Jaina Insights in Tamil Classical Literary Tradition

Vincent Sekhar, S.J.

A brief historical note

Jain history in Tamilnadu, India, begins with the migration of a Jain population along with Chandragupta Maurya and the Jain monk Bhadrabahu, the last of the Sruta Kevalis. It had fruitful consequences in the south, both to the people and to their language and literature. The events are narrated in the Sravana Belagola (near Mysore) inscriptions, discovered by Lewis Rice. In inscription No. 1, we come to know that Swami Bhadrabahu who by virtue of severe penance had acquired the essence of knowledge, having by his power of discerning the past, present and future, foretold in Ujjain, a period of dire calamity and famine, the whole of the Sangha living in the northern regions took their way to the south.2 The Rajavalikathe, a compendium of Jain history, compiled by Deva Chandra of the Jain establishment at Meleyur, gives a graphic account of the meeting of the King Chandragupta and the Jain monk in the court of Pataliputra. The monk seemed to have interpreted a dream of the King in which he had seen a 12headed serpent approach as the approaching of 12-years of calamity and famine. Chandragupta renounced his throne, took diksha and joined Bhadrabahu to accompany a host of 12000 disciples towards the south. Knowing that they would die on the way, he halted the great exodus on the mountain of a populous country completely filled with the increase of people, money, gold, grain, cow, buffalos and goats, called Katavapra.3 Then he entrusted the task to one Vishakamuni, who accompanied the disciples further south to the Chola, Pandya and other countries. The Rajavalikathe, a compendium of Jain history, compiled by Deva Chandra of the Jain establishment at Meleyur, gives a graphic account of the meeting of the King Chandragupta and the Jain monk in the court of Pataliputra The story is that the King Chandragupta Maurya stayed with Swami Bhadrabahu and died 12 years after his Guru. There are a number of evidences to show the historical probability of these stories.4 The death of Bhadrabahu is ascribed to 297 B.C., i.e., 162 years after the death of Vardhamana Mahavira, according to the Digambara Jain traditions, and 170 years according to the Svethambaras.5 The Sravana Belagola inscriptions Nos. 47, 145, 108, and 54 give the succession of Gurus after Chandragupta. Inscription No. 105 mentions Yatindra Kunda, the first in the list, as someone who could move about leaving a space of four inches between himself and the earth under his feet. Such was his prowess. Then follow Umasvami, the compiler of Tattvartha Sutra, an important Jain text, Griddharapinchha, and his disciple Balakapinchha. The same inscription mentions Samantabhadra, the ever fortunate, whose discourse lights up the palace of the three worlds filled with the all meaning Syadvada. Samantabhadra6 was a Digambara writer

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and missionary who spread Jain doctrines and morals and who came to prominence in the Rashtrakuta period. His work Apta Mimamsa is an authoritative exposition of the Jain doctrine of Syadvada. He is assigned to Saka 60 or 138 A.D. There had lived other eminent Jain scholars like Simhanandi, Pujyapada, and Akalankadeva. There are a number of epigraphical evidences, like the Bramhi inscriptions found around Madurai and Ramnad, to show that the Jains were living in and around these places. Where such inscriptions are found there are also the ruins of Jain temples, mutilated Jain Tirthankaras with their insignia such as the serpent-hood, the triple umbrella, etc. Other than these, one has to take recourse to the literature of the Tamils for a fuller view of the history of the Jains in the Tamil country.7

Jaina Resources in the Tamil Literary Tradition8

The literary period is generally divided into three: 1. The Sangam or the Academic Period, 2. The period of the Saiva Nayanmars and the Vaishnava Azhvars, and 3. The Modern Period. Tholkappiar, the first Tamil grammarian, belonged to the first and second Sangam periods. This gives the starting point for an account of the Jains in Tamilnadu. S. Vaiyapuri Pillai (1995 Tamil Chudar Manikal p. 19) suggests that Tholkappiyar could be a Jain by birth, basing his argument on a reference made by his contemporary Paramparanar on Tholkappiar: (pal pugazh niruttha padimaiyon). Padimaiyon is a Jain word in Prakrit (pratima in Sanskrit), referring to Jain rules of conduct. Tholkappiyar is dated to the Third Century B.C.9 Kural or Thirukkural stands next in merit for its description of life, in its various aspects. Kural, known also as Thamizhar Vedam, is attributed to Valluvar, claimed to belong to various faiths. There are strong reasons to contend that the author of the Kural was a Jain by birth, a follower of the Arhat. Certain references in the Kural like avisorindayiram vettalin onranuyir seguttunnamai nanru, Aadi Bagavan, Malarmisai yeginaan, Venduthal Vendaamai Ilaan, Engunatthaan, Porivayilaindavittan, and Aravali Andanan may be sufficient to suggest that Valluvar was a Jain.10 The commentator of Neelakesi, a Jaina work, quotes from the Kural and refers to it as emmottu, meaning our scripture and this could also be considered to support the belief that the Kural is a Jaina work. Tradition points out that the author of the Kural was one Elacharya, a great Jain muni, well-versed in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and vernacular Tamil and who took to missionary work in the Tamil country about the First Century A.D.11 A brief analysis of this important work indicates the code of conduct of an ideal householder, an ideal ascetic, an ideal sovereign, an ideal statesman, an ideal citizen, and an ideal lover.12

