Throughout the history of humanity, countless people have tried to explain why violence occurs in both the natural

and the human world. Psychologists such as Wilhelm Reich, Erich Fromm, and Stephen Pinker have studied and developed theories on human violence and aggression, while Dr. James Gilligan dedicated an entire book, Violence, to the subject. The complexity of violence makes it difficult to evaluate it in terms of a single aspect; in reality violence is influenced multiple variables, all of which play a role that is no less significant that the other. 1. The role that the state has played in regards to violence throughout history is staggering. The state has been a driving force in every major historical war and atrocities since the beginning of time. 1) In America, native people were its earlier victim. Puritans saw them as brutes and devils so they were targeted for removal as settlers moved west. They cleansed the land through violence until they controlled all of the land. 2) The situation is not entirely different today in some of the more remote and inaccessible parts of South America and South Asia, where indigenous peoples continue to find themselves faced with violence at the hands of settlers and the agents of economic interest groups. 3) Modernization, according to Stanley Tambiah, has brought the world not only mass literacy, urbanization, and rising living standards but also "massive civil war and gruesome interracial and interethnic bloodshed." 4) The state has also been involved in many cases of ethnic cleansings and genocides. The most famous example of such genocide would be the Holocaust in Germany. 5) Not only is the state a catalyst for violence, it also oftentimes glorifies wars and violence in the name of peace, as well as using propaganda in order to gain support. 6) In 1916, Woodrow Wilson was reelected based on the campaign promise: "He Kept Us Out of War", yet he was really an advocate of war and turned a pacifist nation into one who hated Germans, with America eventually declaring war in April of

1917. He also occupied Haiti 1915, sent troops to Nicaragua and the Dominican Republic, as well as invading Mexico in 1914. 7) In modern times George Bush declared a War on Terror against Iraq in which he declared that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction; the real aim for the war was to tap into Iraqs huge oil reserves. 2. The culture of honor is prevalent among societies where it is easy to quickly obtain and lose resources, such as nomadic and pastoral societies. An element of the culture of honor that encourages violence is the fact that men were expected to carry out revenge if their honor or resources were touched. 1) The fact that it is easier to lose wealth and resources in such societies make people quicker to anger if they are threatened. 2) The Scottish Highlanders were a militant people, largely because of this culture of honor. Author Margaret Szasz, in her book, Scottish Highlanders and Native Americans, wrote, They also viewed the Highlanders as the personification of violence (Szasz, 44). 3) Masai people of East Africa were cattle-raising, nomadic people, known for being great warriors. They relied on cattle for their total existence, so if others threatened their supply of cattle, the immediate response was violence. 4) The Sioux Native American tribe was known for their fierce fighting, largely because of the Akhita (Warrior) societies, which existed for the sole purpose of training warriors and hunters. Also, leaders were chosen on the basis of the bravery in battle, so violence was encouraged within the tribe. 5) The Arab Bedouins are a desert-dwelling tribe in the Arabian Peninsula. The strong honor codes and justice system that existed within the social framework of the tribe encouraged violence. 6) Dr. James Gilligan, in his book Violence, writes The purpose of violence is to diminish the intensity of shame and replace it as far as possible with its opposite, pride, thus preventing the individual from being overwhelmed by the feeling of shame (Gilligan, 111). This is characteristic of the culture of honor, the desire of people to protect their honor at all

