CHAPTER 2 BASIC DEFINITONS AND SHIP GEOMETRY 2.1.

Basic Geometric Definitions

Figure 2.1 illustrates the main parts of a typical ship. Some of the principal parts and basic geometric characteristics are defined as follows:

STERN

BOW SUPERSTRUCTURE HULL AFTERBODY FOREBODY

LWL

BL AP MIDSHIPS FP

PORT CL STARBOARD SIDESIDE

Figure 2.1. Principle parts of a typical ship Hull: The structural body of a ship including shell plating, framing, decks and bulkheads. Afterbody : That portion of a ships hull abaft midships. Forebody: That portion of a ships hull forward midships. Design Waterline (DWL) or Load Waterline (LWL) : The waterline at which the ship will float when loaded to its designed draught. Moulded Surface : The inside surface of the skin, or plating, of a ship. Forward Perpendicular (FP) : The fore end of the length LWL is the perpendicular to the summer load waterline at the forward side of the stem After Perpendicular (AP) : The vertical line at the point of intersection of the LWL and the centerline of the rudderstock. Midships () : The point midway between the forward and after perpendiculars.

2.1

Centerline (CL) : A straight line running from bow to stern, midway between the sides of the ship. All transverse horizontal dimensions are taken from the centerline. Baseline (BL) : The horizontal line parallel to the design waterline, which cuts the midship section at the lowest point of the ship. The vertical heights are usually measured from the baseline. Midship Section : The transverse section with the largest underwater area. The midship section is usually halfway between the AP and the FP. Sheer : The height of the deck at side above a line drawn parallel to the base and tangent to the deck line at amidships. The amount of sheer forward is the difference in height between the deck line (at side) amidships and the deck line at the forward end. The amount of sheer aft is the difference in height between the deck (at side) amidships and the deck at the after end. Margin Line : The margin line is a line drawn at least 76 mm below the uppermost surface of the bulkhead deck at side.
Sheer Bow LWL Baseline

Stern

LWL

Baseline

Figure 2.2. Even keel and trimmed keel lines Deck Camber : The rise of the deck of the ship in going from the side to the centre. In older ships the camber curve used to be parabolic but in modern ships straight line camber curves are used or there may be no camber at all on decks. Inner Side : The inner side is the longitudinal bulkhead which limits the inner hull for ships fitted with double hull. Superstructure : A superstructure is a decked structure connected to the freeboard deck, extending from side to side of the ship or with the side plating not beeing inboard of the shell plating more than 0.04*B. A superstructure may be enclosed or open. It is enclosed by front,side and aft bulkheads and all front, side and aft openings are fitted with efficient weathertight means of closing. It is open where it is not enclosed.

2.2

Raised Quarter Deck : A raised quarter deck is a partial superstructure of reduced height as defined in table 2.1. Table 2.1 Standard height of superstructure. Freeboard Length LLL (m) Standart Height hs (m) Raised Quarter Deck All Other Superstructures LLL <= 30 0.90 1.80 30 < LLL < 75 0.90+0.00667(LLL-30) 1.80 75 <= LLL < 125 1.2+0.012(LLL-75) 1.80+0.01(LLL-75) LLL >= 125 1.80 2.30 Deck House : A deck house is a decked structure other than a superstructure, located on the freeboard deck or above. Trunk : A trunk is a decked structure similar to a deckhouse, but no provided with a lower deck. Type A and Type B Ships : Type A Ship : It is one which is designed to carry only liquid cargoes in bulk, or it has a high integrity of the exposed deck with only small access openings to cargo compartments, closed by watertight gasketed covers of steel or equivalent material, and it has also low permeability of loaded cargo compartments. Type B Ship : All ships which do not come within the provisions regarding Type A ships are to be considered as Type B ships. A Type B ship is to be assigned a freeboard the requirements reported in the International Load Line Convention 1966, as amended. Bilge Radius : The radius of the circular arc forming the bilge. Flat of Keel (Half Siding) : The width of flat bottom plating on each side of the centre girder. Deadrise (Rise of Floor) : The amount by which the line of the outer bottom plating amidships rises above the baseline. Therefore, it is the difference in height between the baseline and the point where the straight line through the bottom flat surface intersects the vertical line through the side of the moulded surface at its widest point.
tumblehome camber

Figure 2.3. Transverse hull form characteristics

f f LWL

flat of keel

bilge radius

deadrise CL

BL

2.3

Tumblehome : The amount the top of the side shell slopes back toward the centerline between the point of widest breadth and the deck at side Parallel Middle Body : The portion of the ship over which the midship section remains unchanged. In this part of the ship water lines and buttocks have no curvature; that is, all the fore and aft lines are parallel. Entrance and Run : The shaped underwater portions of the ship forward and aft of the parallel middle body Knuckle : An abrupt change in direction of the plating, frames, keel, deck, or other structure of ship Chine : Sharp corner in the hull form, continuous over a significant length of the ship. The chine is called soft when the corner is rounded, and hard otherwise. Flare : The outward curvature of the hull surface above the waterline.

