PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF DC MOTOR The direct current (DC) motor is one of the first machines devised to convert electrical

power into mechanical power. Permanent magnet (PM) direct current convert electrical energy into mechanical energy through the interaction of two magnetic fields. One field is produced by a permanent magnet assembly, the other field is produced by an electrical current flowing in the motor windings. These two fields result in a torque which tends to rotate the rotor. As the rotor turns, the current in the windings is commutated to produce a continuous torque output. The stationary electromagnetic field of the motor can also be wire-wound like the armature (called a wound-field motor) or can be made up of permanent magnets (called a permanent magnet motor). In either style (wound-field or permanent magnet) the commutator. acts as half of a mechanical switch and rotates with the armature as it turns. The commutator is composed of conductive segments (called bars), usually made of copper, which represent the termination of individual coils of wire distributed around the armature. The second half of the mechanical switch is completed by the brushes. These brushes typically remain stationary with the motor's housing but ride (or brush) on the rotating commutator. As electrical energy is passed through the brushes and consequently through the armature a torsional force is generated as a reaction between the motor's field and the armature causing the motor's armature to turn. As the armature turns, the brushes switch to adjacent bars on the commutator. This switching action transfers the electrical energy to an adjacent winding on the armature which in turn perpetuates the torsional motion of the armature. Permanent magnet (PM) motors are probably the most commonly used DC motors, but there are also some other type of DC motors(types which use coils to make the permanent magnetic field also) .DC motors operate from a direct current power source. Movement of the magnetic field is achieved by switching current between coils within the motor. This action is called "commutation". Very many DC motors (brush-type) have built-in commutation, meaning that as the motor rotates, mechanical brushes automatically commutate coils on the rotor. You can use dc-brush motors in a variety of applications. A simple, permanent-magnet dc motor is an essential element in a variety of products, such as toys, servo mechanisms, valve actuators, robots, and automotive electronics. There are several typical advantages of a PM motor. When compared to AC or wound field DC motors, PM motors are usually physically smaller in overall size and lighter for a given power rating. Furthermore, since the motor's field, created by the permanent magnet, is constant, the relationship between torque and speed is very linear. A PM motor can provide relatively high torque at low speeds and PM field provides some inherent selfbraking when power to the motor is shutoff. There are several disadvantages through, those being mostly being high current during a stall condition and during instantaneous reversal. Those can damage some motors or be problematic to control circuitry. Furthermore, some magnet materials can be damaged when subjected to excessive heat and some loose field strength if the motor is disassembled. High-volume everyday items, such as hand drills and kitchen appliances, use a dc servomotor known as a universal motor. Those universal motors are series-wound DC motors, where the stationary and rotating coils are wires in series. Those motors can work well on both AC and DC power. One of the drawbacks/precautions about series-wound DC motors is that if they are unloaded, the only thing limiting their speed is the windage and friction losses. Some can literally tear themselves apart if run unloaded. A brushless motor operates much in the same way as a traditional brush motor. However, as the name implies there are no brushes (and no commutator). The mechanical switching function, implemented by the brush and commutator combination in a brush-type motor, is replaced by electronic switching in a brushless motor. In a typical brushless motor the electromagnetic field, created by permanent magnets, is the rotating member of the motor and is called a rotor. The rotating magnetic field is generated with a number of electromagnets commutatated with electronics switches (typically transistors or FETs) in a right order at right speed. In a brushless motor, the trick becomes to know when to switch the electrical energy in the windings to perpetuate the rotating motion. This is typically accomplished in a brushless-type motor by some feedback means designed to provide an

