Beliefs are individual constructs while knowledge is essentially socially constructed (Op 't Eynde, De Corte & Verschaffel,

2002). Mathematics subject Sherman, Richardson and Yard (2005, p 3) remind us that mathematics instruction must provide many opportunities for concept building, relevant challenging questions, problem solving reasoning, and connections within the curriculum and real-world situations. Westwood (2000) also reminds us that the educator is the pivotal person in ensuring successful learning. ( Students Background ) Huhtala concludes that there are three layers that influence bidirectionally the neighbouring layers: the innermost layer of previous experiences with mathematics learning (past); the middle layer way of experiencing mathematics, specifically the emotions involved; and the outermost layer of encountering mathematics in the moment (present). (Students background)"Elementary teachers' mathematics", one useful new conceptualization has been to focus on students' different learning orientations (see Lehtinen, Vauras, Salonen, Olkinuora & Kinnunen, 1995) as part of their identity. (e.g. Kaasila, Hannula, Laine & Pehkonen, 2006) Her studies indicate how difficulties in learning mathematics are deeply intertwined with beliefs about self as mathematics learner and beliefs about mathematics as a subject (Huhtala 2000, 2002). Also Lindgren (1995), Pietil (2002a, b), Hannula (2003), and Kaasila (2002, see also this Issue) have done similar in-depth case studies. At the other end of the continuum, there are quantitative studies, where the typical method has been to provide a list of statements, such as "Math is hard for me", "My family has encouraged me to study mathematics" and "Learning mathematics requires a lot of effort" and then ask the respondent to choose level of agreement on a (typically) five-degree Likert-scale. Then these responses have been processed through various statistical analyses. (e.g. Hannula, Kaasila, Laine & Pehkonen, 2006) ( Gender)Soro (2000, 2002) had a mixed methods approach when she studied mathematics teachers' beliefs about the role of gender in mathematics ( Gender )The teacher had to choose if such a statement would apply usually to a boy or a girl, more often to one than the other, or as often to both genders (Soro, 2000, 2002). Interestingly, a similar instrument was developed at the same time in Australia (Forgasz & Leder, 2000). In the qualitative part of the study, she interviewed a number of teachers, which gave her a better understanding of the thinking behind different types of responses.

Gender differences in self-confidence favouring males have been well confirmed (e.g. Leder, 1995), and some studies indicate that also the relationship between self-confidence and achievement is affected by gender (e.g. Hannula et. al. 2004). Gender difference has been clearer in how difficult mathematics is seen (Kangasniemi, 1989) and quite robust in students' self-confidence in mathematics (Hannula & Malmivuori, 1997; Kangasniemi, 1989; Hannula et al, 2005). Lower self-confidence among female students has been found even on level of individual tasks, in case of both correct and incorrect answers (Hannula et al., 2002). (Gender)Most mathematics teachers are found to hold different beliefs about students based on their gender. Girls are seen to employ inferior cognitive skills and succeed because of their diligence, while boys are seen to be talented in mathematics but lacking in effort (Soro, 2000, 2002). These results coincide interestingly with the beliefs of students, but the existence of a possible causal effect has not been established. Although frequently assumed, the gender of the teacher does not seem to be an explanatory factor in either the beliefs of the teacher (Soro, 2002) or the beliefs and performance of the students (Hannula & Malmivuori, 1997). Confirm student understanding of mathematical language. Sherman, Richardson and Yard (2005) believe that students become confused about the meaning of words in mathematics lessons. For example, while an educator may be explaining the concept of 10 to the power of the word power takes on a whole new meaning for many South Australian children that has (possibly) little to do with what is being explained. Westwood (2000, p18) believes that one of the main problems encountered by studentsis translating between their own intuitive and concrete understanding of the real world and the language used to describe and quantify for mathematical purposes for school. Educators must build upon a students level of language, check for understanding and not assume that nods and smiles are indicating comprehension. This is necessary because language plays an important role in communication, thinking and is a tool for exchanging ideas and concepts between individuals (Aziz, 2003). Carnellor (2004, p 25) comments that childrenneed to be given as many opportunities to write about their tasks which allows them to incorporate the strategies they are happier using. By writing about their mathematics, students can firm up their thinking and explain on paper what they did and why. This process also allows the educator to see into a students thinking. Booker (2000) reminds us that games can be powerful teaching and learning tools to develop conceptual understandings. It is engagement with interesting and fun activities that can keep a young person practising a skill well beyond what they might tolerate if asked to do (another) worksheet. Simple and versatile, games such as those presented

