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Phase Detect
VCO efficiently provides oscillating waveform with variable frequency PLL synchronizes VCO frequency to input reference frequency through feedback
PC board trace
Zo
out(t)
ref(t)
Loop Filter
v(t)
VCO
out(t)
div(t)
Divider N
Going Digital
ref(t) Phase Detect Analog Loop Filter VCO Divider out(t)
ref(t)
Time -toDigital
out(t)
- Integer-N synthesizers and PLL background - Fractional-N synthesizers - Modeling and noise analysis - Time-to-digital conversion
M.H. Perrott
div(t)
Noise Analysis
M.H. Perrott
-Ramp
Vin
Ring oscillator
Vout Vin
-1
LC Oscillator: low phase noise, large area Ring Oscillator: easy to integrate, higher phase noise
M.H. Perrott
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-Ramp
Vin
Fvco
Ring oscillator
Vout Vin
-1
VCO Frequency
fc
Fout slope=Kv
vin
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VCO
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Divider
Implementation
N out(t) out(t) div(t) N=6 Counter count value out div(t)
Time-domain model
- Frequency: - Phase:
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out(t)
Divider
div(t)
out(t)
1 N Divider
div(t)
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- Average value of error pulses corresponds to phase error - Loop filter extracts the average value and feeds to VCO
ref(t) e(t) div(t)
ref(t) div(t)
1
e(t)
-1
M.H. Perrott
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e(t)
-1 W
e(t)
-1 W
W=-
W=
avg{e(t)}
gain = -2/ 1 gain = 2/
/2
-1
/2
ref - div
M.H. Perrott
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/2
-1
/2
ref - div
e(t)
div(t)
M.H. Perrott
div(t)
Loop Filter
Consists of a lowpass filter to extract average of phase detector error pulses Frequency-domain model
Laplace-Domain e(t) Loop Filter v(t) e(t) H(s) H(s) VCO VCO v(t) Frequency-Domain e(t) H(f) v(t)
v(t)
Loop Filter
VCO
ref(t)
e(t) H(s)
Divider
v(t)
2Kv s
out(t)
div(t)
1 N Frequency-Domain Model
XOR PD
Loop Filter
VCO
ref(t)
e(t) H(f)
Divider
v(t)
Kv jf
out(t)
div(t)
1 N
19
M.H. Perrott
Loop Filter
VCO
ref(t)
e(t) H(f)
Divider
v(t)
Kv jf
out(t)
div(t)
1 N
M.H. Perrott
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2. Choose pole/zero values for H(f) as appropriate for the required filtering of the phase detector output
Constraint: set pole/zero locations higher than desired PLL bandwidth to allow stable dynamics to be possible
3. Adjust the open-loop gain to achieve the required bandwidth while maintaining stability
Plot gain and phase bode plots of A(f) Use phase (or gain) margin criterion to infer stability
21
M.H. Perrott
Loop Filter
VCO
ref(t)
e(t) H(f)
Divider
v(t)
Kv jf
out(t)
div(t)
1 N
Loop filter
e(t) R1 C1 v(t)
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fp C B A
f A Re{s} 0 A
angle(A(f))
-90
o
-120
-150o
-180o
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C B A
C B A
0.6
fp
- Peaking in closed loop frequency response - Ringing in closed loop step response
24
M.H. Perrott
M.H. Perrott
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0 dB
fp fp2fp3 C B A
f Non-dominant poles B A
PM = 72 for A PM = 51o for B
o
angle(A(f))
-90
o
Re{s} 0
A B
PM = -12 for C
-315
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0 dB
B A
Frequency
Time
- Large peaking in closed loop frequency response - Increasing amplitude in closed loop step response
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Loop Filter
VCO
ref(t)
e(t) H(f)
Divider
v(t)
Kv jf
out(t)
div(t)
1 N N+1 N
Change in output frequency achieved by changing the divide value Classical approach provides no direct model of impact of divide value variations
M.H. Perrott
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1.87
1.86
1.85
1.84
1.83
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
Time (microseconds)
29
N (Divide Value)
1.92 1.9 1.88 1.86 1.84 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
Time (microseconds)
/2
-1
/2
ref - div
M.H. Perrott
Cycle Slipping
Consider the case where there is a frequency offset between divider output and reference
Resulting ramp in phase causes PD characteristic to be swept across its different regions (cycle slipping)
avg{e(t)}
gain = -2/ 1 gain = 2/
M.H. Perrott
/2
-1
/2
ref - div
32
- Average value of XOR characteristic can be close to zero - PLL frequency oscillates according to cycle slipping - In severe cases, PLL will not re-lock
PLL has finite frequency lock-in range!
