Chapter 3 Transmission Lines Transmission Line Model Transmission lines are characterized by series inductance, L, per meter, series

resistance, R per meter, capacitance, C, per meter between the two wires and G, conductance per meter between the two wires. Consider a small length z of the transmission line. The series inductance is L z and its impedance is jLz . The series resistance is Rz . The capacitance between the two wires is Cz and its admittance is jCz . The conductance between the two wires is Gz

Fig.3-1 Kirchoffs Voltage Law (KVL) can be written as:

V(z + z) - V(z) = jLz I(z) Rz I(z)

Kirchoffs Current law can be written as

(3.1)

I(z + z) - I(z) = jCz V(z) Gz V(z) (3.2)

Dividing (3.1) by z

V(z + z) - V(z) = jLI(z) RI(z) z

Dividing (3.2) by z

(3.3)

3-1

I ( z + z ) - I ( z ) = jCV ( z ) G V(z) z Taking limits as z 0 dV = jLI RI = (R + jL)I dz (3.5) dI = jCV GV = (G + jC)V dz

Differentiating (3.5) with respect to z,
d 2V dz 2 = ( R + j L ) dI dz

(3.4)

(3.6)

Substituting
d 2V dz
2

dI from (3.6), dz

= (R + jL)(G + jC)V = 2 V ,
2

i.e,

d 2V

dz where 2 = ( R + jL)(G + jC)

= 2V

This equation is called the telegraphists equation as it was used cables for transmitting information as telegraphs. The solution of this second order ordinary differential equation is well known V = V + e z + V e + z Substituting in (3.5), ( V + e z + V e z ) = ( R + j L ) I Or, I = (V + e z V e + z ) R + jL 1 (V + e - z - V e + z ) Or, I = Z0 (3.7)

(3.8)

(3.9) = ( R + jL)(G + jC is called the propagation constant Obviously, is a complex number, = + j where is called the attenuation constant with unit Nepers/m and is called the phase constant with unit radians/m

3-2

R + jL R + jL = is called the characteristic impedance. G + jC This is also a complex quantity. Its unit is ohms. Z0 =

(3.10)

Lossless approximation In circuits, the line lengths are small we ignore the losses represented by R and G. They can be taken into account during circuit simulation. Ignoring R and G, i.e., setting R=0=G in (3.9) (3.11) = ( jL)( jC) = j LC = j , where = LC Setting R=0=G in (3.10) L , which is pure real (like resistance) (3.12) Z0 = C Thus, we can write (3.7) and (3.8) as

V = V + e - j z + V e + j z (3.13) V + - j z V + jz (3.14) I= e e Z0 Z0 The first terms represent a wave traveling in +z direction and is called the forward or incident wave. The second terms represent a wave traveling in the z direction.
How can we find V + and V ? The values are determined by the impedance/admittance connected at the two ends of the transmission line (or what is called boundary conditions in Maths.). But we are not interested in this at the moment

Fig 3-2 Phase velocity The phase velocity of the wave is v p = = = LC 1 LC

(3.15)

3-3

From (3.12) and (3.15) Z0 L= vp C= 1 Z0 v p

(3.16)

(3.17) Thus if the characteristic impedance, Z 0 and the phase velocity, v p are known, L and C can be determined. More about phase velocity when we deal with different types of transmission lines. Reflection coefficient Note that we can define z=0 anywhere on the line. A common practice is to have z=0 ay the load end as shown in Fig.3-3. Note that values of z to the left are negative as indicted by a point at a distance l from the load impedance, Z L .

Fig.3-3 The ratio of the reflected to incident voltage is called the reflection coefficient, . At the load (z=0), the load reflection coefficient is
L = V e + j z V + e j z z = 0 = V V+

(3.18)

V V + e j z + V e + j z V+ + V But Z L = = = I z = 0 ( V + e j z V e + j z ) / Z 0 (V + + V ) / Z 0 z =0 Z V + +V Hence, = L + (V V ) Z 0

3-4

Hence

V V+

ZL Z0 ZL + Z0

ZL - Z0 ZL + Z0 As Z L can be complex, L is complex (although Z 0 is real).

From (3.18), L =

(3.19)

Matched line
ZL - Z0 =0 which means that V = 0 . So there is no ZL + Z0 reflected wave. Thus the characteristic impedance is that impedance which when connected to the transmission line produces no reflected wave. Such a line is said to be matched all the power is delivered to the load as there is no reflection.

Suppose that Z L = Z 0 . Then L =

How does the reflection coefficient vary with the distance l from the load?
V e + j z V e jl V -2 jl (l ) = + - j z = + + j l = + e V e V e V z = l From (3.18) and (3.20),

(3.20)

(l) = L e -2 jl (3.21) This is just the load reflection coefficient with a phase shift. Thus, along the lossless line, the reflection coefficient remains constant in magnitude but changes in phase by 2l radians. This will be useful when we discuss Smith Chart.
Input impedance at distance, l The input impedance at distance l from the load is V V + e + jl + V e jl 1 + (V / V + )e - j 2 l = Z0 Z in = = + + j l I z =l (V e - V e j l ) / Z 0 z = 0 1 - (V / V + )e - j 2 l From (3.18)

Z in (l) = Z 0

1 + L e 2 jl 1 + (l ) = Z0 1 (l ) 1 L e 2 jl

(3.22) This can be expressed in terms of Z L and Z 0 by substituting for L from (3.19) Z -Z 1 + L 0 e - 2 j l ( Z L + Z 0 ) + ( Z L - Z 0 ) e - 2 j l Z L + Z0 Z in (l) = Z 0 = Z0 Z L - Z 0 - 2 j l ( Z L + Z 0 ) - ( Z L - Z 0 ) e - 2 j l 1e Z L + Z0

Z in (l) = Z 0

( Z L + Z 0 )e + jl + ( Z L - Z 0 )e - jl ( Z L + Z 0 ) e + j l - ( Z L - Z 0 ) e - j l
3-5

Writing e + jl = cos(l) + j sin(l) and e jl = cos( l) j sin( l) Z L cos(l) + jZ 0 sin(l) (3.23) Z in (l) = Z 0 Z 0 cos(l) + jZ L sin(l) Thus voltage current and input impedance change with distance along the line. Therefore at high frequencies, it is not enough to state the value of impedance, it must be specified where it is measured. We will see the importance of this when we deal with multiport networks. Standing waves Short circuited line If the line is short circuited, Z L = 0 From (3.19), 0 - Z0 Z - Z0 = = 1 L = L ZL + Z0 0 + Z0 The voltage at distance l from the load is