in Booker (2000) can provide important learning opportunities; student with student or student with adult. Card games are especially useful as they are cheap, portable, and socially acceptable for all ages. (facilities)NCTM (2006) states that technology is essential in teaching and learning mathematics; it influences the mathematics that is taught and enhances students' learning. Far from being just electronic downtime, the internet offers educators a huge range of research-based practices, interactive websites, resources, and lesson plans. Again, it is the engagement of otherwise reluctant students that shows us the internet can be a valuable teaching resource. A computer is a patient teacher and it is interesting to observe some students who will stay with a game well beyond the time they might usually stay with a pen and paper exercise. Far from being a solitary activity, pairs and small groups can use internet mathematic resources. Its interesting that some educators believe the use of calculators is making students lazy and yet employers expect their staff to have an effortless capacity to use them. (What about the use of graphics calculators in year 12 exams?) Carnellor (2004, p 54) takes a more proactive view in relation to students with mathematical difficulties when she says that calculators may provide these students with opportunities to investigate the necessary mathematical ideas, without the concern of accuracy in the recording process (Teachers Attitude). To optimize learning for students who already have mathematical difficulties it is essential that educators have a robust pedagogical knowledge and positive attitude. Carnellor (2004, p 5) states that for many adultsmathematics generates unease and insecurity. .These feelings probably originate from their own classroom experiences where mathematics consisted of drill, rules, and recipes, instead of understanding and application. This suggests that educators need to be quite clear about what mathematical concepts they feel comfortable teaching and where they need further learning. (AGE)The writer would like to suggest that as she gets wiser (aka older) she has come to the realization that the older she gets, the less she knows. Professional learning through collegial sharing of practices, participation in workshops and self-selected reading must be part of every educators repertoire Carnellor (2004). Pincott (2004, p 147) suggests that a textbook approach in the curriculum is akin to rote learning tables i.e. carrying out the process often without the understanding.

. NCTM (2006) reminds us that assessment should support the learning of important mathematics and furnish useful information to both teachers and students. Marja-Liisa Malmivuori has done a thorough literature review of research on affect in mathematics education, which she has synthesized in her dissertation. Based on this work she was able to build her own theory of affect as an element in self-regulation of mathematical behaviour (Malmivuori 1996, 2001, 2006). (Students background)Both Huhtala (2000) and Pietil (2002 a, b) have adopted and elaborated the framework of experiential learning by Malinen (2000), where a protective belt of malleable beliefs needs to be penetrated in order to the more personal elements of the view to change. Huhtala concludes that there are three layers that influence bi-directionally the neighbouring layers: the innermost layer of previous experiences with mathematics learning (past); the middle layer way of experiencing mathematics, specifically the emotions involved; and the outermost layer of encountering mathematics in the moment (present). Sinikka Huhtala's case study of her mathematics clinic work with practical nursing students who had learning difficulties in mathematics. Her studies indicate how difficulties in learning mathematics are deeply intertwined with beliefs about self as mathematics learner and beliefs about mathematics as a subject (Huhtala 2000, 2002). Also Lindgren (1995), Pietil (2002a, b), Hannula (2003), and Kaasila (2002, see also this Issue) have done similar in-depth case studies. (Gender)These studies have shown that, for example, girls tend to have more negative attitudes towards mathematics than boys (Frost et al., 1994; Leder, 1995), and that attitudes tend to become more negative as pupils move from elementary to secondary school (McLeod, 1994). Hannula (2002) Anxious individuals may avoid mathematics classes, may be more likely to have negative attitudes toward mathematic related activities, or if they become elementary teachers, may not spend as much time teaching mathematics as their less anxious colleagues (Ho et al., 2000) William James once said, It is our attitude at the beginning of a difficult task which, more than anything else, will affect its successful outcome. (Van Wagner, n.d.). McCleod (1992) said that attitude toward mathematics is related to mathematics success in the classroom. Conversely, students achievement can influence a students attitude as well. Thus, it is important for teachers to improve student work to make a positive change in their attitude toward mathematics (Ma & Xu, 2004).

Teachers can reinforce the idea that mathematics is an interesting subject, used in other disciplines, and is an admission ticket for colleges and careers. (Anderson, 2007 p. 12). one could say that the better a students attitude toward mathematics may be, the more successful and the higher the performance level will be for that student. From the study, Hammouri (2004) found significant positive affects of: 1. attitude towards math on maths achievement and self-perception of maths importance; 2. confidence in maths ability on maths achievement, attitude towards math, educational aspiration and self-perception of maths importance; 3. educational aspiration on maths achievement and attitude towards maths; 4. self-perception of maths importance on maths achievement; Hannula (2002) looked at the attitude in cognitive-emotional terms. In his research, he states While a student is engaged in a mathematical activity, there is a continuous unconscious evaluation of the situation with respect to personal goals. When students are evaluated, there are four areas to examine. The first is simply situational and no prior experience of the entity being evaluated (Hannula, 2002). The second depends entirely on previous experience and is the kind that is typically seen on questionnaires. The third evaluation is when the situation is to a familiar to a degree, but the individual has no personal experience. The fourth is when an individual looks at ones whole life and the value of different goals in it. Hannula stated that these four evaluations produce attitude (2002). Ma