There are a number of epigraphical evidences, like the Bramhi inscriptions found around Madurai and Ramnad, to show that the Jains were living in and around these places

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It is well known that classical Tamil literature was mainly under the auspices of the Jains. Ilangovadigal of Second Century A.D., who wrote Silappathikaram the famous Tamil epic, was possibly a Jain.13 The work abounds in Samana (Sramana) doctrines, particularly Jain doctrines and morals. Some scholars are of the opinion that Ilangovadigal was not a Jain but tried to bring together the three different religious trends of his time, the Jain, the Bauddha, and the Hindu. Kannagi was a Hindu, Madhavi was Bauddha, and Kovalan was a Samana or Jain. The lessons this great epic wants to impart to the readers are: Firstly, that death is imminent to those who commit grave mistakes in politics. Secondly, that the noble and the learned give high reverence to virtuous women. And, thirdly, Karma (fate) will have its course ultimately:14

C H FQ M (CF 55-57) As one goes through the epic, one could guess the tremendous impact the ideas of the epic had on the Dravidian Tamils, who were much associated with the religion of the Arhat (Arugan). The author remembers his own cult of the Arhat15 as he speaks through Kaunti Adigal, a Jain nun, as she accompanies Kovalan and Kannagi on their way to Madurai: P P H P CF C Q C CF F O C K FO M Q F M MO (CF: 176-189)
Some of the characteristics of a Jain Tirthankara are described in the above verse: One who is Omniscient, and Transcendent, one who is Victorious over the 8 types of karma, one who is Dispassionate, one is a Vrati,16 one who is Siddhaparameshti,17 one who revealed the Angas18 (Jain scriptures), one who is worthy (Arhat).

As one goes through the epic, one could guess the tremendous impact the ideas of the epic had on the Dravidian Tamils, who were much associated with the religion of the Arhat (Arugan)

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The morals sought to be inculcated by the epic are that life, youth, and riches are evanescent, and that men should take heed and make the best use of their life in doing good deeds, which alone would be beneficial to afterlife:

K , cI; OI, O I; I; I; I; J cI; ... I; I; I ... i (CF: 186-202)

Rise above pleasure and pain in accordance with the approved course of conduct. Know God and serve those who have known him. Fear speaking falsehood. Avoid tale-bearing. Refrain from meat-eating and abjure injury to any living being. Give gifts and perform the prescribed penances you cannot escape from the days allotted to you. Nor can you avoid what will happen. So seek the best, lead to the land of your final destination.19 Both Silappathikaram and Manimegalai20, another great Tamil epic by Seethalai Chattanaar, a staunch Buddhist, record the extent to which Jain and Buddhist cultures had taken deep roots in the south with royal patronage.21 Manimegalai explains in a verse the type of causal forces (dharma and adharma) functioning in a living organism for movement and rest, concepts, which are not available elsewhere other than in Jain philosophical system: Manimegalai explains in a verse the type of causal forces (dharma and adharma) functioning in a living organism for movement and rest, concepts, which are not available elsewhere other than in Jain philosophical system:

F GF A F G (E 27:187-190)
The Nirgrantha system is fairly represented in Manimegalai through the mouth of a Nirgrantha (homeless or wandering person) who speaks about the Wheel of Law, Time, Ether, Soul, Atoms, Deeds, Passion, Rebirth, Release and so on. Canto 27 portrays the discussion Manimegalai has with the followers of other sects, a trend that was indicative of philosophical and religious debates in those days. It mentions the different schools of philosophy: Lokayata, Bauddha, Samkhya, Naiyayika, Vaisesika, Mimamsa, Saiva, Brahma, Vaishnava, Vaidika, Ajivika, Nirgrantha, and Bhutavadi.22

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Digambara Darshana Sara,23 a Jain religious work by Vajranandi, a disciple of Pujyapada, gives important information about the establishment of a separate Jain Sangha, called Dravida (Dramila) Sangha, in the year 526 of Vikrama Saka, i.e. 470 A.D., at Madurai.24 Scholars are of the opinion that this Dramila Sangha is only a revival of the Jaina Moola Sangha, established by Kundakundacarya around the First Century A.D. at a place called Patalika identified with Tiruppatirippuliyur (present-day Cuddalore) in South Arcot district, where a major Jain monastery existed perhaps from the First Century B.C.25 Though the Tamil tradition refers to the Kalabhras time (a non-Aryan tribe who ruled over the Tamil kingdom) as Dark Age, the latter embraced Jainism, became their patrons, and supported their literary genius.26 Under their rule, the Jains reached their zenith. It was during the period of the Kalabhras27 that Naaladiyar was composed. Naaladiyar28 consists of didactic, moral sayings in quatrains, 400 in number in 40 chapters, each by one Jain ascetic.29 The content makes a drastic change in attitude and perception of life, a change from the earlier interest on war and love, to ethical matters and contemplative content. Most of all, disciplining and controlling of senses is of prime importance in a persons life:

M M - M i . (: 9)
Absence of discipline (avirati), which implies negligence (pramada) and passion (kasaya), is one of the prime causes of bondage according to Jain philosophy. And hence control of senses is highly important and beneficiary in the path of liberation. What has been a code of conduct for a Jain monk or nun is also taken to a householders life.30 There seems to be an attitudinal change towards women. Women come to be regarded as submissive and relenting, and not as brave mothers and ardent wives.31 Naanooru, Pazhamozhi Naanooru a book of proverbs, is another didactic compilation by a Jain King, Munrurai Araiyanar. It was in vogue at the time of the last Sangam period. The last line of each of the 400 Venbas ends with a proverb: The frog brings its own destruction by its croaking. J A single shot suffices to disperse a thousand crows. A O M Like putting a torch into a monkeys hand.32

The content makes a drastic change in attitude and perception of life, a change from the earlier interest on war and love, to ethical matters and contemplative content. Most of all, disciplining and controlling of senses is of prime importance in a persons life

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Some of the topics treated in them are beauty, learning, great men, perseverance, royalty and household life.33 Similarly, Aranericharam by Aranericharam, Tirumunaippadiyar, enunciates the five major rules of conduct, known as the Pancavratas (ahimsa, satya, asteya, brahmacarya and aparigraha), common to the Jain ascetics as well as the householders. Siru Panchamoolam by a Jain Mamoolanar, one of the last Sangam poets, is a collection of five-fold analogies. Ahimsa, the panacea of all ills, is described here in a subtle manner, typical of the Jains:

; ; ; N ; - K P (C 70)
How sinful it is to kill a living being! One who kills, one who caused another to kill, one who sells meat, one who coos meat, and the one who eats all (the five) will not escape the wrath of sin.34 Eladi, Eladi one of the Eighteen Lesser Classics and a moral didactic poem of 81 verses by Kanimethaviyar, a disciple of Makayanar, one of the scholars of the Madurai Sangam, combines, compares, and illustrates in each quatrain five or six points of practical wisdom:

O; K ; O; K ; O; G K; O O; K . (F 40)
To die is easy; to attain perfection hard. To desire good is easy; to put on truth hard. To set out in pursuit of the right is easy; to be steadfast hard. To gain triumphs as accomplished scholars is easy; hard to reach heaven. How sinful it is to kill a living being! One who kills, one who caused another to kill, one who sells meat, one who coos meat, and the one who eats all (the five) will not escape the wrath of sin

N HE, , ; , L, ; - K, - L! i K MF (F 22)
Youth passes swiftly away; disease and old draw nigh; bright flowers of wealth and strength fade fast. While life is thine, desire thou not earths gifts. Thou whose words are as sweet as milk, desire release The Law is this.35 In later years, there have been compositions modeled after Naaladiyar and Eladi in style and content such as Naanmani Kadikai a Salver of Four Kadikai, Gems,36 Tirikadugam37 of 100 verses, composed by Nallathanar, Achara Kovai of 100 verses on rules of conduct and etiquette by Peruvayin Mulliyar,38

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and Mudumozhi Kanchi a collection of wise precepts in the form of fine Kanchi, maxims by Koodaloor Kizhar.39 Of the five great Tamil epics, Civaka Chinatamani written by Chinatamani, Thiruttakkathevar, a Jain monk, brings out the chief tenets of Jain faith and the way to liberation. For instance, Chintamani explains the essence of Liberation as Perfect Knowledge, Perfect Vision or Faith, and Perfect Conduct (Samyag Jnana, Samyag Darsana, and Samyag Caritra):40

K ; MA P C; P J ; G M N (YCE: K 25)
It also points out to the Five Great Vows of the Jains (pancamahavrata) as a way to liberation:41

P J A F K C M GK M , , , , , P Q Y F F (CE F 226)
The various incidents connected with the life of the hero Jivakan lay stress on the following morals: sad results of hastiness of action, ruin to those in company of women, rich reward for those who listen to the preceptors words, of conquering ones enemies, relieving the distress of others, non-injury to life, service to others, attainment of mental equilibrium, showing mercy and tenderness to animals, etc. The Chintamani has been praised as one of the choicest masterpieces of Tamil literature.42 Civaka Chinatamani, written by Thiruttakkathevar, a Jain monk, brings out the chief tenets of Jain faith and the way to liberation Nariviruttam, Nariviruttam by the same author, is a small work consisting of 50 stanzas, the story seemingly based on the Sanskrit Hitopadesa illustrates the Hitopadesa, transitory nature of human wishes and the instability of wealth and enjoyment. It is the story of the brave hunter, who, while killing a wild elephant, was bitten by a cobra. The hunter kills the cobra. A jackal, watching the three dead bodies, exclaims What a huge body of food for me! The jackal bites the strings of the hunters bow unaware, and the force of the straightening bow strikes its body killing the jackal. Among the Tamil minor epics, Yasodara Kavyam an unknown work of Kavyam, probably a Jain sage, preaches the typical Jain precepts of Panca Mahavrata: Nonviolence to living beings under no circumstances, Refraining from lying