XOR DC characteristic
cycle slipping 1 -1 3 n (n+2)
ref - div
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1.92 1.9 1.88 1.86 1.84 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
Time (microseconds)
up(t)
D Q Q
e(t)
R
1 div(t)
Q Q
down(t)
1 0 -1
35
M.H. Perrott
ref - div
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- Average value is now positive or negative according to sign of frequency offset - PLL will always relock
Tristate DC characteristic
cycle slipping 1
2n
lock
ref - div
-1
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ref(t)
Q Q
ref/2(t)
e(t)
div(t)
Q Q
div/2(t)
D SQ Q
Divide-by-2
Phase Detector
Frequency Detector
1 -1
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ref - div
Same frequency-domain PLL model as before, but PFD gain depends on topology used
Tristate: =1 PFD XOR-based: =2
Loop Filter
VCO
ref(t)
e(t) H(f)
Divider
v(t)
Kv jf
out(t)
div(t)
1 N
40
M.H. Perrott
- VCO adds on integrator - Loop filter, H(f), has no integrators - Loop filter, H(f), has one integrator
Tristate: =1 PFD XOR-based: =2
Loop Filter
VCO
ref(t)
e(t) H(f)
Divider
v(t)
Kv jf
out(t)
div(t)
1 N
41
M.H. Perrott
Issue: DC gain of loop filter often small and PFD output range is limited
VDD
ref(t) PFD
e(t)
Loop Filter
v(t)
out(t)
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Type II
Type II
Output Range of Loop Filter
VDD
D/A
VDD
No Integrator
Gnd
Contains Integrator
Gnd
e(t) C.P.
Loop Filter
v(t)
e(t) C.P.
Loop Filter
v(t)
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M.H. Perrott
- Current onto a capacitor forms integrator - Add extra pole/zero using resistor and capacitor
Gain of loop filter can be adjusted according to the value of the charge pump current Example: lead/lag network
e(t) Charge Pump i(t) v(t) R1 C2
C1
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Icp
Icp Iout(t)
e(t)
e(t)
2Icp
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e(t)
Icp
v(t) H(s)
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VCO
ref(t)
e(t)
Icp
v(t) H(f)
Kv jf
out(t)
div(t)
Divider
1 N
Loop filter
M.H. Perrott
B
0 dB
Re{s} BC A 0
120
-140
-160
-180
Open loop gain cannot be too low or too high if reasonable phase margin is desired
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Charge Pump
Example: include two parasitic poles with the lead/lag transfer function
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B
0 dB
A Re{s} BC 0
angle(A(f))
120
o
-140
-160
-180
PM = -7o for C
Closed loop response becomes unstable if open loop gain is too high
M.H. Perrott
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Normalized Amplitude
1
Type I
0.6
fz fo Frequency (Hz)
- Peaking in the closed loop frequency response - Extended settling time due to parasitic tail response
Bad for wireless systems demanding fast settling time
51
M.H. Perrott
- Resulting transfer function model of PLL is accurate for small perturbations in PLL - Linear PLL model breaks down for large perturbations
on PLL, such as a large step change in frequency Cycle slipping is key nonlinear effect
- Achieve stable operation with desired bandwidth - Allow full range of VCO with a simple implementation
Type II PLL is very popular to achieve this
M.H. Perrott
52
PC board trace
Zo
Reference Frequency
Frequency Synthesizer
Phase Noise f
fo
- Receiver lower sensitivity, poorer blocking performance - Transmitter increased spectral emissions (output spectrum
must meet a mask requirement)
53
Sout(f) f
Loop Filter
v(t)
VCO
Divider
N f
M.H. Perrott
1/T
cpn(t)
v(t)
vn(t) H(f)
Loop Filter KV jf VCO
out(t)
div[k]
Charge Pump
1
N Divider
Determine impact on output phase by deriving transfer function from each noise source to PLL output phase
M.H. Perrott
1/T
vn(t) e(t)
v(t)
Icp
H(f)
Loop Filter
KV jf VCO
out(t)
div[k]
Charge Pump
1
N Divider
Refer all PLL noise sources (other than the VCO) to the PFD output
M.H. Perrott
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1/T
vn(t) e(t)
v(t)
Icp
H(f)
Loop Filter
KV jf VCO
out(t)
div[k]
Charge Pump
1
N Divider
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1/T
vn(t) e(t)
v(t)
Icp
H(f)
Loop Filter
KV jf VCO
