Fire Dynamics Laboratory experiment 1: Flame height Laboratory experiment 2: Pyrolysis Laboratory experiment 3: Burning rate of different fuels

By Janne Gress Srensen, Alds Rn Larsdottir, Anne S. Dederichs

Background
Determining the flame height is relevant within several aspects of fire safety. One aspect is the distance to flames in respect to evacuation of people. The flame height and width, likewise the so-called source diameter, is essential in order to calculate the thermal radiation emitted from the flame. Radiation from fire also depends on the flame temperature. The flames considered are diffusion flames where fuel and air are initially separated and the burning and flaming occurs in the zone where fuel and oxygen are mixed. The opposite is premixed flames in which fuel and air are mixed before burning and flaming occurs. Example of a diffusion flame is a burning candle while the flame from a Bunsen burner is an example of a premixed flame. The equation used for calculating the mean flame height is based on experiments in which the flame height is observed and then correlated against the heat release rate and the source diameter. An increasing fire effect leads to a higher flame and the same goes for increasing source diameter. The most common equation used for determining the mean flame height, L (m) is given by Heskestad (1995):

L = AQ 2 / 5 1,02 D

[1]

where D is the source diameter (m) and Q is the heat release rate (kW) or energy release rate. The constant A (-) is composed of several other variables correlated with the environment and the type of fuel. For normal pressure and temperature conditions A is found to be between 0.226 and 0.240 for most hydrocarbons. A typical value is A = 0.235 and this value can be used in these experiments.
The heat release rate (energy released per unit time) can be calculated if the amount of fuel vaporized per unit time is known. The energy released per kilogram of fuel is nearly constant and has an upper maximum value. Depending on environmental circumstances the maximum effect is not reached and a certain amount of fuel remains unburned. The combustion efficiency is therefore introduced determining the enerAnne S. Dederichs Direct phonenumber +45 45 25 16 86 AnD@byg.dtu.dk

Fire Dynamics

 gy converted during the combustion process. The energy release, Q (kW) can be determined as
! ! Q = Af m'' !!H c

[2]

where A f is the area of the fuel (m2), m'' is the mass flow rate of fuel (kg /(s m2)) and ! Hc is the complete heat of combustion (kJ / kg). The small letter c indicates that it is complete combustion and no fuel and no pure oxygen are left. This is however not a realistic representation of a fire where typically only 70-80 % of the mass is converted effectively. Accidental spills of liquid fuels are often the reason for serious fire hazards in industry, which is why research on pool fires is particularly relevant. Experiments on the diameter dependency have shown that for increasing diameters, larger than 0.2 m, the burning rate increases up to a certain level. This level is called the asymptotic diameter mass loss rate, '' (kg /(s m2). However, the mass loss rate from free burn-

! m!

ing pools also depends on two empirical constants, k (-) and (-). For pool fires it is only necessary to know the product of the constants and this is given in table 3.3 in EFD. Based on a large number of experiments with large pool fires the relation given in equation [3] can be used to determine the mass loss rate, m'' . !
! ! '' m''= m! 1! e !k ! D

[3]

How to perform experiments in the lab

Use protective goggles and gloves. Wear closed shoes Do not lean over flames or inhale the smoke. Use the thongs to move hot combustion containers. Observe flame colours, smoke colour (if any), type of flame, potential errors Be curious (in a safe manner)

The experiments are performed in groups of 4 Take photos

The Exercises
The laboratory exercise consists of three parts; flame height, pyrolysis and burning of different fuels.

Anne S. Dederichs Direct phonenumber +45 45 25 16 86 AnD@byg.dtu.dk

Fire Dynamics

Flame height
The task is to measure flame height for pool fires with three different diameters. The flame height is estimated by visual observation. Measurement should be made to a flame, which is free in the room. The fuel used is heptane. The flame heights should be measured several times to minimize uncertainties that occur due to the visual observation and the fact that the flames are turbulent and therefore oscillate. Implementation and equipment Three cylindrical containers are available with different diameters, 200, 240 and 280 mm. The fuel is carefully poured into the containers (the amount of fuel to use corresponds to half a bottle). The fuel is ignited. The flame height is measured using a ruler for every 15 seconds in a period of 3 minutes or until all the fuel is consumed. The measurements are done for the given three containers with the heptane. Measurements on the same pool shall be made several times to smooth out uncertainties in the observation of the flame height. Compare the measured flame heights with the calculated values according to Heskestad, equation [1] Find the mass loss rate of the fuel for the different diameters by using eq. [3] and compare with the table value. Describe how the environment in the laboratory could affect the results of the experiments.

