents in urban areas in Portugal, this information is not georeferenced. The project IRUMS Infra-estruturas Rodovirias Urbanas Mais Seguras (Safer Urban Road Infrastructure), in collaboration with LNEC were able to provide a cooperation protocol between the Lisbon City Hall and the Police of Public Security of Lisbon, and was able to collect and georeference four years of accidents (2004 -2007) in the Lisbon city. This work is one of the two works which is part of this project, and which is aimed at creating a system to support the decision making in the implementation of engineering measures on road safety. In the extensive database as is the accidents in Lisboa, we were cautious to associate the data to a Geographic Information System which helps in the analysis. Because this information must be standardized, this database was associated to the existing database of the Road Safety Authority. All the accidents were georeferenced and in order to make a more rapid and effective analysis of local areas, a support tool was created that can complete the missing analysis in the database and help link the analysis to the proposed corrective measure possible to be implemented in a given location. Finally, a model was created to help the decision making between several possible measures, considering the common variables in this type of decision. The model was applied to all the intersections analyzed and tested for different scenarios and with close results in the various options. To address the particular characteristics of the accidents, which can be significant in the choices of the measures to be implemented, certain alert levels were created in order to draw attention to the analysis of the location, therefore ensuring that all fields of the database are taken into consideration. 1. DATABASE AND GIS IRUMS Safer urban roads comprises a five year accidents database for Lisbon (20032007). All accidents were collected directly from official participations of accidents done in Portugal by PSP (Portuguese Public Police). For each accident, this database can answer these fundamental questions: where (location), when (year, month, day, weekday and hour), injuries (deaths, serious and light wounded), weather conditions (to detect if a wet pavement could have been one of the causes) and how the accident occurred (threw the accident scheme that is associated in the database as an image file). All this information is associated to the Geographic Information System ArcGis. Five years of accidents must produce effective propensities to a certain accident typology happening in a place with a high level of occurrences. Accident analysis is done by focusing in all accidents registered for a certain area. When a typology of accident is identified it is important to analyze the causes of those accidents and all the possible interventions that can resolve or minimize those causes. Once each accident has a scheme associated to it, it is possible to identify the causes, and for that the GIS is a powerful tool, because it enables to analyze all important occurrences in a selected place and enables to see all information in the database when trying to find the exact causes for those accidents. The whole database was associated with the GIS software, ArcGis 9.3 from ESRI, and this led to the creation of a new network route to localize each accident. Also, a new way\method to localize each accident in the network was designed. This was done using the distance between the accident and one node of the element (a street) where it occurs. With this

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information, it was possible to treat all accidents registered in the database and to identify all possible problematic places. Global results are presented in Table 1 for the number of accidents, deaths, serious injuries and light injuries, and in Figure 1 locating all accidents with deaths or serious injuries by type of accident (run over, collision and leaving the track). Table 1: Number of accidents, deaths, serious injuries and light injuries for each year collected
Total injury accidents 2728 2671 2647 2447 maximum deaths per Serious accident injury 3 324 3 310 2 250 2 169 Maximum serious injury per accident 3 3 6 4 Maximum light injury per accident 20 26 9 7

Year 2004 2005 2006 2007

Deaths 30 42 29 21

Light injury 3001 2913 3082 2790

Figure 1: Accidents with deaths or serious injuries by type of accident (run over, collision and leaving the track) for all the collected years 2. A TOOL TO ACCIDENT ANALYSIS Despite ArcGis being already a powerful analysis tool, it was intend to create a new particular accident analysis tool that allows to analyze the information about accidents in a selected area,
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and at the same time, to complete (if it is needed) information, to associate schemas with manoeuvres and to associate the problems found to possible road safety measures. For this objective a new tool called SigAcidents that enables a more full analysis was created inside ArcGis. This tool is separated in three main parts. The first part accesses and summarizes the information contained in the database (Figure 2), in a new window these main points are shown: a view of the schema associated to each The sum results of the field with the information about the type of accident The sum results of the field with the information if the accident was a run over The sum results of the field with the information about the day of the week (when the accident occurred) A information summary of the number for accidents and which contains for each year, the registration number, time, information of "just damages," the number of deaths, serious injuries and light injuries . The sum results of the field with the information about the weather (counting the accidents with rainfall and with good weather);

Figure 2: First window for the tool SigAcidentes The second part enables to complete the information about each accident. The structure for these fields includes a window that is similar to the Portuguese Official Accident Statistical Bulletin in order to join both databases. The most useful advantage of this second part window is that it contains various possible schemes to select the corresponding accident of each accident as well as its orientation and number of vehicles for each movement (Figure 3).

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The result with all the options selected is shown in a Summary window as can be seen in Figure 4.

Figure 3: Schemes window for the tool SigAcidentes

Figure 4: Summary window for the tool SigAcidentes The third and last part is completed after analyzing the previous results from the first and second part. Here there is a road safety measures list that users must choose in order to propose remedial measures for problems found. It is possible to add a measure description and also to associate an assessment factor of effectiveness, if it is known and the cost for the measure implementation (Figure 5).

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Figure 5: Road safety measures window So, this analysis can be done for a minor or larger area and, in the end of each analysis there is a summary of possible measures to apply. In this project a second tool to evaluate possible measures in order to be established and a useful decision tool to decide which would be the best measure that answers the claimed objectives was created .

3. LISBON CROSSROADS A CASE STUDY One of the possible analyses of urban road accidents in the Lisbon road network was to identify all intersection with the biggest number of occurrences. To define the number of accidents from which an intersection would be analyzed, the value for a mortal victim (500000) and for each light injury (40000) was used (Santos, 2007), in fact the value of a mortal victim is the equivalent to 12,5 light injuries in monetary terms. So, it was decided that 12 was the limit number to start analysing, it is a value that considers that all intersections where the minimum cost from accidents per year would be 120000 Euros should be analysed. In such a way, intersections with at least 12 accidents had been selected for analysis (Figure 6). The tool SigAcidentes was used for all these analysis.

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Figure 6: Intersections with at least 12 accidents had been selected for analysis The following step was to develop a parametric model with the aim to hierarchize the interventions between analyzed areas in urban zones and between measures for the same area. In the first phase the tool allows to identify between areas being analysed, which are the ones that need more urgent interventions and, in a second phase, to hierarchy possible road safety measures to be applied in one place. Hierarchize the interventions between analyzed areas in urban zones was established with the total number of accidents in a specific place which is being studied, the corresponding traffic volume (vehicles/hour) and, finally, the accidents seriousness. It was defined as the Local Hierarchic Value (LHV):

TAN is the total number of accidents with victims between 2004 and 2007 in a certain place LVT is the local volume of traffic between 7am and 9am expressed in vehicles/hour S it is the level of seriousness of local accidents calculated with the equivalent number of light injuries (serious injuries and deaths were reduced to light injuries using for that operation the monetary values for each one) Between the possible measures, Road Safety Measure Hierarchic Value (MHV) is the definition of priority of implementation for the same analyzed area, and is found with 4 parameters namely, Local hierarchic value, Cost of implementation, Easiness of implementation and Known efficiency, through the following expression:

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LHV is as Local Hierarchic Value CI is the Measure Cost of Implementation EI is the Measure Easiness of Implementation Efc is the Measure Known Effectiveness x1, x2, x3 and x4 are weights attributed to each parameter For both LHV and MHV the values for each one of parameters are defined in breaks between 1 and 5 in order to be possible to compare final results between possible road safety measures. 3.1. Av. Estados Unidos da Amrica com Av. Gago Coutinho (Figure 7) This was one of the selected intersections for analysis. It is an intersection with a significant traffic volume and with a high number of accidents with deaths and injuries. Between 2004 and 2007 there were a total of 36 accidents registered in this intersection where: 3 ocurred in 2007 with 8 light injuries 13 ocurred in 2006 with 20 light injuries and 4 serious injuries and 2 deaths 10 ocurred in 2005 with 17 light injuries and 2 serious injuries 10 ocurred in 2004 with 11 light injuries and 2 serious injuries. The use of SigAcidentes (Figure 8) shows that the main cause of most of these accidents was the disrespect of the red light from traffic lights and rear-end collisions just before the traffic lights. Both types indicated that there are excessive speeds in the approaching of the intersection, so the proposed measures were rumble strips and a different pavement color. Table 2 and Table 3 shows valuation to Local Hierarchic Value (LHV) and to Road Safety Measure Hierarchic Value (MHV) respectively.

Figure 7: Image from satellite (left) (@maps.google.pt) and from accidents in Arcgis (right) in the intersection study

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Av Estados Unidos da Amrica com Av. Gago Coutinho Road Safety Measures 5 425,6 36 18,80 TAN/LVT accidents number Nocturn Hour (10% of LVT) S

Road safety measures 8 10 41,75 3 2 22% 93,98 36 99 accidents number Equiv Light Injuries 2004-2007 LHV (10% da hora de ponta) % acidents 21h - 7h Deaths Serious Injuries Equivalent Light Injuries Light Injuries accidents n 21h00 - 07h00

rumble strips

Av Estados Unidos da Amrica com Av. Gago Coutinho:

diferent pavement color

LHV

0,4

0,4

0,4

Table 2: Local Hierarchic Value (LHV)

Figure 8: The result of the analysis using SigAcidents

Table 3: Road Safety Measure Hierarchic Value (MHV) for one of the possible values for parameters weights

In this evaluation the major weight (0,4) followed by the Easiness of implementation (0,3) was imputed to the parameter LHV. Values imputed to each parameter depends on who
28 46 57,25 5 0 78% 6,58 32,89 1 Accidents n 07h00 21h00 (daily) Light Injuries Equivalent Light Injuries Serious Injuries Deaths % Accidents n 07h00 21h00 TAN/LVT LHV LHV between 1 and 5

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Weight

Local hierarchic value

0,15

0,15

0,15

Weight

Easiness of implementation

0,3

0,3

0,3

Weight

Measure known efficiency

0,15

0,15

0,15

Weight

2,5

3,1

MHV

defines the objectives. For whichever may be the parameter importance it is possible to see which is the best measure that answers the goals. This is a useful tool, exactly because it allows to compare, in accordance with the circumstances of each place and each reality, the importance of different measures that can improve the level of road safety for a place and also to evaluate the possibility of the application of the same measure in different places. However the final values are reference values for the intended aims to reach. Although these final values can still be improved, by improving the available information for each parameter, that allows the model to produce even more realistic values. 4. CONCLUSIONS This project pretended to improve urban accidents analysis, and also to create a methodology so that this analysis is part of a process of attribution of the measures applied in the infrastructure that can improve urban road safety. Passed experience (Carvalheira, 2002; Carvalheira and Santos, 2008) allowed to structure a more efficient accident database and the best possible way to associate this information to a Geographic Information System. Then a new tool inside GIS, that significantly improves accidents analysis and makes it possible to attribute road safety measures that effectively minimizes detected problems, was created. This type of analysis can be done for a specific area or for a whole network city, as it was shown in this document where it was presented for the whole Lisbon road network analysing intersections with more than 12 accidents. Afterwards, for each place, using the created tool, problems and road safety measures were identified. Aiming that this process can constitute an efficient tool for the decision maker, a model of support to the decision was created and allows to decide, between the set of measures that can minimize problems, according to objectives and freedoms or restrictions that circumstances allows, those ones that fulfil requirements and limitations. This is a result that must serve as a reference, and is necessary to consider that this last value is much better if we have more and better information concerning the available real value for each one of the considered parameters. REFERENCES @maps.google.pt. Retrieved Jan 2010, 2010, from maps.google.pt. Carvalheira, C. (2002) "Segurana Rodoviria em Meio Urbano: Metodologia para a Definio dum Sistema de Gesto." Departamento de Engenharia Civil, Master Dregree,Universidade de Coimbra. Carvalheira, C. and Santos, L. P. (2008). A road safety management system for medium-sized towns. ICE-Municipal Engineer, Journal of Institucion of Civil Engineers. Volume 161: pp 111-116. Santos, B. (2007) "Modelao dos Custos dos Utentes na Gesto da Estrada." Departamento de Engenharia Civil e Arquitectura, Phd,Universidade da Beira Interior.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Terrestrial Transport Infrastructures Effects on Natural Territories Development of a Quantitative Evaluation Method
D. Franois, A. Ginot, S. Hennique & A. Jullien
Division for Sustainable Approaches in Civil Engineering, Laboratoire central des Ponts et Chausses, France denis.francois@lcpc.fr, amandine.ginot@lcpc.fr, stephanie.hennique@lcpc.fr, agnes.jullien@lcpc.fr

ABSTRACT: For several years, technical and economical evaluation softwares are available at the international level to decide on the opportunity of terrestrial transport infrastructure projects (construction, maintenance, profitability). Now, no comparable operational method or software is available concerning the environmental issues. The international research on the environmental costs of transport infrastructures is recent and proceeds of the life cycle analysis approach (standard ISO 14044) based on global indicators (energy consumption, global warming, stratospheric ozone depletion). The environmental evaluation of objects such as transport infrastructures has to take into account the effects at the global scale, but also at the local scale in order to reflect the costs inferred by their setting-up in the crossed territories. According to the more or less natural or anthropeic character of these territories, the local issues will be of different natures. Towards natural spaces they will be relative to biodiversity. A research was undertaken at LCPC about railway and road projects with the aim of developing a quantitative evaluation method of their effects on natural habitats. The development of the method requires the identification of the changes of local conditions due to the various stages of projects (works; infrastructure; use; maintenance). The search for indicators of sensibility of the natural habitats requires an analysis of the relations of dependence between their various constituents. The aim is to determine the crucial points that may be affected by infrastructure projects, which may destabilize the ecosystem. This allows the identification of possible dysfunction indicators from which quantitative indicators can be declined. This article presents the envisaged principle of evaluation and the current methodological development. KEY WORDS: Road, Railway, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Indicator, Dysfunction.

1. INTRODUCTION In the context of terrestrial infrastructure projects environmental assessment, the quantification of local effects on natural environment represents a stake in conservation of the biodiversity. Such assessment is complementary of macroscopic approaches of life-cycleanalysis type, currently developing under the generic name of eco-comparators. A research was undertaken at the national road research laboratory (LCPC) about railways as well as roads, with the aim of developing a quantitative evaluation method of these effects on the natural habitats. This article presents the envisaged principle of evaluation and the current methodological development.
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2. CONTEXT The implementation of a land planning policy answering the imperatives of the sustainable development requires that the environmental dimension of terrestrial transport infrastructure (TTI) projects is taken into account at the same stage and with the same importance as the economic and social dimensions. These two latter dimensions are taken into account from the very first stage of infrastructure projects, within the framework of the feasibility studies for roads (memorandum n 94-56 of the French Ministry for Public Works, Transport and Tourism), and within the framework of functional pre-studies for railways (memorandum n 2000-98 of the French Ministry for Public Works, Transport and Housing). At this early stage, the environment is considered only through a first general qualitative approach of the impacts, and through the constraints bound to the project (demarcation of spindles (Le et al., 2009)). The regulatory procedure of environmental impact study (law n 76-629), much more detailed, intervenes at the stage of the summary preliminary plan (APS in French ), possibly for the selection of spindle variants. However this procedure simply implies an evaluation of propositions defined initially on economic, social and technical criteria, and remains essentially qualitative. There is no method or tools today allowing the consideration of the environmental dimension of terrestrial transport infrastructures at the most upstream stage of the procedures of the project conception.

