1.0 Introduction Diversity and equality at work has an important implication at both organizational and individual levels.

This paper provides a critical literature review on diversity and equality at work, and opportunities and challenges faced by diverse workforce in United States of America (U.S). The review seeks to answer the following questions; the demographic and cultural diverse work force in U.S context. Secondly, government role in adopting equal employment opportunity. Finally opportunities and challenges faced by employees in the diverse workforce. To answer these questions, blind spots in the treatments of gender, ethnicity and age discrimination research, in both positive and critical scholarship have being examined. 2.0 Diversity Workforce diversity refers to the mixture of people from numerous backgrounds in labour force (Dessler, 2010). In climate of global business, to meet demand of diverse customer, a diverse labour force is important (Drafke and Kossen, 1998). In contrast some firms point out that one does not need to be a member of a certain group in-order to comprehend the product and service need of that group. 2.1 Demographic Diversity Demographic diversity is the degree of mix of demographic characteristics (sex, race, age and national origin) of the people who form an organizations workforce (Bohlander, Sherman and Snell, 1998). Main challenge that an individual face at work place is demographic discrimination.

2.1.1 Age In U.S age of 55 and older workers have increased by 52% between 1984 and 2004 and is estimated to increase another 50% by 2014 (Bureau of labour statistics, 2011). Due to the decline of birth rate after Generation Y, work forces are continuing to age, while the number joining the work-force remains uniform (Samorodov, 1999). Researchers have found that within 5 to 10 years key leaders, experience personnel and executive, would be hard to find out (Atulya, George, Hafiz, and Sarah, 2006). Scholars have found, during the economic downsizing; older employees are people who lose their job easily. In-order to reduce the cost, organizations redundant staffs and older employees were forced to consider early retirement (world labour report 1995). The practice became widely spread in western nations during 1980 and 1990s (ABS 1998). Reason expressed by employers regarding this matter is; operating cost rise when older managers are hired because of the increased expense for health and retirement plans. However, some agrees that the increase cost is offset by saving in turnover and training cost. Another myth about aged employees is that they have higher rates of absenteeism, and they cannot cope up with changing technology (Casey, Lakey, and Metcalf, 1993; Harper, 2006; Raeside, and Khan, 2003). But empirical evidence shows that they have better attendance than young workers, they are more reliable and enthusiastic, and provide a very settling influence on young workers (Casey et al., 1993; Harper, 2006). 2.1.2 Gender Centuries ago there is a huge discrimination in recruiting female employees. In early 80s male dominant a majority of the workforce, but within last 25 years women have made significant
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progress in workplace. Today there are nearly as many female managers (43 percent) as there are male managers, (Aumann, Bond, and Galinsky, 2011; Casey et al., 1993; Monday, and Noe, 1995). Surveys had indicated that after economic downturn, revealing that 49% of wage and salaried employees were women, while 47% of self-employed workers and entrepreneurs were women (Casey et al., 1993). Women are now earning 54 percent of college degrees, but they are still earning only 72 percent of male salaries. (women break Barrier Reuters news, 1996). Studies show that, huge gap in wages is that, women are reluctant to join jobs with high responsibility; because they are concern they might neglect the family responsibilities due to the high responsibility at work. (Aumann et al., 2011). Others argue that women earn less, because they work for few hours and have less experience. But statistics on bureau of labour indicates that women work longer to receive a promotion that provides access to higher pay. Therefore it is hard to argue exactly what was the reason to have a huge gap in wages. In the case of increasing women in work place, Bernnan and Mc Cafferty have stressed that women have a better understanding of consumer needs and their behaviour, and look for opportunities to meet those needs. In contrast some researchers have emphasized womens difficulty in developing supportive mentoring relationship (Parker and Karam, 1993) while other writers have focused on the incongruities and resulting double blind that occur when women attempt to occupy leader and feminine roles simultaneously (Eagly and Karu 2002).

Table 1: First professional degrees earned by men and women (1970-2006)

Source: U.S department of Education Figure 1 : Labour force participation by women and men 18 and older ( 1950-2007)

Source: U.S Bureau of Bureau of Labour Statistic

Figure 2: Median usual weekly earnings of full-time wage and salaried employees in 2007

Source: U.S Bureau of Bureau of Labour Statistic 2.1.3 Ethnicity With regard to race, percentage of white non-Hispanic involvement in workforce was 80% in 1984, reduced to 70% in 2004, and is expected to further decrease to 66% by 2014 (Bureau of Labour Statistics). Recent surveys indicate that from 1998 to 2007, discrimination among Arab (Muslim and Non-Muslim) and Haitian groups have increased, due to September 11, 2001 attack (Brett, Cecile, Hassan, and Nicolas, 2011). Ethnic privilege is one of key benefit to increased diverse societies. These ethnic privileges can be helpful in structuring organization and managing people at the workplace in different situations (Al Ariss, 2010; Al Ariss and zbilgin, 2010; Bell, Kwesiga, and Berry, 2010; Carr, 2010).

