BioPsychology Lecture Notes: Perception mechanisms cont

Sensorimotor Association Cortex Two major areas Posterior parietal association cortex Dorsolateral Prefrontal Association cortex Each composed of several different area with different functions Some disagreement exists about how to divide the areas up

Posterior Parietal Association Cortex Integrates information about Body Part location External Objects Receives visual, auditory & somatosensory information Outputs to motor cortex Including Dorsolateral prefrontal association cortex, secondary motor cortex, & frontal eye field Dorsolateral Prefrontal Association Cortex (PFC) Input from posterior parietal cortex Output to secondary motor cortex, primary motor cortex, & frontal eye field Evaluates external stimuli & initiates voluntary reactions--supported by neuronal responses Secondary motor Cortex Input mainly from association cortex Output mainly to primary motor cortex At least 8 different areas 3 of the 8 are supplementary motor areas SMA & preSMA & Supplementary eye field 2 premotor areas Dorsal & Ventral 3 Cingulate motor areas

Mirror Neurons Active when performing an action or watching another perform the same action In monkey studies, mirror neurons fired while: Grasping or watching another grasp a particular object but not other objects Grasping or watching another grasp an object for a specific purpose but not for another purpose Possible neural basis of social cognition (knowledge of others' mental processes - e.g., intentions) Likely to be found in humans Indirect evidence from functional brain-imaging studies (mirror neurons = new to psychology) Primary Motor Cortex Found in the Precentral Gyrus of the Frontal Lobe

Major points of convergence of cortical sensorimotor signals Major point of departure of signals from cortex Functions: Somatotopic: more cotrex is devoted to body parts that make complex movements (e.g. more devoted to fingers movement instead of hips) Motor homunculus Current view of primary motor cortex function Until recently, each neuron was thought to encode the direction of movement NOW, Regions of primary motor cortex support initiation of species-typical movements Complex response, using multiple parts Neurons direct to target of movement, rather than simply a pre-coded direction Concerned with Location NOT direction

Cerebellum & Basal Ganglia Interact with different levels of the sensorimotor hierarchy Their Role is in Coordinating & modulating May permit maintenance of visually guided responses despite cortical damage (We can still make visually guided movements even if there is damage to the cortical aspects)

Cerebellum 10% of brain mass, but more than 50% of neurons are located in the cerebellum Receives input from the primary & secondary motor cortexes Also receives input from the brain stem motor nuclei Important for the Feedback from motor responses Involved in timing, fine-tuning & motor learning May also do the same for cognitive responses (beyond just the physical movements but also cognitive) Basal Ganglia A Heterogeneous collection of interconnected nuclei (do many different things) A part of neural loops that receive cortical input and send output back via the thalamus Its important in modulates motor output & (supporting the development of) cognitive functions including learning

Descending Motor Pathways 2 dorsolateral Corticospinal Corticorubrospinal 2 ventromedial Corticospinal Cortico-brainstem-spinal tract Both corticospinal tracts are directs All 4 pathways act together to control voluntary movement

Dorsolateral Tracts

Most synapse on interneurons of spinal gray matter Corticospinal: Descend through the medullary pyramids, then decussate Betz Cells: synapse on motor neurons projecting to leg muscles Corticospinal Control of wrist, hands, fingers & toes (Crosses over at meullary pyramid) Corticorubrospinal: synapse at red nucleus & cross before the medulla Some control of muscles of the face Distal muscles of arms & legs Crosses over higher up/ before the brainstem

Ventromedial Tracts Corticospinal Descends ipsilaterally Axons branch & innervate interneuron circuits bilaterally in multiple spinal segments Cortico-Brainstem-spinal (pathway) Interacts with various brain stem structures & descends bilaterally carrying information from both hemispheres Synapse on interneurons of multiple spinal segments controlling proximal trunk & limb muscles

CHAPTER 8 cont
Comparison of the 2 Dorsolateral & the 2 Ventromedial Motor Pathways

