GROUNDING AND SHIELDING

Outline for grounding and shielding

Single point grounding and ground loop Noise, noise coupling mechanism and prevention Filtering and smoothing Different kinds of shielding mechanism Protecting against electrostatic discharge Line filters isolators and transient suppressors

INSTRUMENTATION II
Saroj Dhoj Joshi Kathmandu Engineering College

Why grounding?
Ever experienced shock in fridges, computers etc? Heard about electrical equipments getting damaged by lightning?

Why Shielding?
Have you experienced, static on television when a motor is turned on? Noise in FM when computer is turned on?

Grounds improves safety Reduces dangerous voltage differentials between instruments

Shielding reduces interference from noise Minimizes interference from noise by reducing noise emissions and noise suceptibility

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Grounding....
Grounding provides safety and signal reference For safety and signal reference: reduce the potential difference between the ground connections of circuit , instruments or chassis.

Outline for Grounding

Live Ac Power Metal Box

Neutral Equipment grounding conductor Grounding Electrode

Outline for Grounding

Reduce voltage differential between external conducting surface Safety ground must be a

Ground Fault Interrupter

Sense transformer Ckt breaker Current to ground

Permanent continuous Low-impedance conductor with adequate capacity that runs from the power source to the load.
Test and Trip Circuitry

Small leakage current do not trip protective ckt breakers

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Ground Fault Interrupter

A device that measures the differential in magnitude between the currents in the line and neutral conductors and opens the lines if an imbalance exists But they do not control chassis voltages nor protect against transient ground voltages from lightning or power faults.

Grounding Configurations
Single Point Grounding
Circuit A v = 0 Circuit B

Ground structure +

Ground current

v= ground potential 0

Grounding Configurations
Multipoint Grounding
Circuit A Circuit B

Ground.....
Safety ground: Connection to an electric ground structure like building steel, or an isolated ground wire.

v = ground potential = 0 Multipoint ground with low impedance ground structure

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Ground....
Signal ground: Connection to a chassis that does not normally conduct current.

Ground...
Signal return: Conductor that sustains return current for signal or power.

Single Point Grounding

Connecting grounds to returns in parallel and then to a single point.
Quiet signal return

Tips....
Isolate noise within an instrument, between separate ckts. More appropriate for low-current, low frequency applications (<1Mhz). Ground conductor must be a short strip to reduce high frequency noise and unsafe voltages.

Ground Wire Safety ground

Noisy return

High current return

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Disadvantages......
Conductors longer than 5 m are susceptible to high frequency ground noise. Conductors longer than 30m or those conducting high fault currents are unsafe.

Applications...

Analog circuits

ADC

Digital circuits

v 0

Analog reference Single point

Digital reference

Applications...

Ground Loop
A complete ckt that compromises a signal path and part of the ground structure Arises when multiple connections to the ground are physically separated External currents in the ground structure generate potential differences between the ground connections and introduce noise in the signal ckt.

Analog circuits

ADC

Digital circuits

Signal reference Analog reference Separate point reference eliminates large loops Digital reference

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Ground Loop
Signal current Load v 0 Signal return impedence

Signal Sournce

Generally problem arises at low frequencies <10Mhz High frequencies follow the path of minimum impedence that can avoid higher impedence gournd loops

External noise current

Ground structure

When is it a problem?
Ground loops are problematic in systems that use low-level signal circuits and multipoint ground separated by large distances. Remedy:

Remedy....for short distances

For Short Distances: a balanced transmission line and single point grounding reduces noise and safety concern.
Equal Impedence For Ckt balance

Use Ckt balance or Use signal isolators

Distance < 30m (100 ft)

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Remedy for long distances...

An Isolated signal transmission allows multiple safety grounds while eliminating ground loops.

Remedy for long distance.....