3. AIM OF THE RESEARCH For several years technical and economical evaluation softwares are available at the international level to decide on the opportunity of terrestrial transport infrastructure projects (construction, maintenance, profitability) (Kerali, 2000). Now, no comparable operational method or software is available concerning the environmental issues. At the international level (Mroueh et al., 2001; Stripple, 2001; Park et al., 2003) and in particular at LCPC (Pereira et al., 1997; Hoang, 2005; Sayagh., 2007), the research on the environmental costs of road construction is recent and proceeds of an approach of life cycle analysis type (LCA, standard ISO 14044). Following this approach, the object infrastructure is assessed through the quantities of raw material and energy required for its construction and its maintenance, as well as through the emissions (exhausts) generated by these operations along with their environmental consequences. The latter are expressed by means of global indicators (such as formation of greenhouse gases, of tropospheric ozone, as destruction of stratospheric ozone, acidification, eutrophication). Tools for the environmental evaluation according to this approach are developed today through eco-comparators. This kind of tool is applicable both to railway and road infrastructures (Svensson and Eklund, 2007; ADEME et al., 2009; Ventura et al., 2009). The environmental evaluation of objects such as terrestrial transport infrastructures has to take into account not only the effects at the global scale, but also at the local scale in order to reflect the costs inferred by their setting-up in the crossed territories. According to the more or less natural or anthropeic character of these territories, the local issues will be of different natures. Towards the natural spaces, they will be relative to the biodiversity (MTETM, 2005). The local environmental evaluation requires the development of indicators allowing the quantification of effects. The quality of the infrastructure insertion towards the various types of territories will be a function of the sensibility degree of the latter regarding the modifications and disturbances (changes) engendered by the infrastructure, its construction,

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its use, its maintenance. Modifications regard for instance the topography, the site permeability, land use Disturbances refer for instance to noise, dust, vibration, release of different natures 4. PRINCIPLE OF EVALUATION OF A PROJECT To compare project or variants of plans from the point of view of the local natural environment requires quantitative indicators. The most relevant indicators, for each type of natural environment, will be representative of their sensibility to the sources of changes owed specifically to the infrastructure. Natural habitats constitute territorial entities susceptible to react to the changes due to transport infrastructures, and the effects of such changes can be observed either directly on the species living in these habitats, either on the ecological factors (interactions between the living organisms and the local physicochemical conditions) on which the survival of these species depends (Ramade, 2003). Depending on the type of natural habitat, the most relevant targets to be taken into account as indicator of modifications, can thus be of different natures: air, water (surface and groundwater), ground, botanical and animal species. The natural habitat approach presents the interest to allow a spatial representation of the influenced perimeters. Hence, the direct cartographic representation of the issues and the proposed solutions, is possible via the territorial indicators. The principle of use of indicators to be developed for the evaluation of environmental cost of a project of connection between two points is schematized by Figure 1. The territory, divided into elementary territorial units (hexagonal grid for instance), is composed of a mosaic of various types of natural habitats (Ha, Hb, Hc and Hd) of various sensibility (SHa; SHb; SHc; SHd). The sensibility of a habitat is notably a function of its vulnerability and its scarcity. The project of direct connection between A and B (black line) crosses all types of habitats and notably the most sensible one (Ha). In order to avoid the latter, a slightly longer variant (dashed line) is possible. In order to go further and also preserve the second most sensible habitat (Hb), two other plans are possible through habitats Hc and Hd only (dotted lines).

B
SHa

>

SHb

>

SHc

>

SHd

Figure 1: Principle and use of the evaluation method

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The total local environmental cost of each plan can be calculated by means of the general formula: Cost = [nHa . EmpHa . SHa] + [nHb . EmpHb . SHb] + [nHc . EmpHc . SHc] + [nHd . EmpHd . SHd] The print (Emp) expresses how deeply the different natural habitats are marked by the infrastructure. It can have the dimension either of a length of infrastructure, either of a touched surface, either of an affected volume, either of a duration (for example of resilience of the effects). The number of elementary territorial units concerned by each habitat (nH) is an approximation of the length covered by the infrastructure in each one. 5. DEVELOPMENT OF THE METHOD 5.1. Identification of the changes induced by projects To develop a method using indicators to estimate the effects of infrastructures on territories, requires beforehand to identify in an exhaustive way sources of disturbances of diverse natures, at each phase of the infrastructure life. The observed effects on natural environments are often complex as they result from a combination of changes. In order to develop the evaluation method, the very first causes must be identified and ranked according to their importance. All the disturbances susceptible to be brought by infrastructure projects to the crossed environments must be listed. Then, the decoupling of causes must be achieved. This work, driven from the analysis of practices, is both achieved for railway and road works. Four stages are distinguished: the construction of the infrastructure (targets and effects bound to this activity); the infrastructure alone (targets and effects bound to the modifications brought by the infrastructure in the local environment); the exploitation (target and effects bound to the use of the infrastructure); the maintenance (target and effects bound to this activity). In the evaluation, the environmental costs bound to these effects will be added to those due the loss of the pre-existent natural environments included into the limits of the construction area (called the infrastructure territory). As an example, all the modifications and disturbances of the local conditions due to the activities linked to the construction stage of road (RO) and railway (RA) infrastructures have been identified and are presented in Table 1. It appears that before the implementation of pavement layer or railways, activities are similar and lead to similar changes. Between the road projects and the railway projects, most changes appear to be of the same nature, but they can be of different degrees. Hence, an example of contrasted degree of change between road projects (motorway) and railway projects (high-speed railways LGV in French) is the one inferred by the geometrical constraints of both types of infrastructures. The minimal radius of plan curvature for LGV is 6.6 km, against 0.4 km for motorways. This reduces the possibilities of passing round natural environments to be protected. In addition, the maximal passable slope by a LGV is 3.5 %, against 6 % for highways. This imposes more important topographic adaptations for LGV to natural obstacles (hills, valleys, wetlands), thus more earthworks and\or clearing works (viaducts, tunnels). Deeper cuts and higher fills will result in more voluminous and wider infrastructure territories. Their effects on the local hydrology will be more important, thus potentially more marked on the local natural habitats.

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Table 1: Changes due to the construction stage activities

Activities Land preparation Clearing Topsoil scrapping Land preparation TTI RO-RA RO-RA RO-RA Modifications and disturbances of local conditions Destruction of vegetation Bared soil Noise and vibrations Dust Liquid pollution (hydrocarbon leak) Gaseous pollution (NOx, PM, CO2) Supplementary land use out of the construction limits Artificial cover of the soil upper layer Artificial cover of the soil upper layer Possible leak of hazardous products: hydrocarbons (oil, gasoline), solvents, binders Starlight artificial lighting Waster water discharges Solid wastes Noise and vibrations Dust Liquid pollution (hydrocarbon leak) Gaseous pollution (NOx, PM, CO2) Noise and vibrations Dust Blocks fall Export of materials Import of materials Introduction of reagent fine particles (basic, oxidizing and binding properties) Noise and vibrations Dust Liquid pollution (hydrocarbon leak) Gaseous pollution (NOx, PM, CO2) High speed movements (collisions) Noise and vibrations Dust Liquid pollution (hydrocarbon leak) Gaseous pollution (NOx, PM, CO2) Liquid pollution (hydrocarbon leak) Gaseous pollution Reduction of soil permeability Change of the microclimate Permanent change of land occupation Noise and vibrations Dust Liquid pollution (hydrocarbon leak) Gaseous pollution (NOx, PM, CO2) Reduction of soil permeability Permanent change of land occupation Liquid pollution (cement) Introduction of a high voltage aerial electric line

Pre-existing networks shifting Construction site installing Gravelling, concreting and liner implementation Temporary railway implementation Technical area construction Life area use Earthworks Cut and fill machines

RO-RA RO-RA RA RO-RA RO-RA

RO-RA

Use of explosives Topography modifications (cut) Topography modifications (fill) Soil treatment Material transportation machines

RO-RA RO-RA RO-RA RO-RA RO-RA

Pavement implementation Working of machines

RO

Laying Layer Railway implementation Working of machines

RO RO

RA

Rail implementation and gravelling (ballast) Pylon and overhead contact implementation

RA RA

693

5.2. Research for indicators of natural habitats sensibility For each type of natural habitat, and for each activity of each stage of the road or railway project, the targets directly subjected to the changes must be identified. Targets providing an easily measurable answer will be of particular practical interest for field studies and monitoring. To identify these targets it is necessary before to have analyzed the relations of dependence between the various constituents of the natural habitat. This allows determining the most vulnerable points, which infringement may destabilize the functioning of the ecosystem. Then, the produced effects on these targets are described qualitatively, as well as their spatial (extension out of the infrastructure territory) and temporal (duration) dimensions. For the most significant effects in terms of natural habitat modifications, one try then to formalize quantifiable indicators integrating their vulnerability and scarcity (under the so-called Sensibility), and the dimensions of the caused effects (under the so-called Print). This analysis must be led with specialists and administrators of the concerned natural spaces. It starts from a comprehensive documentation on the constituents of the various natural habitats: air, soil and subsoil for terrestrial ecosystems; water, sediment and substratum for aquatic ecosystems; climatic characteristics; flora and fauna characteristics. The information is gathered into index forms (Hennique et al., 2009) fed from various sources such as Corine Biotopes (Bissardon et al., 1997) and other databases (www.natura2000.fr; www.tela-botanica.org). 5.3. Identification of causality chains A specific simplified representation of terrestrial ecosystems was developed for this research in order to formalize the chain of consequences induced by the infrastructure project changes (Franois et al., 2010). It is presented in Figure 2. The trophic chain pyramid (white arrows) is based on the producers of organic matter. The latter (chlorophyllian vegetables) are dependent on three essential abiotic factors: the presence of water, the characteristics of the soil (binding, nourishing elements), the brightness (photosynthesis). The consumers (primary; secondary; tertiary variable number of levels depending on the ecosystems) are also dependent on these three elements: water to drink; intensity and bright cycles; ground as a source of food and a refuge (cavities). They are also dependant in terms shelter. The development of the evaluation method aims at identifying the relations of dependence (black arrows) risking to be perturbed by one or several changes identified in Table 1. As shown on Figure 2 (left hand side), the creation of a cut (1) may induce the decrease of a secondary consumer population (6) due to the vanishing of the host plant (4) of its prey species (5), as a consequence of the permanent modification of the hydric state of the soil (3) because of the water table lowering (2). In this case, the indicator of dysfunction of the ecosystem could be either the state of the secondary consumer population, either that of the host plant. Compared to the first possibility, the second one would present the advantage of a simpler spatial representation. The creation of a fill (1) across a north-south directed valley (Figure 2, right hand side example) could constitute an obstacle to the hypodermic flow of water (2) (Dawson, 2008), and could also create upstream a shadow zone (3). The natural habitat would become colder and wetter, and even aquatic in rainy season. The indigenous botanical (4) and animal (5) species may disappear and the ecosystem may be colonized by exogenous species (6) adapted to the wet and cold conditions.
694

SO L

Tertiary consumers Secondary C IIaire consumers Cut

EAU

Primary consumers

Fill

Producers
EAU

Relations of dependence: Abiotic factors Trophic factors Causality

Constituents: Soil Vegetable layer Brightness Water

Figure 2: Simplified model of terrestrial ecosystems 6. CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVES The proposed quantitative system of evaluation of terrestrial transport infrastructures effects on natural environments - namely biodiversity can serve to the long term monitoring of preexisting roads and railways. Such is recommended for instance in France by the memorandum n 92-71 of the Ministry of Public Works and Transports, according to the law related to home transport planning (law n 82-1153). Such approach aims above all at allowing the integration of the environmental issues, at the same stage and with the same importance, as the economic and social issues towards the crossed territories. In this perspective, the functioning of the various natural habitats is analyzed in order to identify the relations of dependence most sensitive to changes. From them, sensibility indicators will be derived. Those calculable from data easy to obtain from simple field observations will be preferred, as applicable in regions or countries where large ecological inventories are not available. The reflection developed on project management practices and their subsequent effects is also an opportunity to imagine innovative propositions regarding improvement of practices, remediation techniques, as well as solutions for compensation and enfeeblement of terrestrial transport infrastructures impacts. REFERENCES ADEME, RFF, SNCF, 2009. Premier Bilan Carbone ferroviaire global La ligne grande vitesse Rhin-Rhne au service dune Europe durable, 15 p. Bissardon, M.; Guibal, L. and Rameau J. C., 1997. CORINE Biotopes Types dhabitats franais, Version originale, 217 p.
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Dawson, A., 2008. Water in road structures Movements, drainage and effects, Springer, 436 p. Franois, D.; Ginot, A.; Hennique, S. and Jullien, A., 2010. Fondements dune mthode dvaluation des effets des infrastructures de transport terrestre sur les milieux naturels, Revue Gnrale des Routes et des Arodromes, 882, pp. 28-31. Hennique, S.; Franois, D. and Jullien, A., 2009. Evaluation globale des impacts des routes dans leur territoire par la mthode des modules routiers, Rapport davancement n3, Convention 07-DST-009, DRAST, 89 p. Hoang T., 2005. Tronons autoroutiers: une mthodologie de modlisation environnementale et conomique pour diffrents scnarios de construction et dentretien. Doctoral thesis, Ecole Centrale de Nantes, 322 p. Kerali, H. G. R., 2000. HDM-4 Highway Development and Management, Volume 1 Overview of HDM-4, The highway development and management series, Association Mondiale de la Route (AIPCR), 43 p. Le, T. T.; Franois, D.; Jullien, A.; Lemenn, R. and Bustrean, J. M., 2009. Development of a tool for evaluating the integration of road projects in the territories, Polis Conference, Brussels, December. Ministre des Transports, de lEquipement, du Tourisme et de la Mer (MTETM), 2005. Stratgie nationale pour la biodiversit Plan daction Infrastructures de transport terrestre, Paris, 19 p. Mroueh, U. M.; Eskola, P. and Laine-Ylijoki J., 2001. Life-cycle impacts of the use of industrial by-products in road and earth constructions, Waste Management, 21, pp. 271277. Park, K.; Hwang, Y.; Seo, S. and Seo H., 2003. Quantitative assessment of environmental impacts on life cycle of highways. Journal of construction engineering and management, Jan./Feb. pp. 25-31. Pereira, A.; Blanc, I. and Coste, J. F., 1997. La consommation nergtique globale des infrastructures autoroutires - Contribution lanalyse de cycle de vie. Bulletin des laboratoires des Ponts et Chausses, 210, pp. 95-104. Ramade, F., 2003. Elments dcologie Ecologie fondamentale, Dunod, Paris, 690 p. Sayagh, S., 2007. Approche multicritre de lutilisation de matriaux alternatifs dans les chausses, Doctoral thesis, Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chausses, 219 p. Stripple, H., 2001. Life-cycle assessment of road A pilot study for inventory analysis, Report B 1210 E, IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute, Gothenburg. Svensson, N. and Eklund, M., 2007. Screening of environmental pressure from products in the Swedish railway infrastructure: Implications for strategic environmental management, Resources Conservation and Recycling, 52, pp. 248-265. Ventura, A.; Dauvergne, M.; Jullien, A. and Tamagny, Ph., 2009. ECORCE 1.0 Eco-comparateur Route Construction Entretien, Revue Gnrale des Routes et Arodromes, 876, pp. 92-96.

