Alternator

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Early 20th-century alternator made in Budapest, Hungary, in the power generating hall of a hydroelectric station (photograph by Prokudin-Gorsky, 19051915). An alternator is an electromechanical device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy in the form of alternating current. Most alternators use a rotating magnetic field but linear alternators are occasionally used. In principle, any AC electrical generator can be called an alternator, but usually the word refers to small rotating machines driven by automotive and other internal combustion engines. Alternators in power stations driven by steam turbines are called turbo-alternators.

Contents
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1 History 2 Principle of operation 3 Synchronous speeds 4 Automotive alternators 5 Marine alternators 6 Brushless alternators o 6.1 Construction o 6.2 Main alternator o 6.3 Control system o 6.4 Automatic voltage regulator (AVR)

7 Hybrid automobiles 8 Radio alternators 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 External links

[edit] History
Alternating current generating systems were known in simple forms from the discovery of the magnetic induction of electric current. The early machines were developed by pioneers such as Michael Faraday and Hippolyte Pixii. Faraday developed the "rotating rectangle",whose operation was heteropolar - each active conductor passed successively through regions where the magnetic field was in opposite directions.[1] The first public demonstration of a more robust "alternator system" took place in 1886.[2] Large two-phase alternating current generators were built by a British electrician, J.E.H. Gordon, in 1882. Lord Kelvin and Sebastian Ferranti also developed early alternators, producing frequencies between 100 and 300 Hz. In 1891, Nikola Tesla patented a practical "high-frequency" alternator (which operated around 15 kHz).[3] After 1891, polyphase alternators were introduced to supply currents of multiple differing phases.[4] Later alternators were designed for varying alternatingcurrent frequencies between sixteen and about one hundred hertz, for use with arc lighting, incandescent lighting and electric motors.[5]

[edit] Principle of operation

Diagram of a simple alternator with a rotating magnetic core (rotor) and stationary wire (stator) also showing the current induced in the stator by the rotating magnetic field of the rotor. Alternators generate electricity by the same principle as DC generators, namely, when the magnetic field around a conductor changes, a current is induced in the conductor. Typically, a rotating magnet called the rotor turns within a stationary set of conductors wound in coils on an iron core, called the stator. The field cuts across the conductors, generating an induced EMF, as the mechanical input causes the rotor to turn. The rotating magnetic field induces an AC voltage in the stator windings. Often there are three sets of stator windings, physically offset so that the rotating magnetic field produces three phase currents, displaced by one-third of a period with respect to each other.

The rotor magnetic field may be produced by induction (in a "brushless" alternator), by permanent magnets (in very small machines), or by a rotor winding energized with direct current through slip rings and brushes. The rotor magnetic field may even be provided by stationary field winding, with moving poles in the rotor. Automotive alternators invariably use a rotor winding, which allows control of the alternator generated voltage by varying the current in the rotor field winding. Permanent magnet machines avoid the loss due to magnetizing current in the rotor, but are restricted in size, owing to the cost of the magnet material. Since the permanent magnet field is constant, the terminal voltage varies directly with the speed of the generator. Brushless AC generators are usually larger machines than those used in automotive applications.

[edit] Synchronous speeds

The output frequency of an alternator depends on the number of poles and the rotational speed. The speed corresponding to a particular frequency is called the synchronous speed for that frequency. This table [6] gives some examples: Poles RPM at 50 Hz RPM at 60 Hz 2 3,000 3,600 4 1,500 1,800 6 1,000 1,200 8 750 900 10 600 720 12 500 600 14 428.6 514.3 16 375 450 18 333.3 400 20 300 360 More generally, one cycle of alternating current is produced each time a pair of field poles passes over a point on the stationary winding. The relation between speed and frequency is N = 120f / P , where f is the frequency in Hz (cycles per second). P is the number of poles (2,4,6...) and N is the rotational speed in revolutions per minute (RPM). Very old descriptions of alternating current systems sometimes give the frequency in terms of alternations per minute, counting each half-cycle as one alternation; so 12,000 alternations per minute corresponds to 100 Hz.

[edit] Automotive alternators

Alternator mounted in lower right front of an automobile engine with a serpentine belt pulley.

Cut-away of an alternator, showing the claw-pole construction; two of the wedge-shaped field poles, alternating N and S, are visible in the center, and the stationary armature winding is visible at the top and bottom of the opening. The belt and pulley at the right hand end drives the alternator. Alternators are used in modern automobiles to charge the battery and to power a car's electric system when its engine is running. Alternators have the great advantage over direct-current generators of not using a commutator, which makes them simpler, lighter, less costly, more rugged than a DC generator, and the slip rings allow for greatly extended brush life. The stronger construction of automotive alternators allows them to use a smaller pulley so as to turn faster than the engine, improving output when the engine is idling. The availability of low-cost solid-state diodes from about 1960 onward allowed car manufacturers to substitute alternators for DC generators. Automotive alternators use a set of rectifiers (diode bridge) to convert AC to DC. To provide direct current with low ripple, automotive alternators have a three-phase winding. In addition, the pole-pieces of the rotor are shaped (claw-pole) so as to produce a voltage waveform closer to a square wave that, when rectified by the diodes, produces even less ripple than the rectification of three-phase sinusoidal voltages.

Typical passenger vehicle and light truck alternators use Lundell or claw-pole field construction, where the field north and south poles are all energized by a single winding, with the poles looking rather like fingers of two hands interlocked with each other. Larger vehicles may have salient-pole alternators similar to larger machines. The automotive alternator is usually belt driven at 2-3 times the engine crankshaft speed. Automotive alternators are not restricted to a certain RPM because the alternating current is rectified to direct current and need not be any constant frequency. Modern automotive alternators have a voltage regulator built into them. The voltage regulator operates by modulating the small field current in order to produce a constant voltage at the stator output. The field current is much smaller than the output current of the alternator; for example, a 70-amp alternator may need only 2 amps of field current. The field current is supplied to the rotor windings by slip rings and brushes. The low current and relatively smooth slip rings ensure greater reliability and longer life than that obtained by a DC generator with its commutator and higher current being passed through its brushes. Where the brushes in a generator are relatively accessible for service and replacement, the alternator's brushes are not. The alternator usually must be disassembled to reach and change the brushes. However, the smooth slip rings cause so little brush wear that they may be said to last the life of the alternator. Efficiency of automotive alternators is limited by fan cooling loss, bearing loss, iron loss, copper loss, and the voltage drop in the diode bridges; at part load, efficiency is between 50-62% depending on the size of alternator, and varies with alternator speed.[7] In comparison, very small high-performance permanent magnet alternators, such as those used for bicycle lighting systems, achieve an efficiency around 60%. Larger permanent magnet alternators can achieve much higher efficiency.[citation needed] By contrast, the large AC generators used in power stations run at carefully controlled speeds and have no constraints on size or weight. Consequently, they have much higher efficiencies, on the order of 98% from shaft to AC output power. The field windings are initially supplied via the ignition switch and charge warning light, which is why the light glows when the ignition is on but the engine is not running. Once the engine is running and the alternator is generating, a diode feeds the field current from the alternator main output, thus equalizing the voltage across the warning light which goes out. The wire supplying the field current is often referred to as the "exciter" wire. The drawback of this arrangement is that if the warning light fails or the "exciter" wire is disconnected, no excitation current reaches the alternator field windings and so the alternator, due to low residual magnetism in the rotor will not generate any power. However, some alternators will self-excite when the engine is revved to a certain speed. Also, some warning light circuits are equipped with a resistor in parallel with the warning light that will permit excitation current to flow even if the warning light fails. The driver should check that the warning light is glowing when the engine is stopped, otherwise, there might not be any indication of a failure of the alternator drive belt which normally also drives the cooling water pump.

Very large automotive alternators used on buses, heavy equipment or emergency vehicles may produce 300 amperes. Very old automobiles with minimal lighting and electronic devices may have only a 30 ampere alternator. Typical passenger car and light truck alternators are rated around 50-70 amperes, though higher ratings are becoming more common, especially as there is more load on the vehicle's electrical system with, for example, the introduction of electric power steering systems. Very large automotive alternators may be water-cooled or oil-cooled. Many alternator voltage regulators are today linked to the vehicle's on board computer system, and in recent years other factors including air temperature (obtained from the mass air flow sensor in many cases) and engine load are considered in adjusting the battery charging voltage supplied by the alternator.

[edit] Marine alternators

Marine alternators used in yachts are similar to automotive alternators, with appropriate adaptations to the salt-water environment. Marine alternators are designed to be explosion proof so that brush sparking will not ignite explosive gas mixtures in an engine room environment. They may be 12 or 24 volt depending on the type of system installed. Larger marine diesels may have two or more alternators to cope with the heavy electrical demand of a modern yacht. On single alternator circuits the power is split between the engine starting battery and the domestic or house battery (or batteries) by use of a splitcharge diode or a mechanical switch. Because the alternator only produces power when running, engine control panels are typically fed directly from the alternator by means of an auxiliary terminal. Other typical connections are for charge control circuits.

