INDUCED STRESSES

A machine element offers resistance to failure when an external force acts on it. This resistance per unit area is termed as induced stress. The induced stress normal to the cross section is designated by letter and that tangential to cross section is designated as . Machine design involves among other considerations, the proper sizing of a machine member to safely withstand the maximum stress which is induced within the member when it is subjected separately or to any combination of bending, torsional, axial or transverse loads. In general, ductile materials such as the soft steels, are weaker in shear and are designed on the basis of the maximum shear stress; while brittle materials, such as cast iron and certain hard steels, are usually designed on the basis of the maximum normal stress in either tension or compression.

Theories of Elastic Failure

There are number of machine components, which are subjected to several types of loads simultaneously. For example, a power screw is subjected to torsional moment as well as axial force. Similarly an overhang crank is subjected to bending and torsional moments. The bolts of the bracket are subjected to forces that cause tensile stress and shear stress. Crankshaft, propeller shaft and connecting rods are examples of components subjected to several types of loads, combined stresses are induced. For example, torsional moment induces torsional shear stress, while bending moment causes bending stresses in transmission shaft. The failures of such components are broadly classified into two groups-elastic failure and yielding and fracture. Elastic failure results in excessive elastic deformation, which makes the machine component unfit to perform its function satisfactorily. Yielding results in excessive plastic deformation after the yield point is reached, while fracture results in breaking the component into two or more pieces. The design of machine parts subjected to combine loads should be related to experimentally determined properties of material under similar conditions. However, it is not possible to conduct such tests for different possible combinations of loads and obtain mechanical properties. In practice, the mechanical properties are obtained from a simple tension test. They include yield strength, ultimate tensile strength and percentage elongation. In the tension test, the specimen is axially loaded on tension. It is not subjected to either bending moment or torsional moment or a combination of loads. Theories of elastic failure provide a relationship between the strength of machine component subjected to complex state of stresses with the mechanical properties obtained in tension test. With the help of these theories, the data obtained in the tension test can be used to determine the dimensions of the component, irrespective of the nature stresses induced in the component due to complex loads.

Tensile Stress

Consider a uniform bar of cross sectional area A subjected to an axial tensile force P. The stress at any section x-x normal to the line of action of the tensile force P is specifically called tensile stress pt . Since internal resistance R at x-x is equal to the applied force P, we have, pt = (internal resistance at x-x)/(resisting area at x-x) =R/A =P/A. Under tensile stress the bar suffers stretching or elongation. Compressive Stress If the bar is subjected to axial compression instead of axial tension, the stress developed at x-x is specifically called compressive stress pc. pc =R/A = P/A.

Under compressive stress the bar suffers shortening. Shear Stress Consider the section x-x of the rivet forming joint between two plates subjected to a tensile force P as shown in figure.

The stresses set up at the section x-x acts along the surface of the section, that is, along a direction tangential to the section. It is specifically called shear or tangential stress at the section and is denoted by q.

q =R/A =P/A.

DESIGN OF THIN-WALLED PRESSURE VESSEL THIN-WALLED PRESSURE VESSEL

Thin wall pressure vessels (TWPV) are widely used in industry for storage and transportation of liquids and gases when configured as tanks. They also appear as components of aerospace and marine vehicles such as rocket and balloon skins and submarine hulls (although in the latter case the vessel is externally pressurized, violating one of the assumptions listed below). Two geometries will be examined in this lecture: Cylindrical pressure vessels. Spherical pressure vessels. The walls of an ideal thin-wall pressure vessel act as a membrane (that is, they are unaffected by bending stresses over most of their extent). A sphere is an optimal geometry for a closed pressure vessel in the sense of being the most structurally efficient shape. A cylindrical vessel is somewhat less efficient for two reasons: (1) the wall stresses vary with direction, (2) closure by end caps can alter significantly the ideal membrane state, requiring additional local reinforcements. However the cylindrical shape may be more convenient to fabricate and transport. Assumptions Two key assumptions: wall thinness and geometrical symmetries make possible to obtain average wall stresses analysis with simple free-body diagrams. 1. Wall Thinness. The wall is assumed to be very thin compared to the other dimensions of the vessel. If the thickness is t and a characteristic dimension is R (for example, the radius of the cylinder or sphere) we assume that t/R << 1, or R/t >> 1 (3.1) Usually R/t > 10. As a result, we may assume that the stresses are uniform across the wall. 2. Symmetries. In cylindrical vessels, the geometry and the loading are cylindrically symmetric. Consequently the stresses may be assumed to be independent of the angular coordinate of the cylindrically coordinate system. In spherical vessels, the geometry and the loading are spherically symmetric. Therefore the stresses may be assumed to be independent of the two angular coordinates of the spherical coordinate system and in fact is the same in all directions. 3. Uniform Internal Pressure. The internal pressure, denoted by p, is uniform and everywhere positive. If the vessel is also externally pressurized, for example subject to athmospheric pressure, p is defined by subtracting the external pressure from the internal one, a difference called gage pressure. If the external pressure is higher, as in the case of a submarine hull, the stress formulas should be applied with extreme caution because another failure mode: instability due to wall buckling, may come into play.