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and deception, Not indulging in stealing, Abstaining from adultery, and Contentment with what one has. Nagakumara Kavyam a Jain work, is wrapped Kavyam, in obscurity. Choolamani or Coronal Gem, a work in 12 Cantos containing 2131 quatrains, was composed by Thola-moli-thevar, a Jain poet. Its inspiration is the Mahapurana its style resembling and even excelling Civaka Mahapurana, Chintamani The story deals with Tivittan, a puranic figure considered by Chintamani. the Jains as one of the 9 Vasudevas. The poem depicts the then prevailing customs in the land like soothsaying, brides choice of husband, polygamy, etc. Perungathai or Udayanan Kathai a Fifth or Sixth Century Jain work Kathai, believed to be by Konguvel, seems to be a translation of Brhatkatha of Gunadya, the original written in Paisacha language, treating extensively the story of King Udayana. Puranam, Merumandira Puranam in 12 Cantos containing 1406 verses, is a work of Vaamanachariyar, a work full of Jain beliefs and morals. For instance, it describes the 9 fundamental principles of Jain philosophy and householders morality:43

Merumandira Puranam, in 12 Cantos containing 1406 verses, is a work of Vaamanachariyar, a work full of Jain beliefs and morals

JJ , E, , Jb P, F, , i, b P ; b C ! F K, , , HJ L c pF I PC I Y ( )
There are several stotras composed by the Jains like Thirukalambagam and Thirunoorandadi That the author of Thirukalambagam was Nambiandar Thirunoorandadi. Nambi, a Jain, is clear from his account of the state of the Jains during the times of the Saiva Nayanars and the Vaishnava Azhvars, and from his description of the householders morality. Jains believe that only morality and penance would lead to liberation, and every individual has to adhere to the moral path on their own (Jainism is the religion of Self-help):44

() PI
In a reply to the Chola king Abayan, the poet says that he is from Deepangudi, where they (the Jains householders) practice the moral codes such as these:45

F
M ; , , ; , , , M b MN G b (b 3)

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Choodamani Nigandu46 is a Tamil lexicon, composed by a Jain, Viramandala Purushar, a disciple of Acarya Gunabhadra of Thirunarunkonrai. Among the grammatical treatises, Nannool of the celebrated Pavanandi Muni, Yapparungalakarigai by Amrtasagara Muni, Neminatham by Gunavira Pandita, and Choodamani Nigandu are the best known. Sripuranam in prose and Merumandirapuranam in verse are expository of Jain religion and theology. The above list is not exhaustive.47 A large number of manuscripts lie buried and unpublished in the archives of Mathas or monastries.

A note on Neelakesi, a least known Jain text on philosophical debate

The reason for treating Neelakesi in a separate section is that it is a Jain work in the Tamil Classical tradition, acknowledged as one of the minor epics of its literature, and that it deals with Tarka Sastra, the philosophical debate in Indian tradition. Neelakesi is a minor Kayva, a treatise on logic. The author is unknown. The poem, also known as Neelakesi-thirattu is an imaginary Neelakesi-thirattu, construction in 10 chapters. Samaya Divakara Vamanamuni,48 a great Jain sage of 14th Century A.D. and the author of Merumandirapuranam has Merumandirapuranam, Neelakesi, ritti. written a good commentary on Neelakesi known as Samyadivakara Vritti The essence of the story is that Munichandra, a Jain sage, tries to stop an animal sacrifice at a cremation ground. The priest invokes the help of Kalidevi Neeli to chase the sage from the ground The essence of the story is that Munichandra, a Jain sage, tries to stop an animal sacrifice at a cremation ground. The priest invokes the help of Kalidevi Neeli to chase the sage from the ground. As Neeli fails in her efforts, she surrenders to the Muni, learns the doctrines of his religion and becomes a famous debater. This heroine, Neelakesi, journeys to different places, meets with the important masters of Buddhist traditionlike Kundalakesi, Arka, Mokkala, Buddhaand reputed teachers of other sects and philosophical traditionsPurana of Ajivika, Parasara of Samkhya, Lokajit of Vaiseshika, Bhutika of Veda, Pisachaka of Bhuta refutes all their arguments in a dialogue form, and finally establishes the supremacy of the Jain system. The arguments and counterarguments are aplenty in minute details, dealing with almost every technical aspect of a particular philosophy. For instance, in Kundalakesivada, the arguments rest on the nature of Buddha