costs, resorting to violence if necessary. 7) Elijah Anderson, in his book Code of the Street, argued that a culture of honor is present in inner-city youth, where the value of respect is immeasurable. The youth are willing to quickly resort to violence to maintain their reputation and appear tough in front of their peers. 3. Some studies have indicated that certain individuals come into the world predisposed to developing a violent or aggressive behavior pattern. Aggression is a natural part of human behavior (it is what permits us to play sports and achieve higher job positions through competition), but it is believed that there are physiological or chemical differences among individuals who commit acts of violence. 1) Certain brain chemicals have been linked to aggressive behavior, including testosterone and serotonin. Although present in every person, unhealthy amounts of violence have been linked with high amounts of testosterone as well as low levels of serotonin. 2) A study of children with disruptive behavior disorders done by Markus Kruesi of the University of Illinois revealed low serotonin levels as a predictor of aggression. 3) Males are viewed as naturally having more aggressive behavior patterns than females; they are ten times more likely to commit a violent crime, therefore it is not surprising that the male hormone testosterone is linked to aggressive behavior. 5) Psychiatrist Daniel Amen believes that violent teenagers have abnormal brains. He spent nine years studying the relationship between brain abnormalities and behavior. His research shows that violent children have different brains than people who do not act violently. The abnormalities are in the left temporal lobe, which is the seat of aggressive thoughts. 6) The prefrontal cortex of the brain is also known to be where abnormalities lie. 7) An example of the brain's significance to aggressive behavior is that of Phineas Gage. In 1848 he damaged the frontal part of his brain, completely altering his personality from intelligent and respectful to fitful, impulsive, and rude. 8) A

research team from the University of Southern California studied men diagnosed with Antisocial Personality Disorder, all of whom had committed violent crimes. The scientists discovered that the men had from 11 to 14 percent reduced volume of nerve cells in the prefrontal cortex than found in normal males, which further strengthens the correlation between brain composition and behavior. 4. Violence and aggression have been a part of human nature since the beginning of time, and evolution can explain why humans exhibit aggression; it is a primal emotion just like any other. 1)"Emotions (including revenge, happiness, and anger) must have evolved because most of the time they motivate fitness-enhancing behaviors, and that is surely true for humans as for other animals," said Elizabeth Cashdan, a professor of anthropology at the University of Utah. 2)"Aggressive behavior has evolved in species in which it increases an individual's survival or reproduction and this depends on the specific environmental, social, reproductive, and historical circumstances of a species. Humans certainly rank among the most violent of species," stated biologist David Carrier. 3) In primitive societies people would compete for food; today we compete for material resources, and some people lack the switch that tells them when enough is enough, and they cross the line into violence. An example of this competition for resources gone haywire is gang violence, because as a gang member's desire for more things, money, or partners increases, many problems are caused, yet oftentimes it is key to their survival. 2) In poorer area/nations, however, people do still compete for food. When facing extreme situations, an individuals survival instinct will kick in, and they will do whatever they can to try to survive; even if that means robbing somebody, stealing from somebody, or even killing somebody if that person believes that they or somebody they love is in danger. 3) Even the military implements Darwinian teachings, as they advertize for only the strongest individuals, who are willing to

sacrifice everything for their country, to join (Marines slogan for example: The few. The Proud. The Marines). 4) Since aggression and violence are both naturally ingrained in humans, there is no sign that the issue will improve in the near future, and most people believe it will only worsen. as Carrier states, "If basic resources such as food and clean water become more limiting, as many scientists believe is likely to happen as a result of climate change and energy shortages, then the environmental and social drivers of violence may become more difficult to control." 5. Social psychologist Erich Fromm explained his theory of violence, which revolved around defensive aggression. His basic argument was that aggression can be seen as a response to the threat of survival or vital interests; it is a defensive, rather than an offensive tendency. The human motivation to perform violent acts is a defensive response to a perceived external threat. 1) In the study of primates, crowding frequently occurs, which is a threat to the need for physical space. This crowding leads to outbreaks of violence. 2) In the animal and human world, threats to existence will be met with the fight-or-flight reaction. This response can often lead to violence, but it is provoked by an external event. 3) Fromms concept of the eight basic needs of human beings, which, when threatened, will lead to a violent or aggressive response. 4) With American involvement in Iraq, the perceived threat of weapons of mass destruction was enough to bring the country into war, even though the weapons were never actually found and also were originally provided by the United States. 7. Another theory of violence attributed to Erich Fromm is the basic human need for a framework of orientation. This framework of orientation is the way in which individuals find their way in the world; it is basically a persons philosophy on life. 1) This framework is necessary for psychic equilibrium because it provides an individual with a reference point, a perspective, and a way of thinking. When this perspective is attacked by an outside force, it is