Figure 2.4. Chine lines in a tug form

2.2 Principal Dimensions

Symbols : L : Rule length (m) L1 : L, but to be taken not greater than 200 m. L2 : L, but to be taken not greater than 120 m. LLL : Freeboard length (m) B : Moulded breadth (m) D : Depth (m) T : Moulded draught (m) : Moulded displacement at draught T in sea water =1.025 t/m3 (tonnes) CB : Total block coefficient.
2.4

Figure 2.5 illustrates the principal dimensions used to define ships. These dimensions are usually defined as being inside the shell plating (moulded lines). The moulded lines and moulded dimensions define a ship as if it had no shell. Actual dimensions and displacement of a completed ship will include the thickness of plating. Rule Length (L) : The rule length L is the distance measured on the summer load waterline, from the forward side of the stem to the after of the rudder post, or to the center of the rudder stock where there is no rudder post. L is to be not less than 96% and need not exceed 97% of the extreme length on the summer load waterline. Freeboard Length (LLL) : The freeboard length LLL is the distance on the waterline at 85% of the least moulded depth from the top of the keel, measured from the forward side of the stem to the center of the rudder stock. LLL is to be not less than 96% of the total length on the same waterline. The fore end of the rule length L is the perpendicular to the summer load waterline at the forward side of the stem. The aft end of the rule length L is also the perpendicular to the waterline at a distance L aft of the fore end Length of Waterline (LWL) : The waterline at which the ship will float when fully loaded . Length Overall (LOA) : The total length of the ship from one end to the other, including bow and stern overhangs. Length Between Perpendiculars (LBP) : The distance measured parallel to the base at the level of the design waterline from the after perpendicular to the forward perpendicular.

2.5

LOA LWL LBP

f T BL AP B FP D

LWL

f LWL T BL D

Deck LWL B/2 LWL

Deck

Figure 2.5. Principal dimensions

Moulded Breadth (B) : B is the greatest moulded breadth measured amidships below the weather deck. Draught (T) : The vertical distance from the waterline at any point on the hull to the bottom of the ship. Design draught is also the distance measured vertically on the midship transverse section, from the moulded baseline to the summer load line. Trim : The difference between the draughts forward and aft. Depth (D) : D is the distance measured vertically on the midship transverse section, from the moulded baseline to the top of the deck beam at side on the uppermost continuous deck. Freeboard (f) : The vertical distance from the waterline to the deck at side. The freeboard is equal to the difference between the depth at side and the draught at any point along the ship. Lightweight : The lightweight is the displacement without cargo, fuel, lubricating oil, ballast water, fresh water and feed water, consumable stores, passengers and crew and their effects, but including liquids in piping. Deadweight : The deadweight is the difference between the displacement at the summer draught in sea water of density =1.025 t/m3, and the lightweight.
2.6

Moulded Displacement : The displacement of a ship based on moulded dimensions Total Displacement : Moulded displacement modified by adding the thickness of shell plating and the volume of appendages. Area of Bulbous Bow (ABL) : The area of the bulbous bow projected on the centreplane forward of the FP. Transverse Area of Bulbous Bow (ABT) : The cross sectional area of the bulbous bow at the FP.

LWL

ABT

AB

FP

Figure 2.6. Bulbous bow descriptors

2.3. Hull Form and Lines Plan

A ships hull is one of the most important elements as many techno-economic performance characteristics are affected by the dimensions and the form of the hull. Therefore, the hull form should be defined precisely in order carry out accurate design calculations. Ship hulls have a curved three dimensional surface which has to be represented in two dimensions for many design calculations and production purposes. In order to ease the problem the hull form of a ship is usually shown on a scale drawing employing three orthogonal planes of reference, as shown in Figure 2.7. This drawing consists of three views; a half-breadth plan, a profile view, and a body plan. The distances of the various intersections points from the middle line plan are called offsets. Clearly three sets of curves making up the lines plan are interrelated as they represent the three-dimensional body. This interdependency is used in

2.7

manual fairing of the hull form, each set being faired in turn and the changes in the other two noted. Figure 2.8 shows a lines plan for a single screw trawler form.