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as the Perfect being and as Bodhisattva in his previous birth, his doctrine of non-soul (anatta), asatkaryavada theory implied in the doctrine of skandha and ksanikavada, and so on. Similarly, while arguing with Arkachandra, another Buddhist teacher, Neelakesi points out several corrupt practices and instances of indecent behaviour in the Buddhist Sangha, their worship of Buddha, meat-eating, building of monasteries and temples, incompatible with their preaching on mercy and love, impermanence, sunya, etc. The chapter on Mokkalavada49 unearths what was lost in Kundalakesi a Kundalakesi, Tamil major epic, particularly the various Jaina categories such as Jiva, Dharma, Adharma, Pudgala, Akasa, Kala, Papa and Punya. The arguments are back and forth on several topics such as atta-anatta, chetana-achetana, nityaanitya, asti-nasti, dravya-guna-parinama, bheda-abheda, satkarya-asatkarya, vaktavya-avaktavya, ksanika-anekanta, karma-samsara-moksa, tapas, sallekhana, non-killing (its causal factors) and meat-eating. One could see the various types of right and erroneous logic involved in these arguments. The arguments continue in the same vein throughout the other chapters, Buddhavada, Ajivikavada, Samkhyavada, Vaiseshikavada, Vedavada, and Bhutavada. It is surprising to see contemporary reading in these texts: For instance, against the Buddhist thinkers who reject the doctrine that plants are living organisms, Neelakesi establishes the Jaina attitude towards the vegetable kingdom. Technically known as the Ekendriya Jiva, life with one-sense, the plant world shares with the animal world in disease and its cure, cycle of life, behaviour, reaction, adjustments, sensitiveness, etc., as found in any modern treatment on plant biology. It is interesting to note that these ideas are already contained in this Tamil classic. Relating to certain facts about physical phenomena, like sound and light, the text gives a modern explanation to sensation and sense stimulus. While all the other systems consider sound as a characteristic of space or Akasa, it is the Jains who have come nearer to the modern interpretation to say that sound is the result of concussion of atmospheric molecules with one another. Buddhist thinkers club sense stimulus and sound together with visual stimulus. Neelakesi refutes their argument by differentiating the two. She states that while light is almost instantaneous with the opening of eyes, sound stimulus proceeding from the same object as light, lags behind because of the time taken by the perceiving agent, obstruction and reflection on the way by solid objects, characteristic variation in the two ears revealing the distance and the direction of the sound. These facts are rare and are to be to be found only in scientific textbooks relating to sound and light.

One could see the various types of right and erroneous logic involved in these arguments

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On another occasion, while contesting the materialism of the Bhutavada School, Neelakesi convincingly argues that consciousness (vijnana skandha) cannot be a derivative of any physical or chemical phenomena, and establishes the reality and existence of the human personality as a hidden object of a disembodied nature, which survives after death. Besides such philosophical queries, the central message of the doctrine of Ahimsa and its corollary of avoiding meat-eating,50 the real intention of the author of Neelakesi, is not lost sight of. Buddhists, while preaching Ahimsa, have not given up meat-eating, a major contention in Neelakesis argument against the Buddhists. In the same uncompromising wavelength, Neelakesi argues against the religious ritual of the Vedavadins, involving animal sacrifice, and wins over them.

Animosity between Religious Traditions

We cannot close our eyes to the considerable animosity that had developed between the Jains and the Brahmins in the Fourth and the early Fifth Century A.D.,51 finally making way to the extirpation of the Buddhist and Jain hegemony from the Tamil land. Manimegalai refers to such animosities expressed during debates:

F P I J I (E: M 60-63)
There are other references to a similar trend seen in the poems of Saiva Nayanars and Vaishnava Azhvars:52

Besides such philosophical queries, the central message of the doctrine of Ahimsa and its corollary of avoiding meat-eating

MFJ A G K C A P A ! (, F: 8)
There are references in Periya Puranam to the destruction and appropriation of Jain lands and buildings around Thiruvarur Tank by Saiva Nayanars:53 M FJ b F N G P Q

(K : 4)

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K H N O P A E (K : 24)
Generally, Tamil Saiva literature depicts the kind of interaction between Jains and non-Jains. A person, text, or community can adopt different strategies of relationships towards the other. It can be inclusive to say that the other is correct but incomplete or has partial truth. Or it can be exclusive to say that the other is totally wrong. Such strategies had been adopted by both the Jains as well as non-Jains. Haribhadras boiling his defeated Buddhist opponents in oil, or the Saivas impaling 8000 Jains at Madurai are some of the illustrations.54 Jains are generally portrayed as hated others in Tamil Saiva Literature from the Sixth Century onwards. In the hymn collection known as the Tevaram Tirunavukkaracar alias Appar and Tirunanacampantar evaram, or Campantar, the saint-poets known as Nayanars (leader, master) who led the Tamil Saiva bhakti movement in the Sixth and SeventhCenturies, energetically condemned Jains and Buddhists for their doctrines and practices.55 It seems inevitable that religious traditions survived and gained life wherever there had been royal patronage and support. In the case of the Tamil region, Jains and Buddhists flourished in the time of Kalabhras and Pallavas. The traditions depended not merely on the strength of doctrines proved through debates (and their unfortunate consequences) but also on spurious practices, including healing miracles. Generally, religious traditions defend their doctrines and practices tooth and nail, to the extent of animosity and warfare. This has resulted in any number of new creations in book and other art forms. But, unfortunately, religious traditions have also failed to realize that life is enhanced not merely by intellectual warfare or muscle power, as is evident in contemporary times, but by humane, healthy relationships among them. Had these traditions understood this fundamental ideal about life and living, Tamil language and literature would have been further enriched. Religious hatred and strategies of doing away with the other swept away the marks of intelligence in the Tamil region, nay in the whole of India. It is a task and a challenge to the contributors of the present times to the growth of society, language, and literature to learn our lessons from the past, wounded history.

