Motivation and Emotion - Chapter 11

11/30/2009
Chapter 11 Motivation and Emotion
Defining Motivation
Motivation is a process that influences the direction, persistence, and vigor of goalgoaldirected behavior Why do we eat? Affiliate? Have sex? Skip class? Help others? Vote? Diet? Sleep?
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11/30/2009
Perspectives on Motivation
Evolution, Instincts, & Genes

Darwins theory of evolution Instinct: Instinct: (fixed action pattern) is an inherited characteristic
common to all species that automatically triggers a response upon exposure to a particular stimulus Many were proposed, but later were not supported
(relied on circular reasoning: why are people greedy? because greed is reasoning: an instinct. Why is greed an instinct? because people are greedy)
Now the study focuses on genetic contribution

Gene knockout experiments & examine results on motivation Twin & adoption studies (heredity influences: outgoing/ antisocial)
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Homeostasis & Drives

Our biological system is delicately balanced for survival
(e.g. perspiring/shivering)
It tries to maintain homeostasis (internal physiological equilibrium that body strives to maintain) Drive Theory of Motivation: physiological disruption to Motivation: homeostasis produces a drive (internal tension that motivates
organism to behave in ways that reduce tension; e.g. hunger & thirst)
The goal of motivated behavior is to reduce drive goal BUT we sometimes behave to increase arousal states
(e.g. skip meals on diet, watch horror movies)
Approach & Avoidance Motivation

We seek to maximize pleasure & minimize pain; 2 neural systems linking motivation & emotion:
Behavioral Activation System (BAS): is roused to action by signals of potential reward & positive need gratification (e.g. produces hope, elation, & happiness)
BAS involves Prefrontal area in left hemisphere

(responsible for goal-directed planning & self-regulation) goalself-
Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS): responds to stimuli of potential pain, nonreinforcement, & punishment (e.g.
produces fear, inhibition, escape, avoidance)
BIS involves limbic system & right frontal lobe
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Cognitive Processes: Incentives & Expectancies

Incentives: Incentives: environmental stimuli that pull organism toward goal (e.g. good grade, food)
BUT why do we respond differently to same incentive?
Expectancy Value theory: goal-directed behavior is theory: goaljointly determined by strength of persons expectation that particular behaviors will lead to goal & by the incentive value the individual places on goal (M = E x V)
Extrinsic motivation: performing activity to obtain external motivation: reward or avoid punishment (e.g. study for grade not learning) Intrinsic motivation: performing activity for its own sake motivation:
Psychodynamic View
Freud: Freud: energy from unconscious motives (sex & aggression) is often disguised & expressed through socially acceptable behaviors
Found little support
Other psychodynamic theorists:

- We have motives for self-esteem & social belonging self- People are not always aware of motivating factors (conscious + unconscious motives)
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Humanistic View
Maslows Need Hierarchy: Hierarchy: a progression of need hierarchy from deficiency needs (physical & social survival) to growth needs (ignored by most theorists) Self-actualization: Self-actualization: need to fulfill our potential (Perfect ourselves, explore, live meaningful lives to betterment of all)
Humanistic View
SelfSelf-Determination Theory: focuses on 3 Theory: fundamental psychological needs that maximize human potential (Deci & Ryan, 85, 02):

Competence (master new challenges & perfect skills) Autonomy (achieve freedom & self-regulation) selfRelatedness (form meaningful bonds)
Supported by research; has independent & additive effects on positive outcomes (e.g. Well-being, Wellhappiness, worker performance & satisfaction, good social relationships,)
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Our most basic motive 3 levels of analysis
The Physiology of Hunger

Eating is regulated by our metabolism (bodys rate of energy utilization) and other physiological mechanisms (e.g. satiety); keep body in energy homeostasis Set point: biologically determined standard around point: which body weight (fat mass) is regulated overovereat or under-eat underBUT over time we may settle at new weight Biology does not determine fixed body weight, but rather a range or zone of body weight
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The Physiology of Hunger

Signals that Start & Terminate a Meal
Muscle contractions? (balloon experiment) Enzymes break down food into key nutrients (e.g. Glucose: a major source of immediately reusable fuel); Changes in glucose supply () signal hunger
Other satiety signals:

- Stomach & intestinal walls stretch - Chemical signals like Cholecystokinin (CCK) (peptide type of
hormone released by small intestine) & others travel from bloodstream to brain producing satiety
Weight Regulation
Signals that Regulate General Appetite & Weight Leptin (a hormone secreted by fat cells) reaches brain: appetite & energy expenditure (long-term (longeffects; potency of other signals)
Ob gene directs fat cells to produce leptin

Mutation Mutation obesity Daily injections reduce appetite in mice
Db gene mutation produce leptin, but brain receptors insensitive to leptin
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Brain Mechanisms
Which is the master control center that regulates hunger? Lateral hypothalamus (LHhunger-on) (LHhungerEarlier on Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMHhunger-off) (VMHhunger Trouble swallowing & digesting Later Unresponsive to external stimuli on Cutting nerve tracts anywhere along path duplicates some effects of LH & VMH Paraventricular nucleus (PVN): cluster of neurons packed with receptor sites for various transmitters that stimulate or reduce appetite (e.g. Neuropeptide Y)
Psychological Aspects of Hunger

Eating is positively reinforced by good taste & negatively by hunger reduction (based on expectations) Attitudes, habits, & psychological needs

Beliefs (dont leave food on plate) Conditioned habits (autopilot snacking on TV) Dieters (intentionally restrict intake despite hunger)
Social pressure, especially for women

Women
Men
aspire to be thinner; Overweight men want to be thin, but thin men want to be heavier & more buff
have more ego-protective perceptions than women ego-
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Environmental & Cultural Factors

Food availability, taste, & variety regulate eating
Although we like variety, we seek familiar & comfy food
Classical conditioning (associate smell & sight of food with its taste); food cues trigger hunger Environmental stimuli (e.g. eat more around people) Cultural norms influence when, how, & what to eat (Mediterraneans eat later)
Obesity
Measured by body mass index (BMI):
25-30% American adults are obese 25 30-35% are overweight 30 Globally 20-50% are obese 20-
Often blamed for lack of willpower, dysfunctional coping with stress, heightened sensitivity to external food cues, emotional disturbances; BUT these are only stereotypes
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Obesity
Research findings: Genes & Environment: some gain weight easier Environment: /harder than others
Heredity influences both the basal metabolic rate & the tendency to store energy as fat or lean tissue It accounts 40-70% of variation in BMI among M & F 40 Obesity is on the up-rise although genes havent changed in uprecent decades, BUT why?
More inexpensive, tasty foods high in fat &/or carbohydrates Cultural emphasis on getting best value supersizing menu Technological advances daily physical activity
Eating Disorders
Around 90% are women
Anorexia nervosa: intense fear of being fat & nervosa: severely restrict food intake to point of selfselfstarvation
They continue to view themselves as fat Results: menstruation stops, bone loss, stress to heart,
risk of death
Bulimia nervosa: afraid of becoming fat, & bingenervosa: bingeeat & then purge food by vomiting or laxatives
Consume 2000-4000 calories during binges 2000 Results: gastric problems, badly eroded teeth conscious of problem, but cant control it
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Causes of Anorexia & Bulimia

Environmental, psychological & biological factors Cultural norms: In industrialized culture, thinness = Beauty norms: Personality factors: factors:
Anorexics: perfectionists (high achievers) with lofty selfAnorexics: self-
standards battle for success & control; disapproving parents with high standards punish them & gain some control
Bulimics: Bulimics: depressed & anxious, low impulse control, lack stable sense of personal identity Food cravings triggered by stress & negative mood guilt, selfself-contempt, anxiety purging to reduce negative feelings
Causes of Anorexia & Bulimia

Biological factors: factors:
Genetic factors predispose some people towards eating disorders (e.g. Identical twins & 1st-degree cousins) 1stPhysiological Factors (e.g. Abnormal activity of serotonin, leptin, & other chemicals); BUT is it a cause leptin, or effect?
Stomach acids in mouth from vomiting cause taste insensitivity making the unpleasant taste of vomit more tolerable
Treatment is difficult, but can succeed in half cases
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Sexual Motivation
Why the urge to have sex? Biological reproductive motive BUT conception is not always the ultimate goal (e.g. some masturbate & old people still practice sex) Pleasure, but why? Explained by EVOLUTION (passing of genes) Studies found that a host of other reasons besides pleasure explain the motive: Peer pressure in Adolescents Viewed by some women as a unenjoyable marital duty 10% of American men & 20% of women report its not pleasurable express love, foster intimacy,
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Sexual Behavior: Patterns & Change