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Life cycle costing

iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Road Base Stabilization: Performance Improvement and Pavement Life Cycle Consequences.
Pratic F.G., Giunta M., DAgostino P.
DIMET Department, Mediterranea University, Reggio Calabria, Italy filippo.pratico@unirc.it, marinella.giunta@unirc.it

ABSTRACT: It is well known that soil or/and base stabilization can result in an effective pavement rehabilitation technique. Indeed, they can provide public and private sectors with a strong, durable base capable of withstanding a wide range of traffic loads. Hydrated lime, quicklime or/and cement are used to improve the characteristics of the soil subgrade and/or the aggregate base course underneath the pavement surface. Improvements leading to longer life pavement are generally categorized as subgrade or base stabilization when, for example, a higher quantity of lime, typically 5-8% of the dry weight of the soil, is used. On a chemical standpoint, lime stabilization generates a long term pozzolanic strengthgaining reaction between lime and the silica and alumina minerals solubilized at high pH from the clay, forming calcium silicates and calcium aluminates. In cement stabilization, as the cement hydrates, a gel is formed that upon hardening forms a cellular matrix that encapsulates the soil particles or forms strong bridges between the aggregates. As a result, stabilization originates improvements in CBR, in resistance (e.g. unconfined compressive strength) and resilient modulus. Freeze-thaw resistance is usually increased too. Although pavement durability is usually increased, many drawbacks can arise. Stabilization can be costly and economically not feasible and many consequences can be originated in case of particular soils or when high traffic volumes are present. In the light of the abovementioned facts the objectives and scopes of this paper were focused into the quantification of benefits and drawbacks associated to a case-history. Criteria previously established for the assessment of the technical sustainability were employed. The analysis indicated that under given conditions soil stabilization can have a considerable and positive impact on life cycle cost. KEY WORDS: Soil stabilization, lime, life cycle cost analysis. 1. INTRODUCTION AND PROPOSED METHODOLOGY It is well known that soil stabilization can greatly improve soil properties (Thompson 1987, Little 1999, Pekcan et al. 2007, NLA 2004, NLA 2006) and as a consequence, soil stabilization has a relevant importance in pavement life cycle cost analysis (Walls and Smith, 1998). The following key-factors can be pointed out: a. analysis of untreated soil b. design of the stabilised mix c. expected consequences d. design inputs d. life cycle cost analysis for the given pavement system.
699

1.1. Analysis of the untreated soil The following tests and analyses are usually carried out because of the fact that they can affect the same suitability of soil for stabilization: soil gradation (control points for lime stabilization are provided in the standard CNR 36/73); Atterberg limits, according to CNR-UNI 10014 Plasticity Index (PI) should be in the range 10-35 for lime stabilization; content of organic matter (ASTM D2974 - 07a; AASHTO T 267; AFNOR NF 94-055 UNI 8520), sulphate content (AA.VV Texas, 2000; UNI 8520 -11) or nitrate content. Caution must be used when using lime or any calcium-based stabilizer with soils containing more than 10% clay and 0.2% soluble sulphate. Usually sulphate level must be lower than 0.25%. As for the problem of organic matters only a low level can be allowed (2% for organic substances, 0.25% for sulphates). For sulphates it could be possible to check the local geology and understand if they are present or not. Nitrate content should be lower than 0.1%. methylene blue index (VB) (ASTM C837 09, UNI 8520, parte 15a): this value cannot be too low (VB >200 cm3). further, soil classification is usually carried out according to AASHTO Classification (CNR-UNI 10006-withdrawn; AASHTO M145) or Unified Soil Classification System (USCS, ASTM D2487 10). This phase is very relevant because of the dependence of type and quantity of stabilizers on soil classification, both on a theoretical and a practical standpoint. 1.2. Design of the stabilized mix Selection of additive It is well known that in the selection of a stabilizer (lime, cement, bituminous, fly ash, LMFlime-cement-fly ash, etc.), the type of soil is the most important factor. Purpose for which the stabilised layer will be used, type of soil improvement desired, requires strength and durability; cost and environmental conditions are supplementary factors to consider (ARMY TM 5-822-14; OHD L50; UNI EN 14227-11:06; UNI EN 14227-10:06). Based on soil type the following general solutions can be provided. For the A4: cement; lime usually not allowed; 8% could be the maximum content. Note that lime stabilization with A4 soils can pose many issues due to possible cobbles and stones. For the A7-6: lime; cement usually not allowed; 8% could be the maximum content. Clays of the type A6 ed A7 have usually low mechanical properties, high risk of shrinkage/expansion and are usually suitable for lime stabilization. Generally, soil with at least 25% passing a 75 micron screen and having a PI of 10 or greater are candidates for lime stabilization. Some soils with lower PI can be successfully stabilized with lime (under the condition that pH and strength criteria can be satisfied). Potential for lime treatment: A6 e A7 and A5 (if from volcanic origin) and A2-6 e A2-7 (if P40> 35%). For soils A4 e A5 quicklime can be useful in order to reduce moisture content. After a cement stabilization is usually required. Lime-cement stabilization can be used also when high plasticity clays are present (IP > 20), and it is relevant to stabilise them in a short period (30-40 days). Soil with organics content above 1-2% by weight may be incapable of achieving the desired unconfined compressive strength for lime stabilized soil (Petry, 2005). Soils containing soluble sulfates greater than 0.3% can be successfully stabilized with lime, but may require special precautions (NLA, 2006). As for the type of cement, if there is not sulphate, ASTM-type I can be used. In contrast it is possible to use ASTM-type II (if sulphates are below 2000 ppm) or ASTM - type V (if
700

sulphates are more than 2000 ppm). In the stabilization with Portland cement, the type of cement can be relevant especially when sulphates are present. At this end it is important to point out that cement types according to (UNI ENV 197, Italian D.M. 13.9.1993) do not correspond to cement types according to (ASTM C150). As for type of lime, hydrated (mixed with water), or quicklime (powder) could be used. Usually quicklime is preferred. In the method specified in (TM 5-822, 1994), based on two gradation inputs (0.075/4.75mm percentage, i.e. sand content and P200, i.e. 0/0.075mm percentage), it is possible to perform the selection of candidate stabilizers, under given restrictions on LL, PI and P200. Other limitations are addressed for frost areas and construction cut-off dates. Determination of stabilizer content and in-lab or on-site validation In the case of stabilization with (Portland) cement an estimated cement content can be selected using a table reported in (TM 5822, 1994), in which the initial estimated cement content (percent dry weight) varies from 5% (soils type GW, SW) up to 11% (soils type CH), where the soil type is expressed according to USCS (unified soil classification system). After this phase, moisture-density tests are carried out to determine MDD (maximum dry density) and OMC (optimum moisture content). Successively, UCS (unconfined compressive strength) and durability tests are carried out at the right cement content (2%) at the water content to be expected in field construction (TM 5822, 1994). It is relevant to observe that a detailed guide is provided into the standard UNI EN 1422710:06 (Hydraulically bound mixtures specifications part 10: soil treated by cement). The following main parameters are therein considered: binder cement (conforming to EN197-1 or EN 197-4), soil (D95<63mm), water (conforming to EN 1008), minimum water content (five classes - usually >0.9OMC), degree of pulverization (>30%), immediate bearing index (>10), CBR after curing (>15), moisture condition value (6 -13%), specimens (cubic or cylindrical), compressive strength (>0.5MPa=5daN/cm2 - cylinder specimens with slenderness between 0.8 and 1.2), direct tensile strength (EN 13286-40Rt >0.2Mpa=2daN/cm2) and modulus (E>2000MPa=200000 daN/cm2, EN 13286-43), resistance to water, linear swelling, volumetric expansion, curing regimes prior to CBR testing, curing regimes prior to compression. In the case of stabilization with lime, a method often preferred for determining an initial consumption lime (ICL) (or initial design lime content or approximate lime demand or minimum amount of lime required for stabilization) is the pH test (ASTM D 6276), also known as the Eades-Grim test. In this method, several lime-soil slurries are prepared at different lime treatment levels and the pH of each slurry is determined. The lowest percentage of lime in soil that produces a laboratory pH of 12.4 (which is the pH of free lime) is the minimum lime percentage for stabilizing the soil. Note that this value has to be higher than 1.5% (ASTM C977 03). An alternate method is to use reference charts, such as that reported in (ARMY TM 5822). In this case, there are two inputs: the plasticity index (PI) and P40 (percent of material passing the No 40 sieve-0.42mm). The output is a percent of hydrated lime. If quicklime is used, content should be reduced of 25 %. For example, for a PI=40 and a P40=55, a 5% of hydrated lime and a 4 % of quicklime will be required, while for a PI=20 and a P40=95, a percent hydrated lime of 3 can be derived. The considered values range from 2% up to 8%. If it is PI=65 and P40=45% than the design percentage of hydrated lime will be 8%. The higher the PI and the higher the P40, the higher will result the required lime percentage. Successive steps are: using the initial design lime content to determine the maximum dry density (MDD), and the optimum moisture content (OMC) of the soil & lime mixture, prepare samples for UCS tests at the water content expected in the field. In the case of the pH method,
701

these samples will be prepared at the initial consumption lime (ICL, minimum lime percentage), at ICL+2%, and at ICL+4%. In the case of the use of a chart method, samples should be prepared at 2% above and below the ICL. Another class of tests to carry out relies in freeze-thaw durability tests. As abovementioned, to be confident that a lime or cement or lime/cement stabilized soil layer can work as intended in a pavement designed by a mechanistic-empirical approach, it is necessary to determine strength and stiffness properties ([Little, 2000). Furthermore, it is necessary to demonstrate durability. The in-lab determination of the optimum quantity of stabilizer for a given quantity of water will be based on the optimization of mechanical properties (UCS and Brazilian test). In practice, a set of tentative values will be supposed in order to derive the best stabilizer content. The OMC and the MDD, for each stabilised soil (given stabilizer type and percentage), will be based on AASHTO Proctor modified test (optimization of dry density). Further in field, not OMC but OMC+(1 to 3%) will be used. In practice, in terms of QC (quality control) in field it will be necessary to check that the dry density is more than a minimum value, which could be for example the 95% of MDD(Lab). Note that, for research purposes, in laboratory, it will be important to determine UCS and Brazilian values not only for OMC but also for OMC+x% (where x=1-3), which is the real moisture content. This will help in understanding the reliability of the structure. Note that according to (UNI EN 14227-11:06 Hydraulically bound mixtures specifications part 11: soil treated by lime) two categories are defined for quicklime, the hydrated lime can be CL 80 or CL90; the minimum water content can belong to three classes; for the degree of pulverization five classes are defined; for the degree of compaction, three classes are defined; for the immediate bearing index, five classes are defined and six CBR after curing classes. Other considered parameters are: moisture condition value, linear swelling on CBR specimens, volumetric swelling, compressive strength, grading and plasticity guidance for soil stabilization. 1.3. Expected consequences The following expected consequences of stabilization can be listed: - increase in Brazilian resistance (possible maximum for a given quantity of stabiliser); - increase in UCS; note that the difference UCS (91 days)-UCS (7days) is usually higher for lime stabilizations than for cement stabilizations. Further, in the short period (2 days), usually Portland cements works better and it usually results: UCS (2 days, x% lime)<UCS (2 days, x% cement); - modification of moisture-dry density diagram (usually: higher OMC, lower MDD for lime, higher MDD for cement); - plasticity reduction (usually: lower LL, higher PL, lower PI); - improved workability; - reduction in moisture-holding capacity (drying); - swell reduction; - improved stability; - very substantial increases in resilient modulus values (by a factor of 2 to 10 or more in many cases) and in CBR; - increase in modulus estimated through LFWD (light falling weight deflectometer, from 4 to 20 times); - very substantial improvements in shear strength (by a factor of 20 or more in some cases);
702

- continued strength gain with time (especially for lime), even after periods of environmental or load damage (autogenous healing); - long-term durability over decades of service even under severe environmental conditions. Note that more recent studies (Sirivitmaitrie et al., 2009) demonstrated that, for given classes of soils, using as stabilizer 6% lime + 6% cement can work better than using 12% lime. 1.4. Design inputs It is relevant to observe that the Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide MEPDG (chapter 2) reports the following information for lime or cement stabilised soils. Soil cement: E=1200qu, with E, modulus of elasticity in psi and qu, UCS in psi (ASTM D1633); Lime stabilised soils: Mr=0.124qu+9.98, where Mr stands for resilient modulus, ksi and qu is the UCS determined according to ASTM D 5102. The range for E or Mr is 50,000 to 1,000,000 psi for soil cement (typical value: 500,000; when deteriorated > 25000 psi), 30,000 to 60,000 psi for lime stabilised soils (typical value: 45,000 psi; when deteriorated > 15,000 psi). On the other hand, the same MEPDG suggests resilient moduli in the range 5000-14000 psi for poor soils (A7-5, A7-6; typical value: 10,000 psi) and 25000 to 45000 psi for good soils (A1a, A1b; typical value: 39000 psi). 1.4. Life cycle cost analysis for the given pavement system Nowadays agency costs (maintenance and rehabilitation) and user costs result more and more high. Therefore, it becomes important to assess when soil stabilization is needed and convenient under the new conditions. On a general point of view, three main cases can be considered: a) maintaining on-site soils (no soil stabilization); b) changing on-site soil; c) stabilizing on-site soil. Three main classes of expenditure flows must be analysed: 1. Agency costs (AC, initial construction cost, successive rehabilitations, maintenance); 2. User costs (UC, related to traffic delays, vehicle operating costs, accident and safety costs); 3. Externalities (related to pollution, environmental depletion, global climate change, noise cost, etc.). In the short-term, considering the structural contribution, the lime-stabilized layers in pavement design can create more cost-effective design alternatives. In the longer term, lime stabilization provides performance benefits that reduce maintenance costs. Note that agency costs are affected by traffic level (and therefore by the condition of being low volume roads), due to the dependence of expected lives on the number of axle loads. Further delays and vehicle operating costs depend on traffic and therefore user costs are strongly dependent on the number of vehicles. Finally externalities cost are intrinsically difficult to quantify whether or not traffic is considered as a main parameter. Pavement geometry and mechanical properties, for the given traffic and climate options, will originate different expected lives. Further, the same pavement management approach will lead to different financial and time consequences for the two different options. In fact, initial construction cost will be different, but also times and costs for successive rehabilitations will change. Initial construction costs will be, for the case with soil stabilization, higher than for the zero option (without soil stabilization). This fact will affect the present value of agency costs (PVAC):
703

PV AC = C +
k

(1 + i )nk

Rk

(1)

where C stands for costs of construction, Rk refers to the k-th rehabilitation cost at the time nk and i stands for interest rate. It is well known that user costs relate to delays originated by work zones, of given length and duration. Their effects do not depend only on the geometric features, but also on the interaction between demand (traffic) and offer (number of lanes of given width, etc.). User costs (UC) and their present value (PVUC) will depend on vehicle operating costs (VOC) and delay (D) costs. As for vehicle operating cost (VOC), due to the increase of the mechanical properties of the subgrade, the roughness in the zero option will be probably higher and therefore also the VOC will be more considerable (see eq. 4 and eq. 5). It is very probable that in the case of soil stabilization the time between successive rehabilitations will decrease, while each rehabilitation will originate an increase of work zone duration (WZD), added time (T) and stopping costs (SC).
PVUC = PV D + PVVOC

(2)