Waterlines

Sections

Buttocks

Figure 2.7. Three dimensional hull form and reference planes The body plan shows the planes parallel to the midship section plane which are called station (or section) planes and their intersections with the hull are referred to as stations (or sections). Stations are identified by numbers, starting with zero at the stern, increasing forward. Because of port/starboard symmetry in most ships, only half of each station is drawn. In general, stations from the bow to the midships are drawn to the right of the centreline, while those from midships to the stern are drawn on the left side. In some ships, the transverse cross section is constant for some fore and aft distance near amidships. This portion is known as the parallel middle body. There are also some appendages such as shaft bossing or a sonar dome, these are faired separately. This view shows buttocks and waterlines straight, while the section lines appear in their true shape. The waterlines plan shows the intersection of the moulded surface with a horizontal plane at a given height above the base line. The intersection of waterplanes with the hull are called the waterlines, Here the frame lines and buttocks appear straight, while the waterlines show their true shape. To save space, only the port side is shown. Waterlines are also drawn on one side of the centreline only. The other side of centreline in the waterlines plan is used for drawing diagonal planes. These intersections are shown in the half breadth plan in the lines drawing. The profile plan shows the set of planes parallel to the centreplane which are called buttock planes, which intersect the hull in curves called buttocks. The waterlines and the frame lines are straight when observed from this direction. The deck line, or "sheer" curve shows up clearly in the profile, which for this reason is sometimes called the sheer plan.
2.8

2.9

Figure 2.8. Typical lines plan

2.10

2.3.1. Table of Offsets A numerical definition of ship hull form may be required for many design calculations and production purposes. The numerical equivalent of a lines plan is called the table of offsets. The distance from the centerplane along a station in the body plan or the waterlines plan is called an offset. All such distances for all waterlines and all stations form a table of offsets which defines the shape of the hull at full ship scale. A numerical description of ship hull form will require defining each point on the hull surface by three coordinates on three orthogonal planes X (longitudinal distance from the FP, AP, or midships) Y (transverse distance from the centreplane half breadths) Z (Vertical distance above the baseline) Traditionally, the distance between perpendiculars is divided into a convenient number of equal spaces to give a number of evenly spaced stations (typical number of stations is 21). This is usually sufficient for early design calculations. However, some more complicated analysis may require more detailed form data and the number of stations may have to be increased. Modern computer aided ship design (CASD) technology enables the designer to derive offsets for construction frames even at the early stages of design. This table contains sufficient information to carry out basic design calculations, however, production activities will require a much more comprehensive offset table. A typical offset table is given in Table 2.2.

Table 2.2. Typical offset table

St
BL 0m WL1/2 0.5 m 300 300 300 370 860 2120 3780 4900 5070 4700 4000 3130 2230 1400 750 330 130 60 40 40 40 1580 1740 3140 4730 5900 6390 6400 6170 5680 4990 4230 3500 2730 1990 1380 920 550 380 280 WL 1 1m 1620 3820 3200 4700 5920 6720 7100 7080 6880 6450 5820 5040 4220 3380 2530 1830 1320 900 700 530 Hal f Breadth WL 2 WL 3 WL 4 2m 3m 3.8 m 2140 1620 3830 5500 6620 7270 7580 7710 7720 7570 7240 6700 6000 5120 4180 3220 2400 1730 1290 1090 900 600 2280 4630 6170 7120 7620 7820 7880 7895 7890 7840 7860 7250 6620 5770 4800 3780 2850 1960 1250 1050 1000 3260 4250 5120 6440 7280 7730 7870 7900 7900 7900 7900 7900 7830 7540 7000 6250 5320 4280 3260 2170 1140 610 WL 5 5m 6650 6900 7170 7400 7730 7870 7900 7900 7900 7900 7900 7900 7900 7900 7800 7480 6950 6180 5250 4150 2930 1650 970 320 WL 6 6m 7550 7710 7820 7880 7900 7900 7900 7900 7900 7900 7900 7900 7900 7900 7900 7750 7430 6950 6225 5320 4190 2790 2000 1220 Main Deck Above Half BL Breadth 5700 7350 5700 5700 5700 5700 5700 5700 5700 5700 5700 5700 5700 5700 5700 5700 5700 5724 5753 5783 5812 5841 5870 5885 5900 7540 7700 7810 7900 7900 7900 7900 7900 7900 7900 7900 7900 7900 7850 7670 7300 6730 6000 5100 3970 2650 1920 1140 Bulwark Above Half BL Breadth 9450 9450 9450 9450 9450 9450 9450 9450 9450 9450 9450 9450 9450 9450 9450 9450 9474 9503 9536 9575 9623 9682 9715 9748 7900 7890 7730 7270 6410 5810 5090

