The Leicester School of Architecture Faculty of Art and Design De Montfort University

MA Architectural Conservation

Materials and Materials Science - CNST 5006

Origin, Application and Performance of Leicester Red Brick

Submission date: 20 December 2002

Martin Edward Jones

1.

Selection of material

Until the railways made transportation of materials easy, all except for the grandest buildings relied on what was locally available. Substantial parts of Leicestershire are covered by unconsolidated sediments of boulder clay brought down by the ice sheets and underlain by heavy Lower Lias clays or deep red Triassic Marls. What stone there is was either too deep to be accessible or too hard to work (fig i).

Fig. i. - Solid Geology Map of Leicestershire As early as the 1st century AD, the Romans were using the local clay for making bricks at the Jewry Wall and Kirby Muxloe Castle (1480 84) is one of a small group of English castles built of brick rather than stone (fig. ii)

Fig. ii Kirby Muxloe Castle

The use of brick in Leicestershire was soon widespread with the local clays and marls yielding bricks of a rich red colour. By the 18 th century, most towns and villages in the county had their own brickyards.

fig. iii Belgrave House 1776 The Leicester Red Brick, from which much of the Victorian town was built, has an orange tint which gives it a particular richness. In other cities the local red brick may be tinted pink or brown.

fig. iv typical Leicester Victorian terraces

2.

Description of material

Clay is produced by the erosion of the rock composing the earths crust. The general processes for making bricks consisted of the digging of the clay, allowing it to weather and then pugging it with water, turning it into a pliable mixture which allows it to be moulded.

The moulded or green bricks must then be thoroughly dried before being burnt in a kiln, a process that changes the chemical structure of the clay into non-soluble and inert compounds. The clay contains most of the fuel necessary for the burning but a small amount of pulverised coal (50 kg per 1000 bricks) can be added to boost the final stage of the burning process. Winning of the clay Mechanical excavation of the clay was first used in 1907, but even by the late 1940s the majority of clay was still won entirely by hand. A system of haulage is then required to get the raw clay from the pit to the brickworks. Another stage in the process is the breaking down of the raw clay into smaller particles by means of crushing machines.

fig. v clay pit

fig. vi clay crusher

Preparation of clay Before the development of machinery, the clay was formed into brick shape by hand moulding throwing individual clots of clay into a mould. In the 19th century brickmaking was transformed from a hand craft to a mechanised manufacturing process, machines were used to mould, press and extrude the clay.

. fig. vii brick machine For hand moulding, a plastic clay is essential with a moisture content of 25 30%, but a relatively stiff clay can be moulded by machine and the lower moisture content (about 20%) reduces shrinkage in drying. The bricks are formed to dimensions which allow for shrinkage in firing later.

Firing When the clay was sufficiently dry it was transported to the kilns where the bricks were fired at a temperature of about 1200 C. A higher temperature generally resulting in a darker coloured brick. Because they were made from naturally-occurring minerals, bricks varied from one production run to the next. The firing conditions also influenced the end product. Even within a specific 'burn', the colour would change according to the location of the unit within the kiln and its proximity to the fire. This natural variation is part of the charm and character of the Leicester red brick.

fig. viii Typical brick kiln (Hoffmann)

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Physical Characteristics
Appearance uniformity of size, colour, texture Strength Compressive strength the Leicester Red Brick can have a compressive strength of up to 180 N/mm2 Water absorption expressed as a percentage of the dry weight, varies from less than 3% to 30% Permeability measure of the ease with which water can move through the material Soluble salt content derives from the original clay or from its reaction with sulphur compounds from the fuel used for firing Frost resistance neither high strength or low water absorption is a satisfactory index of frost resistance. Well fired Leicester Red Bricks have very good frost resistance Moisture movement irreversible expansion of the clay due to absorption of moisture from the atmosphere may amount to 0.1% Thermal movement the coefficient of thermal expansion of Leicester Red Bricks is between 5 and 8 x10 -6 K-1 Thermal conductivity measure of rate of heat transfer through thickness of brick from face to face Sound insulation relies heavily on workmanship Chemical resistance burnt clay products have high resistance to most chemicals

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Fire resistance the clay forming these bricks is fired at temperatures higher than those which normally arise in building fires and the bricks provide excellent resistance to fire

4.