As for agency costs, some algorithms were proposed in order to overcome the dependence of present values on the period of analysis. The following formulas can be adapted (after Pratic, 2007) in order to estimate the net present value, NPV, between two solutions:
NPVAC = CS ( R DS R ES ) + CS [ ( R ES + DS ) + R 2 DS ] + ( CB + CS ) ( R D ) /( 1 R ODP ) ( R EB ) /( 1 R OCP )

{[

][

]}

(3)

where
R = ( 1 + INF ) ( 1 + INT )1

(4)

INT is the interest rate, INF is the inflation rate, D stands for design life of the non-stabilized pavement (bearing properties), EB is expected life of the stabilised pavement for the bearing properties, DS is the Design life of the non-stabilised pavement (surface properties), ES is the expected life of the stabilised pavement for the S component, is a parameter between 0 and 1, ODP is the expected life of successive resurfacing/reconstruction of the non-stabilised pavement, OCP is the expected life of successive resurfacing/reconstruction of the stabilised pavement, CB is the present cost, referred to the bearing properties, CS is the present cost referred to surface properties. Note that, when DS=ES, EB=E, CS+CB=C, ODP=OCP=O, it follows (as in Burati et al., 1995):
NPVAC = ( C ) [( R D R E ) /( 1 R O )]

(5)

For user costs, uncertainties and complexity originate many difficulties and problem reliability calls for further research. Note that usually a given period T of analysis is considered. In such case we need always to refer PV to the given time T of analysis of expenditure flows (see eq.6).
PV = PVAC + PVUC

(6)

Based on the abovementioned AC and UC, it is possible to estimate the gain (NPV) originated by soil stabilization with respect to a different option (0):
NPV = PV0 + PVS
NPV AC +UC = ( PVAC + PVUC )0 ( PVAC + PVUC )S = [( PVAC )0 ( PVAC )S ] + [( PVUC )0 ( PVUC )S ] = NPV AC + NPVUC

(7) (8)

704

As a consequence the gain resulting from the stabilization, above defined as a difference between present values, is also affected by the period of the analysis. Following the model above set out, the methodology can be summarized into the following main phases: i. First phase: formulating alternatives and boundary conditions and estimating expected lives. ii. Second phase: project level inputs (analysis options, traffic data, value of user time, traffic hourly distribution, added time and vehicle stopping costs). iii. Third phase: alternative-level inputs (agency construction costs, work zone lengths, for each alternative). iv. Fourth phase: deriving present values and conveniences. 3. CASE STUDY 3.1. Experiments A clayey soil type A7-5 (AASTHO classification) was considered in the design of a new motorway in southern Italy. This soil resulted suitable to lime stabilization. The main physical soil properties are reported in table 1 Table 1: Physical soil properties % passing No. 200 LL, Liquid Limit (%) PL, Plastic Limit (%) PI, Plasticity Index (%) OC, Organic Content (%) VB Value of blue OMC, Optimum moisture content (%) MDD, Maximum dry density (kN/m3) HRB-AASHTO classification Initial Consumption of Lime ICL (%) 82 45 21 24 1.5 45g/Kg 18.7 17.41 A7-5 1.5

Different lime contents were considered. Previously the Initial Consumption of Lime (ICL, Eades and Grim pH test, ASTM D6276) was determined. It resulted ICL= 1.5%. Three soillime mixtures were prepared with a lime content equal to 1ICL% =1,5% , 2UCL% = 3.0% and 3ICL% = 4.5%. For each mixture, two samples were produced. For each mixture, in-lab compaction tests were carried out following AASHTO Proctor standard test. The maximum dry density values and the optimum moisture content were derived (see Table 2). As expected, when lime content increased, MDD decreased and OMC increased. In order to evaluate the mechanical improvements induced by the lime addition, the CBR, in standard conditions (OMC and MDD of AASHTO Proctor standard test), was determined. Based on CBR, K (modulus of subgrade reaction) was derived for each mixture. Results are shown in Table 2. Experiments proved that for lime percentages lower than 1.5% only an improvement of the physical characteristics of the soil was observed. Further increase in lime content, from 3 to 4.5%, caused a significant modification of the mechanical properties of the soil as demonstrated by the growth of the CBR.

705

Table 2: Compaction characteristics CBR index and K modulus of the mixtures Mixtures LM0 (natural soil) LM1 (natural soil + (1ICL)% lime) LM2 (natural soil + (2ICL)% lime) LM3 (natural soil + (3ICL)% lime) 3.2. Deriving expected lives In order to analyse the life cycle cost, a rigid pavement (30 cm, 12-inch thick concrete slab) was considered. The first problem was to estimate the modulus of subgrade reaction before and after stabilization process. For a lime stabilization (3%), we obtained before lime stabilization K 83900 kN/m3 and after lime stabilization K 156500 kN/m3. To estimate the expected lives we used the Empiric Method for PCC Pavement (AASHTO Guide 1993), and the following empirical equation:
PSi ) 4.5 1.5 + log10 (W18 ) = Z R S 0 + 7.35 log10 ( D + 1) = 0.06 + 1.624 10 7 1+ ( D + 1) 8.46 log10 ( + (4.22 0.32 pt ) log10 ( S c' )(C d )( D 0.75 1.132) D 0.75 18.42 215.63( J ) 0.25 Ec k (9)

Optimum moisture content (%) 18.7 19.7 20.8 21.9

Maximum dry density (kN/m3) 17.41 16.51 16.28 16.17

Standard CBR (%) 11 18 26 30

Estimated K (kN/m3) 83,900 117,780 156,500 175,860

Where W18= predicted number of 80 KN (18 000 lbs) ESALs, ZR =Standard normal deviate, S0=combined standard error of the traffic prediction and performance prediction, D=slab depth (inches), pt= terminal serviceability index, PSI= difference between the initial design serviceability index p0, and design terminal serviceability index pt, Sc= modulus of rupture of Portland cement concrete, PCC (flexural strength), Cd= drainage coefficient, J= load transfer coefficient (value depends upon the load transfer efficiency), Ec= Elastic modulus of PCC, K= modulus of subgrade reaction. In this analysis we obtained an expected life of 20 years before lime stabilization and 27 years after lime stabilization. 3.3. Deriving user costs We considered a road 4 miles long, a discount rate o 4%, and an analysis period between 20 and 100 years, with a beginning of analysis period in 2009. As for traffic, we considered a 15% of heavy traffic (single unit trucks and combination trucks), three lanes open in each direction under normal conditions. The value of user time ranged from 10 $/hour (for passenger cars) to 27.83 $/hour (single unit trucks and combination trucks). A given traffic hourly distribution over the 24 hours was supposed, with two points of maximum (hour 7-8 and hour 15-16). Note that the initial speed affected the added costs due to decelerations: the higher the initial speed the greater is the added costs, for both passenger cars and heavy vehicles (single unit or combination trucks).
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3.4. Agency and user costs Based on the abovementioned hypotheses, we obtained, for each solution, agency construction costs, agency maintenance costs based on the assumed maintenance frequency (one time per year). Similarly, based on work zone length (4 miles), on work zone capacity (reduced from 2047 to 1024 vehicles per hour per lane, vphpl), on the number of lanes open in each direction during work zone (from 3 to 2), on the duration of the work zone (20 days) and on the work zone speed limit (reduction from 100 mph to 65 mph), user costs and their present value were obtained. For a period of analysis of 40 years or 100 years it resulted (see table 3): PVS<PV0. (10)

Further, due to the consideration of an increased number of maintenance and rehabilitation operations, it resulted: PVS(40)< PV0(40)< PVS(100)< PV0(100). (11)

Table 3 presents the values obtained for the two options and the two selected analysis periods. Table 3: User costs, agency costs and present values of the options N = 40 anni N = 100 anni 0 = No stab. S = yes stab. 0 = No stab. S = yes stab. $43,290.50 $33,149.80 $139,328.76 $117,305.67 $25,597.27 $23,390.23 $36,631.14 $33,458.57

UC+AC($1000) PV($1000) 3.5. Sensitivity analysis

Sensitivity analysis is still in progress. The following parameters were used: cost of stabilization, increase in mechanical properties of the stabilised soil, number of days for the reconstruction, under the given hypotheses, number of lanes in each direction during work zone, work zone speed limit. The following indicators were determined for each work hypothesis: UC, AC, PVUC, PVAC, PVUC+PVAC. Though researches are still in progress, the following preliminary findings have been derived: a. the higher the number of closed lanes, the higher the present value of AC+UV. The period of analysis doesnt affect the ranking of the solutions and the NPVs; b. the higher the number of days in which the lanes will be closed, the higher PVUC+PVAC. When the PV is considered, this fact can originate an overlapping between the curves S and 0. It can happen close to a 5 days closure and it is representative of the transition from a condition in which S is preferred to 0 to the opposite condition. c. the higher the speed limit in the work zone, the lower the present value of agency and user costs. d. the number of lanes closed for the traffic conditions under examinations doesnt effect significantly neither the UC nor the PVUC; e. UC and PVUC increase linearly with the days of closure of lanes; f. the higher the speed limit, the lower the UC and the PVUC.

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CONCLUSIONS Lime and/or cement stabilization can improve the engineering properties of soft, fine-grained soils significantly through chemical reactions. This fact influences the behaviour of pavements constructed on stabilized subgrades. Although this paper presents only the first results obtained from of a lime treatment on just one soil, results allow for a better understanding of the effect of this treatment on the bearing capacity of the subgrade and on the subsequent cost of life cycle of the pavement (construction, maintenance rehabilitation). Pavement performance and life cycle are positively affected by lime stabilization. The example here discussed, which focused on a rigid pavement, shows the economical benefits provided by the lime stabilization of the subgrade in terms of agency and users costs. In particular, for the case study, the option of subgrade stabilization with respect to the zero option appears to reduce the sum of the user and the agency costs from 16 to 23% (when an analysis period between 40 and 100 years is considered). Further, present values in the same two periods result reduced of 9% c.a. Future research will aim at gaining a better understanding of traffic and road type importance on net present values. REFERENCES AA.VV Texas, 2000 Technical memorandum guidelines for stabilization of soils containing sulfates Austin white lime, chemical lime, Texas lime. ASTM C837 - 09 Standard Test Method for Methylene Blue Index of Clay ASTM C977 - 03 Standard Specification for Quicklime and Hydrated Lime for Soil Stabilization ASTM D2487 - 10 Standard Practice for Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes (Unified Soil Classification System) ASTM D6276 - 99a(2006)e1 Standard Test Method for Using pH to Estimate the Soil-Lime Proportion Requirement for Soil Stabilization ASTM D 2435-80, Standard Test Methods for One-Dimensional Consolidation Properties of Soils Using Incremental Loading. CNR BOLLETTINO UFFICIALE n. 36, 1973 Stabilizzazione delle terre con calce. Burati J., L., Weed R. M., Hughes C. S., Hill H. S.,1995. Optimal procedures for quality assurance specifications, Final Report n. FHWA-RD-02-95, Office of research, development, and technology, Federal Highway administration (FHWA - COTR: Peter A. Kopac) 6300 Georgetown Pike, McLean, VA 22101-2296. MEPDG (2007) Guide for Mechanistic-Empirical Design of New and Rehabilitated Pavement Structures. www.trb.org/mepdg. National Cooperative Highway Research Program, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., 2007. National Lime Association (NLA) LIME, 2004 Lime-treated soil construction manual Lime stabilization & lime modification. NLA, National Lime Association, Mixture Design and Testing Procedures for Lime Stabilized Soil, October 2006. Little,D. N., 1999. Evaluation of structural properties of lime stabilizated oils and aggregates - Volume 1: Summary of findings prepared for the National Lime Association. Pekcan, O.; Tutumluer, E. & M.,R. Thompson, 2007 Analyzing pavements on lime-stabilized soils with artificial neural networks Advanced Characterisation of Pavement and Soil Engineering Materials Loizos, Scarpas & Al-Qadi (eds) 2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-44882-6.
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Petry, Tom, 2005. The Effect of Organic Content on Lime Treatment of Highly Expansive Clay. Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium of Treatment and Recycling of Materials for Transport Infrastructures, Paris, France 24-26 October, 2005. Pratic, F. G., 2007. Quality and timeliness in highway construction contracts: a new acceptance model based on both mechanical and surface performance of flexible pavements, Construction Management and Economics, Volume 25, Issue 3, pages 305 313, Routledge - Taylor and Francis 2007, March, 2007. Pratic, F.,G, 2008. How should payment adjustments be assessed when both surface and mechanical defects are involved? A synergetic study on theory and experiments, SURF 08 6th Symposium on surface characteristics, Portoroz, Slovenia, 20/22 October -2008. Thompson, M. R. 1987. Lime stabilization reactions, properties, design and construction. Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Washington, D.C. ARMY TM 5-822-14, Soil stabilization for pavements, ARMY TM 5-822-14 - AIR FORCE AFJMAN 32-1019 - OCTOBER 1994. Walls J. and Smith M. R., 1998. Life-Cycle Cost Analysis in Pavement Design, Interim Technical Bulletin, Federal Highway Administration. Sirivitmaitrie, C.; Puppala, A. J. and Pratic, F. G. 2009. Resilient Moduli, Strength and Volume Change Properties of Combined Lime and Cement Treated Expansive Subgrades, Proceedings of the 6th International Conference Mairepav, Torino, Italy, 2009.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

The use of Boundary Element Method to Establish a Pavement Response

A. Almeida
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Coimbra, Portugal arminda@dec.uc.pt

L. de Picado Santos
Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, IST, Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal luisps@civil.ist.utl.pt

ABSTRACT: The use of an incremental design procedure either in the design of a new or existing pavement has gained widespread acceptance. However, as any design procedure this must be feasible. One of the disadvantages of this procedure is the high computational time due mainly to several calculations of stresses and strains for different conditions reached during pavement life. The Boundary Element Method (BEM) has emerged as a powerful alternative to the Finite Element Method (FEM), particularly in problems with semiinfinite/infinite domains. In addition to this, it only requires discretization of the surface rather than the volume. The aforementioned features reduce significantly the number of nodes and elements of mesh and consequently the time spent in the computational effort. Firstly the importance of an incremental design procedure is described as well as the BEM through its advantages and disadvantages. Then, some applications of BEM are presented, comparing its results with the ones from ADINA Finite Element Analysis Software (ADINA, 2008). Lastly, since this work is part of a PhD Thesis in progress, some topics of further research are presented. KEY WORDS: Response Model, Boundary Element Method, Incremental Design 1. INTRODUCTION Flexible pavements are a complex system where the different parts interact between themselves and some of their characteristics evolve during the pavements life cycle. In order to deal with this variability an incremental design procedure should be used, meaning that it uses different design stages to represent the life cycle taking into account the characteristics of each part at each stage. The response model plays a vital role in this approach. The type of response model not only influences the assumptions of the analysis, but also the type of analysis and other functional aspects of the process. Analytical analysis can only be applied to simplified systems. For complex systems numerical analysis are used. The FEM is most probably the numerical method best known and mostly used (Minhoto et al., 2005) to address pavement computations. However, there are others as for example the BEM. Each of the numerical methods has its own range of applications where they are most efficient.