4. Ignoring End Effects. Features that may affect the symmetry assumptions are ignored. This includes supports and cylinder end caps. The assumption is that disturbances of the basic stress state are confined to local regions and may be ignored in basic design decision such as picking up the thickness away from such regions.

Thin-Walled Assumption For the thin-walled assumption to be valid the vessel must have a wall thickness of no more than about one-tenth (often cited as one twentieth) of its radius. This allows for treating the wall as a surface, and subsequently using the YoungLaplace equation for estimating the hoop stress created by an internal pressure on a thin wall cylindrical pressure vessel:

(for a cylinder) (for a sphere) where

P is the internal pressure t is the wall thickness r is the inside radius of the cylinder. is the hoop stress.

The hoop stress equation for thin shells is also approximately valid for spherical vessels, including plant cells and bacteria in which the internal turgor pressure may reach several atmospheres. Inch-pound-second system (IPS) units for P are pounds-force per square inch (psi). Units for t, and d are inches (in). SI units for P are pascals (Pa), while t and d=2r are in meters (m). When the vessel has closed ends the internal pressure acts on them to develop a force along the axis of the cylinder. This is known as the axial stress and is usually less than the hoop stress.

Though this may be approximated to

Also in this situation a radial stress

is developed and may be estimated in thin walled cylinders as:

The cylindrical pressure vessel above has closed ends and contains a fluid at gauge pressure P as shown below. The outer diameter is D and the wall thickness is t. The term thin-wall may be taken to mean that D/t > 10.

If we section the cylinder, of length L and its contents across its diameter as seen above, we see that we must have equilibrium of the forces due to the internal pressure P and the circumferential stress c in the wall. PLD = 2cLt or, c= Pr/t is the circumferential stress in the wall Note that have assumed that the stress is uniform across the thickness and that we have ignored the fact that the pressure acts on an area defined by the inner diameter. These are only acceptable if D/t > 10.

If the cylinder has closed ends, the axial stress ain the wall I found in a similar way by considering a transverse section as shown above. Equilibrium of forces gives: Pr2= aDt and thus the axial stress a= Pr/2t The same assumptions apply. Note that c and a are principal stresses and remember that the third principal stress 3= 0. The maximum shear stress is thus

 max= | 13|/2 = pr/2t A thin-wall spherical vessel can be analyzed in the same way and it is easily seen that c and a are equal and equal to pr/2t. Thus the principal stresses 1and 2are equal and 3=0. The maximum shear stress is max= | 13|/2 = pr/4t DESIGN OF THICK-WALLED PRESSURE VESSELS

COLUMNS
A machine part subjected to an axial compressive force is called a strut. A strut may be horizontal, inclined or even vertical. But a vertical strut is known as a column, pillar or stanchion The machine members that must be investigated for column action are piston rods, valve pushrods, connecting rods, screw jack, side links of toggle jack etc. the buckling is of centrally-loaded slender members in compression called columns, a yard stick is a good illustration.. The longer and slenderer the column is, the lower the safe stress that it can stand. The slenderness of column is measured by a slenderness ratio L/k, where L in. is the length of the column and k = (I/A).5in. is the radius of gyration of a cross-sectional area about a centroidal axis-nearly always the least radius of gyration. .

DESIGN OF COLUMNS
At the beginning of the design of a column, it is not known whether the column is slender or in the intermediate range. Often too, the design is complicated, for example an H-section or a built-up column. Thus, we see that the design is frequently one of trial and error. EULERS COLUMN THEORY The first rational attempt, to study the stability of long columns, was made by Mr. Euler. He derived an equation, for the buckling load of long columns based on the bending stress. While deriving this equation, the effect of direct stress is neglected. This may be justified with the statement, that the direct stress induced in a long column is negligible as compared to the bending stress. It may be noted that Eulers formula cannot be used in the case of short columns, because the direct stress is considerable, and hence cannot be neglected. The columns which have lengths less than 8 times their diameter, are called short columns The columns which have lengths more than 30 times their diameter are called long columns Boundary conditions other than simply-supported will result in different critical loads and mode shapes. The buckling mode shape is valid only for small deflections, where the material is still within its elastic limit. The critical load will cause buckling for slender, long columns. In contrast, failure will occur in short columns when the strength of material is exceeded. Between the long and short column limits, there is a region where buckling occurs after the stress exceeds the proportional limit but is still below the ultimate strength. These columns are classfied as intermediate and their failure is called inelastic buckling Whether a column is short, intermediate, or long depends on its geometry as well as the stiffness and strength of its material.

Failure of a Column or Strut It has been observed that when a column or a strut is subjected to a compressive load and the load is gradually increased, a stage will reach when the column will be subjected to ultimate load. Beyond this, the column will fail by crushing and the load will be known as crushing load It has also been experienced, that sometimes, a compression member does not fail entirely by crushing, but also by bending.