Large scale survey in US
70% have sex with partner at least a few times a month Cohabiting single adults > married > not cohabiting By high school, 41% males & 29% females had sex
Premarital sex pattern increased with time due to changing social norms & delayed marriage BUT now leveling off and maybe reversing due to:
Emphasis on depth of relationship AIDS Sexually transmitted diseases
The Physiology of Sex

The Sexual Response Cycle (Masters & Johnson, 53): (4 stages)
1. Excitement: rapid arousal, blood flow to genital Excitement: areas, muscle tension 2. Plateau: built up tension until orgasm Plateau: 3. Orgasm: rhythmic contractions of internal organs Orgasm: and genital muscle tissue 4. Resolution: (males) rapid arousal decrease and Resolution: organs return to normal condition
Refractory period: temporarily incapable of period: another orgasm (mostly males)
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Female Sexual Response
Hormonal Influences
Hypothalamus controls pituitary gland which regulates secretion of hormones influencing secretion of androgens & estrogens (sex hormones)
Organizational effects: In womb, develop testes/ovaries; in effects: puberty, hypothalamus stimulates release of sex hormones Activational effects: stimulate desire & sexual behavior effects:
In nonhumans, males readiness affected by environmental stimuli (receptive female), & females follow estrus cycle In humans, puberty (or testosterone doses) increase motivation, BUT not affected much by hormonal changes Androgens primarily influence sexual desire in men & women
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The Psychology of Sex

Desire & positively perceived sexual stimulus (can be imaginary) trigger sexual motivation Mental processes (e.g. fantasizing) may physiological functioning (Men fantasize > women) Others functioning (e.g. Stress, fatigue, anger at partner,
performance anxiety, sexual assault, childhood sexual abuse)
Sexual dysfunction: chronic, impaired sexual dysfunction: functioning that distresses a person (injuries, disease, drug effects, or psychological)
Cultural & Environmental Influences

Sexual customs are not the same around the globe; e.g.:
Poking finger in partners ear (women of Micronesia); biting off &
spiting out hairs from partners eyebrow (women in South America); kissing is laughed at by people from Thonga -Africa
Some societies & religions forbid premarital sex, provocative appearance & behavior that arouses desire Other societies openly encourage premarital sex:
Eastern Polynesia families sleep together so children observe sex At adolescence, a middle-aged adult instructs & has intercourse middlewith adolescents
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Cultural & Environmental Influences

Mass media includes explicit scenes & themes unthinkable a century ago Does pornography affect mens attitudes & foster sexual violence? (rape myth) (rape myth)
Not necessarily; Sex offenders less aroused by nonviolent porn compared to violent porn, but act sexually either way Differences between rape rates & availability of porn movies between countries Violent porn mens tendency to aggress toward women but not other men; some personality types are affected more than others Porn does promote belief that sex is impersonal & decreases satisfaction with own partners
Sexual Orientation
Emotional & erotic preference for partners of a particular sex Prevalence of Different Sexual Orientations:
Some view it as a single dimension: Exclusively Either dimension: (hetero/homo) vs. Equally Both (bi) Others view it in terms of 3 dimensions: Self-identity, dimensions: SelfSexual attraction, & Actual sexual behavior 2-3% Americans identify themselves as homosexual or bisexual Higher percent report same-sex attraction & at least one samesamesame-sex sexual experience
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Determinants of Sexual Orientation

Early theories:
Differences in levels of sex hormones Weak ineffectual dad & domineering mom Sexually seduced by adult homosexual
Scientifically invalid
Felt different as children & engaged in gendergendernonconforming behaviors (e.g. tom-boys) Replication is tominconsistent Anatomical brain differences & genetic marker
Evidence
Heredity: High concordance rates in twins
Determinants of Sexual Orientation

Prenatal-sexPrenatal-sex-hormone activity & brain neural pattern predispose preferences One theory Male fetuses with androgen insensitivity develop female anatomy; Raised as girls (Socialization processes influence orientation) Another theory Heredity affects orientation indirectly; Personality style Gender-conforming/nonconforming GenderYet another theory activities Affects attraction
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Fraternal Birth Order Effect