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The objectives and scope of this paper include a brief description of the BEM, the use of BEM to establish the pavement response, the comparison of the results obtained using the BEM with the results from the FEM and BISAR and the reasons for the use of BEM in pavement design. Moreover, some topics of further research are presented. 2. TOPICS ON PAVEMENT DESIGN METHODS Current pavement design method treats the pavement and its foundation as a set of continuous, horizontal, isotropic, linear, elastic layers extending infinitely in horizontal directions, subjected to a uniform vertical stress applied on a circular area. The response is computed at the bottom of the bound layers and at the top of the subgrade in order to prevent the following deterioration mechanisms: fatigue cracking ("Cracking initiated at the bottom of the base course") and permanent deformation ("Rutting in the subgrade") respectively. However, some of the assumptions above do not match reality. The load is non-uniform, and has other components beyond the vertical (De Beer et al., 2005), the shape of the contact area tyre-pavement is (De Beer, 2007) nearer to that of a rectangular shape than circular (the use of wide-base tyres is becoming widespread in last years), the two deterioration mechanisms usually taken are located far below in the ranking (6th and 9th) of the observed pavement deterioration as can be seen listed in Table 1 (COST 333, 1999). In addition, the material properties and the structure change during the pavements life cycle and the deterioration mechanisms growth influencing some inputs of the design and vice versa. Table 1: Ranking of the observed deterioration mechanisms (COST 333, 1999) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.
Rutting originating in the bituminous layers Cracking initiated at the surface Longitudinal unevenness Loss of skid resistance Longitudinal cracking in the wheel path Cracking initiated at the bottom of the base course General surface cracking Ravelling Rutting in the subgrade Frost heave Wear due to studded tyres Low temperature cracking

To be able to manage every aforementioned aspect an incremental design procedure is needed. Both the COST Action 333 (COST 333, 1999) and the AMADEUS Project (AMADEUS, 2000) identified and analyzed 11 different elements that should be part of a full pavement design procedure. The flowchart shown in Figure 1 links these design elements together. One of these elements, the response model, is of particular importance because it is the heart of any design method and the principles on which this element is based on, influences to a large extend the final result as well as the field of application of a given model (AMADEUS, 2000). The load (magnitude and components), the shape of the contact area tyre-pavement, the materials behaviours, the geometry of structure (finite or not), which deterioration mechanisms to consider and the accuracy of the response at certain locations can be influenced by the response model used (Freire et al., 2006).
712

i= 0 t= 0

1. Initial conditions & structure

2 . Geometry

3. Traffic & Loads

5. Climatic & Environment

6 . Response model

4 . Material properties

i =i +1 t i+ 1 = t i + ? t

7 . Stresses Strains Displacements 8. Performance model 9. Structural change ? D

10 . Current condition (? D )

11. History of Pavement damage

Figure 1: Flowchart of an incremental pavement design procedure (adapted from AMADEUS, 2000) 3. A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE BOUNDARY ELEMENT METHOD FORMULATION AND IMPLEMENTATION 3.1. Boundary Element Method Formulation The basic idea of the Boundary Element Method (BEM) comes from Trefftz (Beer, 2001), who suggested that in contrast to the method of Ritz, only functions satisfying the differential equations exactly should be used to approximate the solution inside the domain and therefore we only need to approximate the actual boundary conditions that infers that there is no need to subdivide the domain into elements. These solutions also satisfy conditions at infinity, and consequently there is no problem when dealing with the infinite domain. The equation of the direct method can be deduced from the Betti theorem. For example consider an infinite domain with two types of loading: load case number 1 (case we want to solve) and load case number 2 (a case where only a unit load in the x-direction is applied at point P) (see Figure 2).
S Q dS t y(Q ) U xy(P ,Q) t x(Q ) U xx( P,Q ) ux(Q ) u y(Q ) S Q dS T xy( P,Q ) T xx (P ,Q )

P=1

P u x(P )

P x= 1

Load case 1

Load case 2

Load case 1

Load case 2

(a)

(b)

Figure 2: Application of Bettis theorem (adapted from Beer et al., 2008)

(a) Tractions of load case 1 and displacements of load case 2 for computing W12; (b) Displacements of load case 1 and traction of load case 2 for computing W21

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The theorem of Betti states that the work done by the load of case 1 along the displacements of case 2 must equal to the work done by the load of case 2 along the displacements of case 1 formulating the following equation (1) where
ux(P) tx(Q), ty(Q) ux(Q), uy(Q) Uxx(P,Q), Uxy(P,Q) Txx(P,Q), Txy(P,Q) displacement at a point P in x direction; tractions at a point Q in x and y directions; displacements at a point Q in x and y directions; fundamental solutions for the displacements (x and y directions respectively) at a Q point due to a unit load applied at a P point in x direction; fundamental solutions for the tractions (x and y directions respectively) at a Q point due to a unit load applied at a P point in x direction.

A second integral equation can be obtained by placing the unit load in y direction. Equations for the three-dimensional problem can be obtained in the same way. Combining those equations and using matrix algebra (2) where The equation (2) is known as Somiglianas identity and gives the displacement at an arbitrary interior point P from the boundary values (points Q). The general equation for the displacement is (3) The general equation for the tractions is (4) with where
r ij r,i ni G distance between the source point (P) and the field point (Q); Kronecker delta; ri/r (ri is the i component of the distance vector); i component of the normal vector; angle between the normal vector {n} and the distance vector {r}; Poissons ratio; shear modulus.

The fundamental solutions have different types of singularities. The fundamental solution U varies according to 1/r (weakly singular) and the fundamental solution T according to 1/r2 (strongly singular). The integral of function T only exist in the sense of a Cauchy principal value. When P and Q coincide, a region of exclusion with radius is defined around the point P and we integrate around it. The equation (2) can be written as (5)

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Leaving out the limiting value process, which it will be assumed implicitly, the equation (5) can be rewritten giving the equation (6) known as the boundary integral equation. (6) Doing the discretization of the of the integral equation the equation (6) can be written as (7) where E is the number of elements, N is the number of nodes per element and N represents the shape functions. The Bettis theorem is valid for any point P, therefore the equation (7) can be written for an infinite number of points Pi. Taking into account all the nodes of the mesh (boundary) we can obtain the necessary equations to calculate the displacements and the tractions on the boundary (8) where

The evaluation of these integrals is a crucial aspect of the numerical implementation of the BEM because of the singularities of the fundamental solutions. The weakly singular integral can be evaluated using numerical integration (when Pi and node n of the element coincide, a procedure that split the element can be used, Beer et al., 2008). The strongly singular integral can only be evaluated using numerical integration when Pi and node n of the element do not coincide. If they coincide an approach based on rigid body motion can be used, this approach allows to calculate the free term [c(Pi)] too (Beer et al., 2008). The system of equations obtained after assembly is non-symmetric and fully populated and it has been claimed to be one of the main drawbacks of the method. However, because the system of equations is always significantly smaller, computation times required for the solution are usually lower than the FEM (mainly for low ratios of boundary surface to volume, for example infinite or semi-infinite domains) Since a pavement structure is composed for a set of layers with different properties an approach to deal with multiple regions is needed. Two approaches can be used, one of them modifies the assembly procedure and consequently a larger system of equation is obtained including the additional unknowns at the interfaces. The other is similar to the approach taken by the FEM. The second approach was chosen since it permits, if necessary at any moment, to couple the BEM and FEM obtaining the advantages of each one. A description of that approach can be found in Beer et al. (2008). Once the discrete system has been solved for the unknown boundary nodal parameters, additional boundary data and results at internal points of the domain can be computed. Just for reference, the advantages and the disadvantages of the BEM are summarized in the Table 2 [Beer et al. (2008), Beer (2001), Beer and Watson (1992), Brebbia and Dominguez, (1989), Brebbia (1984)].

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Table 2: Advantages and disadvantages of BEM Advantages

Requires the discretization of the surface only (the dimension of the problem is effectively reduced by one) There is no need to use elements on the planes of symmetry Alterations of the meshes are easier Gives a better accuracy in problems with stress concentration In problems where boundary stresses are of primary importance It is simple and accurate in problems with infinite and semi-infinite domains (high ratio of volume to surface area) Provides a complete solution in terms of boundary values only

Disadvantages
More susceptible to error when the appropriate numerical techniques are not used The system of equations is nonsymmetric and fully populated Requires the knowledge of suitable fundamental solutions In problems with high ratio of surface area to volume (thin plate or shell structure)

3.2. Boundary Element Method Implementation In order to implement the BEM, two applications were created using the Visual Basic 2008 Express Edition equipped with the Extreme Optimization Numerical Libraries for .NET (Extreme Optimization, 2003). The first application, the BEM_Analyse Application, calculates the boundary values (tractions and displacements of all nodes) and the second application, the BEM_PostProc Application, calculates stresses and strain on the boundary and the displacements, stresses and strain at any internal points (Almeida, 2008). The preprocessing and the post-processing were made using the GID The personal pre and post processor (GID, 2009). Figure 3 shows the steps required to calculate the response of a structure using the GID and the applications created.

Figure 3: Steps to calculate the response of a structure by BEM 4. A COMPARISON OF THE BOUNDARY ELEMENT METHOD WITH THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 4.1. Definition of the Pavement Structure and the Boundary Conditions Figures 4 and 5 represent the boundary element and the finite element meshes to model the flexible pavement structure of the study, respectively. Two meshes were created for each method ((a) and (b) meshes), one of them represents a structure with thick asphalt concrete layer (0.28 m) and the other represents a structure with thin asphalt concrete layer (0.12 m), respectively. The granular layer has a thickness of 0.20 m and the subgrade has an infinite thickness in the boundary element meshes and a thickness of 4 m in the finite element

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meshes. All the materials were modelled as linear-elastic. The properties are shown in Table 3. A uniform vertical stress (987 kN) applied on a rectangular area (width of 0.224 m and length of 0.19 m) is considered which corresponds to the tyre most used in Portugal at the portable axle (wide single tyre: 385/65R22.5). All the structures were discretised using quadratic isoparametric elements which imply 8 nodes per quadrilateral element of BEM and 27 nodes per 3D-solid element of FEM.

(a)

(b)

Figure 4: Boundary element meshes

(a) Structure with thick asphalt concrete layer (b) Structure with thin asphalt concrete layer

(a)

(b)

Figure 5: Finite element meshes

(a) Structure with thick asphalt concrete layer (b) Structure with thin asphalt concrete layer

Table 3: Materials properties

Layer Asphalt Concrete Granular Subgrade Modulus (MPa) 2458 200 100 Poissons ratio 0.35 0.30 0.35

4.4. Results The results obtained (strains at the base of bounded layer and strains at the top of subgrade in depth) with the BEM applications created are compared with results from FEM and BISAR. Figures 6 and 7 show the results for the pavement structure with thick asphalt concrete layer and the results for the pavement structure with thin asphalt concrete layer respectively. Since there is conformity among the results, the BEM implementation and its application is verified as well.

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The meshes of Figures 4 and 5 have the same discretization, however, a closer discretization (asphalt layer was discretised vertically by 4 elements and the granular layer by 2 elements) was needed to be able to obtain more accurate results from FEM for the structure with thick asphalt concrete layer.
100.00 80.00 60.00 40.00 ) m /20.00 m ( n 0.00 i a r t 0.00 S -20.00 X X -40.00 -60.00 -80.00 -100.00 Depth BISAR BEM ADINA (same discretization) ADINA (closer discretization)

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

3.00

3.50

4.00

4.50

0.00 -50.00 ) m / m ( n i a r t S Z Z -150.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

3.00

3.50

4.00

4.50

BISAR BEM ADINA (same discretization) ADINA (closer discretization)

-250.00 Depth

Figure 6: Results for the pavement structure with thick asphalt concrete layer
300.00 BISAR 200.00 BEM ADINA ) 100.00 m / m ( n 0.00 i a r t 0 S X X -100.00

0.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

4.5

-200.00

-300.00

Depth

718

400.00 200.00 0.00 ) 0 m / -200.00 m ( n i a r -400.00 t S Z Z -600.00 BISAR -800.00 -1000.00 BEM ADINA Depth

0.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

4.5

Figure 7: Results for the pavement structure with thin asphalt concrete layer 5. CONCLUSIONS Since any ideal pavement design method should have incorporated an incremental procedure which implies several calculations of pavement response, the response model plays a vital role in the procedure. It conditions the analysis assumptions and is the main responsible for time spent on computational effort. As aforementioned the deterioration mechanisms currently used in the design are not highly ranked on the COST 333 ranking (Table 1). In the top position is located surface deterioration mechanisms. These two aspects are evidence that supports the use of BEM in pavement design. Regarding the time spent on computational effort, the boundary element mesh has 1539 nodes and 816 elements while the finite element mesh has 10881 nodes and 2304 elements in the structure with thick asphalt concrete layer and 8931 nodes and 1872 elements in the other structure, so the BEM analyse needed 14% of FEM nodes and 35% of FEM elements to obtain the results of Figure 6, and 17% and 44% respectively to obtain the results of Figure 7. In relation to the surface deterioration mechanisms, Figures 6 and 7 demonstrate that the BEM results on the boundaries match the BISAR results. More applications, including applications with stress concentration, will be made to strength the conclusion that the BEM is more suitable than the FEM regarding problems where the boundary stresses are of primary importance, as cited by Beer e Watson (1992). 6. FURTHER RESEARCH At this moment, the implementation of BEM has been made. Since the BEM works well in problems with stress concentration and in problems where the boundary stresses are of primary importance and, in addition, reduces the dimension of the problem by one, BEM will be use to calculate the pavement response due to a moving dynamic load excited by the roughness of pavement surface during the life cycle of the pavement. For that a artificial road surface will be generated, that will be used as input in dynamic load simulation (Cebon, 2006). This dynamic load is applied to the pavement in a certain position and the response for that load will be calculated. The verification of the model has already been made by the comparison of results with analytical solutions. However the validation of the model, i.e. the comparison between the computational model and the reality, will be made using, in the first stage, a simplified physical model. For that some instrumented wheel tracking tests on a small size device and
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with different types of induced roughness on the slabs surface will be carried out in order to obtain the stress-strain sate which will be the reference for the simulation of the process performed with BEM. In the second phase real stress-strain states from instrumented pavements will be sought in order to establish the final validation of the process. Exploitation of the dual BEM will also be pursued in order to deal with cracking initiated at the surface, other important deterioration mechanisms for which the use of BEM could be more appropriate than FEM. REFERENCES ADINA@, 2008. ADINA - Finite Element Analysis Software, ADINA R & D, Inc. Available from http://www.adina.com/index.shtml on 23 April 2010. AMADEUS, 2000. Advanced Models for Analytical Design of European Pavement Structures. Final Report, RO-97-SC.2137. Almeida, A., 2008. Modelao Estrutural de Pavimentos Rodovirios. Master Thesis, University of Coimbra. Beer, G., 2001. Programming the Boundary Element Method An Introduction for Engineers. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Beer, G.; Smith, I. and Duenser, C., 2008. The Boundary Element Method with ProgrammingFor engineers and scientists. Springer WienNewYork. Beer, G. and Watson, J.O., 1992. Introduction to Finite and Boundary Element Methods for Engineers. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester. Brebbia, C. A., 1984. The Boundary Element Method for Engineer. Pentech Press, London. Brebbia, C. A. and Dominguez, J., 1989. Boundary Elements, an Introductory Course. Computational Mechanics Publications, Southampton Boston. COST 333, 1999. Development of New Bituminous Pavement Design Method. Final Report of the Action. Cebon, D., 2006. Handbook of Vehicle-Road Interaction. Taylor & Francis, New York. De Beer, M., 2007. Measurement of Tire Contact Stresses: The South African Experience. International Workshop on Wide Base tires, Washington, DC USA. De Beer, M.; Sadzik, E. M.; Fisher, C. and Coetzee, C. H., 2005. Tyre-Pavement Contact Stresses Patterns from the test tyres of the Gautrans Heavy Vehicle Simulator (HVS) MH IV+.SATC 2005: The 24th Annual Southern African Transport Conference and Exhibition, Pretoria, South Africa. Extreme Optimization@, 2003. Extreme Optimization Numerical Libraries for .NET. Extreme Optimization, Complexity made simple. Available from http://www.extremeoptimization.com/Default.aspx on 23 April 2010. Freire, A.; Antunes, M. and Picado-Santos, L., 2006. Characterization of Bituminous Mixtures for Numerical Modeling of Permanent Deformations. International Journal of Road Materials and Pavement Design, vol. 7, n. 1, pp. 87-102. [WoS] GID@, 2009. GID - The personal pre and post processor, CIMNE (The International Center for Numerical Methods in Engineering). Available from http://gid.cimne.upc.es/ on 23 April 2010. Minhoto, M.; Pais, J.; Pereira, P. and Picado-Santos, L., 2005. Predicting Asphalt Pavement Temperature with a Three-Dimensional Finite Element Method. TRB Transportation Research Record, N. 1919, pp. 96-110. [TRIS]