V = V + e - jl + V e + jl = V + (e - jl + (V / V + )e + jl = V + (e - jl + L e + jl ) For L = 1 V = V + (e - jl - e + jl ) = 2 jV + sin(l) Including the time variation,

(3.24)

V = 2 jV + sin(l) cos(t ) = 2V + sin(l) cos(t + / 2) It is seen that for l = n , n = 0, 1, 2 ., the voltage is zero at all time, i.e., the wave does not travel at all. Such a wave is called a pure standing wave. The minimum value of the amplitude is zero and the maximum value is 2V + . The variation of the voltage with distance and time is shown in Fig.3-4. The distance between two consecutive maximum/minimum is / and the distance between a maximum and the next minimum is /(2) , As = 2 / , where is the wavelength, the distance between two consecutive maximum/minimum is / 2 and the distance between a maximum and the next minimum is / 4

3-6

Fig.3-4 Voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) The VSWR is given by Vmax S= Vmin (3.25) Where Vmax is the maximum value of the voltage and Vmin is the minimum value of the voltage. For a short circuit, S = because Vmin = 0. For a matched load, we may consider Vmax = Vmin because there is no reflection and hence no standing wave. Hence S=1 So the values of S always lie between 1 and infinity. VSWR is sometimes expressed in dB Vmax VSWR in dB = 20log10 Vmin So the VSWR in dB lies between 0 (for S=1) to infinity. To find the magnitude from dB,

(3.26)

S = 10 ( VSWR in dB) / 20

(3.27)

3-7

What about the input impedance? From (3.25) with Z L = 0 Z in (l) = jZ 0 tan(l)

Z0 l = j l. Consider l << 1 , then tan(l) l and hence Z in (l) = jZ 0l = jZ 0 vp vp Z0 = L , the inductance per meter of the line. But from (3.16), vp
Hence, Z in (l) = jLl (the inductance for length l is L l ). For longer lengths, the input impedance can be positive (inductive) or negative (capacitive).
Z in (l) = jX , where X = Z 0 tan(l) = Z 0 tan(2 l / ) as = / v p = 2 /( v p / f ) = 2 /

(3.28)

The plot of X is shown in Fig.3-5.

Fig.3-5 3-8

A short circuited line of length less than / 4 is often used as an inductor. Open circuited line For an open circuited line, Z L = From (3.19), 1 - Z0 / ZL Z - Z0 = = +1 L = L ZL + Z0 1 + Z0 / ZL For L = +1 we get from (3.24) V = V + (e - jl + e + jl ) = 2V + cos( l) Including the time variation, V = 2V + cos(l) cos(t ) It is seen that for l = n / 2 , n = 0, 1, 2 ., the voltage is zero at all time, i.e., the wave does not travel at all. Once again we have a pure standing wave. The minimum value of the amplitude is zero and the maximum value is 2V + . The variation of the voltage with distance and time is shown in Fig.3-6. The distance between two consecutive maximum/minimum is / and the distance between a maximum and the next minimum is /(2) , As = 2 / , where is the wavelength, the distance between two consecutive maximum/minimum is / 2 and the distance between a maximum and the next minimum is / 4

Fig.3-6

3-9

For an open circuit, S = because Vmin = 0. What about the input impedance? From (3.23) with Z L = Z L cos(l) + jZ 0 sin(l) cos(l) + j( Z 0 / Z L ) sin(l) = Z0 Z in (l) = Z 0 Z 0 cos(l) + jZ L sin(l) ( Z 0 / Z L ) cos(l) + j sin(l) = jZ 0 cot(l) Consider l << 1 , then cot(l) 11/(l) and hence vp Z0 v p 1 = j Z in (l) = jZ 0 /(l) = jZ 0 . But from (3.19), Z 0 v p = , where C is the C l l capacitance per meter of the line. 1 Hence, Z in (l) = (the capacitance for length l is C l ). jC l For longer lengths, the input impedance can be negative (capacitive) or positive (inductive). (3.29) Z in (l) = jX , where X = Z 0 cot(l) = Z 0 cot(2l / ) as = / v p = 2 /( v p / f ) = 2 / The plot of X is shown in Fig.3-7.

Fig.3-7 An open circuited line of length less than / 4 is often used as a capacitor. General Case

3-10

For a mismatched load which is neither a short or open circuit, Vmin 0 as shown in Fig.3-8. The wave is partly standing and partly travelling.

Fig.3-8

Relationship between VSWR and reflection coefficient Consider (3.24)

Vmax = V + (1 + L 1 + L 1 L

) and Vmin = V + (1 L )

Hence, S =

(3.30)

from which, L =

S 1 S +1
Some practical transmission lines

(3.31)

Two wire line

3-11

Fig.3-9 Coaxial cable

Fig.3-10 Microstrip line and strip line

3-12

Fig.3-11: (a) Microstrip line (b) Strip line Parameters of a two-wire and co-axial transmission lines. Table 3.1: Distributed parameters of a two-wire transmission line with wire radius a and separated by a distance D, and a coaxial transmission line with a centre conductor radius of a and outer conductor radius b. = 0 ' , where 0 is the permittivity of free space and
= is the equivalent conductivity and is the permeability of the dielectric. The surface resistivity is given by Rs = f c / c ,where c is the skin depth and c is the

relative permeability of the conductor. Parameter Two-wire line Rs R (/m)

a

Coaxial line
Rs 1 1 + 2 a b ln(b / a ) 2 2 ln(b / a )
2 ln(b / a )

L (H/m) G (S/m) C (F/m)

cosh 1 ( D / 2a ) 1 cosh ( D / 2a ) 1 cosh ( D / 2a )

Parameters of microstrip lines In the case of microstrip, the wave does not propagate in a homogeneous dielectric. For this reason, the microstrip line does not support a pure TEM wave, since the phase velocity of TEM fields would be c / r , but the phase velocity in the air would be c. A phase match at the dielectric interface would then be impossible. For the quasi-TEM fields, we find that and = 0 0 eff = k0 eff (3.32) eff where eff is the effective dielectric constant of the microstrip line. In general, 1 < eff < r , and it is dependent on the substrate thickness, d, and the conductor width W. vp = c

3-13

If r is the real part of the relative permittivity of the dielectric, the effective dielectric constant of a microstrip line is given approximately by
eff = r + 1 r 1 1 + 2 2 1 + 12d / W
(3.33)

Given the dimensions of the microstrip, the characteristic impedance can be calculated as
60 8d W ln + eff W 4d Z0 = 120 [W / d + 1.393 + 0.667 ln(W / d + 1.444)] eff W / d <1