Greater # older brothers (NOT sisters) probability to have homosexual orientation, Why?
Incestuous sexual encounter If older brother is homosexual
Raises awareness
Not likely
Maternal immune hypothesis (biological): fetus has H-Y antigen guiding brain to male-typical pattern, malebut sometimes goes to moms bloodstream
Antibodies prevent fetal brain from developing pattern Probability (strength) of maternal immunization increases with each male fetus
Social Motivation
Close relationships make life most meaningful Maslow belongingness is a basic cal need Why Do We Affiliate? Evolution: Evolution: Predisposed biological makeup engages us in socially oriented lifestyles (ADAPTIVE) Psychological reasons: reasons:
Positive stimulation 2. Emotional support 3. Gain attention 4. Social comparison: comparing our beliefs, feelings, & behaviors with those of other people
1.
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Need for Affiliation

People have different strengths in affiliation need:
Those with stronger need have more friends & their thoughts & activities include friends, but still at times desire to be alone Those with lower need are more reclusive, but may aspire social contact at times
This is viewed within a HOMEOSTATIC model: that model: involves maintaining an optimal range of social contact Situational factors play a role (e.g. fear-inducing situations fearlike emergencies)
Bond with others who face same situation Judge normalcy of our reactions Desire to be with those whove been through same/similar situations (e.g. post-operative rather than pre-operative patients) postpre-
Achievement Motivation
Society emphasizes achievement Some seek & thrive on challenges & others dont Need for achievement (Mclelland & Atkinson): positive desire to accomplish tasks & compete successfully with standards of excellence
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Motive for Success & Fear of Failure

Achievement motivation stems from positively oriented motive for success (BAS) vs. negatively oriented fear of failure (BIS) Separate & independent dimensions (can have both)
Motive for success Seek thrill of victory Fear of failure Avoid agony of defeat Anxiety negates impact of achievement need & impairs performance (e.g. can choke under pressure)
Motive for Success & Fear of Failure

HighHigh-need achievers (+ low in fear of failure):
On easy tasks: Dont always outperform others tasks:
On challenging or more important tasks: outshine others tasks: (higher level of performance & more persistence; strive hard when: personally responsible, theres risk of not succeeding, & when given feedback by others) Intermediate tasks are preferred when the outcomes are uncertain
LowLow-need achievers: choose easy or very difficult achievers:

Perception of outcome uncertainty counts
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Achievement Goal Theory

Stresses the manner in which success is defined both by individual & within achievement situation itself Individual level Achievement Goal Orientation
Mastery orientation: focus on personal improvement, orientation: giving max effort, & perfecting new skills Ego orientation: goal is to outperform others orientation: (hopefully with little effort) Situational level Motivational climate: encourages/ rewards either mastery or ego approach to defining success

Individual Goal Orientation: Mastery goals: focus on desire to master task & learn goals: new knowledge or skills intrinsic motivation (exams are positive challenges) Ego-approach goals: competitive orientation that Egogoals: focuses on being judged favorably relative to others Ego-avoidance goals: avoiding negative judgments by Egogoals: oneself or others fear of failure (exams as anxietyanxietyprovoking threats)
Who enjoys class more? Who gets better grades? Which is preferable?
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Motivational Climate (influenced by significant others)
Ego-involving climate: based on comparisons, Ego-
urged to compete, get special attention

Belief that ability, not hard work, leads to success
Mastery-involving climate: emphasis & reward on Mastery-
effort, enjoyment, & personal improvement (If we work to achieve potential & give max effort, winning will take care of itself)
Positive effects: intrinsic motivation, enjoyment, & selfself-esteem, performance anxiety, skill development, performance levels
Motivational Conflict
Goals sometimes conflict with each other; Success (study) vs. have fun (go to party) We approach things that attract us & avoid things that repel us ApproachApproach-approach conflict: face 2 attractive alternatives & conflict: selecting one means losing the other (most difficult if equally attractive) AvoidanceAvoidance-avoidance conflict: must choose between 2 undesirable conflict: alternatives (e.g. study boring material or skip studying & fail) ApproachApproach-avoidance conflict: attracted to & repelled by same goal conflict:
(e.g. dieting)
Strength of approach differs between people (e.g. whether dominated by

BAS & BIS tendencies)
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Feeling (affect) states that involve a pattern of cognitive, physiological, & behavioral reactions to events
ADAPTIVE: ADAPTIVE: Fear & alarm are part of emergency arousal system (fight-or(fight-or-flee in face of threat) Positive emotions serve important functions: form intimate relationships, explore, consider new ideas, try new ways to achieve goals, play SOCIAL COMMUNICATION: provide clues about COMMUNICATION: internal states & intentions, influence how others react
(e.g. negative or positive emotional reactions induce reactive behavior by others; happy individuals are attractive; depressed are avoided)
Emotions
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The Nature of Emotions