indication of the position of the magnet poles on the rotor relative to the windings. A hall effect device (HED) is a commonly used means for providing this positional feedback. In some applications brushless motors are commutated without sensors or with the use of an encoder for positional feedback. A brushless motor is often used when high reliability, long life and high speeds are required. The bearings in a brushless motor usually become the only parts to wear out. In applications where high speeds are required (usually above 30,000 RPM) a brushless motor is considered a better choice (because as motor speed increases so does the wear of the brushes on traditional motors). A brushless motor's commutation control can easily be separated and integrated into other required electronics, thereby improving the effective power-to-weight and/or power-to-volume ratio. A brushless motor package (motor and commutation controller) will usually cost more than a brush-type, yet the cost can often be made up in other advantages. For example, in applications where sophisticated control of the motor's operation is required. Brushless motors are seen nowadays in very many computer application, they for example rotate normal PC fans, hard disks and disk drives. Sometimes the rotation direction needs to be changed. In normal permanent magnet motors, this rotation is changed by changing the polarity of operating power (for example by switching from negative power supply to positive or by inter-changing the power terminals going to power supply). This direction changing is typically implemented using relay or a circuit called an H bridge. There are some typical characteristics on "brush-type" DC motors. When a DC motor is straight to a battery (with no controller), it draws a large surge current when connected up. The surge is caused because the motor, when it is turning, acts as a generator. The generated voltage is directly proportional to the speed of the motor. The current through the motor is controlled by the difference between the battery voltage and the motor's generated voltage (otherwise called back EMF). When the motor is first connected up to the battery (with no motor speed controller) there is no back EMF. So the current is controlled only by the battery voltage, motor resistance (and inductance) and the battery leads. Without any back emf the motor, before it starts to turn, therefore draws the large surge current. When a motor speed controller is used, it varies the voltage fed to the motor. Initially, at zero speed, the controller will feed no voltage to the motor, so no current flows. As the motor speed controller's output voltage increases, the motor will start to turn. At first the voltage fed to the motor is small, so the current is also small, and as the motor speed controller's voltage rises, so too does the motor's back EMF. The result is that the initial current surge is removed, acceleration is smooth and fully under control. Motor speed control of DC motor is nothing new. A simplest method to control the rotation speed of a DC motor is to control it's driving voltage. The higher the voltage is, the higher speed the motor tries to reach. In many applications a simple voltage regulation would cause lots of power loss on control circuit, so a pulse width modulation method (PWM)is used in many DC motor controlling applications. In the basic Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) method, the operating power to the motors is turned on and off to modulate the current to the motor. The ratio of "on" time to "off" time is what determines the speed of the motor. When doing PWM controlling, keep in mind that a motor is a low pass device. The reason is that a motor is mainly a large inductor. It is not capable of passing high frequency energy, and hence will not perform well using high frequencies. Reasonably low frequencies are required, and then PWM techniques will work. Lower frequencies are generally better than higher frequencies, but PWM stops being effective at too low a frequency. The idea that a lower frequency PWM works better simply reflects that the "on" cycle needs to be pretty wide before the motor will draw any current (because of motor inductance). A higher PWM frequency will work fine if you hang a large capacitor across the motor or short the motor out on the "off" cycle (e.g. power/brake pwm) The reason for this is that short pulses will not allow much current to flow before being cut off. Then the current that did flow is dissipated as an inductive kick probably as heat through the fly-back diodes. The capacitor integrates the pulse and provides a longer, but lower, current flow through the motor after the driver is cut off. There is not inductive kick either, since the current flow

isn't being cut off. Knowing the low pass roll-off frequency of the motor helps to determine an optimum frequency for operating PWM. Try testing your motor with a square duty cycle using a variable frequency, and then observe the drop in torque as the frequency is increased. This technique can help determine the roll off point as far as power efficiency is concerned. Besides "brush-type" DC motors, there is another DC motor type: brushless DC motor. Brushless DC motors rely on the external power drive to perform the commutation of stationary copper winding on the stator. This changing stator field makes the permanent magner rotor to rotate.A brushless permanent magnet motor is the highest performing motor in terms of torque / vs. weight or efficiency. Brushless motors are usually the most expensive type of motor. Electronically commutated, brush-less DC motor systems are widely used as drives for blowers and fans used in electronics, telecommunications and industrial equipment applications. There is wide variety of different brush-less motors for various applications. Some are designed to to rotate at constant speed (those used in disk drives) and the speed of some can be controlled by varying the voltage applied to them (usually the motors used in fans). Some brushless DC motors have a built-in tachometer which gives out pulses as the motor rotates (this applies to both disk drive motors and some computer fans). In general, users select brushtype DC motors when low system cost is a priority, and brushless motors to fulfil other requirements (such as maintenance-free operation, high speeds, and explosive environments where sparking could be hazardous). Brush type DC motors are used in very many battery powered appliances. Brushless DC motors are commonly used in applications