[edit] Brushless alternators

[edit] Construction
A brushless alternator is composed of two alternators built end-to-end on one shaft. Smaller brushless alternators may look like one unit but the two parts are readily identifiable on the large versions. The larger of the two sections is the main alternator and the smaller one is the exciter. The exciter has stationary field coils and a rotating armature (power coils). The main alternator uses the opposite configuration with a rotating field and stationary armature. A bridge rectifier, called the rotating rectifier assembly, is mounted on a plate attached to the rotor. Neither brushes nor slip rings are used, which reduces the number of wearing parts.

[edit] Main alternator

The main alternator has a rotating field as described above and a stationary armature (power generation windings).

[edit] Control system

Varying the amount of current through the stationary exciter field coils varies the 3-phase output from the exciter. This output is rectified by a rotating rectifier assembly, mounted on the rotor, and the resultant DC supplies the rotating field of the main alternator and hence alternator output. The result of all this is that a small DC exciter current indirectly controls the output of the main alternator.

[edit] Automatic voltage regulator (AVR)

An automatic voltage control device controls the field current to keep output voltage constant.

[edit] Hybrid automobiles

Hybrid automobiles replace the separate alternator and starter motor with a combined motor/generator that performs both functions, cranking the internal combustion engine when starting, providing additional mechanical power for accelerating, and charging a large storage battery when the vehicle is running at constant speed. These rotating machines have considerably more powerful electronic devices for their control than the automotive alternator described above.

[edit] Radio alternators

Main article: Alexanderson alternator High frequency alternators of the variable-reluctance type were applied commercially to radio transmission in the low-frequency radio bands. These were used for transmission of Morse code and, experimentally, for transmission of voice and music.

[edit] See also

Electrical generator as in pre-1960 motor cars Linear alternator Jedlik's dynamo

[edit] Notes
1. ^ Thompson, Sylvanus P., Dynamo-Electric Machinery. pp. 7 2. ^ Blalock, Thomas J., "Alternating Current Electrification, 1886". IEEE History Center,
IEEE Milestone. (ed. first practical demonstration of a dc generator - ac transformer system.) 3. ^ US patent 447921, Tesla, Nikola, "Alternating Electric Current Generator". 4. ^ Thompson, Sylvanus P., Dynamo-Electric Machinery. pp. 17 5. ^ Thompson, Sylvanus P., Dynamo-Electric Machinery. pp. 16

6. ^ The Electrical Year Book 1937, published by Emmott & Co Ltd, Manchester, England,
page 72

7. ^ Horst Bauer (ed.) Automotive Handbook 4th Edition, Robert Bosch GmbH, Stuttgart,
1996, ISBN 0-8376-0333-1, page 813

[edit] References

Thompson, Sylvanus P., Dynamo-Electric Machinery, A Manual for Students of Electrotechnics, Part 1, Collier and Sons, New York, 1902 White, Thomas H.,"Alternator-Transmitter Development (1891-1920)". EarlyRadioHistory.us.

[edit] External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Alternators

How Car Alternators Work - Video Lesson "Alternators". Integrated Publishing (TPub.com). "Wooden Low-RPM Alternator". ForceField, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA. "Understanding 3 phase alternators". WindStuffNow. "Alternator, Arc and Spark. The first Wireless Transmitters". The G0UTY Homepage.

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternator" Categories: Electrical generators | Energy conversion Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from October 2009
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Deutsch Espaol Euskara Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Magyar Nederlands Polski Portugus Slovenina Trke Wolof This page was last modified on 9 June 2010 at 07:07. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a nonprofit organization. Contact us Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers

ALTERNATORS The alternator (fig. 2-21) has replaced the dc generator because of its improved efficiency. It is smaller, lighter, and more dependable than the dc generator. The alternator also produces more output during idle which makes it ideal for late model vehicles. The alternator has a spinning magnetic field. The output windings (stator) are stationary. As the magnetic field rotates, it induces current in the output windings. Alternator Construction Knowledge of the construction of an alternator is required before you can understand the proper operation, testing procedures, and repair procedures applicable to an alternator. Figure 2-21.Typical alternator. 2-17

armature core iron. Touch the other probe to each commutator segment in turn. If the armature is grounded, the bulb in the base of the growler will light. In contacting armature surfaces with the test probes, do not touch the bearing or the brush surfaces of the commutator. The arc would burn or pit the smooth finish. Replace the armature if it is grounded. In testing individual armature coils for open circuits, use the test probes, as shown in figure 2-20. Place them on the riser part of adjacent commutator Figure 2-20.Testing an armature for open circuits. bars, not on the brush surfaces. If the test lamp does not light, there is a break some where in the coil. Repeat this test on every pair of adjacent bars. Do this by walking the probes from bar to bar. Should you find an open coil, the fault may be at the commutator connectors where it is possible to make repairs with a little solder. If a coil is opencircuited internally, the armature should be discarded. ALTERNATORS The alternator (fig. 2-21) has replaced the dc generator because of its improved efficiency. It is smaller, lighter, and more dependable than the dc generator. The alternator also produces more output during idle which makes it ideal for late model vehicles. The alternator has a spinning magnetic field. The output windings (stator) are stationary. As the magnetic field rotates, it induces current in the output windings. Alternator Construction Knowledge of the construction of an alternator is required before you can understand the proper operation, testing procedures, and repair procedures applicable to an alternator. Figure 2-21.Typical alternator. 2-17

What Is an Alternator?
An automotive charging system is made up of three major components: the battery, the voltage regulator and an alternator. The alternator works with the battery to generate power for the electrical components of a vehicle, like the interior and exterior lights, and the instrument panel. An alternator gets its name from the term alternating current (AC). Alternators are typically found near the front of the engine and are driven by the crankshaft, which converts the pistons' up-and-down movement into circular movement. (To learn more about the basic parts of car engines, read How Car Engines Work.) Some early model vehicles used a separate drive belt from the crankshaft pulley to the alternator pulley, but most cars today have a serpentine belt, or one belt that drives all components that rely on crankshaft power. Most alternators are mounted using brackets that bolt to a specific point on the engine. One of the brackets is usually a fixed point, while the other is adjustable to tighten the drive belt.

iStockphoto.com/Michael Krinke You can spot the alternator (with the tag hanging off it) in the foreground of this shot of a stock car engine. You can also see the serpentine belt looped around it. Alternators produce AC power through electromagnetism formed through the stator and rotor relationship that we'll touch on later in the article. The electricity is channeled into the battery, providing voltage to run the various electrical systems. Before we learn more about the mechanics of the alternator and how it generates electricity, let's look at the various parts of an alternator in the next section.

Tesla: Scientist, Rock Band or Sports Car?

Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images A picture of the great man Nikola Tesla paved the way to modern electricity, yet Thomas Edison is revered as one of the greatest inventors of all time. Tesla and Edison were fierce rivals who faced off in the war of the currents in the late 1800s. While Edison is credited with inventing the first light bulb and had the power market cornered with his work on direct current or DC power, it was Tesla who developed the first AC induction motor and AC power. After George Westinghouse financially backed Tesla, the two sides jockeyed for position in the electricity market. Edison launched a propaganda assault against AC power, going so far as developing the electric chair to demonstrate the lethality of AC power. In the end, AC

power won out, as it could travel much farther, produce more voltage and serve more customers more efficiently. Tesla's invention and pioneering work provided the foundation for the modern alternator.

Alternator Components
For the most part, alternators are relatively small and lightweight. Roughly the size of a coconut, the alternators found in most passenger cars and light trucks are constructed using an aluminum outer housing, as the lightweight metal does not magnetize. This is important since aluminum dissipates the tremendous heat generated by producing the electrical power and since the rotor assembly produces a magnetic field. If you closely inspect an alternator, you'll find it has vents on both the front and back side. Again, this aids in heat dissipation. A drive pulley is attached to the rotor shaft on the front of the alternator. When the engine is running, the crankshaft turns the drive belt, which in turn spins the pulley on the rotor shaft. In essence, the alternator transfers the mechanical energy from the engine into electrical power for the car's accessories. On the back side of the alternator you'll find several terminals (or connecting points in an electrical circuit). Let's take a look at those:

S terminal - Senses battery voltage IG terminal - Ignition switch that turns the voltage regulator on L terminal - Closes the circuit to the warning lamp B terminal - Main alternator output terminal (connected to the battery) F terminal - Full-field bypass for regulator

Cooling is essential to an alternator's efficiency. It's easy to spot an older unit by the external fan blades found on the rotor shaft behind the pulley. Modern alternators have cooling fans inside the aluminum housing. These fans operate the same way, using mechanical power from the spinning rotor shaft.

