THEORY ON ERROR

PROBABLE VALUE

X
X
n
RESIDUAL
v X X
PROBABLE ERROR (Single)
t

2
0.6745
1
s
v
PE
n
PROBABLE ERROR (Mean)
( )
t

2
0.6745
1
m
v
PE
n n
PRECISION

m
PE
PRECISION
X
VARIANCE
( )

2
X X
VARIANCE
n
STANDARD DEVIATION
SD VARIANCE
DISTANCE MEASUREMENT
STADIA MEASUREMENT
( ) ( ) + + + + cos cos
f
D S f c KS f c
i
cos H D
sin V D
where:
f/i k, stadia interval factor (100)
S stadia intercept
f+c stadia constant (0 int. focusing)
angle of inclination of sight
SUBSTENSE BAR
( )

2tan
2
S
D
where:
S length of bar (2m)
angle subtended by the bar
CORRECTIONS IN TAPING
TEMPERATURE CORRECTION
( )
T o o
C T T L
where:
T temp. during measurement
To temp. when tape is of length Lo
coef of thermal expansion (11.6E-6)
PULL CORRECTION
( )

o o
P
P P L
C
AE
where:
P pull during measurement
Po pull when tape is Lo
A cross-sectional area of tape
E modulus of elasticity of tape
SAG CORRECTION (negative error)

2 3
2
24
SAG
L
C
P
where:
weight of tape per linear m. or ft.
L unsupported length of tape
P pull during measurement
SLOPE CORRECTION (negative error)

2
2
SLOPE
h
C
S
where:
h difference in elev. bet. ends of tape
S incline distance
EARTHS CURVATURE & REFRACTION

2
0.0675
1000 tan
cr
h K
Y K
where:
K distance in kilometer
TRAVERSE CORRECTION
ERROR OF CLOSURE
+

2 2
.
.
E LAT DEP
ERROROF CLOS
RELATIVE ERROR
PERIMETEROF TRAV
where:
LAT (North Lat South Lat)
DEP (East Dep West Dep)
COMPASS RULE (Correction)

.
LAT
LAT LAT
C LENGTHOF COURSE
PERIMETEROF TRAV N S

.
DEP
DEP DEP
C LENGTHOF COURSE
PERIMETEROF TRAV E W
TRANSIT RULE (Correction)

+

LAT
LAT LAT LAT LAT
C LATITUDEOF COURSE
N S N S

+

DEP
DEP DEP DEP DEP
C DEPARTUREOF COURSE
E W E W

where:
CLAT latitude correction(per course)
CDEP departure correction(per course)
AREA COMPUTATION
AREA OF CLOSED TRAVERSE

1
2
DOUBLEA AREA DMD LATITUDE
AREA DOUBLE AREA
where:
DMD double meridian distance
DMD of 1
st
course is equal to
the departure of that course.
DMD of any other couse is
equal to the DMD of the
previous course plus the
departure of the previous course
plus the departure of the course
itself.
AREA BY TRAPEZOIDAL RULE
( ) 1 + + + +
] 1 2 3
2 ...
2
n
d
AREA h h h h
AREA BY SIMPSONS ONE-THIRD RULE
1 + + +
] 1
2 4
3
odd even n
d
AREA h h h h
AREA BY COORDINATES

1 2 3 4 1
1 2 3 4 1
1
...
2
n
n
x x x x x x
AREA
y y y y y y
where:
d common distance between chords
h equidistant parallel chords
VOLUME OF ROAD EXCAVATION
WORKS BETWEEN TWO STATIONS
VOLUME BY END AREA METHOD
+

1 2
2
end area
A A
V L
VOLUME BY PRISMOIDAL FORMULA
( ) + +
1 2
4
6
prismoidal m
L
V A A A
VOLUME CORRECTION
( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
12
correction
L
V C C D D
where:
L total length between station
A1, A2 cross-sectional area at the end
of each station
Am mean cross-sectional area
C1, C2 depth at stations 1 & 2 resp.
D1, D2 top width at stations 1& 2 resp.
VOLUME OF TRUNCATED PRISM

truncated prism
h
V A
n
where:
A base area
h corner height
n number of corners
BORROW PIT METHOD (ASSEMBLY OF
RECTANGULAR PRISMS)
+ + +