perceived as an attack against our very selves and arouses antagonism, thus leading to aggression. 2) The need humans have for objections of devotion, such as values, ideals, parents, country, class, religion, ancestry, etc. These categories are seen as sacred, so when they are threatened, humans respond with aggression because it seems as though their vital interests are being attacked. 3) An example of this is shown through the willingness of people to enlist in the army in 1941 after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor threatened the security of the country. 4) The Middle Eastern conflict largely revolves around the feeling of both Jewish and Muslims who feel that the other group is threatening their religious security (existence of Israel as a Jewish state). 8. Conformist Aggression can be defined as aggression caused by brainwashing people to submit to orders. This form of aggression generally occurs in societies that equate obedience with virtue, which makes disobedience sinful. Nonconformity in such societies is seen as cowardice, so people defend themselves to avoid being labeled a coward. 1) As explained in Buddhist psychology, people have the fear that cowardice could become a part of their self. 2) Young boys in gangs are willing to commit acts of violence in order to remain a part of the group and not be mocked by their peers. 3) Soldiers in an army follow orders and sometimes kill without the desire to do so, because they want to fit in with the rest of their regiment and not be labeled a coward. 4) Japan is unique in its harmony. Everyone shares the same values; everyone conforms and subordinates their personal desires to the needs of the group it is not surprising that rates of deviance are low (Global Sociology, 26). The effective use of social controls and the strong desire of the Japanese people to conform have led to a society with remarkably low rates of homicide and other acts of violence. 5) Adolf Hitler in Nazi Germany used propaganda to brainwash and convince the German people that Poland attacked first, so

they would be willing to conform and fight against this pretended threat. 9. With instrumental aggression, the aim is to obtain what is necessary or desirable, not to cause destruction or inflict hurt or harm. The underlying force that motivates instrumental aggression is greed, which is not genetic but is insatiable and very strong. 1) Tendencies of human beings towards habits such as overeating, compulsive buying, etc. in order to escape depression. Such people will resort to aggressive measures to get the necessary funds to satisfy their greed. 2) The willingness of drug addicts to resort to desperate, aggressive measures to obtain money or drugs they need. They do not want to hurt others to get it, but they are willing to do so if necessary because of their cravings for drugs. 3) In the sport of soccer, a player might knock down his own teammate when trying to prevent a goal; he was not intentionally trying to hurt the other player, but the action was necessary to prevent a goal. 10. Another theory about violence is the theory that violence is linked to repressed sexuality and aggression. 1) The controversial psychologist Wilhelm Reich argued that sexual repression was responsible for the majority of violence; a person with a satisfactory sex life was less violent. In his work, Character Analysis, he writes, Only the liberation of the natural capacity for love in human beings can master their sadistic destructiveness 2) There is scientific evidence which indicates that low levels of oxytocin, a hormone which comes largely from the experience of an orgasm, leads to aggression. Although Reich lived before this research, it strongly reinforces his psychological theories. 3) Belief that sadism, which can be defined as enjoyment from the suffering of others, stemmed from sexual oppression and dissatisfaction. 4) Ted Bundy, infamous serial killer, experienced depression and sexual dissatisfaction that led to violence after his girlfriend Stephanie Brooks ended the relationship. 12. In a society based around class, there is more likely to be violence and crime due to