This diagram shows the diodes, rotor assembly and stator, all of which you wouldn't normally see without opening the alternator.

As we start to disassemble the alternator, we find the diode rectifier (or rectifier bridge), the voltage regulator, slip rings and brushes. The regulator distributes the power the alternator creates, and it controls the output of power to the battery. The rectifier bridge converts the power, as we'll learn in the next section, while the brushes and slip rings help conduct current to the rotor field winding, or wire field. Now let's crack the coconut open.

This is what you might see if you were to open your alternator.

Opening the alternator reveals a large cylinder with triangular finger poles around the circumference. This is the rotor. A basic alternator is made up of a series of alternating finger pole pieces placed around coil wires called field windings that wrap around an iron core on the rotor shaft. Since we know the pulley attaches to the shaft, we can now visualize how the rotor spins inside the stator. The rotor assembly fits inside the stator with enough room or tolerance between the two, so the rotor can spin at high speeds without striking the stator wall. On each end of the shaft sits a brush and a slip ring. As we touched on briefly, alternators generate power through magnetism. The triangular finger poles fixed around the circumference of the rotor are staggered, so the north and south poles alternate as they surround the wire rotor field windings. This alternating pattern creates the magnetic field that in turn induces voltage into the stator. Think of the stator as the catcher's glove as it harnesses all the power created by the spinning rotor. All these components work together to give us the power we need to run our vehicles. Tesla captured this electrical energy and used it to light up cities, but we only need enough volts to power our stereo, lights, windows and locks. Let's take a look at how the alternator produces that power in the next section.

Understanding Alternator Power Output

In the early days, cars used generators rather than alternators to power the vehicle's electrical system and charge the battery. That's not the case anymore. As automotive technology evolved, so did the need for

more power. Generators produce direct current, which travels in one direction, as opposed to the alternating current for the electricity in our houses, which periodically reverses directions. As Tesla proved in 1887, alternating current became more attractive as it generates higher voltage more efficiently, something necessary in contemporary automobiles. But car batteries can't use AC power since they produce DC power. As a result, the alternator's power output is fed through diodes, which convert the AC power to DC power. AC/DC Rocks More than Currents The heavy-hitting rock band AC/DC formed in Australia in 1973. Legend has it the founding members got their name after reading the term off the back of an appliance. The band played up to its name, with lead guitarist Angus Young and lead singers Bon Scott and then Brian Johnson giving the band its distinctive high-voltage sound. The group saw major success in the 1980s and is still going strong, more than 30 years after its formation. The rotor and the stator are the two components that generate power. As the engine rotates the alternator pulley, the rotor spins past three stationary stator windings, or wire coils, surrounding a fixed iron core that makes up the stator. This is referred to as a three-phase current. The coil windings are evenly spaced at intervals of 120 degrees around the iron shaft. The alternating magnetic field from the rotor produces a subsequent alternating current in the stator. This AC current is fed through stator leads into a connecting set of diodes. Two diodes connect to each stator lead to regulate the current. The diodes are used to essentially block and direct the current. Since batteries need DC current, the diodes become a one-way valve that will only allow current to pass in the same direction. Three-phase alternators have three sets of windings; they're more efficient than a single-phase alternator, which produce a single-phase AC current. When working properly, the three windings produce three currents that make up the three phases. Adding all three together produces the total AC output of the stator. The two basic stator winding designs are delta wound and wye style. Delta wound are easily identifiable by their shape, as they're triangular. These windings allow for a high current flow at lower RPM. Wye windings resemble the flux capacitor seen in "Back to the Future." These windings are ideal for diesel engines, as they produce higher voltage than delta stators at even lower RPM. After the AC/DC conversion, the resulting voltage is ready to use in the battery. Too much or too little voltage can damage the battery, as well as other electrical components. To ensure the correct amount, a voltage regulator determines when and how much voltage is needed in the battery. One of two types of regulators are found in most alternators: The grounded regulator works by controlling the amount of negative or battery ground going into the winding in the rotor, while a grounded field type works the other way around - by controlling the amount of battery positive. Neither poses an advantage over the other. With so many components working to create the electricity vital for our vehicles, it's safe to say the alternator is a crucial component under the hood. But like many parts on our cars, they fail. The next section will give you an idea of how to determine if you are about to be stranded and what you can do if you need to replace your alternator.

The Life and Death of an Alternator

As we saw in the beginning of the article, a failing alternator will kill a battery and ruin your day. But why did the alternator fail in the first place? Alternators have moving parts, get dirty and are subject to stress from heat and cold. As a result, the internal parts gradually wear out. One of the most common failures is bearing failure. The needle bearings that allow the rotor to spin freely inside the stator can break down from dirt and heat. When the bearings fail, the rotor will not spin efficiently and can eventually seize. Usually an alternator with bearings failure makes a loud grinding noise. If you suspect this problem, it's only a matter of time before the alternator gives up. Older vehicles with generators tend to require much more maintenance than newer models, but there's no hard and fast rule for how long an alternator will last. It varies from manufacturer to manufacturer.

You can take several easy steps to diagnose whether your alternator is on the fritz. First, most cars today have a dashboard light that glows when the ignition is switched on. This light usually is represented with a symbol of a battery. Have you ever heard a buzzing noise when the key is on, but the car isn't running? That's the voltage from the battery running through the charging system. If this bulb is burned out, chances are the alternator won't work. The car may start, but as we learned, it's just a matter of time before the battery drains and the electrical system fails.

iStockphoto/Piotz Zawisza A voltmeter like this could help to figure out if your alternator is on the fritz. As a rule, a three-phase alternator can operate with only one of the stator windings operational, although it's only one-third as efficient. To test whether your car had an issue with one of its stator windings, you'd need to use a voltmeter to check the voltage. (You can buy a basic voltmeter at an electronics store.) This is called a load test. Since the battery produces DC power, set the voltmeter to DC rather than AC. Connect the red lead (or wire) to the positive terminal and the black to the negative. With no accessories on, start the car and raise the RPM to around 1,000. The voltage should register around 14 volts. Anything less than 12 may indicate a problem. Next, turn on the headlights, air conditioner, radio and anything else that draws electrical power. Rev the engine and check the voltmeter. Again, the voltage should register around 14 volts. If you have a failing alternator, the voltage will be well below 14 volts. If so, it's time to replace the alternator. Before you decide you need to yank the alternator and replace it, make sure you check the serpentine belt. If the belt is worn or loose, the alternator won't function properly. A bad belt is easy to replace and won't set you back much, usually less than $20. But if you have to replace the alternator, you have options. Read on to learn how to go about replacing an alternator and what it may cost in the next section.

Alternator Replacement
For the most part, alternators are less expensive than say, a power steering pump or air conditioner compressor. Nevertheless, you have alternatives to forking out a lot of cash for a replacement alternator. Many automotive stores sell remanufactured or rebuilt alternators at a discounted price. For instance, a Beck/Arnley alternator for a 2002 Honda Accord with a 3-liter V6 engine can cost $229 new, versus $163 for the same part, only remanufactured [source: PartsAmerica].

iStockphoto.com/Bill Noll You may not have to replace your alternator entirely if you're handy in the garage. While alternators are relatively inexpensive in comparison to some of the other components on your engine, some can be expensive depending on the car make. If you owned a 2005 Porsche 911 Carrera GT for instance and wanted to replace the original Bosch alternator, you could expect to pay well over $300, and that's for a remanufactured component [source: Autoparts Warehouse]. Sometimes alternators are easily accessible and simple to replace for the amateur mechanic. With a modest amount of automotive experience and the proper tools, replacing an alternator in your garage can be done. But more and more cars don't have room under the hood, and the alternators can be difficult to reach without first removing several other components. In this case, it's best to take your car to an experienced technician who can do the job quickly. If you happen to own an alternator that has a repair kit available for sale, you can really save some money. Alternator repair kits run between $12 and $30, depending on which components you need to fix. Again, you need the proper tools and a little know-how, but if you're able to find the right kit and know what you're doing, you can rebuild an alternator for a fraction of the cost of even a remanufactured unit. One thing is certain: A bad alternator will ruin a good battery if you don't address it quickly. Batteries can only be recharged so many times before they'll lose their ability to hold a charge. For the most part, if the battery isn't relatively old, it should survive. But an older battery that is constantly drained and charged, drained and charged will have a shorter life span than a battery operated under normal conditions. The average life span of a battery is usually around 48 months [source: Battery Stuff]. High-output alternators have become popular with custom car shops and in high-performance cars. They produce higher voltage at idle and make more power for vehicles that draw an excessive amount of electricity. For example, custom cars with lavish audio and video systems draw more electricity than the stock alternators can handle. As a result, companies such as HO Alternators make alternators for several makes and models. Some custom shops are even installing dual-alternator systems to handle the additional electrical loads seen in custom vehicles. For more information on vehicle electrical systems and related HowStuffWorks articles, please check out the lots more information section on the next page.