out(t)
div[k]
Charge Pump
1
N Divider
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1/T
vn(t) e(t)
v(t)
Icp
H(f)
Loop Filter
KV jf VCO
out(t)
div[k]
Charge Pump
1
N Divider
Define G(f) as
VCO-referred noise
M.H. Perrott
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1/T
en(t)
N G(f)
vn(t)
1-G(f)
fo
fo
npfd(t) n(t)
Divider Control c(t) of Frequency Setting (assume noiseless for now)
nvco(t) out(t)
PFD-referred noise is lowpass filtered VCO-referred noise is highpass filtered Both filters have the same transition frequency values
- Defined as f
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N S e n (f)
S vn(f) f
0
1/T
en(t)
N G(f)
vn(t)
1-G(f)
fo
fo
npfd(t) n(t)
Divider Control c(t) of Frequency Setting (assume noiseless for now)
nvco(t) out(t)
PFD-referred noise is scaled by square of divide value and inverse of PFD gain VCO-referred noise is not scaled (only filtered)
M.H. Perrott
N S e n (f)
S vn(f) f
0
1/T
en(t)
N G(f)
vn(t) (fo)opt
1-G(f)
fo
fo
npfd(t) n(t)
Divider Control c(t) of Frequency Setting (assume noiseless for now)
nvco(t) out(t)
- Higher bandwidth will pass more PFD-referred noise - Lower bandwidth will pass more VCO-referred noise
M.H. Perrott
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N S e n (f)
S vn(f) f
0
1/T
en(t)
N G(f)
vn(t) (fo)opt
1-G(f)
fo
fo
npfd(t) n(t)
Divider Control c(t) of Frequency Setting (assume noiseless for now)
nvco(t) out(t)
Radians2/Hz
S npfd(f) S nvco(f)
f
0
(fo)opt
- High PLL bandwidth suppresses VCO noise - Low PLL bandwidth suppresses PFD-referred noise
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Loop Filter
div(t) Nsd[k]
Divide value is dithered between integer values Fractional divide values can be realized!
M.H. Perrott
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PFD
out(t)
div(t)
frac[k]
Accumulator
1-bit
- Fractional input value fed into accumulator - Carry out bit of accumulator fed into divider
M.H. Perrott
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Accumulator Operation
clk(t) frac[k]
Accumulator M-bit 1-bit M-bit
residue[k] carry_out[k]
Carry out bit is asserted when accumulator residue reaches or surpasses its full scale value
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- Resulting frequency offset causes phase error to accumulate - Reset phase error by swallowing a VCO cycle
Achieved by dividing by 5 every 4 reference cycles
71
M.H. Perrott
PFD
out(t)
div(t)
frac[k]
Accumulator
1-bit
M.H. Perrott
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ref(t)
PFD
out(t)
div(t)
D/A
frac[k]
M-bit
carry_out[k]
Phase error due to fractional technique is predicted by the instantaneous residue of the accumulator
M.H. Perrott
ref(t)
PFD
out(t)
div(t)
D/A
frac[k]
M-bit
carry_out[k]
Gain matching between PFD error and scaled D/A output must be extremely precise
M.H. Perrott
M-bit Input
Digital Modulator
1-bit D/A
Analog Output
Frequency Domain
Digital Input Spectrum Quantization Noise Analog Output Spectrum
Input
Sigma-Delta dithers in a manner such that resulting quantization noise is shaped to high frequencies
M.H. Perrott
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S r(ej2fT)= 1
12
z=ej2fT
q[k] y[k]
S q(ej2fT)= 1 |H n(ej2fT)| 2
12
- Signal transfer function (STF) Filters input (generally undesirable) - Noise transfer function (NTF)
H(z) - 1
e[k]
Output is quantized in a multi-level fashion Error signal, e[k], represents the quantization error Filtered version of quantization error is fed back to input
1 -1 2 -2
- H(z) is typically a highpass filter whose first tap value is 1 i.e., H(z) = 1 + a z + a z L - H(z) 1 therefore has a first tap value of 0
Feedback needs to have delay to be realizable
78
M.H. Perrott
H(z) - 1
e[k]
H(z) - 1
e[k]
Represent quantizer block as a summing junction in which r[k] represents quantization error
- Note:
H(z) - 1
e[k]
H(z) - 1
e[k]
- NTF: - STF:
M.H. Perrott
m=3
Magnitude
m=2
m=1
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H(z) - 1
e[k]
Amplitude
Sample Number
200
Frequency (Hz)
1/(2T)
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H(z) - 1
e[k]
-1
Sample Number
200
Magnitude (dB)