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Thin Surfacing and Micro-Surfacing Alternative Cost Effective Wearing Course Materials
A. Nikolaides
Department of Civil Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece anik@civil.auth.gr

ABSTRACT: Traditionally, the wearing course was required to provide adequate load bearing capacity to carry the predicted traffic loads and surface properties that ensure the safe movement of vehicles. In recent years with the increasing intensity of traffic, the surface properties have become more important and the functions of the wearing course and the structural layer have been considered separately. The functional requirements of the wearing course can be met by materials that are thinner than those used conventionally. This realisation has led many countries to develop surfacing materials that can be laid in thinner than conventional layers. The relative large number of surfacing materials exist today often causes problems in the decision making process for selecting the most appropriate material for new or rehabilitation projects. This paper outlines the characteristics of conventional and modern materials for wearing course and provides a comparison table, useful for the practicing engineer. It also presents in details Whole Life Cost Analysis for the most commonly used materials for wearing course. Based on the results of the analysis an objective evaluation of the materials for wearing course is drawn. Such an approach is very valuable to the engineer involved in decision-making. KEY WORDS: Wearing courses, Whole Life Cost Analysis (WLCA) 1. INTRODUCTION Traditionally, the wearing course (surfacing or surface layer) was required to provide adequate load bearing capacity to carry the predicted traffic loads and surface properties that ensure the safe movement of vehicles. However, in recent years with the increasing intensity of traffic and increase of road accidents, the surface properties have become more important. Modern approach in road design and construction considers the functions of the surface layer and the structural layer separately. If the surface layer is no longer required to contribute to the structural strength, the thickness can be minimized within the constraints of providing the properties required at the tyre/road interface for the safe movement of vehicles. This realization has led many countries to develop surfacing materials that can be laid thinner than the conventional layer thickness of 40mm or 50mm. Today, a relative large number of materials for wearing course exist. The surfacing materials mostly used in various countries namely are: Asphalt concrete, Open graded friction courses, Hot Rolled Asphalt, Porous asphalt, Asphalt Concrete for very thin layers, Stone Mastic Asphalt, Ultra thin mixtures or Paver-laid surface dressing, Multi-layer surface dressing, Micro-surfacing and High friction resin based systems.

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2. MATERIALS FOR WEARING COURSE 2.1. Asphalt concrete (AC) This is the well-known dense asphalt concrete mixture, in which the aggregate particles are continuously graded or gap-graded to form an interlocking structure. As a wearing course material is laid 40mm to 50 mm thick and it has been used and is still in use by many countries around the world. Despite structurally good performance, it lacks in surface texture and sufficient skid-resistance at traffic speeds greater than 50 km/h. Many countries that previously used asphalt concrete, including the USA, have realized this weakness and have started to substitute it with other, more suitable, surfacing materials. Another disadvantage of this mixture is that it requires substantial amount of surfacing aggregate, normally scarce and expensive. (Relevant reference EN 13108-1, 2006). 2.2. Open graded friction courses (OGFC) (ASTM type) The open graded friction course (OGFC) material was proposed in the USA as an alternative to asphalt concrete for friction course. It is a mixture with high percentage of voids, but not as high as in porous asphalt. It is laid 40 to 50mm thick and well documented in ASTM D 3515. 2.3. Hot rolled asphalt (HRA) Hot rolled asphalt was developed and used, almost exclusively, in the UK. Hot rolled asphalt is a dense, gap graded bituminous mixture in which the mortar of fine aggregate, filler and high viscosity binder are major contributors to the performance of the laid material. Precoated chippings are normally rolled into the surface to provide the required skid-resistant properties of the surface course. It is laid 40 to 50mm thick. It gives high surface texture depth and high skid resistance values. HRA, despite its successful performance for many years, has been substituted with AC for thin or very thin layers in all major constructions and maintenance projects The main reason was economy on national capital for road works and economy on surfacing aggregate material resources (Relevant reference EN 13108-4, 2006). 2.4. Porous asphalt (PA) Porous asphalt is a bituminous mixture prepared so as to have a very high content of interconnected voids which allow passage of water and air in order to provide the compacted mixture with drain and noise reducing characteristics. Its drain ability helps to remove surface water quickly and eliminates, the spray generated by the moving tyres on wet surface and the development of aquaplaning. The surface produced has high negative texture depth and provides very good skid-resistance. Porous asphalt has an additional great advantage over an impervious surfaces; it reduces significantly the noise generated by moving vehicles. It is normally laid 40 to 50mm thick (Relevant reference EN 13108-7, 2006). 2.5. Asphalt concrete for very thin layers (AC-Vthin) The asphalt concrete for very thin layers is used exclusively in surface courses and is laid at a thickness of 20 mm to 30 mm. The aggregate particles are generally gap-graded to form a stone to stone contact and to provide an open surface texture. The thin gap graded mixtures were developed in France and consist of coarse aggregate, normally of 10 mm (or 6,3 mm) nominal maximum aggregate size, and sand 0/2 mm (or 0/4 mm), with the gap being at 2 to

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6.3 mm (or 2 to 4 mm in the case of using 6.3 mm coarse aggregate). The bitumen could be conventional or modified depending on the traffic, aggregate type and temperature conditions of the project. The mixture has medium to high voids content and can be regarded as semiporous. It also possesses traffic noise reducing property, which is slightly lower (by 1-2dB) to the porous mixture. It is normally laid at the thickness of 25 mm to 30mm thick which requires 55 to 65 kg/m2 of bituminous mix and excellent surface characteristics can be achieved (Relevant reference EN 13108-2, 2006). During the last ten years the asphalt concrete for very thin layers has gained popularity in most European countries, due to its effectiveness as surfacing material, economizing in expensive and difficult to find hard and durable surfacing aggregates and its over all lower cost. USA seems to follow suit (Relevant reference EN 13108-2, 2006). 2.6. Stone mastic asphalt (SMA) Stone mastic asphalt is a gap-graded asphalt mixture with bitumen as a binder, composed of a coarse crushed aggregate skeleton bound with a mastic mortar. Stone mastic asphalt (SMA) was developed in Germany in the mid 1960s primarily to resist damage from studded tyres. Today, it is considered to be a deformation- and abrasion-resistant surfacing material. Stone mastic asphalt can be to thin (30 mm approx.) or thick (40 mm) layers. A thin SMA contains an 8 mm nominal maximum aggregate size, while the thick SMA contains 10/11 mm or even 14 mm nominal maximum aggregate size, with the gap being, in both cases, between 0.2 to 0.5 mm. The coarse aggregate skeleton is coated with a binder rich bitumen/filler mortar to which either fibres or polymers are added in order to minimize binder drainage. The mortar, which partly fills the voids, minimizes water percolation into the underlying layers, and, with the binder film being relatively thick, it aids durability. Due to its high durability, a welldesigned SMA requires less frequent maintenance. Additionally, SMA proves to be quieter when compared to AC or HRA surfaces (Relevant reference EN 13108-5, 2006). 2.7. Ultra thin surfacing (BBUM) or Paver-laid surface dressing (PLSD) This process was developed in a collaborative project by the French government laboratory (LRPC) and a contractor (SCREG Routes). It results in the construction of specialized equipment laying a single-size, coarse aggregate in a mortar laid on a hot-applied polymermodified tack-coat, with a resultant thickness of 20mm or less. They are proprietary products and only few in the market. 2.8. Multi-layer Surface Dressing (MLSD) Multi-layer surface dressing is not normally used in major highway projects but Surphalt, a proprietary material developed in Norway, has gained approval in few counties as thin surfacing for use on trunk roads, including motorways. It consists of successive applications of: rich tack-coat with polymer modified bitumen emulsion, 14 mm aggregate, 10 mm lightly coated aggregate, polymer modified bitumen emulsion and 6 mm aggregate. The resulted thickness is between 15 to 25 mm. 2.9. Micro-surfacing (MS) Micro-surfacing, is similar to slurry seal except that it uses modified bitumen emulsion and up to 10 mm nominal maximum size hard and durable aggregates. It is mixed and laid cold by specially designed equipment and when the emulsion breaks (within few minutes), the water
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is released. The material may then be lightly rolled, with the final compaction being achieved by trafficking. The thickness normally laid is 10 to 12 mm. There are a number of proprietary slurry surfacings available. The incorporation of relatively larger aggregates particles, compared to the original slurry seal, increases the surface texture while the use of modified binders improves the cohesion between aggregate and the underlying layer as well as the durability of the material. It has been used in various European and other countries. Micro-surfacing was introduced into Greece in 1984 and, since that time, it has been used successfully on the major and minor road network of Greece, as well as on international and national airport runways. The benefits of the micro-surfacing are: provides good skid resistance, preserves the surfaces showing early signs of raveling or minor deteriorations, uses environmental friendly binder (bitumen emulsion), corrects the appearance of the pavement surface and planning before treatment is not necessary. However, the limitations are: macro-texture may not last long, transverse or longitudinal profile is not improved, does not increase the structural strength of the pavement, it is sensitive to weather conditions, speed of work may be slow if weather condition are not good and can not be assumed to be entirely waterproof (Relevant references EN 13108-1, 2006, ASTM D6372, 2005, ISSA, 2005). 2.10. High friction resin-based systems (HFRB) These mixtures provide enhanced skid-resistance required in difficult locations where accidents are more likely to occur or had already occurred (accident black spots). High friction resin-based systems were developed and initial trials were laid in the 1960s. The mixture is composed of fine aggregates with exceptionally good PSV values, normally artificial aggregate such as calcined bauxite, and a two component system binder. The binder system is normally resin-based. The mixture requires curing times of several hours, which means that the treated areas cannot open to traffic immediately. High-friction resin-based systems, although they provide the highest skid-resistance, are the most expensive of all surfacing materials. Today, the HFRB are used, exclusively, in black spot areas or in locations where accidents are more likely to occur. 3. COMPARISON OF WEARING COURSE MATERIALS All the described surfacing mixtures in paragraph 2 possess different characteristics and their cost can vary significantly. The engineer often faces the question which one is the most appropriate to use. A comparison table showing the major characteristics and differences among most of the above mentioned surfacing materials has been prepared and is as given in Table 1. The comparison table may facilitate the engineer to take his decision but he is always in doubt whether the surfacing material chosen is the most cost effective. This can only be answered if whole-life costing is performed. 4. PRINCIPLES OF WHOLE-LIFE COSTING In general, a whole-life cost model takes the following costs into account (Asphalt Institute, 1999, Baldock, 1983): initial construction cost;

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Table 1: Comparison table for surfacing materials

HRA (with pre-coated chippings) Porous asphalt (PA) AC for very thin layers (AC-Vthin) SMA 25mm None 0.0 ++ + ++ + ++ + 0 + + + 0.75 1.2 to 1.3 8 to 12 0 0.4 0.7 to 0.8 5 to 7 ++ ++ + 0 + to + + + 0 0.5 0.7 to 0.9 7 to 9 1.0 0.0 0.0 ++ + -+ - to - 0 -0.3 0.5 to 0.6 4 to 7 None None 30 or 40mm None 10mm See note* 0.0 ++ 0 + 0 0 0 to 0.2 0.6 to 0.65 4 to 6 40mm 40mm Microsurfacing (MS)

Property

Asphalt concrete (AC)

Thickness

40mm

Open graded friction courses (OGFC) 40mm Paver-laid surface dressing (PLSD) 20mm Multi-layer surface dressing (MLSD) 15-20mm

Traffic restrictions None None None None Mechanical equivalence 1.0 0.5 1.0 0.5 in thickness Skid resistance Initial (after 3 months) 0 0 ++ ++ After 5 years + + Sensitivity to laying conditions (wind0 0 0 0 temperature) Waterproofing ability ++ -++ -Noise reduction 0 + to ++ -+++ Spray reduction + to ++ +++ Ability to improve + + + + evenness Quantity required of good PSV aggregates 1.0 0.8 1.2 0.8 (approx. quantity index) Price index** 1.0 1.1 to 1.2 1.2-1.4 1.1 to 1.3 Life duration 5 to 9 4 to 7 8-12 5 to 7 * Some countries impose a traffic restriction for medium to low traffic ** Basic range

Remarks: - - Bad

- Weak 0 Medium + Good + + Very good

+++ Outstanding

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subsequent reconstruction costs at any time during the analysis period (if any); routine periodic maintenance costs; user costs (user delay cost, including vehicle operation cost during maintenance works or reconstruction works); and salvage value of pavement materials at the end of the service life (subtractive cost). All costs may be expressed as net present costs and the sum of all the costs gives the total cost, expressed in present values. The mathematical equation used for determining the Total Present Value (TPV) (or discounted cost) is as follows: TPV = +
(1) where EEi,t KAt t t = = = = =

t =n t =0

EE i , t [ KAt + K t + KX t ] EE i , n YA

Initial construction cost Discount coefficient for discount rate i in year t (= 1/(1+i)t) Reconstruction cost in the year t, expressed in present values Maintenance cost in the year t, expressed in present values User cost in the year t during which maintenance or reconstruction works are carried out, expressed in present values = Salvage value n = Analysis period, in years i) Initial construction cost The initial construction cost includes the cost of purchase, transportation and placement of all materials for the full construction of the pavement or the cost of rehabilitation and is easily determined by the engineer. The construction cost, like any other cost, is expressed per unit area. ii) Discount rate The discount rate reflects the real rate of return on invested money and should be chosen according to the economic conditions at the time of tender and the type of project/investor. For a public project, and in a stable economy, a discount rate of 5% to 7 % is considered been a representative value. iii) Reconstruction cost In the case of a newly designed pavement, when the analysis period is equal to the design life of the pavement, the reconstruction cost of the pavement can be ignored. iv) Maintenance cost The determination of maintenance cost required in the year t is relatively easy because the engineer knows exactly what kind of works are involved in each case. The only thing that is difficult to estimate is the expected service life of each surfacing material considered. This is very critical because the outcome of the analysis heavily depends on this parameter. Having determined the above, a maintenance protocol can be drawn up in order to facilitate further calculations. v) User cost Road deterioration results in a decline in the level of service, delays, increased vehicle operating cost, increased probability of accidents and discomfort for the user. All these parameters add up to the user cost. The user cost is considered to be an indirect cost but it can be quite significant, so it is imperative that it is included in the whole-life cost analysis in order to make an objective evaluation of alternative solutions. Due to the difficulty of assessing the cost of accidents and user discomfort, the analysis may focus only on the user delay cost which is defined as the cost of delay caused by the increase in travel time due to the maintenance or reconstruction activities.