Alternators - what are they, how do they work and what breaks??

The rear view of a standard alternator - the pulley is on the other end.
If you have been around cars for a while you might have heard the term generator. Well, those were the old days and the good old generator is history. What a generator did for the old cars, an alternator now does. You see, a car has and electrical system that carries power to such essential things as headlights, the ignition coils, engine cooling fans and other non-essential things as the radio (my son would argue that one), air conditioning fans (my wife would argue that one), and all of those other things upon which we have become accustomed to depend. All of that power has to come from somewhere!! A lot of people might think that power comes from the battery, and that is true to some extent. But the real answer is that the power to run all of those electrical things comes from Saudi Arabia! Huh? Saudi Arabia? Well, maybe Dallas, or Oklahoma. But the point is that the source for all of that energy is the gas tank. Yep. And the link from the gas tank to the battery is that mysterious thing called the alternator. It takes mechanical power from the crankshaft, transmits it via a "fan" belt, (it used to run the cooling fan as well) or serpentine belt as it is called in most of the newer vintage cars, and turns the alternator. So, the main function of the alternator is to convert power from the gasoline engine that drives you along the road, to electrical energy to keep the battery in tip-top condition. So, what happens when an alternator goes bad? Well, at first, nothing. That is because the battery has some reserve power in it, enough to keep the engine running for quite some time, many many miles in fact. So a bad alternator doesn't necessarily mean a tow truck should be called right away. As long as energy is conserved elsewhere, like turning off the blower motor, the rear window de-fogger, the stereo and the headlights (if possible), you could make it for some distance on just the battery reserve alone. One major problem which will finally occur as the battery loses its charge is that there will not be sufficient voltage to keep the engine running well. Many years ago I was in California and saw a car coming down the street with its catalytic converter

glowing white hot and flames coming from beneath the car. What had happened is the alternator quit, the battery ran down, the engine was not firing on all eight cylinders and the unburned fuel was being burned in the catalytic converter! It had been long overdue for the driver to call a tow truck! Before we get started diagnosing alternator problems there is one thing I must mention. Alternators use an "exciter" voltage to get the alternator working when you start your car. Now get this! About 90% of the cars made today run that 12 volts through the "battery" or "alternator" bulb (AKA the idiot light). So you need to check to see if this bulb is not burned out. It should light when the key is turned on! If it doesn't then there is a very good chance that the alternator will not put out!! Replace the bulb before beginning the rest of the diagnosis. So, how do you know when your alternator is going bad? Most of the time the alternator fails in stages. A little techie talk here. The alternator gets its name from the fact that it generates alternating current (AC). The old generators I mentioned before generated direct current (DC). Well the battery can't use alternating current so the alternator output is fed into what are called diodes, which convert the AC into DC. The alternator has a unique feature in that it is able to generate a relatively high voltage while the engine is at idle. The old generators needed to be running at a fast pace before they got up to 13 or 14 volts. The alternator can do this since it is really three alternators in one body. Each of the three sections of the alternator generates its voltage out of phase with the other two sections. Since the complete cycle (one revolution) of the alternator is 360 degrees, each phase is shifted by 120 degrees from the next phase. So in one revolution of the alternator it puts out three separate voltages. OK, back to the failure mode. Each of the three phases has its own windings in the alternator and each of the windings has its own pair of diodes. Each of these windings and/or diodes can fail, one set at a time. If this happens the alternator can still charge the battery, but only with a limited current, approximately 2/3 of its original capacity if one system fails. If two systems fail, then it puts out only 1/3 of its rated capacity. What that means to you is that you can go a long time on a limping alternator. Chances are if you don't need headlights or air conditioning or other high current using accessories, you would never know that the alternator was in the process of failing! The time you will find out is when it is 10 below zero and you wear down the battery by cranking the starter, then put the fan on high for heat, and then drive in the dark. So, how can you tell if the alternator is failing without taking it apart and doing some measuring inside the alternator? It's really pretty simple. You will need a simple voltmeter. You can get one at Radio Shack for under ten dollars. Here's what you do - start the car, make sure all the accessories are off and rev up the motor to a fast idle. Set the Voltmeter to the DC scale (not AC or Ohms). Measure the voltage across the battery terminals - red lead of the voltmeter on the positive terminal, black on the negative (ground in most cars). The voltage should, and probably will,

read around 14 volts. If it reads less than 12 volts you may indeed have a failed alternator and you can skip the next step. Next, turn on the heater, the rear window de-fogger, the radio, the headlights and anything else that draws power. Now rev up the motor and watch the voltmeter. It should still be reading around 14 volts. If it reads lower than 13 volts the chances are that your alternator is not up to snuff. One last failure mode is of course noise. The rotor inside the alternator rotates on bearings, normally very high precision needle bearings, and these can fail. When they do you will hear a loud grinding noise associated with the alternator. To isolate the noise take a length of tubing, heater hose will do fine, put one end to your ear and move the other around in the vicinity of the alternator. The noise will be much louder when you point it at the alternator if that is the culprit. Other possibilities are the water pump and the power steering pump which are also driven by the engine belt. To further isolate the noise disconnect the drive belt and spin the alternator by hand. If you hear a rumble or grinding noise then the bearings are shot. If you don't hear a noise the problem may still be in the alternator since the bearing might be quiet without the loading of the drive belt tension. Check for side play in the pulley. If you are pretty certain the noise came from the alternator it is a relatively simple task to take it apart and visually inspect the bearings, else swap it in for a rebuilt. Your auto supply store will normally bench test the alternator free of charge and can tell you at that time if the bearings are noisy. Before you go running down to the parts store for a new alternator make sure to check the connections at the battery terminals and also check to see that the voltage is the same at the alternator terminal (the big fat one with the heavy wire attached) {also, read the article, dead battery}. Check to make sure the belts are tight and not slipping. Replace them if they are cracked or shiny on the side that faces the alternator pulley. One final thing to check - the field voltage. In order for the alternator to generate electricity it must be supplied with a field voltage. If you know which wire is the one that supplies the field (normally labeled 'F') then simply check with a voltmeter to see if there is 12 volts at the field. Another check is to use a hacksaw blade or a lightweight screwdriver , anything magnetic, and hold it near the side of the alternator with the ignition switch turned in the on position. If there is a field voltage present then the metal will be attracted magnetically to the side of the alternator, not very strongly, but you will feel it pull the metal to the side of the alternator. So, what are you going to ask the mechanic when he tells you that you need a new alternator? 1. Did you perform a load test on the alternator? If you did, what were the voltage readings? Were they all below specification?? (mechanics will use a load testing machine instead of turning on all the accessories.)

2. Did you check to see if the belts were old and cracked or possibly slipping? 3. Did you measure the voltage at the alternator connector or at the battery? Were the readings the same at both places or is there a voltage drop somewhere in the system. You can tell him the "Dead Battery" story if you want to. 4. Finally, did you check the price on a rebuilt as well as a new alternator? (rebuilt alternators are just as good as new if they are done correctly and usually cost about 1/3 as much) Now that you know all about alternators you can feel confident that you can discuss the failure modes with a mechanic and not get shafted. It is also fun to watch the faces of a mechanic when you ask questions like those above. He will soon figure out that you know more about the electrical system of your car than how to turn the lights on! For yet another description and a different perspective on the charging system go here.

Alternator and Generator Comparison for Wind Power

| Vehicle Alternators | Homemade PM Alternators | PM Converted Induction Motors | DC Generators | DC Brushless PM Motors | Induction Motors | Para Espaol, traduccin de Julio Andrade.

Vehicle Alternators

Advantages: cheap, easy to find, pre-assembled. Disadvantages: high rpms required, gears or pulleys needed, low power output, slip rings need maintenance. Suitability for Wind Power: POOR

The biggest problem with using car alternators for wind power is that they are designed to rotate at too high a speed to be practical in wind power applications without significant modifications. Even a small, seemingly fast windmill might do most of its work at 600 rpm, not nearly fast enough for a car or truck alternator. This means that gearing up with pulleys or other methods is needed, so lots of power is lost to friction--a big problem with

wind or water power, but not a problem with a gasoline engine. Check out how useful car alternators can be for building a small gas-powered charger HERE. A standard car or truck alternator is electromagnetic-- meaning that some of the electricity produced by the unit must be used internally and sent to the armature through brushes and slip rings to make the magnetic field. Alternators that use electricity to generate the field current are less efficient and more complicated. They are quite easy to regulate, however, since the magnetic flux inside can be changed by adjusting the field power. Also, the brushes and slip rings wear out, requiring more maintenance. Car and truck alternators can also be rewound to produce power at lower speeds. This is done by replacing the existing stator windings with more turns of smaller gauge wire. This project is not for the faint of heart, but check our PRODUCTS page for the inexpensive booklet Alternator Secrets by Thomas Lindsay if you are interested. The booklet is invaluable for any alternator experimentor! Also, some alternator/electric motor shops may have the knowledge to do this for you.