1 2 3 4
2 3 4
4
h h h h
V A
where:
h1 height found on one area only
h2 height common to two areas
h3 height common to three areas
h4 height common to four areas
VOLUME OF RESERVOIR OR PIT
VOLUME BY END AREA METHOD
1 + +
] 1
2
2
end area i n
d
V A A A
VOL. BY SIMPSONS ONE-THIRD RULE
1 + + +
] 1
2 4
3
odd even n
d
V A A A A
where:
A1, An area of first and last sections
Ai sum of area of interior sections
CUT & FILL
+

+
cut fill
ground road
H H
L
g g
SIMPLE CURVE
RADIUS

1145.916
R
D
LENGTH OF CURVE

20
180
c
RI I
L
D
TANGENT DISTANCE
tan
2
I
T R
LENGTH OF CHORD
2 sin
2
I
L R
EXTERNAL DISTANCE
_


,
sec 1
2
I
E R
MIDDLE ORDINATE
_


,
1 cos
2
I
m R
where:
D degree of curve
I angle of intersection of the tangents
or central angle of the simple curve
MINIMUM RADIUS OF CURVE
( )

+
2
min
127
V
R
e f
( )

2
tan
tan
v
gR
e
where:
V design speed, km/h
e super-elevation
f coefficient of friction
angle of friction
SPIRAL CURVE
DISTANCE ALONG TANGENT TO ANY
POINT ON THE SPIRAL

5
2 2
40
s
L
Y L
R L
OFFSET DISTANCE FROM TANGENT
TO ANY POINT ON THE SPIRAL

3
6
s
L
X
RL
SPIRAL ANGLE FROM TANGENT TO
ANY POINT ON THE SPIRAL

2
2
s
L
RL
DEFLECTION ANGLE FROM TS TO ANY
POINT ON THE SPIRAL

3
i
2 2
s
s
i i
L L
LENGTH OF THROW

2
4 24
c s
X L
P
R
TANGENT DISTANCE
( ) + + tan
2 2
s
s
L I
T R P
EXTERNAL DISTANCE
( ) + sec
2
s
I
E R P R
DEGREE OF SPIRAL CURVE AT ANY
POINT

c
s
D D
L L
where:
R radius of the simple curve
Ls total length of spiral
L any length of spiral
Dc degree of simple curve
DESIRABLE LENGTH OF SPIRAL

3
0.036
s
V
L
R
where:
V velocity, km/h
RATE OF CHANGE OF CENTRIPETAL
ACCELERATION

3
s
v
q
RL
where:
v velocity, m/s
SYMMETRICAL PARABOLIC CURVE

1
1
1 2
g L
S
g g

1 1 1
1
2
h g S
( )
1 2
8
L
H g g

_

,
2 2
2
y H
x L
where:
g1, g2 grades of tangent lines at PC &
PT, respectively
L length of parabolic curve
S1, S2 sight distance
H height from PI to curve (L/2)
UNSYMMETRICAL PARABOLIC CURVE
( )
( )

1 2 1 2 1
1 3
2 2
g g L L L
H g g
L

1 2
4
H
h h
+

1 1 2 2
3 1
1
2 g L g L H
g g
L L
LOCATION OF HIGHEST OR LOWEST
POINT OF THE CURVE
>
2
1 1 1 1
1
2 2
g L g L
S if H
H
<
2
2 2 1 1
2
2 2
g L g L
S if H
H
where:
g3 common tangent
L1, L2 length of curve from PC and PT,
respectively
S1, S2 length from PC and PT to
summit respectively
H height from PI to curve (L1 or L2)
SIGHT DISTANCES
STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE
( )
+
+
2
2
v
SSD vt
g f G
where:
v velocity, m/s
f coefficient of friction
G road grade (+ ascend, - descend)
PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE
+ + +
1 2 3 4
PSD d d d d
SD ON HORIZONTAL CURVE
WHEN S < Lc

2
8
S
R
m
WHEN S > Lc
( )

2
8
c c
L S L
R
m
where:
R radius of curve
Lc length of curve
S sight distance
m distance of obstruction from curve
SD ON VERTICAL SUMMIT CURVE
WHEN S < L
( )