FLYWHEEL

A flywheel is a heavy wheel attached to a rotating shaft so as to smooth out delivery of power from a motor to a machine. The inertia of the flywheel opposes and moderates fluctuations in the speed of the engine and stores the excess energy for intermittent use. To oppose speed fluctuations effectively, a flywheel is given a high rotational inertia; i.e., most of its weight is well out from the axis. A wheel with a heavy rim connected to the central hub by spokes or a web has a high rotational inertia. Many flywheels used on reciprocating engines to smooth out the flow of power are made in this way. The energy stored in a flywheel, however, depends on both the weight distribution and the rotary speed; if the speed is doubled, the kinetic energy is quadrupled. A rim-type flywheel will burst at a much lower rotary speed than a disk-type wheel of the same weight and diameter. For minimum weight and high energy-storing capacity, a flywheel may be made of high-strength steel and designed as a tapered disk, thick at the centre and thin at the rim. In automobile engines the flywheel serves to smooth out the pulses of energy provided by the combustion in the cylinders and to provide energy for the compression stroke of the pistons. The larger the rotational inertia of the flywheel, the smaller the changes in speed resulting from the intermittent power supply and demand. In power presses the actual punching, shearing, and forming are done in only a fraction of the operating cycle. During the longer, non active period, the speed of the flywheel is built up slowly by a comparatively low-powered motor. When the press is operating, most of the required energy is provided by the flywheel. DESIGN OF FLYWHEEL A flywheel used in machines serves as a reservoir which stores energy during the period when the supply of energy is more than the requirement and releases it during the period when the requirement of energy is more than supply. In case of steam engines, internal combustion engines, reciprocating compressors and pumps, the energy is developed during one stroke and the engine is to run for the whole cycle on the energy produced during this one stroke. For example, in I.C. engines, the energy is developed only during power stroke which is much more than the engine load, and no energy is being

developed during suction, compression and exhaust strokes in case of four stroke engines and during compression in case of two stroke engines. The excess energy developed during power stroke s absorbed by the flywheel and releases it to the crankshaft during other strokes in which no energy is developed, thus rotating the crankshaft at a uniform speed. A little consideration will show that when the flywheel absorbs energy, its speed increases and when it releases, the speed decreases. Hence a flywheel does not maintain a constant speed, it simply reduces the fluctuation of speed. In machines where the operation is intermittent like punching machines, shearing machines, riveting machines, crushers etc., the flywheel stores energy from the power source during the greater portion of the operating cycle and gives it up during a small period of the cycle. Thus the energy from the power source to the machines is supplied practically at a constant rate throughout the operation. Note: The function of a governor in engine is entirely different from that of a flywheel. It regulates the mean speed of an engine when there are variations in the load, Exanple Given: When the load on the engine increases, it becomes necessary to increase the supply of working fluid. On the other hand, when the load decreases, less working fluid is required. The governor automatically controls the supply of working fluid to the engine with the varying load condition and keeps the mean speed within certain limits. As discussed above, the flywheel does not maintain a constant speed, it simply reduces the fluctuation of speed. In other words, a flywheel controls the speed variations caused by the fluctuation of the engine turning moment during each cycle of operation. It does not control the speed variations caused by the varying load DEFINITION OF TERMS: Flywheel- a wheel that rotates constantly when the motor is energized and whose purpose is to store kinetic energy during the nonworking portion of the press cycle, and to release energy during the working portion of the press cycle. Wheel-a circular frame of hard material that may be solid, partly solid, or spoked and that is capable of turning on an axle Inertia-property of a body by virtue of which it opposes any agency that attempts to put it in motion or, if it is moving, to change the magnitude or direction of its velocity. Moment of inertia- is a measure of an object's resistance to changes to its rotation Reciprocating engine- is a heat engine that uses one or more reciprocating pistons to convert pressure into a rotating motion. Torque, moment or moment of force-is the tendency of a force to rotate an object about an axis, fulcrum, or pivot. Rotational energy or Angular kinetic energy-is the kinetic energy due to the rotation of an object and is part of its total kinetic energy. Magnetic bearing-is a bearing which supports a load using magnetic levitation Crankshaft-is the part of an engine which translates reciprocating linear piston motion into rotation.

Piston-is a component of reciprocating engines, reciprocating pumps, gas compressors andpneumatic cylinders, among other similar mechanisms Friction motors-are simple mechanism to propel toy cars. Rivet-is a permanent mechanical fastener Reaction wheel-is a type of flywheel used primarily by spacecraft for attitude control without using fuel for rockets or other reaction devices. Precession-is a change in the orientation of the rotation axis of a rotating body Flywheel Energy-preferred term is usable flywheel energy. Flywheel Press-a non-geared mechanical power press that has the flywheel mounted directly to the crankshaft or eccentric shaft. KEYS

DESIGN OF KEYS REFERENCES: MACHINE DESIGN- S.G. KULKARNI

Schaum's outline of theory and problems of machine design Design Of Machine Elements 3E
Ni V. B. BHANDARI

Machine Design by R.S.khurMI and J.K.guptA [Tortuka] Design of Machine Elements( 4th edition) by Virgil Moring Faires www.britannica.com