Homemade Permanent Magnet Alternators

Advantages: Low cost per watt of output, very efficient, huge power output possible, extremely sturdy construction Disadvantages: A time-consuming, somewhat complicated project, machining needed. Suitability for Wind Power: GOOD

Homemade Volvo Brake Disc PM alternator, 800 watts, $150!

Hugh Piggott in Scotland was the pioneer in building permanent magnet alternators from scratch. Much of our inspiration came from his designs. Thanks Hugh! Our experiments have consistantly shown that homemade PM alternators are the most powerful and cost-effective solution for building a wind generator. Their low-rpm performance is excellent, and at high speeds they can really crank out the amps thanks to their efficiency. Our more recent PM alternators have been based on Volvo disc brake assemblies, which are very sturdy and have thrust bearings built into the unit. Our larger units are "Disc" or "Axial" designs...a flat plate of magnets rotating next to a flat plate of coils. Our smaller PM alternators are "Radial" designs, where the magnets are fastened to the outside radius of the armature. Since all alternators produce AC, the output must be converted to DC with bridge rectifiers for battery charging. Our designs to date have been single phase for ease of construction. Three-phase alternators have some advantages (they are somewhat more efficient, and make better use of available space), but they are somewhat more difficult to build. With a 7 ft diameter prop, our Volvo brake designs can put more than 60 amps into a 12 volt battery in a 30-mph breeze--that's about 700 watts. We've seen the Volvo design peak at over 100 amps during high winds! This gives these homebrew designs a big advantage over similar-sized converted induction motors, which become inefficent quickly and top out at 20-25 amps output with a 7 ft. diameter prop. Check out all of our PM alternator projects on our EXPERIMENTS page!

Induction Motor Conversion Alternators

Advantages: cheap, easy to find, fairly easy to convert, good low-rpm performance. Disadvantages: power output limited by internal resistance, inefficient at higher speeds, machining needed. Suitability for Wind Power: OK

Armature converted with permanent magnets

A normal AC induction motor can be converted into a permanent magnet alternator at very low cost. Our experiments have shown that these conversions produce significant power at very low speeds, but become inefficient quickly at higher power levels. An induction motor has a center core with no wires in it, just alternating plates of aluminum and steel (it will look smooth from the outside). If you rout a groove in this center core to accept permanent magnets, the unit becomes a permanent magnet alternator! We sell super-powerful neodymium magnets that are shaped and polarized perfectly for this application--check our products page. In practice, our wind generators made with these do quite well until they reach 10-20 amps of output. At this point, they become inefficient quickly--it takes a large increase in windspeed to make only slightly more power, and the rest is wasted as heat inside the unit. The induction motors are wound with wire that's simply too thin for generating large amounts of power. In our tests, DanB's PM induction motor conversion windmill peaks at around 25 amps in 30 mph winds, with a 7-foot diameter prop. By comparison, a 7-foot prop on an efficient PM alternator made from scratch gives peaks of 50-60 amps in similar winds! Converted motors also have the tendancy to "cog" when starting...you can feel the resistance when you turn the shaft. This affects low-speed startup somewhat. If the lesser output in high winds is acceptable to you, these units can make for a pretty easy wind generator project. Look for AC induction motors of the lowest rpm rating possible. 3-phase motors will perform better than single phase. Since alternators produce alternating current (AC), the power must be converted to DC with bridge rectifiers. Tips and photos--converting an AC induction motor into a permanent magnet alternator.

DC Generators

Advantages: Simple and pre-assembled, some are good at low rpm. Disadvantages: High maintenance, most are not good at low rpm, large sizes very hard to find, small ones have limited power output. Suitability for Wind Power: POOR to OK

Generators make DC current, and batteries need DC for charging. Generators were used in automobiles until around 1970, when alternators became more practical (due to the availability of cheap, small diodes). Even old car generators must spin too fast to be practical for wind power, but there have been many good plans for modifying them. Check out our PRODUCTS page for the LeJay Manual , which contains many useful, though involved, plans for doing this. Generators are fairly complex compared to alternators. They must have brushes, and complex commutators. Brushes require maintenance, and commutators can wear out. For most purposes, alternators are more practical today, although generators do have certain advantages at times. Certain low rpm

DC motors can be purchased as surplus and work very well as 12 volt low rpm generators. These are from old mainframe computer tape drives, and are sometimes available in local and mail-order electronics stores, and on Ebay. Check out Our tape drive motor page HERE. They don't make a whole lot of power...you can expect only 100-200 watts of output...but these motors are almost a science project in a box! Slap on a frame and a 3-4 ft prop, and you have a small working wind generator.

Surplus tape drive motors can make a quick and easy generator for small windmills

Brushless DC PM Servo Motors

A brushless DC permanent magnet motor is really just a permanent magnet alternator! A special driver circuit provides AC power that is in phase with the rotation. If you are able to find a large one of these surplus, it's possible you might have an excellent start for a wind power project. They are used in robotics and precision control applications, and some use Nd-Fe-B magnets for high torque in a small space. As with surplus tape drive motors, we would not trust the bearings to stand up in a wind power application...add more bearings so you don't ruin the motor's original front bearing. We have not yet been able to locate any of these surplus for experimentation. If you have tried this, or have more information on sources, please Email us! However, we do have a small version...our Homemade anemometer uses a small surplus brushless DC PM motor, which is available for cheap on our Products pages.

The inside layout of our tiny Brushless PM DC Motor looks just like the Wood 103's alternator!

Induction Motors as Alternators

It's possible to make a 3-phase induction motor produce electricity, either 3-phase or single phase. This requires a controller and capacitor. The generator must run at a fairly constant speed. For this reason, this type of generator is more suitable for constant-speed hydro power installations than for wind, where speed varies--though it can be done. We have not experimented with this technique yet, since we don't have a suitable hydropower source. For more information, check out the book Motors as Generators for MicroHydro Power by Nigel Smith. HOME PRODUCTS DISCUSSION BOARD DAILY NEWS WIND BIOFUELS LINKS

CONSERVATION BATTERIES SUN HYDRO FOSSIL FUELS EXPERIMENTS WATER PUMPING POWER SYSTEMS EFFICIENT LIGHTING

Polar Power, Inc. first tested its DC generator using its PMHH Alternator technology in 1992. Since then numerous organizations have performed extensive testing on our generators, including the US Army. Polars DC generator sets (gensets) meets both Military and Belcore power applications. Test reports are available. Polar assembles the genset to meet its' clients requirements by adding the appropriate diesel, gasoline, or gas (propane, butane, natural) engine to our DC alternators. The engines are available in either a liquid or air-cooled version. Polar has designed this DC alternator incorporating state-of-the-art technologies and all new tooling to meet the increased performance demand for: o o o o o o o Low Maintenance Low EMI Emissions Very High Quality Electrical Output Light Weight Low Fuel Consumption Low Acoustic Noise High and Low Ambient Operation (-40 to 125 F)

Polar Power has met these performance goals through an integrated engineering effort involving detailed analysis of engine, voltage regulator, field coil, magnet, stator, rotor, and diode effects on the system's output voltage and current.

Low Maintenance and High Reliability 1. The unique alternator design allows us to turn the engine at low speeds, thereby
extending engine life.

2. The voltage regulator has automatic two step engine speed control. At high electrical
load demands the regulator, through an external solenoid, automatically increases engine RPM; at low loads the engine speed is automatically decreased.

3. Polar Power's PMHH alternator has no: bearings, couplings, brushes, slip rings, nor
rotating fields. There are no alternator parts to wear.

4. The entire alternator assembly is vacuum dipped and baked with a polyester coating.
This seals off all metal surfaces from corrosion. Resistance to salt fog is extremely high.

5. There are no electronic parts (diodes, etc.) nor electrical connections inside the
alternator. There is nothing to short or vibrate loose inside the alternator.

6. The alternator is almost impossible to damage electrically. The outputs can be

shorted for minutes without damage.

7. The alternator is thermally protected; a sensor on the yoke can warn the operator of
a high temperature condition. If no action is taken the regulator automatically reduces the output current so the alternator can run cooler.

8. The output current is monitored by the voltage regulator through a current

transducer. The voltage regulator has an adjustable current limit on the output. It is virtually impossible to overload the alternator.

9. Polar Power's PMHH alternator should have an MTBF exceeding 100,000 hours. The
diode bridge set is remote from the alternator and mounted on a large heat sink to keep cool. The voltage regulator has lightning and surge protection on both the input and output. All the electronic components within the voltage regulator are operated at less than 50% of their rated values.