0
Amplitude
Frequency (Hz)
1/(2T)
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H(z) - 1
e[k]
Magnitude (dB)
Amplitude
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Observations
Low order Sigma-Delta modulators do not appear to produce shaped noise very well
scramble relationship between input and quantization noise Quantization noise, r[k], fails to be white
Higher order Sigma-Delta modulators provide much better noise shaping with fewer spurs
more complex interaction between input and quantization noise
M.H. Perrott
85
Worst input for tone generation are DC signals that are rational with a low valued denominator
1/(2T)
Frequency (Hz)
1/(2T)
M.H. Perrott
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MASH topology
x[k] M1[k] r1[k]
M
M2[k]
r2[k]
1
M3[k]
y1[k]
y3[k]
(1-z-1)2
y[k]
Cascade first order sections Combine their outputs after they have passed through digital differentiators Advantage over single loop approach
M.H. Perrott
M2[k]
r2[k]
1
M3[k]
y1[k]
y3[k]
(1-z-1)2
y[k]
M.H. Perrott
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M2[k]
r2[k]
1
M3[k]
y1[k]
y3[k]
(1-z-1)2
y[k]
-1 3
M.H. Perrott
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div(t) Nsd[m]
Quantization Noise
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1/T
vn(t) out(t)
e(t)
v(t)
Icp
H(f)
KV jf VCO
div[k]
1
N N[k]
- Predicts impact of PFD and VCO referred noise sources - Does not allow straightforward modeling of impact due
to divide value variations This is a problem when using fractional-N approach
92
M.H. Perrott
1/T
en(t) e(t)
ref [k]
C.P. Icp
VCO
KV jf
vn(t) out(t)
div[k]
S q(e Quantization Noise
0
j2fT
Divider 1
Nnom )
1 T
d [k] n[k]
f
z 1 - z-1
-1
M.H. Perrott
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1/T
En(t)
2 NnomG(f)
vn(t)
1-G(f)
fo
fo
n[k]
[k]
T G(f)
fo
div(t)
tn,pll(t)
out(t)
M.H. Perrott
94
-80 -90 -100 -110 -120 -130 -140 -150 -160 10 kHz
PFD-referred noise
out,En
(f)
noise
VCO-referred noise
out,
(f)
out,vn
(f)
100 kHz
1 MHz
10 MHz
f0
Frequency
1/T
Bandwidth of G(f) is set low enough such that synthesizer noise is dominated by intrinsic PFD and VCO noise
M.H. Perrott
fo = 160 kHz
-70 -80 -90 -100 -110 -120 -130 -140 -150
-80 -90 -100 -110 -120 -130 -140 -150 -160 10 kHz
PFD-referred noise
PFD-referred noise
out,En
(f)
out,En
(f)
noise
noise
VCO-referred noise
S
VCO-referred noise
out,
(f)
out,
(f)
out,vn
(f)
out,vn
(f)
100 kHz
1 MHz
10 MHz
-160 10 kHz
100 kHz
1 MHz
10 MHz
f0
Frequency
1/T
f0
Frequency
1/T
Allows more PFD noise to pass through Allows more Sigma-Delta noise to pass through Increases suppression of VCO noise
M.H. Perrott
96
m=3
-70
-80 -90 -100 -110 -120 -130 -140 -150 -160 10 kHz
PFD-referred noise
out,En
(f)
PFD-referred noise
out,En
(f)
VCO-referred noise
noise
VCO-referred noise
out,
(f)
out,vn
(f)
noise
S (f)
out,vn
(f)
out,
100 kHz
1 MHz
10 MHz
-160 10 kHz
100 kHz
1 MHz
10 MHz
f0
Frequency
1/T
f0
Frequency
1/T
PFD and VCO noise unaffected Sigma-Delta noise no longer attenuated by G(f) such that a -20 dB/dec slope is achieved above its bandwidth
M.H. Perrott
97
Out
Frequency Selection
M-bit
Modulator
1-bit
Output Spectrum
Noise
Frequency Selection
PLL dynamics
Fout
Out
Frequency Selection
M-bit
Modulator
1-bit
Output Spectrum
Noise
Frequency Selection
PLL dynamics
Fout
ref(t) PFD
Charge Pump
e(t)
out(t)
Key idea: quantization noise can be predicted within the digital modulator structure Issue: cancellation is limited by analog matching
M.H. Perrott
100
ref(t) PFD/DAC
r(t)
v(t)
VCO
out(t)
Combined PFD/DAC structure achieves inherent matching between error and cancellation signal
M.H. Perrott
101
ref(t) PFD
Charge Pump
e(t)
out(t)
LMS Algorithm
- Cost is introduction of quantization noise due to dithering - Quantization noise cancellation was attempted
Classical fractional-N synthesizers used an accumulator for dithering Sigma-Delta fractional-N synthesizers improve quantization noise by utilizing noise shaping techniques
- Key tradeoff: PLL bandwidth versus phase noise - Quantization noise cancellation has made a comeback
M.H. Perrott
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