TYPES OF DC MOTORS There are three basic types of dc motors: (1) Series motors, (2) shunt motors, and (3) compound motors. They differ largely in the method in which their field and armature coils are connected. Series DC Motor In the series motor, the field windings, consisting of a relatively few turns of heavy wire, are connected in series with the armature winding. Both a diagrammatic and a schematic illustration of a series motor is shown in figure 9-75. The same current flowing through the field winding also flows through the armature winding. Any increase in current, therefore, strengthens the magnetism of both the field and the armature. Because of the low resistance in the windings, the series motor is able to draw a large current in starting. This starting current, in passing through both the field and armature windings, produces a high starting torque, which is the series motor's principal advantage. The speed of a series motor is dependent upon the load. Any change in load is accompanied by a substantial change in speed. A series motor will run at high speed when it has a light load and at low speed with a heavy load. If the load is removed entirely, the motor may operate at such a high speed that the armature will fly apart. If high starting torque is needed under heavy load conditions, series motors have many applications. Series motors are often used in aircraft as engine starters and for raising and lowering landing gears, cowl flaps, and wing flaps.

Shunt DC Motor In the shunt motor the field winding is connected in parallel or in shunt with the armature winding. (See figure 9-76) The resistance in the field winding is high. Since the field winding is connected directly across the power supply, the current through the field is constant. The field current does not vary with motor speed, as in the series motor and, therefore, the torque of the shunt motor will vary only with the current through the armature. The torque developed at starting is less than that developed by a series motor of equal size.

The speed of the shunt motor varies very little with changes in load. When all load is removed, it assumes a speed slightly higher than the loaded speed. This motor is particularly suitable for use when constant speed is desired and when high starting torque is not needed. Compound DC Motor The compound motor is a combination of the series and shunt motors. There are two windings in the field: a shunt winding and a series winding. A schematic of a compound motor is shown in figure 9-77. The shunt winding is composed of many turns of fine wire and is connected in parallel with the armature winding. The series winding consists of a few turns of large wire and is connected in series with the armature winding. The starting torque is higher than in the shunt motor but lower than in the series motor. Variation of speed with load is less than in a series wound motor but greater than in a shunt motor. The compound motor is used whenever the combined characteristics of the series and shunt motors are desired. Like the compound generator, the compound motor has both series and shunt field windings. The series winding may either aid the shunt wind (cumulative compound) or oppose the shunt winding (differential compound). The starting and load characteristics of the cumulative compound motor are somewhere between those of the series and those of the shunt motor.

Because of the series field, the cumulative compound motor has a higher starting torque than a shunt motor. Cumulative compound motors are used in driving machines which are subject to sudden changes in load. They are also used where a high starting torque is desired, but a series motor cannot be used easily. In the differential compound motor, an increase in load creates an increase in current and a decrease in total flux in this type of motor. These two tend to offset each other and the result is a practically constant speed. However, since an increase in load tends to decrease the field strength, the speed characteristic becomes unstable. Rarely is this type of motor used in aircraft systems. A graph of the variation in speed with changes of load of the various types of dc motors is shown in figure 9-78. Counter E. M. F. The armature resistance of a small, 28 volt dc motor is extremely low, about 0.1 ohm. When the armature is connected across the 28 volt source, current through the armature will apparently be