Distance > 30m (100ft)

Noise
Undesired electrical activity coupled from one circuit into another Can also be generated in a Ckt..eg. Thermal noise

Noise...
Noise always includes 3 distinct components: A Source A Coupling Mechanism and A Receiver

Noise Source Energy coupling mechanism

Susceptible Receiver

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Noise Sources
Generate either a periodic signal or a transient pulse that disrupts other circuits. Example:

Energy coupling mechanisms

Noise can couple by four basic mechanisms

Power Lines Motors High voltage equipments (spark plugs, igniters) Discharges and sparks (Lightning, static electricity) High current equipments (arc welding)

Conductive Inductive Capacitive Electromagnetic

Energy coupling...
Current follows the path of lowest impedence, not necessarily lowest resistence. Charge follows the path of minimum inductive and maximum capacitive reactance for the lowest impedence. Current will flow in the path of minimum impedence, particularly for frequencies at or above the audio range. (i.e > 3Khz)

Impedence....
Impedence is a function of resistance, inductive reactance and capacitive reactance.

Z = R 2 + [L (
Where Z = impedence R = Resistance wL = Inductive reactance 1/wc = Capacitive reactance

1 2 )] C

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Conductive Coupling
Most common coupling mechanism Requires a connection between the souce and receiver that completes a continuous ckt.

Inductive Coupling
Changing magnetic flux can couple circuits E.g. Telephone lines passing over a power line. Inductance coupling is determined by the loop area of the ckt.

Noise source

Susceptible Circuit

Inductance coupling

Inductive Coupling
= BA = onIA And v = d / dtv v = A(dB/dt) v = A on(di/dt)
= magnetic flux B = magnetic field A = loop area o=permeability of free space N = number of turns in the loop I = current V = voltage

Noise source

Susceptible ckt

So the induced voltage in a magnetically coupled ckt is proportional to the time Rate of change of current and loop area. Inductive reactance Loop area

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Inductive Coupling...
Inductive coupling becomes a factor for frequencies above 3Khz. Generally low impedence is large, while source impedence is small. Inductive coupling requires a changing current (di/dt) that is large relative to the change in voltage (dv/dt) For special case of sinusoidal signals or resistive loads, the ratio is impedence, otherwise its a pseudo impedance valve.
dv dt di dt << 377

Capacitive Coupling
Changing electric potentials can drive charge through stray capacitance.
Noise source Susceptible ckt

Capacitive Coupling..
Capacitive coupling requires changing voltage and proximity between ckts. Appropriate grounding, shielding and signal separation controls the amount of capacitive coupling. Capacitive coupling of noise becomes a factor for frequencies above 1Khz

Capacitive Coupling
Generally the total ckt impedance is high; i.e. both the source and load impedance is large. Capacitive coupling requires a change in voltage (dv/dt) that is large relative to the change in current (di/dt).

dv dt

di dt

>> 377

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Capacitive Coupling.

Capacitive Coupling.(with shielding)

Noise source Susceptible ckt

Noise source Susceptible ckt

Electromagnetic Coupling
Is a high frequency phenomena.. Requires a transmitting antenna in the source and a receiving antenna in the susceptible ckt. These antennas must be an appreciable fraction of the signal wavelength to couple effectively. Needs antennas greater than 1/20 of in both source and receiver.

Electromagnetic Coupling..

Noise source

Susceptible ckt.

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Electromagnetic Coupling..
Becomes a factor only when the frequency of operation exceeds 200Mhz. Below 200Mhz, cables are the primary sources and receivers for the electromagnetic coupling. Above 200Mhz, PCB traces begin to radiate and couple energy. Electromagnetic coupling can be diagnosed by a pseudo impedance factor between 100 and 500
dv dt di dt 100 to 500

Filtering
Only filtering reduces conductive noise coupling. A filter can either block or pass energy by three criteria:

Frequency Mode (common or differential) Amplitude (Surge suppression)

Frequency Selective Filters

Low pass filter High pass filter Band pass filter Band reject filter

Mode (Common or differential)

Common mode noise injects current in the same direction in both the signal and return lines.

Ic

Common mode Ic, is the net current injected in the same direction

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Mode (Common or differential)

Differential mode noise injects current in opposite direction in the signal and return lines.

Remedy:
Use differential amplifier e.g. Opamp with high common mode rejection ration Or use a common mode filter.

Common mode filters divert the common mode noises to the ground.

