Origin of viruses We have several theories for origin of viruses , one theory states that viruses represent ancient

derivatives of degenerate cells or cell fragments . Some cells undergo degeneration , disintegration & fragmentation , these fragments of cells undergo development & become viable , they become a separate entity . Most scientists agree that viruses are non-living entities , they are not alive outside the cells . Viruses need the machinery of the host cells in order to replicate themselves . Bacteriophages Viruses that infect bacteria are known as bacteriophages or simply phages . As we have viruses that infect our cells we have viruses that can infect bacterial cells & they have certain receptors on certain bacterial cells . Virulent bacteriophages always cause what is known as the lytic cycle which ends with the destruction of the bacterial cell . When the virus enters into a cell ( bacterial , animal or plant cell ) its DNA or genome , once it gets into the cytoplasm of the host cell , will either : (1)integrate with the chromosomes of the bacteria ( become a part of these chromosomes ) OR
(2)

use the machienary of the host cell in order to build the structure or the whole body of the virus . So we will have a large number of viruses in the cytoplasm of the host cell , these viruses will secrete enzymes that will poke a hole from inside of the membrane of the host cell leading to lysis of the host cell , & finally these viruses will come out from the cells in large number & start infecting other neighbouring cells , that's what we

call lytic cycle .

A partially lysed cell of Vibrio cholerae with attached virions of phage CP-T1 Human viruses have certain classification , they can be classified as DNA viruses , RNA viruses , viruses with envelope or naked viruses . So we have different kinds of classification . The same thing for the viruses that can infect the bacteria , we have different families & each has its own members . For example : Vibrio cholerae has a special phage that can infect the bacteria which are called CP-T1 ( it's a bacteriophage ) & under the electron microscope we will see the bacterial cell with the bacteriophage infecting it is attached to its surface & it's partially lysed & in the end it's gonna be destroyed totally . Question: a virus infect a cell & get out in a large number to attack neighbouring cells , will only one virus infect this the neighbouring cell or it will be infected by a group of viruses ? Answer : infection can be initiated by one virus , it will enter the cell & start to replicate , when density is enough (they know that using sensory mechanism ) , they will get out of the cell . The cell has receptors & can be infected by more than one virus but only one virus is enough to initiate the infection . Bacteriophage T4 it's an assembly of protein components , it has a head , collar , tail & tail fibers which will be used by the virus to attach the surface of the bacterial cell , then it will pierce the cell wall to inject the DNA into the cytoplasm of the cell , so , only the DNA of the virus will enter the host cell & the other components of the virus will remanil outside .

Animal viruses what happens in animal cells is different from what happen in bacterial cells . the steps in multiplication of animal viruses are : * attachment * penetration *uncoating *biosynthesis * assembly in general , they are the same steps but the details are a little bit different for the viruses that can infect a human or animal cell (human & animal cells are the same according to biology books , which is not true ). Inclusion bodies are remnants or collections of viruses , often seen in infected cells and used as diagnostic tool to identify particular virus diseases . Using electron microscope , we can detect : - Adsorbtion :attachment of the virus to the surface of the host cell - Penetration : enterance of the viral component into the cytoplasm of the host cell When bacteria is infected by a virus , only viral DNA will enter the bacterial cell , while for human viruses , such as Herpes Simplex 1 & 2 , the host cell will be uncoated & the whole virus will enter into its cytoplasm then DNA will replicate & the structure as a whole will be built . Herpes Simplex 1 will cause blisters which will appear around your mouth when you have a fever , cold , stressful exam & you can have it also sexually transmitted disease . Herpes Simplex 2 is also as a result of sexually transmitted disease . Replication of animal viruses is different from replication oh

bacteriophages . Latent virus infection Viral infection in which the virus is able to hide from a host's immune system by entering cells & remaining dormant , such as Herpes virus . Once you are infected by Herpes Simplex virus , you will have it for lifetime . you will not be able to get rid of it , there is no cure . In this case , if you have Herpes Simplex 1 virus , if it's in the oral cavity , you will carry this virus in the end of the ganglion ( in the nerve endings in the cheek area ) & when you are exposed to a hot , fever , cold , stress . It will migrate all the way to the epithelial cells around your lips . The same things for herps simplex 2 its gonna appear on your genital and it will be dormant (3adm wgood symptoms) , and what are the symptoms : vesicles or blisters like Akyas s3ere feha sa2el . and this liquid will be rich in virus. Then if you touch the blister and then you touch your eye or nose you are going to infect other part in your body. So Dont do that ! it is going to heal by itself , there is some kinds of inhibitors like ointments (similar to Vaseline) you can use it (ointment is like a cream that contain the therapy like antibiotic, steroidit is greasy preparation that is insoluble in water) so as the dr said you put it on the blister and it will become dry and hide later on. But the herpes (type of virus) will be recurrent when you are under stress like on examination. The same thing for herps simplex 2 which will appear in the genital area. If there is no symptoms like no blister it doesnt mean that there is no virus ; still you have it. It is infectious and contagious (mo3dde) .