This high valve of current flow is not only impracticable but also unreasonable, especially when the current drain, during normal operation of a motor, is found to be about 4 amperes. This is because the current through a motor armature during operation is determined by more factors than ohmic resistance. When the armature in a motor rotates in a magnetic field, a voltage is induced in its windings. This voltage is called the back or counter e.m.f. (electromotive force) and is opposite in direction to the voltage applied to the motor from the external source. Counter e.m.f. opposes the current which causes the armature to rotate. The current flowing through the armature, therefore, decreases as the counter e.m.f. increases. The faster the armature rotates, the greater the counter e.m.f. For this reason, a motor connected to a battery may draw a fairly high current on starting, but as the armature speed increases, the current flowing through the armature decreases. At rated speed, the counter e.m.f. may be only a few volts less than the battery voltage. Then, if the load on the motor is increased, the motor will slow down, less

counter e.m.f. will be generated, and the current drawn from the external source will increase. In a shunt motor, the counter e.m.f. affects only the current in the armature, since the field is connected in parallel across the power source. As the motor slows down and the counter e.m.f. decreases, more current flows through the armature, but the magnetism in the field is unchanged. When the series motor slows down, the counter e.m.f. decreases and more current flows through the field and the armature, thereby strengthening their magnetic fields. Because of these characteristics, it is more difficult to stall a series motor than a shunt motor. Types of Duty Electric motors are called upon to operate under various conditions. Some motors are used for intermittent operation; others operate continuously. Motors built for intermittent duty can be operated for short periods only and, then, must be allowed to cool before being operated again. If such a motor is operated for long periods under full load, the motor will be overheated. Motors built for continuous duty may be operated at rated power for long periods. Reversing Motor Direction By reversing the direction of current flow in either the armature or the field windings, the direction of a motor's rotation may be reversed. This will reverse the magnetism of either the armature or the magnetic field in which the armature rotates. If the wires connecting the motor to an external source are interchanged, the direction of rotation will not be reversed, since changing these wires reverses the magnetism of both field and armature and leaves the torque in the same direction as before.

One method for reversing direction of rotation employs two field windings wound in opposite directions on the same pole. This type of motor is called a split field motor. Figure 9-79 shows a series motor with a split field winding. The single pole, double throw switch makes it possible to direct current through either of the two windings. When the switch is placed in the lower position, current flows through the lower field winding, creating a north pole at the lower field winding and at the lower pole piece, and a south pole at the upper pole piece. When the switch is placed in the upper position, current flows through the upper field winding, the magnetism of the field is reversed, and the armature rotates in the opposite direction. Some split field motors are built with two separate field windings wound on alternate poles. The armature in such a motor, a four pole reversible motor, rotates in one direction when current

flows through the windings of one set of opposite pole pieces, and in the opposite direction when current flows through the other set of windings. Another method of direction reversal, called the switch method, employs a double pole, double throw switch which changes the direction of current flow in either the armature or the field. In the illustration of the switch method shown in figure 9-80, current direction may be reversed through the field but not through the armature. When the switch is thrown to the "up" position, current flows through the field winding to establish a north pole at the right side of the motor and a south pole at the left side of the motor. When the switch is thrown to the "down" position, this polarity is reversed and the armature rotates in the opposite direction. Motor Speed Motor speed can be controlled by varying the current in the field windings. When the amount of current flowing through the field windings is increased, the field strength increases, but the motor slows down since a greater amount of counter e.m.f. is generated in the armature windings. When the field current is decreased, the field strength decreases, and the motor speeds up because the counter e.m.f. is reduced. A motor in which speed can be controlled is called a variable speed motor. It may be either a shunt or series motor.