Primary and Secondary Mechanisms of Deterioration and Decay

Primary
Inherent defects Where the clay contains impurities the bricks may show signs of deterioration. Deterioration of individual bricks may also occur if the clay has not been fully-fired. Frost Frost is the most important agent in the weathering of this material. Where the bricks have been allowed to become and remain saturated in freezing conditions, the water within the brick freezes, expands and pushes the surface of the bricks. The susceptibility of the material

to frost damage is related to the size and distribution of the capillaries and pores. It is particularly susceptible wher it has been under-fired. Frost damage is usually a progressive action and can, in severe cases, lead to complete disintegration. Chemical Action As stated previously, small amounts of salt are present within the clay. A spell of dry weather following wet weather may bring these to the surface as efflorescence, a generally harmless phenomenon. In exceptional instances, however, the salts may cause a crumbling on the face of the bricks. Sulphate Attack The most serious problem occurs when the salts in the material react in solution with Portland Cement or hydraulic lime mortars with the result that a sulphate attack occurs, causing serious cracking and distortion of the brickwork.

Secondary
Fire damage Where the rate of rise of temperature is very rapid, fire can cause the bricks to spall, or in very intense heat, to vitrify. Corrosion of metals Moisture penetration can cause wrought iron reinforcement (used in 19th century) or other metal lugs to corrode and expand. Biological growths Lichens, mosses, algae etc. can colonise the external surface of the brickwork where they feed on mineral salts. They can cause the porosity and permeability of the surface to change leading to micro-cracking and surface erosion. Plant growth can also keep the brickwork permanently damp and joints can be forced apart by the expanding root system.

5.

Scientific Methods of Aiding Diagnosis

Moisture meter Use an electrical resistance meter to establish variations in moisture content over the wall surface. Calcium carbide moisture meter A sample is drilled out of the clay brick and is combined with calcium carbide inside a sealed vessel. Acetylene gas is given off, the pressure of which causes a dial on the instrument to indicate the moisture content of the sample. Salt analysis Samples of the powdered efflorescence can be analysed in the laboratory to ascertain what salts/chemicals are present.

Non-destructive survey techniques

Radiography Penetrating x-rays or gamma rays can be used to detact density variations, hidden objects etc.

Thermography Infrared energy in the form of waves radiated from the surface of the brickwok can detect voids and embedded objects such as bonding timbers. Infrared Photography Using same technology as thermography, can be used to detect sub-surface deterioration Magnetometry The measurement of an induced magnetic field can identify metal reinforcement and cramps etc.

6.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Scientific Methods

The main advantage of moisture meters is that insignificant damage is done to the sample area. The disadvantage is that the reading can be affected by salts and other substances such as embedded metals. The disadvantage of core samples is the destruction caused to the surface of the wall where the samples are removed. The main advantage of Radiography, Thermography, Infrared Photography and Magnetometry is that no damage is caused to the surface of the wall. The disadvantage is that the techniques are relatively expensive and equipment is sensitive. A thorough understanding of the theory is required to ensure proper diagnosis occurs.

Bibliography
Bidwell, T. G., The Conservation of Brick Buildings, The Brick Development Association, 1977 Brick Development Association, Bricks, Their Properties and Use, The Construction Press, 1974 D.O.E. Defects in Buildings, HMSO, London, 1989 Everett, A., Materials, 5th Edition, Longman Scientific & Technical, 1994 Hammett, M., The Role of Brick In Our Environment, The Brick Development Association, 1991 Leicester City Council, The Quality of Leicester, Leicester City Council, 1993