Herpes virus infections are acquired (you get it from other people), we call it cold sore (Al7amo). Genital Herpes Chickenpox and Shingles.

Now chickenpox is most children infected by it. Almost all of us we had chickenpox , nowdays there is vaccine for it. When you are infected by chickenpox virus it can be mild like no symptoms, and it can present as blisters (similar to the Herpes virus). Note: Chekenpox virus belong to the same family of Herpes viruses which is called Human Herpes Virus type 3 , and the virus that cause chickenpox called Varicella zoster virus again which type 3 in the group.

Now Chickenpox virus might come back in the forties (at age 40, 50 or even 60). It is going to be stimulated and comeback to appear on you, when your immune system is down, and it will appear in a different form and we call it Shingles. (in other ward to have Shingles you have to be infected by the virus for the first time during childhood, and later on at age 40 for example when your immune system is weak Virus will be stimulated and the second appearance we call it Shingles).

Shingles :
Very painful , and the blisters will not be limited to the oral cavity, it also will appear on your skin at your back and neck , like a girdle hens its name . Mainly as we said it appear in old people.

Again the same virus that cause Chickenpox in childhood, it cause Shingles in middle-age or older, when we are immunosuppressed. Antiviral agent: medication to treat the virus. For example you go to the pharmacy asking for drug to relief the sore throat It is important for you as a dentist to know these information because you are the one who is dealing in patients mouth and you should know how to discover that this patients is infected (if he didnt tell you) because sometimes you are not allowed to treat him for your safety because as we said viruses is contagious). Viruses can cause Septicemia (blood toxicity) , or affect the heart casing Infective Endocarditis by the blood that circulate in your body when it reach the heart. Going back to the Sore throat, when the patient open his mouth you can see inflamed tonsils (enlarged and red) , if you see pus then it is bacterial infection. If you see enlarged, red inflamed tonsils without pus then it is Viral infection.

Bacterial infection can be treated by Antibiotic for example: Amoxicillin Now all of us do the same mistake that when we have Viral throat infection we take Antibiotic which is wrong, it will not help us. The antibiotic that we take is a broad spectrum it means will work on gram negative and gram positive bacteria . By taking the Antibiotic when there is no need we will encourage bacteria to be Resistant For viral infection we take Antiviral agents and usually we dont

treat Virus, they are not curable. We can inhibit the development of the virus but we cant get rid of it.

Steps for viral attacking the body :

1. Absorption or Attachment 3. Penetration 4. Replication and then they are going to come out

Now the drugs that are design to treat viruses will target one of these steps either it inhibit the attachment of the virus onto the body cell surface or it will be targeted to inhibit penetration into the cytoplasm in human cells or its not going to allow the coating process , or transcription , translation process. Again one of the previous steps will be inhibited by the antiviral (depend on the manufacture) . and to be honest the treatment is not really effective especially because it is Virus infection.

Some of the viruses are Oncogenic which mean can cause Cancer they are carcinogenic (causing cancer) we have also chemicals, radiation.

Examples of oncogenic viruses that are carcinogenic:

Epstein Bar virus Human papilloma virus

HCMV = Human cytomegalo- virus We have human immune deficiency virus we call it Acquired immune deficiency syndrome = AIDS . double strand RNA virus it is lentivirus a member of the retrovirus family.

Retro virus is Double strand RNA virus , they have to make a copy of DNA then its DNA is going to replicate, (usually what happen is DNA will be transcript to msnRNA = messenger RNA ). But In case for the Retro virus because they have the enzyme : Reverse transcriptase enzyme , this enzyme will reverse the process and will convert the RNA to a copy of DNA, we call it cDNA Then the DNA (ele ettsana3) can replicate and integrate itself to the cell chromosomes. The primary target for HIV (human immune deficiency virus) is CD4+ cells that receptors present on T cells , T cell are part of the cellular immune system. (T cells or T lymphocytes belong to a group of white blood cells known as lymphocytes, and play a central role in cell-mediated immunity) . In general we have Humoral immune defense and cellular immune defense. Humoral is the Antibodies , the cellular are for examples T cells that are more powerful and specific. Now when HIV is targeting the CD4+ that are on T-cells when the virus find the cells it will attach to it and destroy it, then our T-cells will be suppressed and so our immunity will be suppressed also, so the body will be weak and will be susceptible to any infection by bacteria and Fungi Candida .

Thats why HIV very bad disease because in one hand we are infected by the virus and in the other hand we will be infected by bacteria and Fungi. As we know that DNA will transcript to messenger RNA(it is the normal function,) but in retroviruses will happened something else or the opposite , because in the viruses we have an enzyme called reveres transcripts , that able to reverse the process , which mean from RNA to a copy DNA (CDNA) , then DNA will replicate ,and will integrate it self to chromosome of the host cell which human cell , and will look for a receptor on T cells which part of cellular defense ( T CELLS MORE SPICEFIC AND POWRFULL THAN HUMRALL IMUNO DEFENS ) ,and because they are more specific so when the HIV attack T CELLS which we can find on it ( CD4+) on the surface , so it will find this receptor (CD4+) and then destroy these important cells of the immune system , as the result the immune system will reduced down , in this case everything will attack us like fungi , Bactria lets see a picture for HIV

As you can see its an envelope layer which its lipid layer , and we have glycol-protein 120 , GP 41 , AND THE enzymes that we can find them like reverse transcriptase , integrase ,protease and this 3 enzymes very important to get in the host cell in order to replicate and integrate

VIRIODS AND PRIONS:

Viruses are very small nonliving infectious agent , viroids and prions are even smaller and less complex infectious agent . The viroids consist of short naked fragments of single strand RNA that can interfere with plant cells but not our cells, they are transmitted between plants in the same manner as viruses.