(3.34)
W / d >1

Alternatively, given the characteristic impedance Z0 , we can calculate the appropriate line width from
8e A e2 A 2 W /d = 2 B 1 ln(2 B 1) + r 1 ln( B 1) + 0.39 0.61 2 r r W /d <2

(3.35)
W /d >2

where A =

Z0 60

r + 1 r 1 377 0.11 + . 0.23 + and B = 2 r + 1 r 2Z0 r

Smith Chart Why Smith chart? The Smith chart was first devised by P.H.Smith as an aid for calculations involving transmission lines. The first publication appears in a nonacademic journal (P.H.Smith, Transmission line calculator, Electronics, Vol.12, January, 1939). Over the years, it has been refined. Although there are various extensions of the chart, such as charts including negative resistance, it is the basic Smith chart that has wide acceptance. There are two attitudes to Smith chart. Engineers with microwave background consider it indispensible. Traditional analog designers sometimes do not bother about it (Razavis book given in your reference does not even mention it). Students wonder out loud why they have to learn it for calculations that are rough at best, when so much circuit simulation software available for accurate analysis. This is what Tom Lee writes:
IC designers accustomed to working with lower frequency circuits tend to have, at best, only a passing familiarity with two staples of traditional RF design: Smith charts and S-parameters (scattering parameters). Although Smith charts today are less relevant as a computational aid than they once were, RF instrumentation continues to present data in Smith chart form. Furthermore these data are often S-parameter characterization of two ports, so it is important, even in the modern era, to know something about Smith charts and S-parameters

3-14

(Lee TH, The design of CMOS Radio-Frequency integrated circuits, 2nd Edition, Cambridge University Press, 2006).

To this, an RF engineer will add that Smith chart gives us a visual representation of the design process and helps us in getting insights. Smith Chart for impedance Recall (3.19) Load reflection coefficient L = and imaginary parts of L . For all passive impedances, Z L = R L + jX L with positive R L , L 1 (This can be shown easily, L =
R L + jX L - Z 0 R L + jX L + Z 0 ZL - Z0 = re + jim , where re and im are the real ZL + Z0

(R L Z 0 ) 2 + X 2 L 1 for 2 (R L + Z 0 ) + X 2 L

positive R L ). Consider now the complex plane of L as shown in Fig.3-12. All passive impedances can be represented by points inside the circle of radius 1 because their reflection coefficients are always less than or equal to 1.

Fig.3-12 To make representation independent of Z 0 , we divide impedances by Z 0 and write Z - Z0 Z / Z 1 , L = L = L 0 ZL + Z0 ZL / Z0 + 1 z -1 i.e., L = (3.36) z +1 where z = Z L / Z 0 is called the normalized load impedance.

3-15

For any z, we can find plot the corresponding L in Fig.3-12. So if we write z = r+jx, (3.36) represents mapping of points from the complex z plane to complex L plane as shown in Fig.3-13.

Fig.3-13 Notice that we are considering only positive r (passive loads) If we use the r-x co-ordinates, we require an infinitely large paper to plot all possible z. However if we use Smith chart, we can plot all points inside the circle of radius 1, which is called the unit circle. Now if we want to plot normalized impedance in the unit circle, it will be good to have grid lines for r and x. Fig.3-14 shows how the grid lines for r are obtained.

Fig3-14: Grid lines of r are the green straight lines in the z (r-x) plane as shown on the left. They are transformed to circles in the plane as shown in the right. Notice the radii of the circles get smaller and their centres shift right as r increases. r = is just the point to the right. It is possible to find expressions for the radii and centres from (3.36) considering r to be a constant. But we dont want to get into this trouble as the circles are provided.

3-16

Next we consider grid lines for x. This is shown in Fig.3-15.

Fig.3-15: Grid lines of x are the black straight lines in the z (r-x) plane as shown on the left. They are transformed to circles in the plane as shown in the right. The square box encloses the unit circle. Notice the radii of the circles get smaller as x increases and their centres can lie outside the unit circle. x = is just the point at right (same as the point ). r = It is possible to find expressions for the radii and centres from (3.36) considering x to be a constant. But we dont want to get into this trouble as the circles are provided. Let us now put the gridlines together as shown in Fig.3-16.

Fig.3-16 Consult Figs.2-14 and 3-15 to identify the point representing the open circuit ( r = , x = ) and the point representing the short circuit ( r = 0 , x = 0 ).

3-17

To make the use of the chart more convenient, the angle of the reflection coefficient is given along the periphery of the unit circle (Notice that the angles are given from 00 to +1800 and 00 to -1800). Further, the square grid lines are removed. The chart is shown in Fig.3-17. You will notice another outermost scale wavelengths towards generator and wavelengths towards load. These scales allow us to find the normalized impedance after a length l along the line. To understand this, refer to P.3-5 equation (3.21). It is seen that the magnitude of the reflection coefficient remains same, but the angle decreases by 2l = 2 2l / = 4(l / ) (where is the wavelength in the transmission line )as one moves by a length l towards the generator. The scale wavelength towards the generator means l / towards the generator. The direction of the arrow ensures that the angle is decreasing. Similarly, the angle will increase if we move towards the load. Hence the other scale - towards the load. To use these scales, we have to calculate first = v p / f , where v p is the phase velocity and f is the frequency. Then we divide the length by and move by this amount to find the impedance at the distance l .

3-18

Fig.3-17 Smith chart for admittance The load reflection coefficient

1 1 Z - Z0 Y Y0 Y0 YL , = = L L = L 1 1 Z L + Z0 Y0 + YL + YL Y0

where,

Z L = 1 / YL and Z 0 = 1 / Y0 1 y Or, L = re + jim = , where, y = YL / Y0 is the normalized admittance (3.37) 1+ y y 1 y 1 ' ' ,i.e., as re + jim = We can write this as (re ) + j(im ) = , where y +1 y +1
' ' re = re and im = im

(3.38)

3-19

(3.38) is the same as (3.36) except y has replaced z. We write, y = g + jb , where g is the normalized conductance and b is the normalized
' ' susceptance. So if we plot the constant g and constant b grids in re and im axes, the results will be the same as those for constant r and constant b grids in re and im axes. Thus the result is the same as Fig.3-16 with r replaced by g, x replaced by b, re replaced ' ' by re and im replaced by im . This is shown in Fig.3-19. This means that the same chart Fig.3-17 can be used for both normalized impedance/admittance. This is why it is sometimes called immittance (impedance or admittance) chart. There are two things to take care of. (1) r=0 and x=0 represents short circuit, but g=0 and b=0 represents open circuit (2) r= and x= represents open circuit, but g= and b= represents short circuit. (3) The reflection coefficient co-ordinates are given for the impedance chart. So if the reflection coefficient is plotted in the chart, it is considered to be impedance chart. For the same reason, if normalized admittance is given in the chart, we should

multiply the reflection co-efficient read from the chart by -1, i.e., e j ..