Pyrolysis
A wooden board is exposed to heat. As the plate heats up, gaseous compounds leave the sample, known as pyrolysis. The gas consists of vaporized wood. As the pyrolysis gases are ignited, the mass loss rate of the wooden sample increases because flames are formed. The fire then accelerates the evaporation of the gasses inside the wooden board. Implementation and equipment A wooden sample is placed in the sample holder with retainer frame used for the cone calorimeter. Make sure that the surface of the sample is placed tight to the top of the holder to prevent flame spread on the sides and bottom of the sample. Nonburnable material such as Rockwool can be placed beneath the sample to adjust the height. Place a thermocouple at both the top and the bottom of the sample. When the temperature in the cone is 550C, corresponding to a heat flux of 20 kW/m2, the sample is placed beneath the cone and exposed to heat. The time shall be measured from this point to the point of ignition. In addition the temperature at the top and bottom should be measured every 10 sec. using the thermocouple. The cone calorimeter is used to expose the sample to radiation and determine the time to ignition. The samples used are chipboard and low density fibreboard. The
Anne S. Dederichs Direct phonenumber +45 45 25 16 86 AnD@byg.dtu.dk

Fire Dynamics

time to ignition shall be determined for the case with a small pilot flame ignition. Remember to remove the spark as the wood is ignited. Calculate the density of the materials (weight and dimensions). Determine the time and temperature for ignition. The temperature shall be determined for both the top and bottom of the sample with a thermocouple. Discuss the influence of the material density in relation to the time of ignition and list it. Describe what happens during the process. Determine whether the theory for thin or thick objects can be applied in this case. (The theory for thin and thick objects was presented in lecture 1.)

Burning of different fuels

The burning rate is different for different fuels due to the fact that the fuels have different compositions. In this exercise the burning rate for four types of fuel is investigated. The fuels used are methanol, heptane, toluene and burning gel. Implementation and equipment During this experiment the exhaust hood needs to be turned on. Measure the dimension of the combustion boat. Place the combustion boat on the scale and tare the scale (calibration of zero). Fill it 2/3 with methanol and record the new weight. The fuel will start evaporating immediately so the ignition should take place quickly. When the fuel is ignited, start the stopwatch and measure the weight for every 10 seconds until all the fuel is consumed. Move the used boat with a thong, as it is HOT and continue the exercise with a new boat. Repeat the experiment with the other fuels in the following order: heptane, toluene and burning gel. Determine the area of the combustion boats. (Use a rectangular area) Plot the mass burning rate as a function of time for the different fuels. Compare the burning rates with the literature. Calculate the energy release rate with the experimentally found burning rate and compare it with the energy release calculated using table values. Describe briefly the soot and flame characteristics of the fuels and explain why the fuels are forming more or less soot.

Delivery
A written report on results of the experiments shall be handed in by using the assignment folder at Campusnet. The report needs to contain a short description of each experiment and documentation (photos if possible). The report shall be made in groups of two students and have a length of maximum 15 pages, including figures, pictures and tables, use the template Report.doc. The report is a part of the exam and will affect the grade.
Anne S. Dederichs Direct phonenumber +45 45 25 16 86 AnD@byg.dtu.dk

Fire Dynamics

References Heskestad G., Fire plume. The SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, 2nd ed. National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, 1995. McCaffrey B., Flame height. The SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, 2nd ed. National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, 1995. Karlson B. and Quintiere J. G., Enclosure Fire Dynamics, CRC Press LLC, 1999.

Anne S. Dederichs Direct phonenumber +45 45 25 16 86 AnD@byg.dtu.dk

Fire Dynamics