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vi) Salvage value The salvage value, for the purpose of this analysis, was taken as percentage of the cost related to the remaining life of the wearing material at the end of the analysis period. 5. WHOLE LIFE COST ANALYSIS FOR SOME THE SURFACING MATERIALS CONSIDERED The surfacing materials considered in this analysis are as follows: Asphalt concrete (AC), laid at a thickness of 40 mm Open grated friction course (OGFC) asphalt concrete, laid at a thickness of 40 mm Porous asphalt (PA) mixture, laid at a thickness of 40 mm. SMA mixture laid at a thickness of 40 mm. Microsurfacing (MS) laid at a thickness of 10 mm, approximately. Asphalt concrete for very thin layers (AC-Vthin), laid at thickness of 25 mm 6.1 Assumptions made for calculating the initial construction cost In order to calculate the initial construction cost, the assumption made was that only the cost of the bituminous layers assumed to be constructed will be considered. For simplicity, the total thickness of the bituminous layers assumed to be equal to 100 mm. Any surfacing material, apart from PA, AC-Vthin and OGFC, was assumed to have a structural equivalence with the asphalt concrete of 1:1. In the case of PA, the ratio was considered 1:0.5 while of the OGFC and AC-Vthin was considered 1:0.8. As for the MS the approx. 10mm layer was simply added on top of the 100mm asphalt layer. The expected average service life for effective performance and the construction cost, of all materials considered on this analysis, is shown in Table 2. The expected average values of service life were derived from international experience. Based on the above, the initial construction cost of a pavement with various types of surfacing material was calculated. 6.2. Assumptions for calculating maintenance cost The required maintenance works for each surfacing material, when the expected service life is reached, and assuming that the pavement will show no other distress during the analysis period, are as follows: For asphalt concrete (AC) 50 mm every 7 years: milling, tack coating and laying 50mm new AC. For porous asphalt 40 mm (PA), every 6 years: milling, tack coating and laying 40 mm of new porous asphalt. For SMA 40 mm, every 10 years: milling, tack coating and laying 40 mm of new SMA For thin surfacing material 25mm, every 8 years: tack coating and laying 25 mm of new surfacing, milling off 50mm at the 16th year before resurfacing. For micro-surfacing, every 5 years: apply new micro-surfacing (approx. 10 mm). Using the above and the cost per item shown on Table 2, the maintenance cost for each maintenance period and type of surfacing material can be calculated. The values obtained are not shown in this paper.

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6.3. Assumption for calculating user cost In order to calculate the user cost during future maintenance works the following assumptions were made: Table 2: Surfacing materials considered, expected duration and construction cost Type of surfacing material Asphalt concrete (AC), 40 mm Open graded friction course (OGFC), 40mm Porous asphalt (PA), 40 mm SMA, 40 mm Micro-surfacing(2), appr. 10 mm AC for very thin layers (AC-VTh), 25-28mm Other related works Binder and base course, 50 mm Tack coating Milling 40 50 mm
(1) Typical 2009 prices in the Greek market.

Expected service life (years) 7 6 6 10 5 8

Construction cost(1) (EURO/m2) 6.1 6.0 6.8 7.2 3.6 4.0 4.6 0.35 1.0

Initial daily traffic per direction: Total =2300 vehicles (Commercial Vehicles (CV) = 805) Annual increase in traffic: 3% Average hourly cost: for a CV= 45.0 /hour and for a private car=15.0 /hour Estimated loss of time due to maintenance works along a length of 1 km of road: for CV vehicles, an additional 0.45min due to reduction of speed from 80km/h to 50km/h, for private cars, an additional 0.60min due to reduction of speed from 100km/h to 50km/h Daily paving rate: for AC 40, PA 40, and SMA 40: 6,000 m2/day for AC-Very thin layer: 12,000 m2/day (10) for Micro-surfacing: 10,000 m2/day Rate of milling: approx. 6,000 m2/day Using the above, the total delay cost per unit area (taken as 1 km length by 10m wide) can be calculated for each maintenance period and type of surfacing material used. The results computed are not shown here. 6.4. Discount rate and analysis period The discount rate and period of analysis were assumed 6 % and 30 years, respectively. 7. RESULTS OBTAINED Based on all the above mentioned the construction cost at the beginning of the analysis period, for each wearing course considered, is as shown in Figure 1. The total cost for future maintenance in Present Value (PV), for each type of surfacing considered, determined by using equation (1) but excluding the user cost, is as shown in Figure 2. The total cost for future maintenance in Present Value (PV), for each type of surfacing considered, including the user cost, is as shown in Figure 3.

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As it can be seen from Figure 1 the highest construction cost is the one where porous asphalt (PA) was selected as wearing course and the lowest the one with dense asphalt concrete (AC).
Total depth of bituminous layers assumed = 100mm
32

Total cost of asphaltic works (/m2

30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 AC OGAC PA SMA40 MS AC-VTh

15.2 12.3 13.0 13.4 13.5 12.4

Type of wearing course material used

Figure 1: Total rehabilitation cost for bituminous works required (excluding initial milling)
Present value for rehabilitation and future mainenentce works Without user cost (Discount rate 6%, analysis period 30 years)
32 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 AC OGAC PA 40 SMA 40 MS AC-VTh

Present value for rehabilitation and future mainenentce works With user cost (Discount rate 6%, analysis period 30 years)
32 30 28

29.9 25.0 23.5 20.9 21.7 19.4

30.7 25.9 22.0 19.5

Present value /m2

Present value /m2

26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8

24.3

20.4

AC

OGAC

PA 40

SMA 40

MS

AC-VTh

Type of wearing course material used

Type of wearing course material used

Figure 2: Total cost in PV without user cost

Figure 3: Total cost in PV with user cost

When future maintenance was taken into consideration, without the user cost, the lowest cost, over the period of analysis, expressed in present value, was the solution with asphalt concrete for very thin layers (AC-Vthin) (19.4 /m2). The second lower value solution was with SMA (20.9 /m) and not very far from that the solution with micro-surfacing (MS) as wearing course (21.7 /m2). Similar trend found when the user cost also taken into consideration. The most expensive maintenance solution was found to be the one in which porous asphalt was chosen as wearing course. The solution with dense asphalt concrete as wearing course was, with poorer surface characteristics, was 4.8 /m2 more expensive than the cheapest solution with AC for very thin layers, see Figure 3. If the discount rate is less than the one assumed, the differences among the cost of the wearing courses are more profound. Alternative, if the discount rate is higher than 6% the differences are smaller. Since the cost of some surfacing materials may increase, either because market prices have not been established yet or, in some cases, due to higher transport cost of the surfacing

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aggregates, a sensitivity analysis was also carried out. For the purpose of the analysis it was assumed that the cost of the surfacing material may increase by 10% and 20%. The sensitivity analysis showed that a 10% increase of the initial cost of the above mentioned surfacing materials will result in an increase of 3% to 4% of the total present value, depending on the type of material. Similarly, a 20% increase of the initial cost would result in an increase of 5% to 8% of the total present value, depending on the type of material. 8. CONCLUSIONS The engineer today has a variety of surfacing materials to use in either new or rehabilitation works. His decision on selecting one should not be based on the initial cost of the material. Other characteristics should always be considered apart from initial cost. Namely these characteristics are: a) Provision of surface characteristics, b) Ease and speed of execution of works, c) Life expectancy of the material chosen, d) Ease of spot repair, e) Availability of surfacing material f) Total cost over the expected life of the pavement or the chosen long period of road servicing the public. Whole life cost analysis can and should be used to rationalize and select the most cost effective surfacing material. Conventional surfacing materials, normally laid in thickness of 40mm, are not as cost effective as new surfacing materials laid 25mm thick or SMA or Micro-surfacing. However, SMA mixture is not as effective as Thin Surfacing and Micro-surfacing, in terms of preservation of hard aggregate natural recourses. In additionally, Micro-surfacing has the advantage of been friendlier to the environment. Thus, in order to manage better the available capital for new or rehabilitation works, the engineer should always carry out a Whole Life Cost Analysis (WLCA). Money is scarce or difficult to find now days and it should be spend wisely. However, although WLCA will determine the most cost effective solution, the final decision for selecting the optimum surfacing material may be based on the availability of the material in the project area. REFERENCES Asphalt Institute, 1999. MS-1 Thickness Design-Highways & Streets, 9th Edition. ASTM D6372-05,2005. Practice for Design, Testing, and Construction of Micro-Surfacing. Baldock R.H., 1963. Determination of the annual cost of highways, Highway Research Board Record 12, Highway Research Board, Washington, D.C. EN 13108-1, 2006. Bituminous mixtures-Material specifications-Part 1: Asphalt Concrete. EN 13108-2, 2006.Bituminous mixtures-Material specifications-Part 2: Asphalt Concrete for very thin layers. EN 13108-4, 2006. Bituminous mixtures-Material specifications-Part 4: Hot Rolled Asphalt. EN 13108-5, 2006. Bituminous mixtures-Material specifications-Part 5: Stone Mastic Asphalt. EN 13108-7, 2006. Bituminous mixtures-Material specifications-Part 7: Porous Asphalt. International Slurry Seal Association, 2005. A-143 Recommended Performance Guidelines for Micro-Surfacing. Nikolaides A. 2002. Highway Engineering: Pavements, Materials, Control of quality, Triantafillou, ISDN 960-7679-00-8, Thessaloniki, Greece.

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iCTi2010, Fortes & Pereira (eds.) 2010, ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5

Experimental Investigation of a Cement-Stabilized Low-Strength Soil for Pavement Construction in Eastern Nigeria
R. O. Oduola
Department of Civil Engineering, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Nigeria

Email: joshrotdaniel@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT: The soils in the eastern part of Nigeria are highly susceptible to erosion and collapse due to their geological formation and mineralogical constituents, and as a result of these, infrastructural developments of the area have been a difficult and expensive task gulping substantial amount of the yearly budget. The road infrastructures even when constructed are found not to be durable due to weakening effect of subgrade soil by erosion during rain and the ultimate failure of the roads under the heavy axle loads to which they are subjected. This situation therefore leads to losses to road users in terms of increased operating costs and, on the part of government, high maintenance costs to ensure good road ridability. The economic and social activities are also impaired because transportation of goods and people is mainly by road due to the poor state of railway services. There have been serious investigations on ways of improving subgrade soils in various parts of Nigeria to enhance soil material performance in pavement construction using stabilizers such as cement, bitumen and lime. However, the application of stabilizers on some of the eastern Nigerian soils is still not yet seriously investigated. This problem forms the basis of an extensive investigations currently being conducted on economic methods of improving the engineering qualities of the eastern Nigerian soils, and thus, enhance their performance under pavement traffic load. This paper presents results of on-going studies on the effects of cement in stabilizing a problem soil in Amatutu/Agulu area of Anambra State, Eastern Nigeria, and thus finds an economic and durable application of the soil in road pavement construction in the area. The results of laboratory experiments conducted so far using the British Standard procedures showed an increase in engineering properties of the cement-stabilized soil such as the plasticity index, dry-density, CBR, and UCS, thus giving hope of improved pavement performance under traffic load in the area. KEY WORDS: Cement Stabilization, Soil, Improvement, Pavement, Construction

1. INTRODUCTION The development of road infrastructures in different parts of the world and particularly in developing countries such as Nigeria has been a bane in the economic and social transformation of the country. The reason for this situation has been the high cost of road construction coupled 731

with inadequate allocation of fund for road construction by government at the various levels, that is, local, state and federal, due to pressure from other areas of infrastructural needs of the country. Also, the lack of good road pavement construction materials in many parts of the country has made road construction to be an expensive and difficult task. This often times results in carting away the poor soil at the proposed road corridor and replacing with better quality borrow materials, which are usually obtained from a distance outside the project corridor. This has always led to increased cost of construction, as the haulage cost of these borrow materials depends on the fuel cost, vehicle hire, etc. Due to the importance of road transportation to the economy, more especially, with the poor state of rail and water transportation, there is great pressure on road transportation because this is the only effective and readily available means of transportation of people and goods across the country. Because of this, there has always been a demand on government to invest on road construction, rehabilitation and maintenance every year to ensure that there is easy transportation across the country. The condition of the constructed roads however have been worrisome as roads constructed with substantial budgetary costs fail prematurely with a resultant effect on the government, who is the major financier of road construction, and the road users who are bugged down with incidences of traffic accidents due to the poor condition of road pavement and travel delay due to traffic jam which result when accidents occur. The factors responsible for this has been attributed to the poor subgrade and subbase soil conditions at the road site which are in various deterioration and failure in the country. These problems as well as the need to improve on road transportation services in the country form the basis of an intensive research program currently being conducted at the Materials Laboratory of the Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Lagos, Nigeria aimed at finding a durable and economic solution to road pavement problems affecting roads in the eastern part of Nigeria. Therefore, this paper presents the results of laboratory studies conducted on the effect of cement in stabilizing a low-strength soil material from Amatutu/Agulu area of Anambra State, Eastern Nigeria, where there have been serious soil failures in form of soil erosion, landslide and gully conditions leading to disruption in infrastructures such as roads and foundation of buildings, for an improved performance under heavy and low traffic loads in the area, thereby contribute to the current knowledge on effective soil stabilization in road and airfield pavement construction.

2. CEMENT STABILIZATION: REVIEW OF PREVIOUS RESEARCH The application of cement in soil stabilization for pavement construction and building foundations has been practiced in different countries of the world. There have also been extensive investigations on the cement application in soil for pavement construction especially for stabilizing poor soils. In fact, cement being one of the traditional methods of stabilizing soils, aside from lime and bitumen, has attracted more attention over the years and this is responsible for the availability of many research data on the subject which have guided the construction of cement-stabilized pavement for roads and airfield. A detailed review of these research data which has been divided into cement-stabilization of fine-grained soil, cement-stabilization of granular soil materials and cement-stabilization of organic soil materials is currently being conducted by the author and the results of this shall be 732

published later. However, in this paper a brief review of researches on the application of cement in fine-grained soil materials from different parts of the world is presented.

2.1 Cement-Stabilization of Fine-Grained Soil A number of investigations have been conducted on the experimental and field application of cement in soil, particularly the fine-grained soils in many parts of the world to enhance their suitability in pavement construction. These investigations have been conducted on different types of soils such as cement-stabilization of clay soils (Cruchley, 1956; Woodbridge, 1999; Stavridakis and Hatzigogos, 1999; Stavridakis, 2005; Geiman, 2005), cement-stabilized organic soils such as black cotton soils and peat (Balogun, 1991; Hebib and Farrell, 2003; Huat, 2006), cement-stabilization of laterite gravel soil materials (Ola, 1977; Ola, 1980; Tijani, 1986; Osinubi, 1998), cement-stabilization of dune sands (Al-Aghbari and Dutta, 2005; Al-Amoudi, 2002), beach sands (Akinmusuru, 1987), cement-stabilized residual laterites (Ackroyd, 1971). The stabilization of soil with cement has proven to be a successful method of improving the engineering qualities of low-strength soils, which by themselves are incapable of developing adequate resistance to pavement traffic loads as results of both field and experimental application of the method has shown. However, in a few cases, the application of cement in pavement construction has shown an unimpressive performance. For example, in the construction of Gumel-Maitagari Road and Maiduguri-Beni Sheikh Road in the northern part of Nigeria, Aggarwal and Jafri (1987) reported an unsatisfactory performance of the technique. The factors attributed for this were the high rates of evaporation and large elapse time between laying and compaction experienced during the construction of the cement-stabilized pavement. Cement-stabilization is a temperature sensitive technique because of the high rate of hydration that takes place especially when the temperature is high as is common in the northern part of Nigeria where temperatures in excess of 30oC to 40oC are not uncommon. Furthermore, as noted in Stavridakis (2005), the increase in strength and durability of cementstabilized clayey soil mixtures depends on the curing time, which is the time that cation exchange and flocculation takes place. However, the loss of strength and durability in cement-clay soil is attributed to the clay minerals present in clay soil with water absorbing affinity especially when the mineral is of bentonite or montmorillonite. Kaolinite clay mineral however, displays a different behaviour because the clay mineral does not have any significant influence on the hydration and hardening properties of the cement-clay soil mixture.