In the shunt motor, speed is controlled by a rheostat in series with the field windings (figure 9-81). The speed depends on the amount of current which flows through the rheostat to the field windings. To increase the motor speed, the resistance in the rheostat is increased, which decreases the field current. As a result, there is a decrease in the strength of the magnetic field and in the counter e.m.f. This momentarily increases the armature current and the torque. The motor will then automatically speed up until the counter e.m.f. increases and causes the armature current to decrease to its former value. When this occurs, the motor will operate at a higher fixed speed than before. To decrease the motor speed, the resistance of the rheostat is decreased. More current flows through the field windings and increases the strength of the field; then, the counter e.m.f. increases momentarily and decreases the armature current. As a result, the torque decreases and the motor slows down until the counter e.m.f. decreases to its former value; then the motor operates at a lower fixed speed than before. In the series motor (figure 9-82), the rheostat speed control is connected either in parallel or in series with the motor field, or in parallel with the armature. When the rheostat is set for maximum resistance, the motor speed is increased in the parallel armature connection by a decrease in current. When the rheostat resistance is maximum in the series connection, motor speed is reduced by a reduction in voltage across the motor. For above normal speed operation, the rheostat is in parallel with the series field. Part of the series field current is bypassed and the motor speeds up. Energy Losses in DC Motors Losses occur when electrical energy is converted to mechanical energy (in the motor), or mechanical energy is converted to electrical energy (in the generator). For the machine to be efficient, these losses must be kept to a minimum. Some losses are electrical, others are mechanical. Electrical losses are classified as copper losses and iron losses; mechanical losses occur in overcoming the friction of various parts of the machine. Copper losses occur when electrons are forced through the copper windings of the armature and the field. These losses are proportional to the square of the current. They are sometimes called

I2R losses, since they are due to the power dissipated in the form of heat in the resistance of the field and armature windings. Iron losses are subdivided in hysteresis and eddy current losses. Hysteresis losses are caused by the armature revolving in an alternating magnetic field. It, therefore, becomes magnetized first in one direction and then in the other. The residual magnetism of the iron or steel of which the armature is made causes these losses. Since the field magnets are always magnetized in one direction (dc field), they have no hysteresis losses. Eddy current losses occur because the iron core of the armature is a conductor revolving in a magnetic field. This sets up an e.m.f. across portions of the core, causing currents to flow within the core. These currents heat the core and, if they become excessive, may damage the windings. As far as the output is concerned, the power consumed by eddy currents is a loss. To reduce eddy currents to a minimum, a laminated core usually is used. A laminated core is made of thin sheets of iron electrically insulated from each other. The insulation between laminations reduces eddy currents, because it is "transverse" to the direction in which these currents tend to flow. However, it has no effect on the magnetic circuit. The thinner the laminations, the more effectively this method reduces eddy current losses. Inspection and Maintenance of DC Motors Use the following procedures to make inspection and maintenance checks: 1. Check the operation of the unit driven by the motor in accordance with the instructions covering the specific installation. 2. Check all wiring, connections, terminals, fuses, and switches for general condition and security. 3. Keep motors clean and mounting bolts tight. 4. Check brushes for condition, length, and spring tension. Minimum brush lengths, correct spring tension, and procedures for replacing brushes are given in the applicable manufacturer's instructions. 5. Inspect commutator for cleanness, pitting, scoring, roughness, corrosion or burning. Check for high mica (if the copper wears down below the mica, the mica will insulate the brushes from the commutator). Clean dirty commutators with a cloth moistened with the recommended cleaning solvent. Polish rough or corroded commutators with fine sandpaper (000 or finer) and blow out with compressed air. Never use emery paper since it contains metallic particles which may cause shorts. Replace the motor if the commutator is burned, badly pitted, grooved, or worn to the extent that the mica insulation is flush with the commutator surface. 6. Inspect all exposed wiring for evidence of overheating. Replace the motor if the insulation on leads or windings is burned, cracked, or brittle.