Nayanars (leader, master) who led the Tamil Saiva bhakti movement in the Sixth and Seventh Centuries, energetically condemned Jains and Buddhists for their doctrines and practices

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End Notes

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1 Originally, the Classical Tamil period refers to the Sangam Age up to, more or less, 5th Century A.D. Its literature is confined to Patthu Pattu and Ettu Thogai, more concretely, works like Tholkappiam, Thirukkural, Silappathikaram, and Manimegalai. The period of the Kalabhras, the celebrated Jain-Buddhist patrons, saw a rich resources of literary works in Tamil. Once Tamil language received the status of Semmozhi, the period extended to as far as 12th Century A.D., in which case, a number of other literary works come to be included. Moreover, I would go along with M.S. Ramasamy Ayyangar, who prefers to classify Jain works under various groups such as Didactics, Kavyas and other treatises instead of by historical period. See Studies in South Indian Jainism (Madras: Printed by Hoe & Co. at the PREMIER Press, 1922), pp 88-89 2 M.S. Ramasamy Ayyangar, Op. Cit. pp 19-20 3 Referring to Karnataka or Canarese Country in the south of India 4 The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 1901 Vol. p. 861; Jainism or ol., the Early Faith of Asoka by Thomas, The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Society, Vol. IX, (New Series) Article 8; V.A. Smith: Early History of India, India Recent Edition, p. 146. In this, he rejects his earlier view referring to the death of Chandragupta as imaginary history and says I am now disposed to believe that the tradition probably is true in its main outline and that Chandragupta really abdicated and became a Jain ascetic. XXII, 5 The Sacred Books of the East, Vol. XXII p. xliii 6 Inscription No. 44 records that Samantabhadra was a great missionary who established himself in religious disputations (referred to as beating the drum) from Pataliputra (Patna) in the North to as far as the city of Kanchi in the South. 7 The nature of Jain contribution to literature and its impact on Tamil society can be best studied and understood against the background of the historical processes which transformed Tamil society from a basically tribal, kinship based, anthropocentric and humanistic organisation of the early centuries of the Christian era to a highly complex, hierarchical, caste oriented or stratified one by the medieval times. The broad periods within which these changes can be situated are the early historical period, more popularly known as the Cankam (Sangam) age, followed by a period of transition in which northern, Sanskritic, normative traditions increasingly influenced and mingled with local traditions, ultimately leading to the early medieval period, from 6th to the 12th centuries, when the bilingual and bi-cultural interaction reached its apex and created a new sociocultural matrix, which came to be recognized as typically Tamil and which led to the emergence of the Tamil cultural region. See, Prof. R. Champakalakshmi: Jaina Literature in Tamil (Internet source) See, Prof. R. Champakalakshmi: Jaina Literature in Tamil (Internet source)

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8 A list of Jain Tamil literary sources is categorized according to the type of material. See Dr. S.V. Subramanian: Thamizh Ilakkiya Varalaru (Manivachakar Pathipagam, August 1999), pp 254-56 9 For the date of Tholkappiyar, see arguments presented by M.S. Ramaswami Ayyangar, Op. Cit. pp 38-40 10 The meaning of the verse strongly supports the Jaina path of non-violence in the place of ritual sacrifice which involved animal sacrifice: Not killing a single creature for the sake of food is far better than a thousand yagas performed according to Vedic rules. Aadi Bagavan refers to Adinath, the first Jain Tirthankara. Malarmisai is a formation of the lotus under the feet of the Jina (Jain Tirthankara), which moves along wherever the Jina goes about preaching the doctrine. Venduthal Vendaamai Ilaan is the one who is above likes and dislikes, the equanimous, the samana. Engunatthaan refers to the eight Jain attributes of God: Perfect Faith, Infinite Knowledge, Infinite Cognition, Extreme Fineness, Interpenetrability, Stationariness, Undisturbabale Bliss, and so on. Porivavilaindavittan refers to the one who is completely devoid of passions through the five senses. Aravali Andanan refers to a Brahmana, who goes by morality rather than sacrificial rituals for the path to salvation. 11 There is a possibility that this Elacharya, being a great intellectual and a linguist, could infuse in the Kural the North Indian wisdom of Arthasastra of Kautilya. 12 A general classification is given by Soma Sundaram Pillai: A History of Tamil Literature (Annamalainagar: Annamalai University, 1967), p 65 13 Dr. S. V. Subramanian, Op. Cit. pp 254-55 14 Dr. S. Subash Chandra Bose: Thamizh Ilakkiya Varalaru Paavai aralaru, Publications, Chennai, July 2002, p. 88; Ilangovadigals Silappathikaram Silappathikaram: Commentary by Na.Mu. Venkatasamy Natar, (Chennai: Tirunelveli, Thenninthiya Saiva Siddhanta Publications, Ltd., Second Edition, July 1999), Pathigam p. 4. 15 Soma Sundaram Pillai, Op. Cit. pp 356-57; Na.Mu. Venkatasamy Natar, Op. Cit. pp 353-355. 16 Gunavathan may also be interpreted as Guna vrati. The regulations or the rules of conduct for a lay person are anuvrata, gunavrata, siksavrata. Here, gunavrata refers to Dig vrata, Desa vrata, and Anarthadanda vrata. A householder should constantly try to limit his activities for possession. The vows of limiting ones directions, regions (Dig vrata or Desa vrata). These are facilities offered to a devout Jaina to be content with what one has. 17 One of the Holy Pentad in Jaina soteriology: Arihanta, Siddha, Acharya, Upadhyaya, and Sadhu. These are the visionaries or the prophets of the Jaina community.