+
2
2
1 2
200
AS
L
h h
WHEN S > L
( )
+

2
1 2
200
2
h h
L S
A
where:
A change in grade, percent
(g1 g2)
S sight distance
h1 height of 1
st
objects line of sight
h2 height of 2
nd
objects line of sight
SD ON VERTICAL SUMMIT CURVE (w/o
h1 & h2)
WHEN S < L

2
915
AS
L
WHEN S > L

915
2 L S
A
SD ON SAG PARABOLIC CURVE
WHEN S < L
( )

+
2
200 tan
AS
L
S H
WHEN S > L
( ) +

200 tan
2
S H
L S
A
where:
headlight beam angle
H 2 ft (standard design value)
SD ON SAG PARABOLIC CURVE (w/o H
& )
WHEN S < L

+
2
122 3.5
AS
L
S
WHEN S > L
+

122 3.5
2
S
L S
A
SD ON VERTICAL SAG CURVE (w/
OVERPASS)
WHEN S < L
( )

2
1 2
8
S g g
L
H
WHEN S > L

1 2
8
2
H
L S
g g
WHEN SSD IS GIVEN

2
425
AS
L
ALLOWABLE SPEED THROUGH A
PARABOLIC SAG CURVE

2
395
AV
L
where:
V velocity, km/hr
RIGID PAVEMENT
THICKNESS w/o DOWEL OR TIE

3
ct
W
t
f
THICKNESS w/ DOWEL OR TIE (EDGE)

3
2
ct
W
t
f
THICKNESS w/o DOWEL OR TIE
(CENTER)

3
4
ct
W
t
f
where:
W wheel load, N or lb
fct allowable tensile strength of
concrete, MPa or psi
t thickness of concrete slab, mm or in
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
THICKNESS OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

W
t r
f
where:
f bearing strength of subgrade or
base, MPa or psi
r radius of contact of whel to
pavement, mm or in
STIFFNESS FACTOR OF PAVEMENT
3
subgrade
pavement
E
S
E
MODULUS OF SUBGRADE REACTION

0.125
P
K
A
where:
P load (kg) causing 0.125 cm
Settlement
A area of standard plate (75 cm )
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
SPACE MEAN SPEED

1
s
ave i
i
D n nD
u
t t
u
where:
D length of road
n number of passing vehicles
ui velocity of each vehicle
ti time of each vehicle to pass a length
tave average time of all vehicles
TIME MEAN SPEED OR SPOT SPEED
( ) + + +

1 2
...
n
t
u u u
u
n
FLOW RATE

s
q ku
where:
k density, number of vehicle per unit
length
SPACING

1000
ave
u
SPACING
k q
where:
uave average speed of passing
vehicles, km/hr
q flow, vehicle/hr
AVERAGE DAILY TRAFFIC

#
365
of vehicle per year
ADT
PEAK HOUR FACTOR

. 5min 12
q
PHF
highest vol every
TRAFFIC INDEX
( )
0.11
1.35 TI EWL
EQUIVALENT WHEEL LOAD
( ) ( ) +
+
1
2
n
EWL r total annual EWL
total annual EWL ADT EWL
where:
r rate of increase of traffic, percent
n number of passing vehicles
CAPACITY OF A SINGLE LANE

+
1000V
CAPACITY
s
s vt L
where:
CAPACITY veh/hr
V average speed of vehicles, km/hr
s average center-to-center spacing of
vehicles, meter
v velocity, m/s
t reaction time, second
L length of one car, meter
ACCIDENT RATE

#
#
of accidents
ACCIDENT RATE
entering vehicle
ACCIDENT RATE PER MILLION
ENTERING VEHICLES FOR AN
INTERSECTION
( ) ( )

1,000,000
365
N
R
ADT t
ACCIDENT RATE PER HUNDRED
MILLION ENTERING VEHICLES FOR A
KILOMETER OF HIGHWAY SEGMENT
( ) ( )

100,000,000
365
N
R
ADT t L
where:
N number of accidents during the
analysis period
ADT average daily traffic
t period of analysis, year
L length of segment, km
SEVERITY RATIO
+

+ +
FATAL INJURY
SR
FATAL INJURY PROPERTY DMG