7. Lubricate only if called for by the manufacturer's instructions covering the motor. Most motors used in today's airplanes require no lubrication between overhauls. 8. Adjust and lubricate the gearbox, or unit which the motor drives, in accordance with the applicable manufacturer's instructions covering the unit. When trouble develops in a dc motor system, check first to determine the source of the trouble. Replace the motor only when the trouble is due to a defect in the motor itself. In most cases, the failure of a motor to operate is caused by a defect in the external electrical circuit, or by mechanical failure in the mechanism driven by the motor. Check the external electrical circuit for loose or dirty connections and for improper connection of wiring. Look for open circuits, grounds, and shorts by following the applicable manufacturer's circuit testing procedure. If the fuse is not blown, failure of the motor to operate is usually due to an open circuit. A blown fuse usually indicates an accidental ground or short circuit. The chattering of the relay switch which controls the motor is usually caused by a low battery. When the battery is low, the open circuit voltage of the battery is sufficient to close the relay, but with the heavy current draw of the motor, the voltage drops below the level required to hold the relay closed. When the relay opens, the voltage in the battery increases enough to close the relay again. This cycle repeats and causes chattering, which is very harmful to the relay switch, due to the heavy current causing an arc which will burn the contacts. Check the unit driven by the motor for failure of the unit or drive mechanism. If the motor has failed as a result of a failure in the driven unit, the fault must be corrected before installing a new motor. If it has been determined that the fault is in the motor itself (by checking for correct voltage at the motor terminals and for failure of the driven unit), inspect the commutator and brushes. A dirty commutator or defective or binding brushes may result in poor contact between brushes and commutator. Clean the commutator, brushes, and brush holders with a cloth moistened with the recommended cleaning solvent. If brushes are damaged or worn to the specified minimum length, install new brushes in accordance with the applicable manufacturer's instructions covering CONSTRUCTION A typical dc motor consists of an armature core, an air gap, poles, and a yoke which form the magnetic circuit; an armature winding, a field winding, brushes and a commutator which form the electric circuit; and a frame, end bells, bearings, brush supports and a shaft which provide the mechanical support.

Armature Core or Stack

The armature stack is made up thin magnetic steel laminations stamped from sheet steel with a blanking die. Slots are punched in the lamination with a slot die. Sometimes these two operations are done as one. The laminations are welded, riveted, bolted or bonded together.

Armature Winding
The armature winding is the winding, which fits in the armature slots and is eventually connected to the commutator. It either generates or receives the voltage depending on whether the unit is a generator or motor. The armature winding usually consists of copper wire, either round or rectangular and is insulated from the armature stack.

Field Poles
The pole cores can be made from solid steel castings or from laminations. At the air gap, the pole usually fans out into what is known as a pole head or pole shoe. This is done to reduce the reluctance of the air gap. Normally the field coils are formed and placed on the pole cores and then the whole assembly is mounted to the yoke.

Field Coils
The field coils are those windings, which are located on the poles and set up the magnetic fields in the machine. They also usually consist of copper wire are insulated from the poles. The field coils may be either shunt windings (in parallel with the armature winding) or series windings (in series with the armature winding) or a combination of both.

Yoke
The yoke is a circular steel ring, which supports the field, poles mechanically and provides the necessary magnetic path between the pole. The yoke can be solid or laminated. In many DC machines, the yoke also serves as the frame.

Commutator
The commutator is the mechanical rectifier, which changes the AC voltage of the rotating conductors to DC voltage. It consists of a number of segments normally equal to the number of slots. The segments or commutator bars are made of silver bearing copper and are separated from each other by mica insulation.

Brushes and Brush Holders

Brushes conduct the current from the commutator to the external circuit. There are many types of brushes. A brush holder is usually a metal box that is rectangular in shape. The brush holder has a spring that holds the brush in contact with the commutator. Each brush usually has a flexible

copper shunt or pigtail, which extends to the lead wires. Often, the entire brush assembly is insulated from the frame and is made movable as a unit about the commutator to allow for adjustment.

Interpoles
Interpoles are similar to the main field poles and located on the yoke between the main field poles. They have windings in series with the armature winding. Interpoles have the function of reducing the armature reaction effect in the commutating zone. They eliminate the need to shift the brush assembly.

Frame, End Bells, Shaft, and Bearings

The frame and end bells are usually steel, aluminum or magnesium castings used to enclose and support the basic machine parts. The armature is mounted on a steel shaft, which is supported between two bearings. The bearings are either sleeve, ball or roller type. They are normally lubricated by grease or oil. Back End, Front End The load end of the motor is the Back End. The opposite load end, most often the commutator end, is the Front End of the motor.