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18 Angam or Angagama refers to the 12 prime scriptural texts: e.g. Acaranga, Sutrartanga, Sthananga, Samavayanga, etc. 19 Soma Sundaram Pillai, Op. Cit. pp 353-354. 20 All references are from Manimegalai Commentary by Puliyur Khesikan, Manimegalai: (Chennai: Paari Nilayam, 1994, Ninth Edition). 21 One could speak particularly of the doctrines of Karma and Fate, of Toleration and Debate. The earlier presence of the great Naga race in the Tamil land could have been a means of easy spread of these religions among the Tamils (e.g. Tree and Naga worship). 22 Manimegalai Commentary by Puliyur Thesikan: Op. Cit. pp 316-41 For Manimegalai: instances, on Time and Space (Ether):
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23 Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. XVII , p. 74 24 Mayilai Seeni Venkatasamy: Samanamum Thamizhum Tirunelveli, Thamizhum, Thennindiya Saiva Siddhanta Noorpathippu Kazhagam, Ltd., Chennai, 2000 (Third Edition), p. 48

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25 See, Prof. R. Champakalakshmi: Jaina Literature in Tamil (Internet source) The Moola Sangha got further divided into ganas like Nandi Gana, Sena Gana, Simha Gana, Deva Gana (Thiruvalavai Pathigam of Thirunnanacampantar) 26 There are two references in Naaladiyar to Mutharaiyar, the Lord of the three mighty lands (Nos. 200 & 296). There is also a view that Jains themselves invited these Kalabhras to establish themselves in the Tamil country. This was also the time of precipitation of rivalry between Brahmanism and the Jains. 27 Known as Mutharaiyar, who conquered the Chera, Chola, and Pandya kingdoms. Who were the Kalabhras? Read M.S. Ramaswami Ayyangar, Op. Cit. pp 53-56 and footnote 2 on page 56. 28 G.U. Pope names it as Vellalar Vedam or the Bible of the Cultivators or the Agriculturalists. Sadly, Quatrain 243 clearly illustrates the rivalry forming between the Jains and the Brahmins. 29 The story goes to say that 400 quatrains out of 8000, composed by 8000 Jain sages, swam against the current in Vaigai river. They were thrown into the river at the bid of an angry Pandyan king, who heard that the Jain

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sages were leaving his country. It is these 400 quatrains which were collected and collated. 30 Mayilai Seeni Venkatasamy: Samanamum Thamizhum Op. Cit. p. 22 A Thamizhum, Jain monk should be careful about the flow of karma (asrava) in oneself and stop its flow through carefulness in activities of speech, body, and mind (gupti), carefulness in moving about, procurement of provisions, etc. (samiti), carefulness in the practice of virtues (dharma), carefulness in reflections (anupreksa), carefulness in being victorious over oneself (parishahajaya), and in activities in general (caritra). All these imply a discipline over oneself, particularly control over ones senses. Tattvartha Sutra of Vacaka Umasvati, Translated by K.K. Dixit (Ahmedabad: L.D. Institute of Indology, April 2000, Second Edition), Chapter 9, No. 1-20, pp 311-29. 31 Here is the description of a Wife: She is sweet to the eye, and adorned in the way a lover loves; she enforces awe; her virtue shames the village folk; she is submissive, but in fitting place is stern, yet sweetly relents; such a soft-voiced dame is wife. (142)

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Soma Sundaram Pillai: A History of Tamil Literature Op. Cit. p. 387. Literature, 32 Soma Sundaram Pillai: A History of Tamil Literature Op. Cit. p. 388. Literature, 33 The beauty of the eye is benevolence; The beauty of the leg is firmness; The beauty of calculation is correct numbering; The beauty of music is its charm for the ear; The beauty of the king is the rosperity of his land. Literature, Soma Sundaram Pillai: A History of Tamil Literature Op. Cit. p. 390.

