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Master of Business Administration Semester I MB0038 Management Process and Organizational Behaviour Assignment Set- 1 Q1. Explain the four processes of Social Learning Theory. Ans1. Social Learning Theory Social learning theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context. It considers that people learn from one another, including such concepts as observational learning, imitation, and modeling. Among others Albert Bandura is considered the leading proponent of this theory. General principles of social learning theory follows: 1. People can learn by observing the behavior is of others and the outcomes of those behaviors. 2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior. Behaviorists say that learning has to be represented by a permanent change in behavior, in contrast social learning theorists say that because people can learn through observation alone, their learning may not necessarily be shown in their performance. Learning may or may not result in a behavior change. 3. Cognition plays a role in learning. Over the last 30 years social learning theory has become increasingly cognitive in its interpretation of human learning. Awareness and expectations of future reinforcements or punishments can have a major effect on the behaviors that people exhibit. 4. Social learning theory can be considered a bridge or a transition between behaviorist learning theories and cognitive learning theories. How the environment reinforces and punishes modeling: People are often reinforced for modeling the behavior of others. Bandura suggested that the environment also reinforces modeling. This is in several possible ways: 1, The observer is reinforced by the model. For example a student who changes dress to fit in with a certain group of students has a strong likelihood of being accepted and thus reinforced by that group. 2. The observer is reinforced by a third person. The observer might be modeling the actions of someone else, for example, an outstanding class leader or student. The teacher notices

this and compliments and praises the observer for modeling such behavior thus reinforcing that behavior. 3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences. Many behaviors that we learn from others produce satisfying or reinforcing results. For example, a student in my multimedia class could observe how the extra work a classmate does is fun. This student in turn would do the same extra work and also receive enjoyment. 4. Consequences of the models behavior affect the observers behavior vicariously. This is known as vicarious reinforcement.

Social Learning has four processes:

1. Attention Process People learn from a model only when they recognize and pay attention to its critical features. In order to learn, it is required to pay attention . Anything that detracts the attention is going to have a negative effect on observational learning. If this model is interesting or there is a novel aspect to the situation, it is more likely to dedicate the full attention to learning. 2. Retention process A models influence will depend on how well the individual remembers the models action after the it is no longer readily available. The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process. Retention can be affected by a number of factors, but the ability to pull up information later and act on it is vital to observational learning. 3. Motor reproduction Processes After a person has seen a new behavior by observing the model, the watching must be converted to doing. The ability to store the information is also an important part of the learning process. retention can be affected by a number of factors, but the ability to pull up information later and act on it is vital to observational learning. 4. Reinforcement Processes Individuals will be motivated to exhibit the modeled behavior if positive incentives or rewards are provided. Finally, in order for observational learning to be successful, you have to be motivated to imitate the behavior that has been modeled. Reinforcement and punishment play an important role in motivation. While experiencing these motivators can be highly effective, so can observing other experience some type of reinforcement or punishment. For example, if you see another student rewarded with extra credit for being to class on time, you might start to show up a few minutes early each day.

Q2. What are the hindrances that we face in perception? Ans: Following are the barriers to perception: a) Selective perception - People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests, background, experience, knowledge, exposure, and attitudes. The tendency to see what we want to see using short cuts can make us draw unwarranted conclusions from an ambiguous situation. b) Halo Effect This effect occurs when we draw a general impression on the basis of a single characteristic. But what this experiment demonstrates is that although we can understand the halo effect intellectually, we often have no idea when it is actually happening. This is what makes it such a useful effect for marketers and politicians. We quite naturally make the kinds of adjustments demonstrated in this experiment without even realising it. And then, even when it's pointed out to us, we may well still deny it. c) Contrast Effect Individuals do not evaluate a person in isolation. Their reaction to one person is influenced by other people they have encountered recently. d) Projection This tendency to attribute one`s own characteristics to other people is called projection. This too can distort perceptions made about others. When managers engage in projection, they compromise their ability to respond to individual differences. They tend to see people as more homogeneous than they really are. e) Stereotyping Judging someone on the basis of our perception of the group to which he or she belongs. Stereotypes are generalizations about a group of people whereby we attribute a defined set of characteristics to this group. These classifications can be positive or negative, such as when various nationalities are stereotyped as friendly or unfriendly. It is easier to create stereotypes when there is a clearly visible and consistent attribute that can easily be recognized. This is why people of colour, police and women are so easily stereotyped. People from stereotyped groups can find this very disturbing as they experience an apprehension (stereotype threat) of being treated unfairly. f) First-Impression Error - is the tendency to form lasting opinions about an individual based on initial perceptions. We tend to remember what we perceive first about a person and sometimes we are quite reluctant to change our initial impressions.