Fig.3-19 Finding normalized admittance from normalized impedance and vice versa The reversal of axes provides a method for this. Suppose a point in the chart represents a normalized impedance. To obtain the corresponding location of the reflection coefficient in the admittance chart we have to multiply the reflection coefficient by -1, which means rotating the point by radians, i.e., 1800. This point is just the diametrically opposite point. The value read at this point from the grid is the normalized admittance. The same argument applies for finding the normalized admittance. We read the values at the diametrically opposite point.

3-20

Examples of using the Smith Chart Example 3.1 Consider a characteristic impedance of 50 with the following impedances:

Z2 = 75 j100 Z3 = j200 Z1 = 100 + j50 Z5 = (an open circuit) Z6 = 0 (a short circuit) Z7 = 50

Z4 = 150 Z8 = 184 j900

The normalized impedances shown below are plotted in Figure 5.6. z3 = j 4 z4 = 3 z1 = 2 + j z2 = 1.5 j2 z6 = 0 z7 = 1 z8 = 3.68 j18 z5 = It is also possible to directly extract the reflection coefficient on the Smith chart of Fig.3-20. Once the impedance point is plotted (the intersection point of a constant resistance circle and of a constant reactance circle), simply read the rectangular coordinates projection on the horizontal and vertical axis. This will give re , the real part of the reflection coefficient, and im , the imaginary part of the reflection coefficient. Alternatively, the reflection coefficient may be obtained in polar form by using the scales provided on the commercial Smith chart.

1 = 0.4 + 0.2 j = 0.45 27 5 = 1 = 1 0

2 = 0.51 0.4 j = 0.65 38 6 = 1 = 1 180

3 = 0.875 + 0.48j = 0.998 29 7 = 0 = 0

4 = 0.5 = 0.5 0 8 = 0.96 0.1 j = 0.97 6

Fig. 3-20: Points plotted on the Smith chart for Example 3.1.

3-21

Example 3.2

Consider the network of Fig.3-21. The elements are normalized with Z0 = 50 . We wish to find the impedance Z as seen from the input terminals.

x = 0.9 z=?

x = -1.4

x=1

b = 1.1

b = -0.3

r=1

Fig.3-21: A multi-element circuit The series reactance (x) is positive for inductance and negative for capacitance. The susceptance (b) is positive for capacitance and negative for inductance. Starting at the right side, where there is a resistor and an inductor with a reactance value of 1, we plot a point at the intersection of the where the r = 1 circle and the x = 1 circle. This becomes point A. As the next element is an element in shunt (parallel), we switch to an admittance chart. To do this, we need to convert the previous point into an admittance by rotating through 180. This becomes A'. We are now in the admittance mode. The shunt element can be added by going along the conductance circle by a distance corresponding to 0.3. This is done in a counter-clockwise direction (negative susceptance) and gives point B. Then we have another series element. We therefore have to switch back to the impedance Smith chart. This is accomplished by rotating through 180 to get back to the impedance mode. After the conversion, we can determine B'. The series element is added by following along the resistance circle by a distance corresponding to 1.4 and marking point C. This needs to be done counter-clockwise (negative reactance value). For the next element, the same operation is performed (conversion into admittance and plane rotation). Then move the prescribed distance of 1.1 in a clockwise direction (because this is a positive susceptance), along the constant conductance circle. We mark this as D. Finally, we reconvert back to impedance mode and add the last element (the series inductor). We then determine the required value, z, located at the intersection of resistor circle 0.2 and reactance circle 0.5. Thus, z = 0.2 + j0.5. If the system characteristic impedance is 50 , then Z = 10 + j25 (see Fig.3-22).

3-22

B C A

C B

Fig.3-22: Network elements plotted on the Smith chart for Example 3.2.
Example 3.3:

Use the Smith chart to find the impedance of a short-circuited section of a lossless 50 co-axial transmission line that is 100 mm long. The transmission line has a dielectric of relative permittivity r = 9 between the inner and outer conductor, and the frequency under consideration is 100 MHz.

3-23

transmission line, we find that = 0 0 r = 6.2875 rad/m and = 2 / = 0.9993 1 m. The transmission line of length z = 100 mm is therefore z / = 0.1 wavelengths long. Since z L = 0 , enter the Smith chart at a point Psc. Move along the perimeter of the chart ( = 1 ) by 0.1 wavelengths towards the generator in a clockwise direction to point P1. At P1 , read r = 0 and x 0.725 , or z i = j 0.725 . Then Z i = j 0.725 50 = j 36.3 . For the

P 1

P3 ' P3 P2 ' P2

Psc O

PM

Poc

Fig.3-23: Smith chart calculations for Example 3.3 and Example 3.4.
Example 3.4: A lossless transmission line of length 0.434 and characteristic impedance 100 is terminated in an impedance 260 + j180 . Find the voltage reflection coefficient, the standing-wave ratio, the input impedance, and the location of a voltage maximum on the line.

Given z = 0.434 , Z 0 = 100 and Z L = 260 + j180 . Then 3-24

Enter the Smith chart at z L = Z L / Z 0 = 2.6 + j 1.8 shown as point P2 in Fig.3-23 With the centre at the origin, draw a circle of radius OP2 = L = 0.6 . Draw the straight line OP2 and extend it to P2 on the periphery. Read 0.220 on wavelengths towards generator scale. The phase angle of the load reflection may either be read directly from the Smith chart as 21 on the "Angle of Reflection Coefficient" scale. Therefore L = 0.6 e j 21 /180 = 0.6 e j 0.12 . The = 0.6 circle intersects the positive real axis OPsc at r = S = 4 . Therefore the voltage standing-wave ratio is 4. The find the input impedance, move P2 at 0.220 by a total of 0.434 wavelengths toward the generator first to 0.500 (same as 0.000) and then further to 0.434 (0.5000.220)=0.154 to P3 . Join O and P3 by a straight line which intersects the = 0.6 circle at P3 . Here r = 0.69 and x = 1.2 , or z i = 0.69 + j1.2 . Then Z i = (0.69 + j1.2) 100 = 69 + j 120 . In going from P2 to P3 , the = 0.6 circle intersects the positive real axis at PM where there is a voltage maximum. Thus the voltage maximum appears at 0.2500.220=0.030 wavelengths from the load.