10. The only normal wear the alternator experiences is the abrasion caused by the air
being circulated around the stator coil and this effect is limited. Polar Power's PMHH alternator, because of its high efficiency, does not require a cooling fan. Air moved over the stator due to rotor effect is of low velocity. This is advantageous in sandy and dusty environments.

11. The engine is protected against: over-temperature, low oil pressure, over-speed, and
over-cranking (during starting). There is a lockout protecting the engine against starter motor actuation while the engine is running.

12. Two stage cyclone air filters are used on the engines air intake in order to minimize
the air media cartridge replacement.

13. The alternator's rotor is dynamically balanced to improve the engine's bearing life. 14. Fuel is filtered to stringent standards for water and particle separation before entering
the engine.

15. Low EMI emissions are designed into the system. There are no brushes or slip rings.
Field coil is isolated from the buss through fast diodes and capacitance. The voltage regulator does not strobe the field coil on and off. Proportional control reduces the back EMF produced by the field coil. The fuel stop and two speed solenoids are

attenuated for voltage spikes as a result of turning on and off the solenoids field coil.

Low Fuel Consumption

The PMHH alternator has an efficiency of between 75 to 85% versus 55 to 70% for other DC alternators. The voltage regulators' two speed engine control can save up to 30% in fuel under light electrical loads.

Low Acoustic Noise

Improving alternator efficiency reduces the horsepower demand on the engine which reduces the engine noise. Eliminating the brushes, slip rings, and fan from the alternator reduces alternator noise.

High and Low Ambient Operation

1. During starting the regulator keeps the field current off. This feature coupled with the small light weight rotor provides a minimal load on the starter motor. 2. For low ambient temperatures (-40 to 10 F) cold starting aids are available. 3. Automatic two speed operation controlled by the voltage regulator keeps the oil warm in low ambient temperatures (reduces moisture contamination of the oil) and keeps the oil cooler in high ambient temperatures. 4. The higher alternator efficiency allows the engine to run cooler in high ambient temperatures. The increased alternator efficiency reduces the mechanical load on the engine which then reduces the engines cooling requirement.

System Advantages
1. No isolation relays are required. The voltage regulator and the 6 phase diode bridge isolates both the field coil and stator from placing a drain on the battery during the off state. 2. No warm-up relays and timers are required. After the set is started the engine remains in low speed operation with low power output until the engine warms up causing a thermostat to switch on the voltage regulator. When the engine is warm it will adjust itself to meet the required load demand. If required, this feature can be removed. 3. Alternator System Condition Signals. The standard voltage regulator will provide the following alarm conditions: a. Over-current b. Over-temperature (stator) 4. Output currents and voltages are independently adjustable. Regulator will provide current output signal.

Options
1. Air Conditioning. The genset can conveniently support a 6,000 to 36,000 BTU air conditioning system without effecting the 6 kW output. Polar Power assembles a beltdriven automotive style compressor onto the engine. An electric clutch brings the air conditioning on line when required; when not required, there is no parasitic load on the engine. 2. Engine Styles. a. Diesel Engine: either air-cooled or water-cooled. b. Gasoline Engine: either air-cooled or water-cooled. c. Gas Powered: Propane, Natural gas, either air-cooled or water-cooled. 3. Automatic Temperature Compensation Module. The genset output, if used for charging batteries, can be temperature compensated for superior battery charging. A temperature sensor is placed on the battery which causes the regulator to adjust the output voltage to match the battery needs. 4. Automatic three step charging circuit consisting of bulk rate, overcharge (equalize), and float. This module includes temperature compensation and automatic start-up and shut-down (available mid 1993).

Polars DC generators are more expensive to purchase than AC generators because:

1. We are using 12 Neodymium Iron Boron magnets in each alternator; magnets add considerable material and labor cost. Most AC generators do not use magnets. Magnets increase efficiency and reduce generator size and weight. 2. Our alternators uses a high frequency design (360Hz) that reduces weight, size, and greatly improves the quality of electrical power. The high frequency design requires more labor to wind the stator. Typical AC generators are only 50 or 60 Hz. 3. The stator has a 6-phase design to also improve electrical quality and the torque ripple on the engine for better fuel economy. The 6-phase design requires more labor to wind the stator. Standard AC generators are only single or three phase. 4. The Polars DC generator set is optimized to produce a high current, low voltage power output for charging batteries and powering DC loads directly. The AC generator is optimized for a high voltage, low current output and requires an external power supply or battery charger to convert AC into DC. The low voltage, heavy current windings are more expensive to wind. 5. Polars DC generator is very corrosion resistant. We make extensive use of stainless steel fasteners and coated aluminum materials. Certain components must be constructed of steel due the magnetic properties; here we coat with high temperature coatings and/or Cadmium (CAD) plating. Corrosion resistance is important for installations in marine or humid environments or exposed to agricultural and garden chemicals. This construction is not typical of AC generators.

6. Polar uses the very best magnetic wire in an HML grade for a class H rating. This
facilitates long life in warm or dusty climates.

An alternator

If we want AC, we don't need recification, so we don't need split rings. (This is good news,
because the split rings cause sparks, ozone, radio interference and extra wear. If you want DC, it is often better to use an alternator and rectify with diodes.)

In the next animation, the two brushes contact two continuous rings, so the two external terminals are always connected to the same ends of the coil. The result is the unrectified, sinusoidal emf given by NBA sin t, which is shown in the next animation.

This is an AC generator. The advantages of AC and DC generators are compared in a section below. We saw above that a DC motor is also a DC generator. Similarly, an alternator is also an AC motor. However, it is a rather inflexible one. (See How real electric motors work for more details.)

Back emf
Now, as the first two animations show, DC motors and generators may be the same thing. For example, the motors of trains become generators when the train is slowing down: they convert kinetic energy into electrical energy and put power back into the grid. Recently, a few manufacturers have begun making motor cars rationally. In such cars, the electric motors used to drive the car are also used to charge the batteries when the car is stopped - it is called regenerative braking. So here is an interesting corollary. Every motor is a generator. This is true, in a sense, even when it functions as a motor. The emf that a motor generates is called the back emf.

The back emf increases with the speed, because of Faraday's law. So, if the motor has no load, it turns very quickly and speeds up until the back emf, plus the voltage drop due to losses, equal the supply voltage. The back emf can be thought of as a 'regulator': it stops the motor turning infinitely quickly (thereby saving physicists some embarrassment). When the motor is loaded, then the phase of the voltage becomes closer to that of the current (it starts to look resistive) and this apparent resistance gives a voltage. So the back emf required is smaller, and the motor turns more slowly. (To add the back emf, which is inductive, to the resistive component, you need to add voltages that are out of phase. See AC circuits.)
THREE-PHASE ALTERNATOR The three-phase alternator, as the name implies, has three singlephase windings spaced such that the voltage induced in any one phase is displaced by 120 from the other two. A schematic diagram of a three-phase stator showing all the coils becomes complex, and it is difficult to see what is actually happening. The simplified schematic of figure 3-8, view A, shows all the windings of each phase lumped together as one winding. The rotor is omitted for simplicity. The voltage waveforms generated across each phase are drawn on a graph, phase-displaced 120 from each other. The three-phase alternator as shown in this schematic is made up of three single-phase alternators whose generated voltages are out of phase by 120 . The three phases are independent of each other.

3-20 In THREE-PHASE ALTERNATORS the windings have voltages generated in them which are 120 out of phase. Three-phase alternators are most often used to generate ac power. THREE-PHASE ALTERNATOR CONNECTIONS may be delta or wye connections depending on the application. The ac power aboard ship is usually taken from the ship's generators through delta connections, for the convenience of step-down transformers.

Understanding 3 phase alternators....

Three phase is nothing more than single phase with 2 extra coils slightly out of phase with first. Basically "Phase" relates to the timing of the magnets passing over the coils at different times. With single phase the magnets and coils all line up with each other and are said to be in "phase". The diagram below shows single phase wiring....

In a single phase unit the coils are wound opposite of the first. That is to say one is wound clockwise and the next is counter clockwise. If your unit has 8 magnets then it would also have 8 coils. With 3 phase you would have 3 coils for each pair of magnets. A pair meaning one north and one south magnet. There are many combinations for any one set up. For instance you could use 8 magnets and only have 6 coils without overlapping them... or 3 set of 4 coils in

series. For now we won't worry about the combinations and stick with the basics. Below shows a diagram of 4 magnets with the placement of each of the coil sets...