COMMUTATION
As the rotor turns, the current in the winding reverses every time the commutator makes half a turn. This reversal of the winding current compensates for the fact that the winding has also rotated half a turn relative to the fixed magnetic field (not shown). The current in the winding causes the fixed magnetic field to exert a rotational force (a torque) on the winding, making it turn. As the rotor's field comes close to aligning itself with that of the stator, the commutator switches the rotor's polarity, so the motor is perpetually trying to settle, so to speak. Note that all practical commutators have at least three segments, and in some instances (such as the N.Y. City transit system's old rotary AC-to-DC converters), up to several hundred. In these elementary diagrams, there is a dead position where the motor will not start. For the image to the right, when the brushes make contact across both commutator segments, the commutator is short-circuited and current passes directly from one brush to the other across the commutator, doing no work in the rotor windings, and drawing a destructive fault current from the power source. As well, practical rotors have more turns in their windings. For the image to the left, there is a dead spot when the brushes cross the insulation between the two segments and no current flows. In either case, in a motor, the rotor cannot begin to spin if it is stopped in this position.

Ring/Segment Construction

Cross-section of a commutator that can be disassembled for repair.[1] A commutator typically consists of a set of copper segments, fixed around part of the circumference of the rotating part of the machine (the rotor), and a set of spring-loaded brushes fixed to the stationary frame of the machine. The external source of current (for a motor) or electrical load (for a generator) is connected to the brushes. For small equipment the commutator segments can be stamped from sheet metal. For very large equipment the segments are made from a copper casting that is then machined into the final shape. Each conducting segment on the armature of the commutator is insulated from adjacent segments. Initially when the technology was first developed, mica was used as an insulator between commutation segments. Later materials research into polymers brought the development of plastic spacers which are more durable and less prone to cracking, and have a higher and more uniform breakdown voltage than mica. The segments are held onto the shaft using a dovetail shape on the edges or underside of each segment, using insulating wedges around the perimeter of each commutation segment. Due to the high cost of repairs, for small appliance and tool motors the segments are typically crimped permanently in place and cannot be removed; when the motor fails it is simply discarded and replaced. On very large industrial motors it is economical to be able to replace individual damaged segments, and so the end-wedge can be unscrewed and individual segments removed and replaced.

Commutator segments are connected to the coils of the armature, with the number of coils (and commutator segments) depending on the speed and voltage of the machine. Large motors may have hundreds of segments. Friction between the segments and the brushes eventually causes wear to both surfaces. Carbon brushes, being made of a softer material, wear faster and may be designed to be replaced easily without dismantling the machine. Older copper brushes caused more wear to the commutator, causing deep grooving and notching of the surface over time. The commutator on small motors (say, less than a kilowatt rating) is not designed to be repaired through the life of the device. On large industrial equipment, the commutator may be re-surfaced with abrasives, or the rotor may be removed from the frame, mounted in a large metal lathe, and the commutator resurfaced by cutting it down to a smaller diameter. The largest of equipment can include a lathe turning attachment directly over the commutator ARMATURE REACTION armature reaction also occurs in a d.c. motor. This is expected because when current flows through the armature conductors of a d.c. motor, it produces flux (armature flux) which lets on the flux produced by the main poles. For a motor with the same polarity and direction of rotation as is for generator, the direction of armature reaction field is reversed. (i) In a generator, the armature current flows in the direction of the induced e.m.f. (i.e. generated e.m.f. Eg) whereas in a motor, the armature current flows against the induced e.m.f. (i.e. back e.m.f. Eg). Therefore, it should be expected that for the same direction of rotation and field polarity, the armature flux of the motor will be in the opposite direction to that of the generator. Hence instead of the main flux being distorted in the direction of rotation as in a generator, it is distorted opposite to the direction of rotation. We can conclude that: Armature reaction in a d.c. generator weakens the jinx at leading pole tips and strengthens the flux at trailing pole tips while the armature reaction in a d. c. motor produces the opposite effect. (ii) In case of a d.c. generator, with brushes along G.N.A. and no commutating poles used, the brushes must be shifted in the direction of rotation (forward lead) for satisfactory commutation. However, in case of a d.c. motor, the brushes are given a negative lead i.e., they are shifted against the direction of rotation. With no commutating poles used, the brushes are given a forward lead in a d.c. generator and backward lead in a d.c. motor. (iii) By using commutating poles (compoles), a d.c. machine can be operated with fixed brush positions for all conditions of load. Since commutating poles windings carry the armature current, then, when a machine changes from generator to motor (with consequent reversal of current), the polarities of commutating poles must be of opposite sign. Therefore, in a d.c. motor, the commutating poles must have the same polarity as the main poles directly back of them. This is the opposite of the corresponding relation in a d.c. generator.