Impedance Transformation Transformer

Fig.3-24 shows an ideal transformer with a turns ratio (ratio of primary turns to secondary turns), n. Then if an impedance Z L is connected to the secondary, the impedance seen at the primary side is Z in = n 2 Z L . This is useful for matching purely resistive load and source impedances, R s and R L as shown in the figure. For matching therefore, R s = Z in = n 2 R L . Thus given R s and R L , the turns ratio required for match Rs (3.39) is n = RL

Fig.3-24
3-25

Unfortunately, ideal transformers are not practical. The simplest model is that of two loss less coils with no losses and with all the magnetic flux coupled to them.

Fig.3-25: Vp , I p - Primary voltage and current, Vs , I s - Secondary voltage and current,

N p , N s - Primary and secondary turns, n the turns ratio = Vp / Vs = I s / I p , m is the

mutual flux. Notice that all the flux is common to both coils.

Fig.3-26; Simplest equivalent circuit of a practical transformer. L1 and L 2 are the inductances of the primary and secondary coils respectively. A transformer is rarely used for impedance match at high frequencies. But there are reports of integrated circuit transformers. The concept of transformer is still important because as we see later, many impedance matching circuits still use the turns ratio as defined by (3.39)

3-26

Inductor tap and capacitor tap

The inductor and capacitor tap circuits are widely used with resonant circuits requiring a higher resistance than the load. The reason may be to increase the quality factor of the circuit or it may be to satisfy the condition for oscillation in an oscillator. The method is very convenient because the inductor or capacitor of the resonant circuit can be tapped We consider expressions in terms of reactance as the results can be applied to capacitor or inductor tap. The problem is shown in Fig. 3-27, where the resistance R is required to be transformed to the equivalent resistance R t

Fig.3-27 A very simple result can be obtained if R L >> X 2 . In this case, we can apply voltage X2 division to get the voltage across R as VR = V X1 + X 2 Equating the power in the resistance R and its equivalent R t
2 VR V 2 = , giving R Rt

2 R t V X1 + X 2 = = 2 R VR X 2 Thus the circuit behaves as a transformer. Rt X + X2 = n 2 with n = 1 R X2 With R >> X 2 , we may neglect R and get X t = X1 + X 2

Approximate design procedure Rt (1)Calculate n= R X (2) X 2 = t n (3) X1 = X t X 2 = (n 1)X 2

3-27

For an accurate calculation, we have to use the parallel-series transformation considered in page 2-8 of chapter 2. The calculation is easier if we convert both parallel circuit to the series circuit in between and then equate resistances and reactances as shown in Fig.3-28

Fig.3-28 Exact design procedure Rt (1) Calculate n= R R (2) Calculate Q t = t Xt

1 + Q2 t 1 (3) Calculate Q p = n2 (4) X 2 = R / Q p
1/ 2

(this is obtained from the first equation)

Q2 p (5) X1 = X t X 2 !+Q 2 p It is easy to show that these reduce to the approximate formulae for large Q p , say Q p >10 ( Q t is always greater than Q p ).

(3) approximates to Q p =
But

Qt Q , i.e., t = n n Qp

Qt X2 R t X X = , or n = 2 n 2 , or, X 2 = t which is the same as step 2 of the Xt n Qp X t R

approximate procedure.

3-28

Further (5) approximates to X1 = X t X 2 which is the same as step 3 of the approximate procedure. The quality factor of the circuit is Q t and the 3dB bandwidth is 0 / Q t . A very important point to note is that for inductor tapped network, the two inductors should not have mutual inductance (no transformer like coupling by magnetic fields). If they do the theory described here can not be used.
L-matching

We discussed how to increase the resistance of a parallel resonant circuit. We now consider matching two resistive loads at some frequency 0 . We can do this by Lnetwork. One of the two resistances (source or load) is larger. We call it R l arg e . The smaller resistance (load or source) is called R small . Then the L-network must be of the type shown in Fig. 3-29. R small must be in series with a reactance X s , because when converted to the parallel form shown on the right of the figure, its value increases to
2 R P = R small 1 + Q S first. So the rule is the smaller resistance must be in series with a reactance and the larger resistance must be in parallel with another reactance.

Fig.3-29

2 For matching, we set R l arg e = R P = R small 1 + Q S and X 'p = X p = - X S

2 1 + QS 2 QS

Design procedure (1) Calculate the transformation ratio n =

R l arg e R small

(2) Calculate Q s = n 2 1 (3) Calculate X s = Q s R small (4) Calculate X 'p = - X S

2 1 + QS 2 QS

3-29

Fig3-30: Two possible implementations of Fig3-29

Matching with multiple L networks

With the L network, there is no control of the quality factor and hence the bandwidth. Multiple L-networks are used for design when 0 bandwidth/quality factor and the two resistances to be matched, R l arg e and R small , are specified. The interested student may consult the text by Besser and Gillmore for design. It should be noted that bandwidth can not be decreased or increased indefinitely by increasing the number of section because losses of the capacitors and inductors if not other parasitics sets a limit to the bandwidth from these designs.
Matching using transmission lines Quarter wavelength line Z L cos(l) + jZ 0 sin(l) Recall equation (3.23) Z in (l) = Z 0 Z 0 cos(l) + jZ L sin(l) l Also, = / v p = 2 /( v p / f ) = 2 / and l = 2 If the length is a quarter wavelength, i.e., l = / 4 , or l / = 1 / 4 , l = / 2

Substituting, Z in =

2 Z0 Y2 and hence Yin = 0 ZL YL

(3.40)

3-30

Thus a quarter wave line inverts impedance/admittance. This property can be used for matching two resistances, say R s and R L as illustrated in Fig.3-31.