2.2 Mechanism of Cement-Soil Stabilization There has been several information presented by many authors and researchers over the years on the reaction mechanisms of cement-soil stabilization (Krebs and Walker, 1971; Ingles and Metcalf, 1972; Sowers, 1979; OFlaherty, 1986; Haussmann, 1990). The soil-cement reaction mechanism primarily entails hydrolysis and hydration of cement such that the cement particles generate links or bonds around adjoining soil grains and particles and in the process calcium hydroxide, a by-product of the hydration process is released. The effect of this release of calcium hydroxide, especially on more reactive soils such as clay, produces silica and alumina that combines with calcium to produce additional cementation effect on the soil-cement materials (Krebs and Walker, 1972). 733

In other words, the chemical stabilization mechanism of cement in stabilizing soils causes increased particle sizes by cementation, reduced plasticity index, reduced volume and shrinkage properties and reduced hydraulic conductivity. Other effects of the mechanism of cement reactions are absorption and chemical binding of moisture which leads to improved compaction characteristics of the cement-soil material mixtures. (INDOT, 2002).

2.3 Factors Affecting Cement-Stabilized Soil A number of factors which enhances these reaction mechanism and the resultant increase in engineering properties of low-strength soils when mixed with cement are the degree of mixing, the degree and homogeneity of compaction, degree of soil pulverization, the nature of soil, the amount or percentage cement content, presence of organic materials, curing conditions, time of curing, type of water used in mixing and curing the soil-cement mixtures, mineralogical content of the soil and admixtures present (Felt, 1955; Yoder, 1959; Sargious, 1975; Gillot, 1968; Ingles and Metcalf, 1972; Singh and Singh, 1983, Punmia, 1988; OFlaherty, 1986; Haussmann, 1990; PCA, 2007; Makasa, 2007). Other factors which affect the engineering qualities of cement stabilized soils especially cohesionless soils as noted in Kezdi (1979) are moisture content, compaction method, elapsed time between mixing and compaction, length of curing, temperature, humidity and specimens sizes.

3. MATERIAL SAMPLING AND MATERIAL USED IN THE EXPERIMENT The soil materials used in these investigations were obtained from Amatutu/Agulu area of Anambra State in the eastern part of Nigeria. The soil sample is reddish-brown in colour and fine in texture. This area has been found to be highly susceptible to erosion and development of gullies in the area has created serious environmental and ecological problems affecting the life of the people. The author has been involved in the design of drainage and erosion control facilities in the area as one of the intervention of government to save infrastructures such as roads and buildings in the Amatutu-Agulu area. Figure 1 shows the failed embankment and a retaining wall in the area. Disturbed samples of the soil were taken at two selected points, placed in polythene bags and transported to the Materials Laboratory of the Department of Civil Engineering, University of Lagos. Cement used for the stabilization of the soil sample was obtained from Portland cement factory of the Lafarge/West African Portland Cement, Shagamu Plant, Ogun State and it is the Type I ordinary Portland cement conforming to BS 12 as recommended by the Nigerian Specification for Roadworks (FMW, 1997).

4. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES The laboratory tests conducted on the samples of soils were the particle size sieve analysis, specific gravity, soil classification, Atterberg limits, compaction test, CBR and UCS. The experimental procedures adopted were as specified in BS 1377 (1990) and BS 1924 (1990). 734

Figure 1: Typical Failed Road Embankment and Retaining Wall in Amatutu/Agulu Area

5. RESULTS, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS 5.1 Results of Tests Conducted Figure 2 shows the geological map of the study area which is located on Anambra basin indicated as No. 5 on the legend.

Figure 2: Geological Map of the Study Area (Federal Surveys, 1969)

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The results of the Grain size sieve analysis conducted using the procedure in BS 1377 (1990) is shown in Figure 3. Three grain size analyses were carried out and they are as shown. The results of Atterberg Limits conducted on the as-is soil sample and the addition of cement in the range of 0 to 10% are shown in Table 1 and the variation of the PI index with percentage cement added is shown in Figure 4. Similarly, the results of maximum dry densities obtained with percent addition of cement are shown in Figure 5. The CBR and UCS results are shown in Figure 7, 8 and 9 respectively. All the results shown are the mean of three test results obtained for each investigation conducted on samples prepared according to the standard test procedures in BS 1377 (1990) for the as-is soil engineering properties and according to BS 1924 (1990).

Figure 3: Grain Size Curve for the Soil Sample 5.2 Discussion of Results The specific gravity of the soil sample was found to be 2.65 while the Atterberg limits of the soil conducted according to BS 1377 (1990) is shown in Table 1. The liquid limit of the soil was found to decrease and the plasticity limit was found to increase as the percentage content of the cement additive increased leading to reduced plasticity index of the soil as shown in Figure 4. The shrinkage characteristics of the soil samples were found to reduce as the cement content was increased from 0% to 10% showing that the soil becomes relatively more stable as the content of cement increased.

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Table 1: Results of Atterberg Limits of Soil Sample with Cement Additive

Plastic Limit (%)

Liquid Limit

Shrinkage Limit

Plasticity Index (LL-PL)%

Mean

Mean

Mean

+0% 16.00 15.90 17.90 16.60 Cement +2% 16.10 19.10 18.20 17.80 Cement +4% 18.20 19.4 Cement +6% 19.30 20.4 Cement +8% 22.20 20.4 Cement +10% 26.00 20.4 Cement 18.80 18.80

46.00 45.00 45.00 45.67

8.60 8.60 8.60

8.60

30.00 30.10 27.10 29.07

48.60 46.00 47.10 47.23

7.80 3.10 3.80

4.90

16.10 26.90 28.90 23.97

50.00 47.00 47.90 48.30

7.00 3.10 4.00

4.70

31.80 27.60 29.10 29.50

20.00 19.90

51.00 48.00 49.20 49.40

7.00 3.10 4.20

4.77

31.70 27.60 29.20 29.50

19.90 20.83

53.50 48.00 48.80 50.10

6.30 2.3

3.80

4.13

31.30 27.60 28.90 29.27

20.20 22.20

56.30 50.00 51.6

52.63

6.30 2.3

3.00

3.87

30.30 29.60 31.40 30.43

737

Mean

Sample -

PLASTICITY INDEX (%)

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 2 4 6 8 10

CEMENT CONTENT (%)

Figure 4: Plasticity Index versus Percent Cement Content The maximum density of the soil without additive and the maximum dry density of the stabilized soil mixtures were found to increase from the mean value of 1.88 Mg/m3 when no cement was added to a mean value of 1.92Mg/m3 when 2% cement was added and thereafter reduced mean values of the maximum dry density was recorded from 4% cement addition to 10% cement additive as shown in Figure 5.
MAX. DRY DENSITY (Mg/m3)
1.94 1.92 1.9 1.88 1.86 1.84 1.82 1.8 1.78 1.76 1.74 0 2 4 6 8 10

CEMENT CONTENT (%)

Figure 5: Maximum Dry Density versus Percent Cement Content Figure 6 shows the variation of optimum moisture content with percent increase in cement content. The soaked and unsoaked variation of California bearing ratio are shown in Figures 7 and 8. There was a marked increase in CBR value of 18% when no cement was added and mean CBR value of 118% when 10% cement was added. The remarkable increase in the soaked CBR can be attributed to the hydration of cement mixed with the soil which is facilitated by the moisture present. There was increase in the unsoaked CBR value although not as remarkable as the soaked CBR values. Similarly, the unconfined compressive strength values of the tested samples were also found to increase as the cement additives increased from 0% to 10% as shown in Figure 9.

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OPTIMUM MOISTURE CONTENT (%)

18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 2 4 6 8 10

CEMENT CONTENT (%)

Figure 6: Optimum Moisture Content versus Percent Cement Content

140

SOAKED CBR (%)

120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 2 4 6 8 10

CEMENT CONTENT (%)

Figure 7: Soaked CBR versus Percent Cement Content

100

UNSOAKED CBR (%)

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 2 4 6 8 10

CEMENT CONTENT (%)

Figure 8: Unsoaked CBR versus Percent Cement Content

6. CONCLUSIONS

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An experimental study on the effectiveness of cement stabilizer for Amatutu/Agulu soil is reported. The ordinary Portland cement manufactured to BS 12 was used as stabilizer. The effectiveness of the cement in stabilizing the soil was established by measuring improvement in the engineering properties of the cement-treated soil which include Atterberg limits, density, California Bearing Ratio and unconfined compressive strength test. The characterization of the cement-soil mixtures using triaxial compression test is on-going and is not yet concluded. However, based on the present study, the following conclusions are made.
UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE STRENTH (kN/m2)
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 2 4 6 8 10

CEMENT CONTENT (%).

Figure 9: Unconfined Compressive Strength versus Percent Cement Content 1. The addition of cement decreased the LL and PI of the soil material as the percentage additions increased from 0% to 10%. 2. Large increases in compressive strength and density were observed for the cementstabilized soil, which means that the engineering properties of the soil improved. 3. The results of this study confirm the effectiveness of cement as a superior stabilizer in improving the engineering qualities of marginal soils in pavement construction, and the results reported therefore show that there is hope for the use of this soil in road pavement construction and of course in the road network development in Amatutu/Agulu area and its environs.

REFERENCES Ackroyd, L. W., 1971. The Engineering Classification of Some Western Nigerian Soils and Their Qualities in Road Building. Overseas Bulletin, No. 10, Road Research Laboratory, Dept. of the Environment, Crowthorne, Reprint. Aggarwal, H. R., Jafri, R. H., 1987. Modified Material Specifications for Base Laterites for Secondary Roads, 9th Regional Conference for Africa on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Lagos, September, pp. 445-454. Al-Aghbari, M. Y., Dutta, R. K., 2005. Suitability of Desert Sand Cement Mixes for Base Courses in Highway Pavements, Electronic Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, (www.ejge.com). Al-Amoudi, O. S. B., 2002. Characterization and Chemical Stabilization of Al-Qurayyah Sabkha Soil, Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 6, November/December, pp. 478484. 740

Akinmusuru, J. O., 1987. The Effects of Cementation on the Stress-Strain Behaviour of a Sand, Proceedings of 9th Regional Conference for Africa on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Lagos, September, pp. 435-442. BS 1924., 1990., Test for Stabilized Soil, British Standard Institution, United Kingdom. BS 1377, 1990. Methods of Testing Soils for Civil Engineering Purposes, British Standards Institution, (BSI) London. Cruchley, A. E., 1956. Stabilization of a Heavy Clay An Experiment at Hornchurch, Essex, Roads and Road Construction, 34(402), pp. 16, June 4. FMWH, 1997, Nigerian Specifications for Roads and Bridge Works, Federal Ministry of Works, Abuja, Nigeria Geiman, C. M., 2005, Stabilization of Soft Clay Subgrades in Virginia Phase I Laboratory Study, M.S. Thesis in Civil Engineering, Faculty of Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia, May. Gillot, J. E., 1968, Clay in Engineering Geology, Elsevier Publishing Co., Amsterdam. Hausmann, M. R., 1990, Engineering Principles of Ground Modifications, McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., New York, International Edition. Hebib, S., Farrell, E. R., 2003. Some Experiences on the Stabilization of Irish Peats, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 40, pp. 107-120, NRC Research Press, Canada. Huat, B. B. K., 2006, Effect of Cement Admixtures on the Engineering Properties of Tropical Peat Soils, Electronic Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, Paper No. 0647, (www.ejge.com). INDOT, 2002, Design Procedures for Soil Modification or Stabilization, Materials and Testing Division, Indiana Department of Transportation, Indianapolis, October. OFlaherty, C. A., 1986, Highways, Vol. 2, Edward Arnold Publishers, London, 3rd Edition. Ingles, O. G., Metcalf, J. B., 1972, Soil Stabilization: Principles and Practice, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1st Edition. Kezdi, A., 1979, Stabilized Earth Roads, Developments in Geotechnical Engineering, 19, Elsevier Publishers. Krebs, R. D., Walker, R. D. 1971, Highway Materials, McGraw-Hill Inc., New York. Makasa, B., 2007, Utilisation and Improvement of Lateritic Gravels in Road Bases, (http:www.itc.nl/~ingeokri/newsletter/summer98/newspage12.htm). Ola, S. A., 1977, Geotechnical Properties and Behaviour of Some Stabilized Nigerian Lateritic Soil, Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, London, Vol. 11, pp. 148-160. Ola, S. A., 1980, Mechanical Properties of Concretionary Laterites from Rain Forest and Savanna Zones of Nigeria, Bulletin of International Association of engineering Geology, Paris, 21, pp. 21-26. Osinubi, K. J., 1998, Influence of Compaction Delay on the Properties of Cement Stabilized Lateritic Soil, Journal of Engineering Research, JER-6, No. 1, pp. 13-25, January. PCA, 2007, Thickness Design of Soil-Cement Pavements, (www.cement.org) and (www.cement.org/pavements). Punmia, B. C., 1988, Soil Mechanics and Foundations, A. Saurabh & Co. Pvt. Ltd., Madras, India,, 11th Edition. Sargious, M., 1975, Pavement and Surfacings for Highways and Airports, Applied Science Publishers, London. Singh, G., Singh, J., 1983, Highway Engineering, Standard Publishers Distributors, Nai Sarak, New Delhi, 2nd Edition. Sowers, G. F., 1979, Soil Mechanics and Foundations: Geotechnical Engineering, Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., New York 741

Stavridakis, E. I., 2005a, Presentation and Assessment of Clay Influence on Engineering Parameters of Cement-Treated Clayey Mixtures, Electronic Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, Paper 0508, (www.ejge.com). Stavridakis, E. I., 2005c, A Proposed Classification Anisotropic Engineering Behaviour of Cement Treated Clayey Mixtures Related to Their Strength and Durability, Electronic Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, (www.ejge.com). Stavridakis, E. I., Hatzigogos, N. T., 1999, Influence of Liquid Limit and Slaking on Cement Stabilized Clayey Admixtures, Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, 17, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Netherlands, pp. 145-154. Tijani, R. J., 1986, Correlation Between the Unconfined Compressive Strength, Indirect Tensile Strength and the CBR of Cement Stabilized Laterite, MSc Thesis submitted to the Department of Civil Engineering, University of Lagos, Nigeria (Unpublished). Woodbridge, M. E., 1999, Use of Soft Limestone for Road-Base Construction in Belinze, 7th International Conference on Low-Volume Roads, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA, 23rd-26th May. Yoder, E. J., 1959, Principles of Pavement Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.

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