LOSSES IN DC MOTOR The losses in a d.c. machine (generator or motor) may be divided into three classes viz (i) copper losses (ii) iron or core losses and (iii) mechanical losses. All these losses appear as heat and thus raise the temperature of the machine. They also lower the efficiency of the machine.

1. Copper These losses occur due to currents in the various windings of the machine

losses

Note. There is also brush contact loss due to brush contact resistance (i.e., resistance between the surface of brush and surface of commutator). This loss is generally included in armature copper loss. 2. Iron or Core losses These losses occur in the armature of a d.c. machine and are due to the rotation of armature in the magnetic field of the poles. They are of two types viz., (i) hysteresis loss (ii) eddy current loss. (i) Hysteresis loss

Hysteresis loss occurs in the armature of the d.c. machine since any given part of th

e armature is subjected to magnetic field reversals as it passes under successive poles. Fig. (1.36) shows an armature rotating in two-pole machine. Consider a small piece ab of the armature. When the piece ab is under N-pole, the magnetic lines pass from a to b. Half a revolution later, the same piece of iron is under S-pole and magnetic lines pass from b to a so that magnetism in the iron is reversed. In order to reverse continuously the molecular magnets in the armature core, some amount of power has to be spent which is called hysteresis loss. It is given by Steinmetz formula. This formula is

In order to reduce this loss in a d.c. machine, armature core is made of such materials which have a low value of Steinmetz hysteresis co-efficient e.g., silicon steel. (ii) Eddy current loss In addition to the voltages induced in the armature conductors, there are also voltages induced in the armature core. These voltages produce circulating currents in the armature core as shown in Fig. (1.37). These are called eddy currents and power loss due to their flow is called eddy current loss. The eddy current loss appears as heat which raises the temperature of the machine and lowers its efficiency. core resistance can be greatly increased by constructing the core of thin, roundIf a continuous solid iron core is used, the resistance to eddy current path will be small due to large crosssectional area of the core. Consequently, the magnitude of eddy current and hence eddy current loss will be large. The magnitude of eddy current can be reduced by making core resistance as high as practical. The iron sheets called laminations [See Fig. 1.38]. The laminations are insulated from each other with a coating of varnish. The insulating coating has a high resistance, so very little current flows from one lamination to the other. Also, because each lamination is very thin, the resistance to current flowing through the width of a lamination is also quite large. Thus laminating a core increases the core resistance which decreases the eddy current and hence the eddy current loss.

It may be noted that eddy current loss depends upon the square of lamination thickness. For this reason, lamination thickness should be kept as small as possible. 3. Mechanical losses These losses are due to friction and windage. (i) friction loss e.g., bearing friction, brush friction etc. (ii) windage loss i.e., air friction of rotating armature. These losses depend upon the speed of the machine. But for a given speed, they are practically constant. Note. Iron losses and mechanical losses together are called stray losses. Constant and Variable The losses in a d.c. generator (or d.c. motor) may be sub-divided into Losses

(i)constant losses (ii) variable losses. (i) Constant losses Those losses in a d.c. generator which remain constant at all loads are known as constant losses. The constant losses in a d.c. generator are: (a) iron losses (b) mechanical losses (c) shunt field losses (ii) Variable losses Those losses in a d.c. generator which vary with load are called variable losses. The variable losses in a d.c. generator are:

Total losses = Constant losses + Note. Field Cu loss is constant for shunt and compound generators.

Variable

losses