2 Fig.3-31: Z in = Z 0 / R L = R s R L / R L = R s

As before, perfect matching is correct at only one frequency. There are many other types of matching. But we will consider only single stub matching using a Smith chart. Single stub matching In matching of impedances, we are only allowed to use reactive components (i.e. equivalent to inductors and capacitors no resistors). Recall that for short-circuited and open-circuited lossless transmission line sections of length l, the input impedance was given by
Z i , s = jZ 0 tan l = jZ 0 tan(2 l / ) ,

(3.41) (3.42)

and
Z i ,o = jZ 0 cot l = jZ 0 cot(2 l / ) ,

where Z 0 = R0 is purely real. The impedances in (3.41) and (3.42) are purely reactive (imaginary), and therefore these transmission line sections act as inductors or capacitors, depending on the line length. We are going to make use of these elements (called transmission line stubs) to design matching circuits. In practice, it is more convenient to use short-circuited stubs. Short-circuited stubs are usually used in preference to opencircuited stubs because an infinite terminating impedance is more difficult to realize than a zero terminating impedance. Radiation from the open end of a stub makes it appear longer than it is, and compensation for these effects makes the use of open-circuited stubs more cumbersome. A short-circuited stub of an adjustable length is much easier to construct than an open-circuited stub. It is also more common to connect these stubs in parallel with the main line. For parallel connections, it is convenient to use admittances rather than impedances. In thee cases, we use the Smith chart as an admittance chart to design the matching networks. A single-stub matching circuit is depicted in Fig.3-32. Note that the short-circuited stub is connected in parallel with the main line. In order to match the complex load impedance

3-31

Z L to the characteristic impedance of the lossless main line, Z 0 = R0 , we need to

determine the lengths d and l.

Fig.3-32: Impedance matching by single stub method. For the transmission line to be matched at the point B B , the basic requirement is
Yi = YB + Ys = Y0 = 1 . R0 (3.43)

In terms of normalized admittances, (3.42) becomes

yi = yB + ys = 1 . (3.44)

where y B = g B + jbB = YB / Y0 for the load section and y s = Ys / Y0 for the short-circuited stub. Note that y s = j cot(2 l / ) is purely imaginary. It can therefore only contribute to the imaginary part of y i . The position of B B (or, in other words, the length d) must be chosen such that g B = 1 , i.e.
yB = 1 + jbB . (3.45)

Next, the length l is chosen such that

ys = jbB , (3.46) which yields y i = y B + y s = (1 + jbB ) + ( jbB ) = 1 . The circuit is therefore matched at B B , and at any point left of B B as well.

If we use the Smith chart, we would rotate on a -circle in a clockwise direction (towards the generator) when transforming the normalized load admittance to the 3-32

admittance y B . However, according to (5.25), y B must also be located on the g = 1 circle. The use of the Smith chart for the purpose of designing a single-stub matching network is best illustrated by means of an example.
Example 3.5: A 50 transmission line is connected to a load impedance Z L = 35 j 37.5 . Find the position and length of a short-circuited stub required to match the load at a frequency of 200 MHz. Assume that the transmission line is a co-axial line with a dielectric for which r = 9 .

Given Z 0 = R0 = 50 and Z L = 35 j 37.5 . Therefore z L = Z L / Z0 = 0.7 j0.75 . Enter the Smith chart at z L shown as point P1 in Figure 5.16. Draw a -circle centred at O with radius OP1 . Draw a straight line from P1 through O to point P2 on the perimeter, intersecting the -circle at P2 , which represents y L . Note 0.109 at P2 on the wavelengths toward generator scale. Note the two points of intersection of the -circle with the g = 1 circle: o At P3 : y B1 = 1 + j1.2 = 1 + jbB1 o At P4 : y B 2 = 1 j1.2 = 1 + jbB 2 Solutions for the position of the stub: o For P3 (from P2 to P3 ) d1 = (0.168 0.109) = 0.059 o For P4 (from P2 to P4 ) d 2 = (0.332 0.109) = 0.223 Solutions for the length of the short-circuited stub to provide y s = jbB : o For P3 (from Psc on the extreme right of the admittance chart to P3 , which represents y s = jbB1 = j1.2 ): l1 = (0.361 0.250) = 0.111 o For P4 (from Psc on the extreme right of the admittance chart to P4 , which represents y s = jbB 2 = j1.2 ): l 2 = (0.139 + 0.250) = 0.389

To compute the physical lengths of the transmission line sections, we need to calculate the wavelength on the transmission line. Therefore
= up f = 1 / c / r = 0.5 m . f f

Thus:
d1 = 0.059 = 29.5 mm d 2 = 0.223 = 111.5 mm l1 = 0.111 = 55.5 mm l 2 = 0.389 = 194.5 mm

Note that either of these two sets of solutions would match the load. In fact, there is a whole range of possible solutions. For example, when calculating d1 , instead of going straight from P2 to P3 , we could have started at P2 , rotated clockwise around the Smith

3-33

chart n times (representing an additional length of n / 2 ) and continued on to P3 , yielding d1 = 0.059 + n / 2 , n = 0, 1, 2, . . . The same argument applies for d 2 , l1 and l 2 .

P2 ' P2

P4 "

P3 ' g =1

P3

Psc

P P4 1 P3 " P4 '

Figure 3-33: Single-stub matching on an admittance chart (Example 3.5).

3-34

Multiport Networks

Port refers to the terminals of a network. Thus a one port network has a pair of terminals. Two port network has two pairs of terminals and an N port network has N pairs of terminals.

Fig, 3-34 We can just imagine two wires connected to the pair of terminals. At low frequencies, the length of the line does not matter. However, we just saw that the wires are actually transmission lines. At high frequencies, the length of the wires may be comparable to wavelength and transmission line effect must be considered. We now know that in a transmission line, voltage current and impedance vary along the length of the line. So we must specify exactly where they are measured. These locations are called reference planes. In Fig.3-34 they are indicated by the dotted lines and the ports lie on these lines. It is not enough to say what the impedance/ admittance is, we must specify the location of the reference planes. Notice that the ports are numbered 1,2, N. The voltages and currents are indicated at the ports. Most importantly notice the direction of the currents they flow into the ports. We consider linear circuits for which output (voltage or current) is proportional to the input (voltage or current). Thus the outputs can be written as linear combinations of inputs. Z and Y parameters For the one port, we can write,
V1 = Z11I1 ( I1 is input and I1 = Y11V1 ( V1 is input and V1 is output, Z11 is impedance in ), or as I1 is output, Y11 is admittance in Siemens)

For the two port, we can write ( I1 and I 2 are inputs and V1 and V2 are outputs) 3-35

V1 = Z11I1 + Z12 I 2 V2 = Z 21I1 + Z 22 I 2

(3.47)

or as ( V1 and V2 are inputs and I1 and I 2 are outputs), I1 = Y11V1 + Y12 V2 I 2 = Y21V1 + Y22 V2 In matrix form, [V] = [ Z][I] [I] = [Y][V]
V I Z Where, [V] = 1 , [I] = 1 , [ Z] = 11 V2 I 2 Z 21 This can be generalized to N ports.
Z12 Y11 , [Y ] = Y Z 22 21 Y12 Y22

(3.48)

(3.49) (3.50)

[Z] is called the impedance matrix and [Y] is called the admittance matrix. The meanings of these parameters can be established easily. Physical meaning of Z parameters For the one port, Z11 is simply the impedance. From equations (3.47), we get the following:

Fig.3-35

Fig.3-36 Thus the Z parameters can be measured or calculated by applying a current at one port and measuring the voltage at all ports with all other ports open circuited.