As you can see the first phase covers only the north pole magnets and are wound all in the same direction. The other of the two are identical to the first with the exception they are offset equally. The next diagram shows all the sets in place for a 4 pole alternator. You end up with 3 start wires labeled A,B,C and 3 end wires labeled D,E,F. The output wires to this arrangement would be A, C and E. The reason E is an output or ends up being a "start" wire is because when the magnet passes over the 2nd phase its out of phase between the 1 and 3 so the ends are reversed instead of winding them in the opposite order.

Now to connect the ends and change the AC to DC for battery charging... Below shows the star and delta symbols and 2 different types of rectifiers. Either rectifier can be used for star or delta. You can use diodes and make your own rectifier set up or you can purchase the standard rectifiers. Notice on the standard rectifiers one AC lead isn't used. Similar to the diodes, a rectifier that is already made up for such use and my personal preference is a unit from a GM alternator. They seem to give the best rectified output out of all of them. I'm not sure why but they do. They are expensive to buy new but usually you can get them from the junk yard fairly cheap. Sometimes get the whole alternator for around 15 bucks. They also make a nice clean set-up. There are basically two ways to wire a 3 phase alternator, star ( or Wye) and Delta. With Delta you get lower voltage but more amps. In star you get higher voltage but less amps. You can calculate these by using the square root of 3 ( or 1.732 ). Each coil set is a "phase" of the alternator so when you measure voltage,ohms or current to test one phase of the alternator you would measure the "phase". Once you know what the output will be from one phase you can calculate the "line" output of either delta or star. The line voltage would be measured from any 2 of the 3 outputs. If one phase measured 22 volts in your test and 10 amps then the star configuration would produce 38 volts and 10 amps ( 22 x 1.732 ). The amps remain the same as the phase measurement because the star is basically series'd to another phase. In Delta you would get 22 volts at 17.32 amps (10 amps x 1.73 ). If you calculate this out 22 volts x 17.32 = 381 watts and 38 x 10 = 380 watts... so what is the advantage? Typically the resistance in Delta is 1/3 the resistance of star. If the resistance of

star was 1.5 ohms we could calculate the output ( see formula section ). Lets assume the test was at 600 rpm, we achieved 38 volts in star ( about 16 rpm per volt ) so at 1000 rpm we would get 62.5 volts less battery voltage of 12.6 = 49.9 volts / 1.5 ohms = 33.26 amps * 12.6 = 419 watts... not to bad. Now in delta we had 22 volts at the same rpm ( about 27 rpm per volt ). So at the same 1000 rpm we get 37 volts - 12.6 battery = 24.4 volts / .5 ohms = 48.8 amps * 12.6 = 614 watts. Almost a 200 watt gain !!! The advantage of star is the higher voltage at lower rpm which means our unit would have to make 201 rpm to start charging at 12.6V where the Delta would require 340 rpm to start charging.

Some Basic factoids about 3 phase.... Most of the electric power in the world is 3 phase. The concept was originally conceived by Nikola Tesla and was proven that 3 phase was far superior to single phase power. 3 phase power is typically 150% more efficient than single phase in the same power range. In a single phase unit the power falls to zero three times during each cycle, in 3 phase it never drops to zero. The power delivered to the load is the same at any instant. Also, in 3 phase the conductors need only be 75% the size of conductors for single phase for the same power output.

And there you have it ! Not really much more difficult than single phase but much more efficient !!!

Description: The alternator consists of a spinning set of electrical windings called a rotor, a stationary set of windings called a stator, a rectifier assembly, a set of brushes to maintain electrical contact with the rotor, and a pulley. All of these parts except the pulley are contained in an aluminum housing. Today?s alternators use compact, electronic voltage regulators that may be housed inside the alternator or the voltage regulator function may be handled by the vehicle?s powertrain control module (PCM). Purpose: The alternator generates direct current for recharging the battery and for powering vehicle electrical loads. Maintenance Tips/Suggestions: Have the alternator?s drive belt tension checked at every oil change. A loose belt can reduce alternator output and run down your car?s battery. Each spring, prior to travel season, it?s wise

to have your car?s charging system tested as part of a comprehensive starting, charging and battery test. This test will determine whether your car?s alternator is putting out the proper amount of current and voltage. Your car?s alternator is designed to recharge the battery after slight discharging such as engine starting; the alternator is not designed for charging heavily discharged (?dead?) batteries. Relying on the alternator to charge a heavily discharged battery can overload the alternator and cause damage. In such cases, use a battery charger instead. An alternator problem can cause a discharged battery, poor accessory and light operation, frequent bulb replacement, repeat voltage regulator failures, erratic engine operation, or a dashboard warning light to illuminate. To pinpoint the cause, have your car?s charging system checked out by a qualified service technician. Life expectancy of the average alternator is 75-100 thousand miles.

Standard Automobile Alternator

A key component of an automobile's charging system, which provides current to recharge the battery and develops electricity to power all other electrical components when the engine is running, is the alternator. The other component of the charging system is the voltage regulator. The basic function of the alternator is to generate the electricity required to

start and run the automobile, while the regulator is designed to control the amount of voltage that circulates through the system. This discussion will focus entirely upon the alternator, specifically, the principle of operation by which it works and its main components. An alternator (Fig. 1) consists of rotor assembly, a stator assembly, and a rectifier mounted in a housing. Figure 1. Parts of an Alternator

Alternator Housing. The housing is usually made up of two pieces of die-cast aluminum. Aluminum is used because it is a nonmagnetic, lightweight material that provides good heat dissipation. Bearings supporting the rotor

assembly are mounted in the front and rear housing. The front bearing is usually pressed into the front housing or onto the rotor shaft. It is usually a factory-lubricated ball bearing. The rear bearing is usually installed with a light press fit in the rear housing. Stator Assembly. The stator is clamped between the front and the rear housing. A number of steel stampings are riveted together to form its frame. Three windings around the stator frame are arranged in layers in each of the slots on the frame. At the other end, they are connected into the rectification assembly. Rotor Assembly. The rotor assembly consists of a rotor shaft, a winding around an iron core, two pole pieces, and slip rings. The rotor is pressed into the core. Six-fingered, malleable, iron pole pieces are pressed onto the shaft against each end of the winding core. They are placed so that the fingers mesh but do not touch. When direct current is passed through the field coil winding, the fingers become alternately north and south poles. A slip ring assembly is pressed on to the rear end of the rotor shaft and connected to the two ends of the field winding. Two brushes are held against the slip rings by springs, usually mounted in plastic brush holders that support the brushes and prevent brush

sticking. Each brush is connected into the circuit by a flexible copper lead wire. The brushes ride on the slip rings and are connected through a switch to the battery. When the switch is closed, current from the battery passes through one brush, through the slip ring, and then through the field winding. After leaving the field winding, current flows through the other slip ring and brush before returning to the battery through the ground return path. The flow of electrical energy through the field winding, called field current, creates the magnetic field for the rotor. Rectifier Assembly. The rectifier assembly consists of six diodes mounted either in the rear housing or in a separate small housing called a rectifier bridge. Three of the diodes are connected to ground, and three are mounted in an insulator. Since the mounting assembly carries off heat caused by the operation of the diode, it is often called a heat sink. A fan and pulley assembly is either pressed onto the rotor shaft or held with a nut. The pulley drives the rotor through an engine accessory drive belt. The fan behind the alternator pulley pulls air in through vents at the rear of the alternator to cool the diodes.

Alternator principles

The alternator is universally used in automotive applications. It converts mechanical energy into electrical energy, by electro-magnetic induction. In a simple version, a bar magnet rotates in an iron yoke which concentrates the magnetic field. A coil of wire is wound around the stem of the yoke. As the magnet turns, voltage is induced in the coil, producing a current flow. When the North pole is up, and South is down, voltage is induced in the coil, producing current flow in one direction. As the magnet rotates, and the position of the poles reverses, the polarity of the voltage reverses too, and as a result, so does the direction of current flow. Current that changes direction in this way is called alternating current, or AC. The change in direction occurs once for every complete revolution of the magnet.
Theory of operation

Alternators generate electricity by the same principle as DC generators. When magnetic field lines cut across a conductor, a current is induced in the conductor. In general, an alternator has a stationary part (stator) and a rotating part (rotor). The stator contains windings of conductors and the rotor contains a moving magnetic field. The field cuts across the conductors, generating an electrical current, as the mechanical input causes the rotor to turn. The rotor magnetic field may be produced by induction (in a "brushless" generator), by permanent magnets, or by a rotor winding energized with direct current through slip rings and brushes. Automotive alternators invariably use brushes and slip rings, which allows control of the alternator generated voltage by varying the current in the rotor field

winding. Permanent magnet machines avoid the loss due to magnetizing current in the rotor but are restricted in size owing to the cost of the magnet material. Since the permanent magnet field is constant, the terminal voltage varies directly with the speed of the generator. Brushless AC generators are usually larger machines than those used in automotive applications.