Dorsolateral One direct tract, one that synapses in the brain stem (red nucleaus) Terminate in one contralateral spinal segment Control of distal muscles (controlling limb movements) Ventromedial One direct tract, one that synapses in the Brain stem (cortico brain stem) Pathways are more diffuse (not as direct as dorsalateral) Bilateral innervation Controlling the Proximal Muscles Basically posture & whole body movement

Sensorimotor Spinal Circuits (what controls the muscles) Spinal cord motor circuits show considerabl complexity Spinal Circuits are Capable of functioning independent of signals from the Brain

MUSCLES Motor Units: A motor neuron plus muscle fibers; all fibers contract when motor neuron fires (smallest unit)

Number of fibers per unit varies Fine Control: uses fewer fibers per neuron Muscle: Muscle fibers bound together by a tendon Main neurotransmitter is Acetylcholine: which is released by motor neurons at the neuromuscular junction activates the motor end-plate on each muscle fiber & causes contraction Motor pool: All motor neurons innervating the fibers of a single muscle ( a muscle and all of it neurons) Two Categories of muscle fibers Fast muscle fibers = quick actions, but fatigue quickly Slow muscle fibers = capable of sustained contraction due to vascularization (blood flow). Used for gradual movements Muscles are a mix of slow & fast fibers Categorized muscles as either flexors or extensors Flexors: act to bend or flex a joint (biceps) Extensors: Act to straighten or extend a joint (triceps) Antagonistic Muscles: Any two muscles that act in opposition e.g. Biceps & Triceps Synergistic Muscles: Any two muscles whose contraction produces the same movement Receptor Organs of Tendons & Muslces Monitoring our muscular activity by.

Golgi Tendon Organs Embedded in Tendons Tendons connect muscle to bone They Detect muscle Tension (NOT length) Protection Function (if tension is too much and may cause damage it also inhibits muscle contraction to protect the muscle. Muscle Spindles Embedded in Muscle Tissue Detect changes in muscle length (NOT tension) Muscle spindles have their own muscles: Intrafusal muscle within each muscle spindle innervated by its own intrafusal motor neuron. The reason for its own muscle is that: It Keeps tension on the middle, stretchsensitive portion of the muscle spindle to keep it responsive to changes in the length of the extrafusal muscle Basically gives information about the state of muscles (A feedback system) Fig. 8.13

Reflexes Stretch Reflex: Reflex that is elicited by a sudden external stretching force on a muscle e.g. Patellar tendon reflex: tap the knee and leg extends (sensory info from muscle to spine and back no brain interaction Serves to maintain limb stability

The stretch reflex is Monosynaptic: It synapses on the neuron that results in direct response.

Withdrawal Reflex: Reflexive withdrawal of a limb when it comes in contact with a painful stimulus NOT monosynaptic: the shortest route Involves at least 2 synapses See Fig 8.16 Doesn't require neural activity in the brain, but sends PAIN info up to it.

Reciprocal Innervation: Antagonistic muscles interact so that movements are smooth - Flexors are excited while extensors are inhibited etc.

Recurrent Collateral Inhibition: Feedback Loop through Renshaw cells that gives muscle fiber a rest after every contraction. Gives them a break in the loop Renshaw Cells are small inhibitory interneurons ***Look in book about walking as a reflex*** Central Sensorimotor Programs

Central sensorimotor Programs Theory: suggests that all but the highest levels of sensorimotor system have certain patters of activity and that complex movements are produced by activating the appropriate combinations of these programs. Once activated, each level operates on the basis of sensory feedback, without direct control of higher levels. Outside your conscious awareness. Some are innate & some can be developed with practice Motor Equivalence The Same basic movement can be carried out in different ways involving different muscles Signing your name. writing your name with parts other than your hand tend to look similar This shows inherent plasticity of motor system. Not a controlled system specific to your hand