Id

Differential mode, Id is equal current injected in opposite direction

Common mode filters

Common mode filters

Signal source

Load

Signal source

Load

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Amplitude (Surge supression)

Amplitude selective filters removes large transients of spikes of noise energy from a signal line. Surge suppressors: used to protect sensitive equipments >>> are amplitude selective filters

Filters....
Time average filter:

Implemented in software to reduce the effect of noise on data within a signal. Prevents interference sensitive operations from running during a periodic disturbance. E.g. It could suspend a circuit function during the periodic transeints in a switching power supply.

Time Sync filters:

Noise due to clock..

A digital pulse has a large number of high frequency components. The coefficients of the fourier series expansion represent the magnitude of hte harmonic frequencies. Sharp edges on pulses will have a large fourier coefficients.

Noise due to clock...

Amplitude time time

Amplitude

Amplitude

Amplitude frequency f

Faster the rise time on a pulse edge, the greater the amplitude of the harmonics and the greater the potential for noise coupling.

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Noise due to clock..

Filtering the clock signals of digital ckts, reduces high-frequency harmonics and thus minimizes noise interference. But shouldnt violate the minimum slew rate required by the logic circuit.

Ferrite Beads
A magnetically permeable sleeve that fits around a wire. Presents an inductive impedence to signals that attenuate high frequencies Best suited to filter low-level signals and low current power feeds to circuit boards.

Decoupling Capacitors
They filter and smooth out the spikes in the DC power of ICs. During a logic transition, a momentary short ckt from power to return in a digital device demands a large current transient. A decoupling capacitor can supply the momentary pulse of current. Placed very closed to components.

Shielding
Shielding prevents or suppresses noise energy from coupling between ckts. Shielding prevents or suppresses

Inductive coupling Capacitive coupling Electromagnetic coupling between ckts.

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Rev....
= BA = onIA v = d / dtv = A(dB/dt) = A on(di/dt)
= magnetic flux B = magnetic field A = loop area o=permeability of free space N = number of turns in the loop I = current V = voltage So to reduce voltage produced by changing magnetic flux, we can either decrease the current or the loop area.

Loop Area....

L1 L2 > L1

L2

Inductive Shielding
Reduces noise coupling by reducing or rerouting magnetic flux = BA = onIA v = A on(di/dt) Magnetic noise coupling depends on the loop area and current within both the emitting and receiving ckts.

Inductive Shielding...
Most effective: Minimize loop area Separating ckts and reducing change in current Enclose with magnetically permeable substance

Least effective:

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Loop Area....Straight cables

Loop Area....Twisted pair

Straight wires create small loops that can couple magnetically

Twisted wire eliminates the effective loops area of cables and magnetic coupling Twisting the signal and return conductors in a cable reduces the mutual And improves the shunt capacitive balance.

Signal Pairs...

Minimizing Loop area

While designing cicuit boards, make sure that the return path is always under the signal conductor to minimize loop area.

Stray capacitance

Loop area

Always pair signal with return

A slot in the return plane increases the current loop area and the self inductance.

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Capacitive Shielding
Capacitive shielding reduces noise coupling by reducing or re-routing the electrical charge in an electric field.

Capacitive shielding
Faraday shield

Noise source Susceptible ckt

A shielded transformer prevents capacitive coupling between windings.

Capacitive Shielding

Capacitive Shielding

Noise source Susceptible ckt

Noise source Susceptible ckt

(<1Mhz) If the signal is grounded then connect the shield only at one point. Multiple connections will form ground loops.

(>1 Mhz) Multiple ground connections are necessary for high frequencies. Stray capacitance at the ungrounded end of a shield can complete a ground loop.

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Capacitive Shielding
Capacitive shielding can be improved by reducing:

Electromagnetic Shielding
Reduces emissions and reception of electromagnetic noise. Emission sources:

Noise voltage and frequency Signal impedence Floating metal surfaces

Metal enclosures can act as an electrostatic shield or faraday cage. Need not be grounded if it completely encloses a ckt. Grounding ensures the current from stray capacitance flows to the signal reference ground rather than feeds back and cause crosstalk.

Lightning Discharges Radio & television transmitters High frequency ckts.

Electromagnetic interference always begins as conductive, becomes radiative and ends as conductive.

Reducing EMI...
Techniques to reduce EMI:

Reduce the signal frequency and bandwidth Good layout and signal routing Shielded enclosures

A shielded enclosure should ideally be a completely closed conductive surface Cable shields must seal completely around each connector.

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