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Generator Types

AC Generators (Alternators)

Stationary Field Synchronous AC Generator

In a stationary field generator, the stator in the form of fixed permanent magnets (or electromagnets fed by DC) provides the magnetic field and the current is generated in the rotor windings. When the rotor coil is rotated at constant speed in the field between the stator poles the EMF generated in the coil will be approximately sinusoidal, the actual waveform being dependent on the size and shape of the magnetic poles. The peak voltage occurs when the moving conductor is passing the centre line of the magnetic pole. It diminishes to zero when the conductor is in the space between the poles and it increases to a peak in the opposite direction as the conductor approaches the centre line of the opposite pole of the magnet. The frequency of the waveform is directly proportional to the speed of rotation. The magnitude of the wave is also proportional to the speed until the magnetic circuit saturates when rate of voltage increase, as the speed increases, slows dramatically .

Generator Speed and Frequency

The output frequency is proportional to the number of poles per phase and the rotor speed in the same way as a synchronous motor. See Motor Speed Table.

The alternating current output generated in the rotor can be connected to external circuits via slip rings and does not need a commutator. Typical applications are portable AC generators with output power up to 5 kilowatts.

Small low cost applications such as domestic wind turbine generators are usually designed to run at high speed. For a given power handling requirement, the higher the speed, the lower the required torque. This means that the generator can be smaller and lighter. Furthermore, the high speed generator needs fewer poles, simplifying the design and reducing the costs.

Generator Types

AC Generators (Alternators)

Rotating Field Synchronous AC Generator

The power handling capacity of a brushed machine is usually constrained by the current handling capability of the slip rings in an AC machine (or even more by the commutator in a DC machine). Since the generator load current is generally much higher than the field current, it is usually desirable to use the rotor to create the field and to take the power off the generator from the stator to minimise the load on the slip rings. By interchanging the fixed and moving elements in the above example a rotating field generator is created in which the EMF is instead generated in the stator windings. In this case, in its simplest form, the field is provided by a permanent magnet (or electromagnet) which is rotated within a fixed wire loop or coil in the stator. The moving magnetic field due to the rotating magnet of the rotor will then cause a sinusoidal current to flow in the fixed stator coil as the field moves past the stator conductors. If the rotor field is provided by an electromagnet, it will need direct current excitation fed through slip rings. It does not need a commutator.

If instead of a single coil, three independent stator coils or windings , spaced 120 degrees apart around the periphery of the machine, are used, then the output of these windings will be three phase alternating current.

Series Wound Generator

Classified as a constant speed generator, they have poor voltage regulation and few are in use.

Shunt Wound Generator

Classified as a constant voltage generator, the output voltage can be controlled by varying the field current. They have reasonably good voltage regulation over the speed range of the machine.

Brushless Excitation

Rotating field machines are used for the high power generating plant in most of the world's national electricity grid systems. The field excitation power needed for these huge machines can be as much as 2.5% of the output power ( 25 KW in a 1.0 MW generator) though this reduces as the efficiency improves with size so that a 500 MW generator needs 2.5 MW (0.5%) of excitation power. If the field voltage is 1000 Volts, the required field current will be 2500 Amps. Providing such excitation through slip rings is an engineering challenge which has been overcome by generating the necessary power within the machine itself by means of a pilot, three phase, stationary field generator on the same shaft. The AC current generated in the pilot generator windings is rectified and fed directly to the rotor windings to supply the excitation for the main machine.

Cooling

The efficiency of a very large generator can be as high as 98% or 99% but for a 1000 MW generator, an efficiency loss of just 1% means 10 MegaWatts of losses must be dissipated, mostly in the form of heat. To avoid overheating, special cooling precautions must be taken and two forms of cooling are usually employed simultaneously. Cooling water is circulated through copper bars in the stator windings and hydrogen is passed through the generator casing. Hydrogen has the advantages that its density is only about 7% of the density of air resulting in fewer windage losses

due to the rotor churning up the air in the machine and its thermal capacity is 10 times that of air giving it superior heat removal capability.

Permanent Magnet AC Generators

Smaller versions of both of the above machines can use permanent magnets to provide the machine's magnetic field and since no power is used in providing the field this means that the machines are simpler and more efficient . The drawback however is that there is no simple way to control such machines. Permanent magnet synchronous generators (PMSGs) are typically used in low cost "gensets" to provide emergency power. The voltage and frequency output of the permanent magnet generator are proportional to the speed of rotation and though this may not be a problem for applications powered by fixed speed mechanical drives, many applications such as wind turbines, require a fixed voltage and frequency output but are powered by variable speed prime movers. In these cases, complex feedback control systems or external power conditioning may be required to provide the desired stabilised output. Generally the output will be rectified and the varying output voltage fed through the DC link to a buck - boost regulator which provides a fixed voltage coupled with an inverter which provides a fixed frequency output.

Variable/Switched Reluctance Generators

Similar in construction to the switched reluctance motor, the generator is a doubly salient machine with no magnets or brushes. As the inert, iron rotor poles of the reluctance generator are driven past the stator poles, the changing reluctance of the generator's magnetic circuit is accompanied by a corresponding change in the inductance of the stator poles which in turn causes a current to be induced in the stator windings. A pulsed waveform therefore appears at each stator pole. In polyphase machines the outputs from each phase are fed to a converter which switches each phase sequentially on to the DC Link to provide a DC voltage. The system needs position sensing on the rotor shaft to control the timing of the triggering of the converter switches. These position sensors also enable the current to be controlled by varying the turn on and turn off angles of the output current depending on the rotor position. As with the permanent magnet generator, buck - boost regulators are also used to provide control over the output.

The machine unfortunately is not inherently self exciting and various methods have been adopted to enable start up, including the provision of a DC excitation current from a backup battery through the stator windings during start up, or the use of small permanent magnets embedded in some of the rotor poles.

Characteristics

Compact, robust designs. Variable speed operation. The generator phases are completely independent. Inexpensive to manufacture. Because they have simple, inert rotors with no windings or embedded magnets they can be driven at very high speed and can operate in high ambient temperature conditions. Suitable for designs up to megawatt capacity and speeds of more than 50,000 rpm.

Applications

Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) drive systems, automotive starter generators, aircraft auxiliary power generation, wind generators, high speed gas turbine generators. See also Integrated Starter Generator

Induction Generators

Induction generators are essentially induction motors which are run slightly above the synchronous speed associated with the supply frequency. They have no means of producing or generating voltage unless they are connected to an external source of excitation. The squirrel cage construction is used for small scale power generation because it is simple, robust and inexpensive to manufacture.

Fixed Speed Induction Generator

Fixed speed induction generators actually run over a small speed range associated with the generator slip. They receive their excitation from the electricity supply

grid and can only be run in parallel with that supply. When used on line, they are fine for returning power to the grid from which they derive their excitation current but useless as standby generators when the electric grid goes down. Their limited speed range restricts the possible applications.

Variable Speed - Self Excited Induction Generator(SEIG)

Small scale electricity generating systems are quite often stand alone applications, remote from the electricity supply grid, utilising widely fluctuating energy sources such as wind and water power for their source of energy. The fixed speed induction generator is not suitable for such applications. Variable speed induction generators need some form of self excitation as well as power conditioning to be able to make practical use of their unregulated voltage and frequency output.

Operation

Self excitation is obtained by connecting capacitors across the stator terminals of the generator. When driven by an external prime mover, a small current will be induced in the stator coils as the flux due to the residual magnetism in the rotor cuts the windings and this current charges the capacitors. As the rotor turns, the flux cutting the stator windings will change to the opposite direction as the orientation of the remanent magnetic field turns with the rotor. The induced current in this case will be in the opposite direction and will tend to discharge the capacitors. At the same time the charge released from the capacitors will tend to reinforce the current increasing the flux in the machine. As the rotor continues to turn the induced EMF and current in the stator windings will continue to rise until steady state is attained, depending on the saturation of the magnetic circuit in the machine. At this operating point the voltage and current will continue to oscillate at a given peak value and frequency determined by the characteristics of the machine, the air gap , the slip, the load and the choice of capacitor sizes. The combination of these factors sets maximum and minimum limits on the speed range over which self excitation occurs. The operating slip is generally small and the variation of the frequency depends on the operating speed range. If the generator is overloaded the voltage will collapse rapidly providing a measure of built in self-protection.

Control

In variable-speed operation, an induction generator needs a converter to adapt the variable frequency output of the generator to the fixed frequency of the application or the electricity supply grid. During operation the only

controllable factor available in a self excited induction generator to influence the output is the mechanical input from the prime mover, so the system is not amenable for effective feedback control. To provide a controllable output voltage and frequency, external AC/DC/AC converters are required. A threephase diode bridge is used to rectify the generator output current providing a DC link to a three-phase thyristor inverter which converts the power from the DC link to the required voltage and frequency.