Tr 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 19 20

2.11

2.4. Hull Form Coefficients

There are two basic design curves which can be derived from the offsets to define the form and basic hydrostatic characteristics of ships. The first design curve is called the curve of sectional areas (SAC) and is obtained by plotting the area of each section along the ship length up to the LWL. The second design curve is the design or loaded waterline curve (DWL or LWL) which defines the intersection of the ship with the sea (See figure 2.10). The area under the curve of sectional areas is equal to the displacement volume (), which is the total volume of fluid displaced by the ship.
Z WL5 WL4 WL3 WL2
A2 A2

Z WL5 WL4 WL3 WL2 WL1 Y

WL1 Y

Figure 2.9. Derivation of sectional area curve

= A( x )dx
0 L

where A(x) is the underwater area of the section at a location x meters from the AP.

SAC

A(x)
LWL

B(x)
LCF LCB

T(x)

Figure 2.10. Curves of sectional area (SAC) and loaded waterline (LWL)

2.12

underwater volume

AM

Figure 2.11 Derivation of the block and midship section coefficients.

The block coefficient is a mesaure of the fullness of the underwater hull form. This coefficient is the ratio of the ships moulded underwater volume to the displacement of the rectangular solid having the same length, breadth and draught (see Fig.2.11).
L WL

CB =

A(x )dx
0

L WL B WL T

L WL B WL T

The distance of the centre of buoyancy (B) from a specified transverse reference plane is called the longitudinal centre of buoyancy (LCB). The transverse reference plane is usually the midship section, however AP and FP may also be used. LCB can be calculated as follows
L WL

LCB =

xA(x)dx A(x)dx
0

0 L WL

The area under the loaded waterline is called the waterplane area and can be calculated by integrating the sectional breadths at loaded waterline along the ship length as follows (see Fig.2.12):

BWL B AWP

LWL

Figure 2.12 Derivation of the water plane area coefficient.

A WP = 2 B WL ( x )dx
0 L WL

Where BWL(x) is the breadth of loaded waterline at a location x meters from the AP. The fullness of the waterplane may be quantified by defining a waterplane area coefficient which is the area of the waterplane divided by the area of its circumscribing rectangle. The centroid of the waterplane is called the centre of flotation and its longitudinal position is known as LCF.
2.13

C WP =

2 B WL ( x )dx
0

L WL

L WL B WL

A WP L WL B WL

LCF =

2 xB WL ( x )dx 2 B WL ( x )dx
0 0 L WL

L WL

Z(m) AWP3 WL3 AWP2 WL2 AWP1 WL1 AWP(m2)

Figure 2.13. Derivation of water plane area curve.

The midship section coefficient, CM, indicates the fullness of the area along the length where the transverse underwater area is the greatest. In most cases the maximum underwater area is at midships. If this not the case, the maximum underwater area should be used. The midship section coefficient, CM, is the ratio of the midship section area to the area of a rectangle whose sides are equal to the draught and the breadth extreme amidships (see Fig. 2.11).

CM =

AM B WL T

Where AM is the greatest underwater area along the ship length. The block coefficient (CB) may not always be sufficient to describe the fullness of a ship form because of the variations of the midship area coefficient for different ships. The block coefficient indicates whether the form is full or fine. The prismatic coefficient (CP), which is defined as the ratio of the displaced volume to the volume of a prism with a base area AM and a length of LWL, may be more useful about the ship form. C CP = = = B L WL A M L WL B WL TC M C M Similarly the vertical prismatic coefficient can be defined as the ratio of the displaced volume to the volume of a prism with a base area AWP and a depth of T, as follows: C VP = A WP T = L WL B WL TC WP = CB C WP

A large value of vertical prismatic coefficient will indicate body sections of U-form, a low value will also indicate V-form.

2.14