3-36

Reciprocity condition for Z parameters Consider the two port where we apply a current at port 1 and measure the voltage at open circuited port 2. Next we apply the same current at port 2 and measure the voltage at open circuited port 1.

Fig.3- 37 If the measured voltages are equal, the circuit is said to be reciprocal. Hence for a reciprocal circuit, V1 = Z12 I = V2 = Z 21I , i.e., Z12 = Z 21 (3.51) Physical meaning of Y parameters For one port, Y11 is the admittance. From equations (3.48), we get the following:

Fig. 3-38

Fig.3-39 Thus the Y parameters can be measured or calculated by applying a voltage at one port and measuring the current at all ports with all other ports short circuited.

3-37

Reciprocity condition for Y parameters Consider the two port where we apply a voltage at port 1 and measure the current at short circuited port 2. Next we apply the same voltage at port 2 and measure the current at short circuited port 1.

Fig.3-40 If the measured currents are equal, the circuit is said to be reciprocal. Hence for a reciprocal circuit, I1 = Y21I = I 2 = Y12 I , i.e., Y12 = Y21 (3. 52)
Scattering or S-parameters

Consider a two port with transmission lines of characteristic impedances Z 01 and Z 02 connecting the two ports. We consider these characteristic impedances to be real. From transmission line theory, we can write the voltages at the two ports as
+ + V1 = V1 + V1 , V2 = V2 + V2 , Where the + and signs refer to the forward and reflected voltages The corresponding currents can be written as V+ V V+ V + I1 = I1 + I1 = 1 - 1 , I 2 = I + + I = 2 - 2 2 2 Z 01 Z 01 Z 02 Z 02

(3.53)

(3.54)

Fig.3-41 The scattering parameters relate the forward and reflected voltages as:
+ + V1 = S11V1 + S12 V2 + + V2 = S 21V1 + S 22 V2

(3.55)

Or in matrix form

3-38

[V ] = [S][V + ] V + V S12 S Where, [V + ] = 1+ , [V ] = 1 , [S] = 11 V2 V2 S 21 S 22 As with Z and Y parameters, this can be generalized to N port networks.

(3.56)

So far we have been calling V1 and V2 as reflected voltages. The scattering parameter equation (3.55) however shows that they are the sum of voltage reflected from the port and another term due to voltage incident on the other port. Thus I prefer calling V1 and V2 reverse voltages rather than reflected voltages. Henceforth, we will use this term.

Physical meaning of S parameters From equations (3.55), we get the following:

Fig. 3-42

Fig.3-43

3-39

In figures (3-42 ) and (3-43 ), it is understandable that we connect load impedances, Z 01 and Z 02 to kill the reflected voltage. But why do we have to connect sources with internal impedances Z 01 and Z 02 ? Recall that the terminals have transmission lines of characteristic impedances Z 01 and Z 02 . If the source internal impedances are not the same, additional reflections will be caused by the mismatch of the source and the transmission lines and these will affect the measured/calculated S-parameters.
Why S-parameters?

We saw that to measure Z-parameters, we need open circuits and to measure Yparameters, we need short circuits. On the other hand, to measure S-parameters, we need matched loads. Like old books, your text states When we attempt to create a short circuit with a wire: the wire itself possesses a inductance that can be of substantial magnitude at high frequency. Also, the open circuit leads to capacitive loading at the terminal In other words, the argument is that it is difficult to produce open and short circuits at high frequencies. As matched loads might be produced easily, it is easier to measure Sparameters rather than Z and Y parameters. This argument has some truth, but vector network analyzers do not measure the parameters by the simple ways considered while dealing with the physical meanings of parameters. High quality open and short circuits may be difficult to produce, but they can be produced. They are costly but are employed for calibration of vector network analyzers used to measure S-parameters! The proper reasons are as follow: Recall that we stated the importance of reference planes when we introduced multiport networks. In other words, it is not enough to give values of parameters, it must be stated where they are measured. These reference planes can be established easily using S-parameter measurement techniques using a vector network analyzer. Note that the determination of S-parameters requires measuring forward and reverse voltages. At high frequencies, it is easier to sample and measure these voltages rather than measure voltages and currents this is what is done by vector network analyzers. As correctly pointed out in your text, active devices (like transistors) can get unstable with open/short circuit loads or may be damaged by open/short circuits . Scattering parameter measurements use matched loads and active devices are usually stable for such loads.

3-40

Normalized S-parameters You might be wondering why we did not consider reciprocity when discussing Sparameters. It can be proved that for the scattering parameters we have defined, S12 S 21 for a reciprocal circuit unless Z 01 = Z 02 , even though Z12 = Z 21 and Y12 = Y21 . One motivation for defining normalized scattering parameters is to have s12 = s 21 , where the small s refers to normalized scattering parameters. To obtain the normalized sparameters, we define normalized voltages and currents as: V1 V2 (3.57) v1 = , v2 = ..; i1 = Z 01 I1 , i 2 = Z 02 I 2 .. Z 01 Z 02
+ Consider the equation V1 = V1 + V1 from (3.53). Dividing both sides by

Z 01 ,

V1 Z 01

+ V1

Z 01

V1 Z 01

+ , or v1 = v1 + v1 .

+ Similarly, dividing both sides of V2 = V2 + V2 from (3.53) by Z 02 , v 2 = v + + v 2 2 and so on. V+ V + Multiplying both sides of I1 = I1 + I1 = 1 - 1 from (3. ) by Z 01 , Z 01 Z 01

+ V1 V1 + + = v1 v1 . i1 = i1 + i1 = Z 01 Z 01 + Similarly, i 2 = i 2 + i - = v + v and so on. 2 2 2

In matrix form, we can write [ v] = [ v + ] + [ v ] (3.58) [i] = [ v + ] [ v ] v + v v i Where, [ v] = 1 , [ v + ] = 1 , [ v ] = 1 , [i] = 1 + v 2 v 2 v 2 i 2 The normalized scattering parameters are defined in terms of the normalized forward and reverse voltages as
+ + v1 = s11v1 + s12 v 2 + + v 2 = s 21v1 + s 22 v 2

(3.59)

Or in matrix form

3-41

s s [ v ] = [s][ v + ] , [s] = 11 12 (3.60) s 21 s 22 It can be proved that for normalized scattering parameters, s12 is always equal to s21 for a reciprocal network.