Q3. Describe the bases of power. Ans: Power is the ability to make things happen in the way an individual wants, either by self or by the subordinates. The essence of power is control over the behavior of others (French & Raven, 1962). Managers derive power from both organizational and individual sources. There two kinds of power Formal and Informal. Formal Power consists of the following bases - Coercive, Reward, Legitimate, Informational Informal Power consists of the following bases Expert, Rational persuasion, Referent power, Charismatic power

Positional power - Also called "legitimate power", it is the power of an individual because of the relative position and duties of the holder of the position within an organization. Legitimate power is formal authority delegated to the holder of the position. It is usually accompanied by various attributes of power such as uniforms, offices etc. This is the most obvious and also the most important kind of power. Referent power - Referent power is the power or ability of individuals to attract others and build loyalty. It's based on the charisma and interpersonal skills of the power holder. A person may be admired because of specific personal trait, and this admiration creates the opportunity for interpersonal influence. Here the person under power desires to identify with these personal qualities, and gains satisfaction from being an accepted follower. Nationalism and patriotism count towards an intangible sort of referent power. For example, soldiers fight in wars to defend the honour of the country. This is the second least obvious power, but the most effective. Advertisers have long used the referent power of sports figures for products endorsements, for example. The charismatic appeal of the sports star supposedly leads to an acceptance of the endorsement, although the individual may have little real credibility outside the sports arena. Expert power - Expert power is an individual's power deriving from the skills or expertise of the person and the organization's needs for those skills and expertise. Unlike the others, this type of power is usually highly specific and limited to the particular area in which the expert is trained and qualified. Reward power - Reward power depends on the ability of the power wielder to confer valued material rewards, it refers to the degree to which the individual can give others a reward of some kind such as benefits, time off, desired gifts, promotions or increases in pay or responsibility. This power is obvious but also ineffective if abused. People who abuse reward power can become pushy or became reprimanded for being too forthcoming or 'moving things too quickly'. Coercive power - Coercive power is the application of negative influences. It includes the ability to demote or to withhold other rewards. The desire for valued rewards or the fear of having them withheld that ensures the obedience of those under power. Coercive power tends to be the most obvious but least effective form of power as it builds resentment and resistance from the people who experience it. Informational power - Informational power is based on the potential use of informational resources. This influence can occur through such means as rational argument, persuasion, or factual data. Members of a group can make information into power by giving it to others who need it, by keeping it to themselves, by organizing it in some way, by increasing it, or even by falsifying it.

Q4. Ms. Chanchal Das Gupta is a recruitment specialist. For the post of QC Manager, she interviews three candidates. Given below are the physical characteristics of the candidates.

Candidate

Physical Characteristics

Mr.Ravi Mr.Gineesh Mr.Ramgopal

Muscular, thick skin, rectangular shaped Thin, delicate build, large brain, tall Soft, round muscles shaped, underdeveloped

From the above descriptions, what personality traits can Ms. Chanchal derive out of the candidates as per Sheldons theory of personality? Ans: Per Sheldon`s theory of personality, below are the traits that Ms. Chanchal can derive:
y

Mr. Ravi represents Mesomorph body type. He is well-proportioned. Psychologically he is Adventurous, Courageous, Indifferent to what others think or want, Assertive/bold, Zest for physical activity, Competitive, With a desire for power/dominance, And a love of risk/chance Mr. Gineesh represents Ectomorph body type. Psychologically he is Self-conscious, Private, Introverted, Inhibited, Socially anxious, Artistic, Intense, Emotionally restrained, Thoughtful Mr. Ramgopal represents Endomorph body type. Psychologically he is Sociable, Fun-loving, Love of food, Tolerant, Even-tempered, Good humoured, Relaxed, With a love of comfort, And has a need for affection

Q5. What are the consequences of conflict in organisations? Ans: Organizational Conflict can have both positive and negative consequences. Negative consequences: Increased costs (time, money) devoted to dealing with the conflict, wasted resources and energy spent dealing with the conflict, Decreased productivity, Lowered motivation, Decreased morale, Poor decision-making, Withdrawal and miscommunication or non-communication, Complaints and blaming, Backstabbing and gossip, Attitudes of distrust and hostility (that may influence all future interactions, (Permanent) erosion to personal, work, and community relationships, Harm to others not directly involved in the conflict, Damaged emotional and psychological well-being of those involved in the conflict, Dissatisfaction and stress. Positive consequences: Leads to new ideas, Stimulates creativity, Motivates change, Promotes organizational vitality, Helps individuals and groups to establish identities, Serves as a safety valve to indicate problems, Builds cooperation, Helps individuals to develop skills on how to manage conflicts, Improving quality decisions.

Q6. Explain sensitivity training.

Ans: sensitivity training is a psychological technique in which intensive group discussion and interaction are used to increase individual awareness of self and others; it is practiced in a variety of forms under such names as T-group, encounter group, human relations, and group-dynamics training. The group is usually small and unstructured and chooses its own goals. A trained leader is generally present to help maintain a psychologically safe atmosphere in which participants feel free to express themselves and experiment with new ways of dealing with others. The leader remains as much as possible outside the discussion. Issues are raised by the group members, and their interactions evoke a wide variety of feelings. The leader encourages participants to examine verbally their own and others reactions. It is believed that as mutual trust is developed, interpersonal communication increases, and eventually attitudes will change and be carried over into relations outside the group. Often, however, these changes do not endure. Sensitivity training seems to be most effective if sessions are concentrated and uninterrupted, as in several days of continuous meetings. Sensitivity-training methods derived in large part from those of group psychotherapy. They have been applied to a wide range of social problems (as in business and industry) in an effort to enhance trust and communication among individuals and groups throughout an organization.