2.2 Cultural Diversity Cultural diversity refers to mixture of culture and subcultures to which members of the workforce belong (Hellriegel et al., 1999). According to expert demographer Kenneth Johnson, by mid of 21st century in U.S there will be more non-whites than whites (Johnson and Lichter, 2010). Base on this statistics organizations and Schools are assigning international assignment to their employees in order to expose to new cultures. Programmes have being conducted to identify the knowledge of Americans regarding the diverse culture. Regarding this matter one of the well-known programme was the visit of Anna Marie (social worker) to con-cord high school; teachers were met with a group of migrant students and after the departure of students teachers were asked to locate those students countries in a world map, Unfortunately majority could not identify the locations (Bill, and Carlton, 2011, pp. 60-64). Regarding international assignments, authors like Adler 1991 and Kendall 1986 had discussed that effectiveness of international assignments depends on how the process is handle by the organizations. Repatriates expect for a high challenging job after they return, where they can utilize their new skills and knowledge (Hauser 1998). However upon their return employees face organizations that do not know what these individual have learnt for past several years and assign a job that can utilize their new skills and knowledge (Bender and fish, 2000) 3.0 Equality at work Equal employment opportunity is the treatment of individuals in all aspects of employment hiring, promotion, training in a fair and nonbiased manner (Sherman et al., 1998)

3.1 Equal Employment Opportunity Legislation (EEOL) Numerous research demonstrate that, legal compliance with non-discrimination law is main reason that organizations are concerned about managing workforce diversity (Tatli et al., 2006; Ozbligin and Thath, 2008) and these legal requirements have shape the employment policies and provide frameworks on making legal decision on demoting, promoting, hiring retention, and referral (Sherman et al., 1998; Monday et al., 1995). Thus, this lead to improve employment status of protected groups (Hellriegel et al., 1999; Monday et al., 1995; Sherman et al., 1998). Earlier studies show that, early efforts of EEOL changes a little on employment discriminations. Some drawbacks that authors have highlighted are; discrimination law was neglected to list specific discrimination practices for their correction, and employers covered by the act were only required to comply voluntary with the EEOL (Sherman et al., 1998). Table 2 : Charges filed with the EEOC (1993- 2006)

Source: http://works.bepress.com/minna_kotkin/18/
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3.2 Affirmative action regulations A program designed to create greater equity employment ( Drafke et al., 1998). The preferential hiring of minorities has sometimes resulted in human relations problem in organizations where it has been utilized. Resentment and bitterness have, at times, developed toward such programs among applicant for employment and existing employees (Drafke et al., 1998). 3.3 Sexual Harassment: Various authors discus that sexual harassment as a challenge that is facing in diverse workforce, which refers to unwelcome sexual advance. Sexual Harassment is one of the most offensive and demeaning experience an employee can suffer. Evidence also suggests that harassment can seriously affect employees confidence and self-esteem as well as leading to absenteeism, poor morale and resignation. (Ed Rose, 2001) 4.0 Opportunities and Challenges 4.1 Opportunities Firms are now more sensitive to the need of working parents. Firms paid maternity leave, offer paternity leave and give time off for childrens visit to doctor (Monday et al., 1995). Thus, this provides an equal employment opportunity for single parents and working mothers. Due to these changes, desire to move to jobs with high responsibility among working mothers and single parents had dramatically increased during pass 9 years (Aumann et al., 2011).

Figure 3: Desire to move to jobs with more responsibility among young women with and without children (1992-2008)

Source: http://www.bls.gov/ Enter of multinational firms helps to improve human resource management policies. These policies help to have equal employment opportunities across the region regardless of race, gender, or ethnicity (Sparrow, Schuler, and Jackson, 2000). Improve the quality and performance of the internal workforce in terms of skills, creativity, and innovation, decision-making. These leads to maximize the talents of all employees irrespective to their personal characteristics (Chevrier, 2003; Cox and Blake, 1991; Fernandez, 1991; Hambrick et al., 1996; Enure, 1993; Morrison, 1992). 4.2 Challenges Foreign employees, especially in globalized organizations experience difficulties in cultural difference, and face difficulties in understanding each others value and behaviour toward

another. Thus this leads to have a cultural clash between employees (Elashmawi, and Harris, 1993; Drafke et al., 1998) Due to the inadequate criteria followed by organization in selecting and appraising employees, may lead to ignore the minorities. (Loveman and Gabarro, 1991; Morrison, 1992; Rosen and Lovelace, 1991; Schreiber et al., 1993). Although these groups were being well represented in certain jobs, they were significantly underrepresented in managerial grades. Regarding this issue Fulkerson and Schuler (1992) claim that the appraisal process should be as culturally unbiased as possible, and performance appraisal system should focus on appraising the individuals performance, not personality. Due to the high competition in global economy, firms are hiring educated and skill employees, therefore older employee and employees with insufficient education are facing difficulties in getting job and to cope with rapid change of technology. 5.0 Conclusion Findings show that the U.S government had played an important role in managing the workforce diversity. Due to the employment legislation on discrimination has led to increase the employment opportunities to minorities, older workers and reduces the gap between male and female workers. One limitation on this study is that lack of diverse cultural issues. It is important to investigate the current policies and knowledge is suitable and up-to-date with multicultural diversity of present working population (Pasca and Wagner, 2011, p. 679). Secondly Majority of the scholars have discussed on how employer can manage the diversity workforce and very few scholars discuss regarding the issues faced by employees.

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