lack of resources/a disparity of resources between people. 1) Social stratification systems function to encourage hostility, suspicion and distrust among the various segments of a society and thus to limit the possibilities of extensive social integration. 2) The more industrialized a society becomes, the greater the disparity between classes. 3) With class-stratification, greed is a big factor, because the poor people want what the rich people have; this can cause tension between classes. Also, since the people are poor, they result to crime and violence based on their survival instincts. They are poor, they are hungry; they might steal food. They cannot afford something they really want, or they do not think that you deserve something that you have; they might turn to robbery. 4) In more capitalistic societies deviance and violence are more eminent because the discrepancy between what people have and do not have is greater. 5) In societies such as Japan, where class-stratification is less prominent than in the capitalistic United States, violence is less abundant. In 2006, for every million people in Japan there were six murders per year, compared to the United States which had rates of fifty-nine murders for every million people. 16. Steven Pinker, renowned sociologist and psychologist, developed his own biological approach to violence in his book entitled The Blank Slate: the Modern Denial of Human Behavior. He emphasizes the role of biological evolution in violence and aggression. 1) The large size of the male anatomy and their powerful strength in their upper body mass encourage male-on-male violence. 2) The male hormone testosterone encourages dominance and violence. 3) He argues that the well-known flight-or-fight response is biologically built into all humans. This response to either run or face outside threats leads to a secretion of cortisol and adrenaline, which makes human beings prone to violence. 4) Disruptions of inhibitory systems in the brain can yield violent attacks on others. Such disruptions can be caused by damage to the frontal lobe

and the amygdala, which affects memory. Genes can also play a role, for example, serotonin and the human metabolism. Another substance which can have a major effect on the inhibitory systems is alcohol; people under the influence of alcohol have been proven to be more prone to aggressive behavior. 5) The style of childhood play that boys of all cultures engage in leads to violence. Examples of such rough-and-tumble play include wrestling, football, mock-fighting, etc. 6) The aggression and violence that are central to modern sports such as hockey, football, soccer, etc, reveal the desire of human beings to observe ritual combat. 7) Language used in todays society has violent undertones even when people do not realize it, such as the phrases to fight crime or wage war on poverty. Such language increases the biological tendencies toward aggression. 8) In primitive societies, Pinker argues that men were willing to go to war even when there was no shortage of land or food. For example, the Yanomam tribes that live between the border of Venezuela and Brazil frequently engaged in such seemingly meaningless warfare. 9) Dr. Gilligan argues against Pinkers argument that brain disruptions can cause violence: No specific, identifiable, diagnosable brain legion, abnormality, or syndrome has yet been identified which can clearly be shown to cause violent behavior (Gilligan, 217). 20. Culture is one of the leading influencers for violence. 1) It is believed that of the 25,000 murders committed in the United States every year (the greatest number of any industrialized country), at least half are due to the influence and desensitizing effects of media violence. 2) Media violence may be most influential in modeling the use of deadly force as a means to solve problems and resolve interpersonal conflict. 3) Many people believe that violence on television and the radio reinforces real behavior patterns, and especially influences young children. 4) Environmental influences also play a pivotal role in determining whether an individual will act out aggressively. 5) High stress environments can cause individuals to act out

with high amounts of aggression. 6) An environment with a high presence of violent and aggressive behavior not only creates these high levels of stress, but also reinforces violence as an acceptable social behavior. If someone grows up in a household that is surrounded by violence, then that that person will most likely have a stronger propensity towards violence than someone who grew up in a loving, caring environment, and never experienced such violence. When most people evaluate the concept of violence, it is tended to be viewed simply in terms of physical violence. Violence, however, cannot merely be categorized in terms of a single meaning. Violence can take many different forms and expressions, ranging from emotional and verbal abuse, to financial and ethnic cruelty. It occurs when people are expelled from their lands, disbarred from practicing their traditions, treated in a discriminatory fashion, as well as when people are forced into situations where they are exploited. Violence also revolves around power. The ability to control, and overpower others, as well as to violate their dignity and autonomy is a motivating aspect that perpetuates violence. It is the power to deny a people the right to exist as they wish and instead oppress them. Whether the power is emotional and verbal, or it manifests into a physically confrontational form, it is still devastating to those vulnerable parties who are affected by it. Violence is something that has been rampant in societies for as long as civilization has been around, and considering the plethora of factors that are associated with violence, it would be safe to assume that violence is not something that will disappear from society any time in the near future.