Plant diseases caused by viroids : ,

1. potato spindle 2. citrus exocorits Prions: are the dangerous one for us, they are small infectious protein particles abnormal in shape that apparently cause fatal neurologic diseases in animals (sheep, deer, cow). Such as 1. Scarpie 2. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (mad cow disease) Note : mad cow disease happened because people was fed cows bones from another died animals. 3. Creutzfeldt Jakob disease What Happened? When prions face normal proteins especially in brain tissue, they convert the normal protein particles to prions, This will formed a chain of infictions. That means when the normal proteins converted into prions (abnormal proteins ) they will infect the normal one again and again and again, so all the brain tissue will be completely dissolved.

- Of all pathogens, prions are believed to be the most resistant to disinfectant : prions can't be killed ( even by radiation). - The mechanisms by which prions cause disease

remains a mystery. Although it is thought that prions convert normal protein molecules into nonfunctional ones by causing the normal molecules to change their shape. 'Now lets back to the bacteria' Bacteria divided into three categories: 1- Gram Negative and have cell wall. 2- Gram Positive and have cell wall. 3- Lack a cell wall. The differences between the three categories: 1- Gram Negative :- they have additional outer membrane beside the cell wall. Their cell wall formed from a thin peptidoglycan layer ( 22 layers) 2- Gram- Positive :- they don't have additional outer membrane. Their cell wall formed from a thick peptidoglycan layer. 3- Lack a cell wall :- they are bacteria that lost their cell wall. So how they can live without it ( without protection) ? the answer is that they have a different structure that give rigidity and protection. Many characteristics of bacteria are examined to provide data for identification and classification, these characteristics include: 1) Cell morphology (shape) :There are three basic shapes of bacteria :
ab-

Round or spherical :- The cocci Rectangular or rod :- The bacilli

c-

Curved or spiral :- The spirilla

The cocci :
a-

May seen in pairs :- Diplococci.

Example: neisseria gonorrhoeae that causes gonorrhea disease

b-

May seen in chains :- Streptococci.

Example: streptococcus pyogenes that causes strep throat ( pharyngitis)

c-

May seen in clusters :- Staphylococci.

Example: staphylococcus aureus that causes boils (acne)-

d-

May seen in pucket of 4:- Tetrad

Example: micrococcus luteus ( normally on our skin) and their colonies in the plate are yellow they are rarely pathogenic.
e-

May seen in packet of 8 :- Octad.

Example: sarcina ventriculi, they are rarely pathogenic. 1) Staining reaction : a- They may be Gram- Positive (red in color) or GramNegative (violet in color), it depends on the wall structure. b- They may be Acid- Basic stain for special kind of microorganisms, such as: Mycobacterium. Gram stain will not be benefit to the Mycobacterium because their cell wall structure is different , they have thick

lipid layer because of that layer it's hard to the stains to penetrate the cell wall. But this Acid-Basic stain has special procedure that let the stain to enter the cell and don't let it get out. 1) Motility : Some of these microorganisms have structures that enable them to move, these structures called Flagella, but if they don't have flagella, they will move by the media that they exist in it. 2) Colony morphology : Colony means : when you cultured the bacteria in the agar and put it in the incubator and give it all the things that is similar to our body (37c , O2 , CO2), then we wait 24 hours or more ( it depends on the type of the bacteria). Then we check if there is growth on the surface of the agar or not, if there is a growth, this growth will be in different forms ( it may be large colonies with different colors or it may be flat colonies. ) 3) Atmosphere requirement : We classify it on the basis of their relationship to O2:a- An aerobic microorganisms that can't live without O2. b- An anaerobic microorganisms that can live without O2. c- Some of them in between that can live with small amount of O2 Also if it needs CO2, N2, H2 we must give it what it needs. 1) Biochemical and metabolic activities : As bacteria grow, they produce many waste products and

secretions, some of which are enzymes that enable them to invade their host and cause disease. This biochemicals added to the bacterial nutrition, they includes different reagents, if the reagent shift from one color to another this will indicate that this bacteria producing specific kind of enzyme, which means using a substrate in the presence of the reagent will change the substrate into another one, this substrate has an enzyme that able to use the substrate in the tube of the product according to the color changing. 2) Pathogenic and genetic composition : The most modern and fastest identification of bacteria using some types of test procedure which referred as molecular diagnostic procedure.
DoNe By :

Wala Hamada MoNa Simon Obeid Nihad Bishara Suzan Elmansour