Now you are going to have two objections.

Objection 1: These normalized voltages are fictitious. So what do we do in practice? Measure scattering parameters and do some mathematical conversions? The answer is no. Scattering parameters are measured with Z 01 = Z 02 = Z 0 (=50 ) by a vector network analyzer. It will measure the unnormalized scattering matrix [S}. Consider the original scattering parameter equation as given by (3.55) + + V1 = S11V1 + S12 V2 + + V2 = S 21V1 + S 22 V2 Dividing both sides by Z 01 = Z 02 = Z 0 and remembering the expression for normalized voltage,
+ + v1 = S11v1 + S12 v 2 + v 2 = S 21v1 + S 22 v + 2

The normalized and unnormalized scattering parameters are the same when Z 01 = Z 02 = Z 0 ! The measurement gives us normalized/unnormalized scattering parameters. When giving scattering parameters, we must state the characteristic impedance. This impedance has been standardized as 50 . So it is common practice for RF engineers to give scattering parameters without stating whether it is normalized/unnormalized and what the characteristic impedance is. For unequal characteristic impedances, normalized scattering parameters, [s], and unnormalized scattering parameters, [S], are not the same. For other characteristic impedances other than 50 normalized scattering parameters can be obtained by matrix methods we consider later. Objection 2: The scattering concept is difficult to visualize when forward and reverse voltages do not exist for example as in the lumped element L matching networks discussed earlier. In any case we can define the forward and reverse voltages from voltages and currents using transmission line relationship. Consider (3.53) and (3.54).

3-42

+ V1 = V1 + V1 and I1 =

V1+ V1 Z 01 Z 01

V +I Z V I Z + The corresponding normalized voltages will be v1 = 1 1 01 , and v1 = 1 1 01 2 Z 01 2 Z 01 These normalized voltage can be defined at any port and we can choose the impedances Z 01 , Z 01 whatever we like, not necessarily the characteristic impedances of transmission lines. This is why, the general name for these impedances is normalizing impedance. Further generalization for normalized S-parameters (Although this generalization has given rise to many research papers and complex algebraic techniques, we will not use them in this course. It is discussed here because many books, including your text, abruptly introduce it and create confusion you may omit this discussion.) We have so far considered these impedances as real because we were thinking of them as characteristic impedances. But now they can be anything. Suppose they are complex. We
= , and 2 Re( Z 01 ) 2 Re( Z 01 ) Note the differences from the earlier formula. We use the complex conjugate of Z 01 in the numerator and Re( Z 01 ) in the denominator. The transmission line relationships remain unchanged. The reason for using the complex conjugate is that if the port sees a conjugate match, there is no reflected wave. This is explained in Fig.3-44

V +I Z V I Z + Solving, V1 = 1 1 01 , V1 = 1 1 01 2 2

now have to modify the definition as

+ v1

V1 + I1Z* 01

v1

V1 I1Z* 01

Fig.3-44 The definition can be further generalized to include complex normalizing impedances with negative real parts. The generalized definition is then

3-43

+ v1

V I Z* , and v1 = 1 1 01 = 2 Re( Z 01 ) 2 Re( Z 01 )

V1 + I1Z* 01

These quantities now lose their physical meaning as voltage and current waves. Notice that the ratio of the normalized voltage and current is 1. So the incident power is
+ + + v1 (i1 )* = v1 and similarly v1 is the reverse power. Thus these may be considered

as forward and reverse power waves.

Some definitions

Reflection or Return loss

+ Consider a two port and normalized scattering parameters. s11v1 is the reflected voltage

+ + and the corresponding reflected power is s11 v1 , while the incident power is v1 . 2

+ 2 v1 = 20log10 s11 dB Thus the power loss in dB due to reflection is 10log10 2 + 2 s11 v1 This is called Reflection or Return loss

Insertion Gain/Loss Consider a two port matched to output and input. The power in the load is s 21 v + and 2
2
+ the incident power is v1 . 2

2 + 2 s 21 v1 = 20log10 s 211 This is called insertion The power gain in dB is 10log10 2 + v1 + 2 v1 = 20log10 s 211 gain. If the two port is lossy, the insertion loss is 10log10 2 + 2 s 21 v1

While lossy networks, such as filters and attenuators are usually matched at both outputs and inputs, it may not be possible to do so with amplifiers (we will see this later). In this case, the insertion gain will not be 20log10 s 211 , it will be the available power gain. We will also see this later.

3-44

Two ports in series

For two 2-port is series, the overall Z matrix is given by the sum of the Z matrices of the 2-ports.

Fig. 3-55: [ Z] = [ Z1 ] + [ Z 2 ]
Two ports in parallel

For two 2-port is parallel, the overall Y matrix is given by the sum of the Y matrices of the 2-ports.

Fig.3-56: [Y] = [Y1 ] + [Y2 ] The formulae for two ports in series and parallel can be proved easily. These formulae can not be used for certain networks. An example is given in Fig.4-5. p.155 of your text. However the proper explanation is that for the formulae to be applicable, the circuit must satisfy Brunes tests. These tests are given in books on electrical networks.
Two ports in cascade

For two 2-ports in cascade, we can not use matrix operations on Z, Y and S matrices because these matrices do not relate output to input. Two types of matrices are used ABCD matrix and the transmission matrix. The latter involves travelling waves like those used for defining S parameters and we will not deal with it.

3-45

The two port with current and voltage directions is shown in Fig.3-57

Fig.3-57 Notice that current flows into port 1 and out of port 2. For defining Z and Y parameters, currents flow into both ports. The ABCD parameters are defined through:
V1 = AV2 + BI 2 I1 = CV2 + DI 2

(3.61)

(3.61 ) can be written in matrix form as V1 A B V2 I = C D I 2 1 Now the input is expressed in terms of the output. Now consider the two 2-ports in cascade as shown in Fig.3-58.

(3.62)

Fig.3-58
V1 A1 I = C 1 1 V ' As '2 = I2
V1 A1 I = C 1 1
' B1 V2 ' and D1 I 2

V ' A 2 '1 = I1 C 2

B 2 V2 D2 I2

V ' '1 I1
B1 D1 A 2 C 2 B 2 V2 D2 I2

Thus the overall ABCD parameters of two cascaded 2-ports is the product of the individual ABCD matrices taken from left to right.

3-46