Emotional states are dynamic & share 4 common features 1. Triggered by external/internal eliciting stimuli 2. Result from appraisals of stimuli (perceived meaning & significance) 3. Bodies respond physiologically to appraisals 4. Include behavior tendencies: some are expressive behaviors (e.g. smiling) ; others are instrumental behaviors (e.g. fighting out in self-defense) self-
Eliciting Stimuli
Trigger cognitive appraisals & emotional responses External OR internal (e.g. thought of coming vacation, memory of unpleasant event) INNATE biological factors determine which stimuli evoke strongest emotions since infancy (evolutionary value) ( most phobias involve primal stimuli not ( modern threats) LEARNING: experience can people/situations CULTURE: physical features (ornamental scars)
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The Cognitive Component

Interpretations & meanings that we attach to sensory stimuli Inner experience influences expression & action Often were not consciously aware of appraisals automatic interpretation Different people/times have different emotional reactions to same object, situation, or person

Culture & Appraisal: Strong similarities in appraisal evoking joy, fear, anger, sadness, disgust, shame, & guilt
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Culture & Appraisal: With some differences depending on situation:
Being
alone: alone: Tahitians chance for bad spirits to bother fear Eskimo social rejection & isolation sadness & loneliness Western welcome respite from frantic pace contentment & happiness Despite universality, there is diversity in subtle interpretations of situations
HAPPINESS
Subjective Well-Being: peoples Wellemotional responses and their degree of satisfaction with various aspects of their life.
How happy are people?

Across all countries, mean rating of personal happiness indicates mild happiness (except India & Dominican Republic unhappy range) range) Men & women equal in global happiness BUT women experience both negative and positive emotions more intensely
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What makes people happy?

Personal Resources (15-20% of total variability)
Health, wealth, intelligence? dont guarantee happiness Satisfying social relationships (married>single or divorced) BUT not clear.. Could it be third variable problem? Having a sense of meaning in life (positive correlation between religiosity and happiness), helping others.. BUT also not clear.. Third variable problem?
Psychological Processes
Downward Comparison: seeing ourselves as better off than the standard of comparison experience satisfaction Upward Comparison: when we view ourselves as worse off than the standard of comparison experience dissatisfaction Personality Factors (sociable, open, curious) Biological Factors (genes) Culture (individualism vs. collectivism)
How to Be Happy:
Guidelines from Psychological Research
Pages 405 406 in your textbook
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11/30/2009

Chapter 11 Motivation and Emotion

Evolution, Instincts, & Genes

Now the study focuses on genetic contribution

Homeostasis & Drives

Approach & Avoidance Motivation

BAS involves Prefrontal area in left hemisphere

BIS involves limbic system & right frontal lobe

Cognitive Processes: Incentives & Expectancies

Other psychodynamic theorists:

Our most basic motive 3 levels of analysis

The Physiology of Hunger

The Physiology of Hunger

Other satiety signals:

Ob gene directs fat cells to produce leptin

Db gene mutation produce leptin, but brain receptors insensitive to leptin

Psychological Aspects of Hunger

Social pressure, especially for women

Environmental & Cultural Factors

Around 90% are women

Causes of Anorexia & Bulimia

Causes of Anorexia & Bulimia

Treatment is difficult, but can succeed in half cases

Sexual Behavior: Patterns & Change

The Physiology of Sex

Refractory period: temporarily incapable of period: another orgasm (mostly males)

Female Sexual Response

The Psychology of Sex

Cultural & Environmental Influences

Cultural & Environmental Influences

Determinants of Sexual Orientation

Heredity: High concordance rates in twins

Determinants of Sexual Orientation

Fraternal Birth Order Effect

Need for Affiliation

Motive for Success & Fear of Failure

Motive for Success & Fear of Failure

LowLow-need achievers: choose easy or very difficult achievers:

Achievement Goal Theory

Achievement Goal Theory

Achievement Goal Theory

urged to compete, get special attention

Mastery-involving climate: emphasis & reward on Mastery-

Strength of approach differs between people (e.g. whether dominated by

The Nature of Emotions

The Cognitive Component

The Cognitive Component

The Cognitive Component

How happy are people?

What makes people happy?

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