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34 Dr. S. Subash Chandra Bose: Thamizh Ilakkiya Varalaru Op. Cit. p. 69. aralaru, 35 Soma Sundaram Pillai: A History of Tamil Literature Op. Cit. p. 393-94. Literature, 36 The trouble from toddy, the drunkard knows; The trouble from water, the sea-gull among birds knows; The trouble from poverty, the man of many wives knows; The trouble of concealment, only the thief knows. (Naanmani Kadigai 97) Soma Sundaram Pillai: A History of Tamil Naanmani Literature, Literature pp 396-97

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37 Just like the species dry ginger, long pepper, and black pepper are medicinal, Tirikadugam poems are restorative in nature in the moral wellbeing of a Soul. Acquire wealth in order to give; Follow the great works in order to grow in virtue; Speak each word with gracious purpose; These three conduct not to the dark world. (Tirikadugam 90) Tirikadugam

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38 Let every man tender with care like gold ones body, wife, safety, and for ones life along with ones property. Or else, permanent evil would accrue. (Achara Kovai 44) Soma Sundaram Pillai: A History of Tamil Literature Literature, Achara p. 403

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39 Soma Sundaram Pillai: A History of Tamil Literature p. 404 Literature, J C Integrity is superior to courage P P No greater acquisition than the possession of children It is impossible for an amasser of wealth to be just in his doings. 40 Mayilai Seeni Venkatasamy: Samanamum Thamizhum (Chennai: Tirunelveli, Thennindiya Saiva Siddhanta Noorpathippu Kazhagam, Ltd., 2000, Third Edition), p. 15. 41 Ibid. p. 20 42 Sekkizhars Periyapuranam points to the high position of Chintamani at his time. (Ref. 20, 21) 43 Mayilai Seeni Venkatasamy: Samanamum Thamizhum Op. Cit. p. 9, 31. Thamizhum, 44 Ibid. p. 63 45 Thirukalambagam: Mayilai Seeni Venkatasamy: Samanamum Thamizhum Thamizhum, Op. Cit. p. 30 46 The poem belongs 16th Century A.D. and has 1197 sutras, giving meaning to 11,000 words

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47 Refer to the Jain works in Tamil in Dr. S. Subash Chandra Bose: Thamizh aralaru, Thamizhum, Ilakkiya Varalaru Op. Cit, Samanamum Thamizhum pp 210-14; Also in Soma Sundaram Pillai: A History of Tamil Literature Op. Cit. Chapter on Literature, The Age of Buddhism and Jainism pp 341-411 48 Neelakesi The Original Text and the Commentary of Samaya-Divakaraamana-Muni: Vamana-Muni Edited and Published by Prof. A. Chakravarti, (Thanjavoor: Publication Division of Thamizh Palkalai Kazhagam, July 1984), pp 136339; also see Five Minor Epics (of Tamil Literature in Tamil), (Chennai: Vardhamanan Publications, October 2006) 49 Like Sariputra, Moggalana was one of the chief disciples of Buddha. 50 Prof. A. Chakravarti, Op. Cit. pp 162-69 (Mokkalavada), 211-12 (Buddhavada), 317-19 (Vedavada) Thamizhum, 51 Mayilai Seeni Venkatasamy: Samanamum Thamizhum Op. Cit. pp 54; Padmanabh S. Jaini discusses the bases and circumstances of the Sramana-Brahmana controversy in the early history of theses religions. Sramanas: Their conflict with Brahmanical Society in Chapters in Indian Civilization Ed. By J. Elder, Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt, 1970, pp 40Civilization, 81; Also see, Vincent Sekhar: Dharma in Early Brahmanic, Buddhist and traditions, Jain traditions (Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, 2003), Chapter 1 and 7. 52 Mayilai Seeni Venkatasamy: Samanamum Thamizhum Op. Cit. p. 68 Thamizhum, 53 Ibid. p. 70, 71 54 See, Phyllis Granoff: Jain lives of Haribhadra An Enquiry into the Sources and Logic of the Legends, Journal of Indian Philosophy 17: 105-28 John E. Corts book (ed.) is a good source of information and 105-28; bibliography on this topic: Open Boundaries Jain Communities and Cultures in Indian History (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998). Particularly, the Chapters written by Indira Viswanathan Peterson: Sramanas Against the Tamil Way Jains as Others in Tamil Saiva Literature (pp 163-86) and by Richard H. Davis: The Story of the Disappearing Jains Retelling the Saiva-Jain Encounter in Medieval South India (pp 213-24) are full of such references. Cundarar, 55 See, Tevaram of Appar, Campantar and Cundarar, Tirumurai I-III, and Appar, IV-VII, olumes, Tirumurai IV-VII, in 2 Volumes Edited by Kayappakkam Sadasiva Chettiyar (Chennai: Tirunelveli Saiva Siddhanta Kazhgam, Ltd., 1973)

Dr. Vincent Sekhar, S.J.

Department of Philosophy Arul Anandar College (Autonomous) Karumathur - 625514 Madurai Dt. INDIA sekharsj@rediffmail.com