103

AIR RECEIVERS
A compressor plant normally includes one or more pressure vessels known as air receivers which provide the following functions: Equalisation of pressure variations in the supply lines. Storage of compressed air to meet heavy demands in excess of the compressor capacity. A source of additional cooling and a collection point for residual condensate and oil droplets. Prevention of rapid loading and unloading of the compressor in short cycle duties.

The usual form of receiver is illustrated in Figure 1. The detailed design of such a vessel is covered by a number of standards (see below).
Safety Valve ~ 1

Pes r ag rsuGu~ e e

Strainer Air Trap

Typical vertical receiver with air trap.

Small horizontal receiver with alternative trapping arrangements. FIGURE 1

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THE PNEUMATIC HANDBOOK

T A B L E 1 - Useful capacity of air receivers (cubic metres of free air)

Receiver volume
m 3

Permissible pressure drop 0.25 0.5 0.75 I 1.25

bar 1.5 2 2.5

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.25 2.5

0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

0.75 1.5 2.25 3 3.75 4.5 5.25 6 6.75 7.5

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1.25 2.5 3.75 5 6.25 7.5 8.75 10 11.25 12.5

1.5 3 4.5 6 7.5 9 10.5 12 13.5 15

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 15 17.5 20 22.5 25

Storage capacity

The useful capacity of a receiver is the volume of free air which can be drawn from it at its design pressure; this is, of course, different from its actual internal volume. The size of the air receiver depends on the duty it is required to fulfil. The simplest duty required is one in which the demand is constant and reasonably close to that of the compressor output. A rule-of-thumb guide for receiver size in this situation, where the pressure is less than 9 bar, is six times the compressor flow rate per second or 0.1 times the flow rate per minute. This rule applies only where the control system involves automatic valve unloading, and where the difference between the loading and reloading of the system is no less than about 0.4 bar. If the pressure is higher than 9 bar, a rather smaller receiver will be acceptable. If the demand is variable, the calculation of receiver size depends on the acceptable pressure drop and the number of cycles of loading and unloading that are permissible per unit time. For a very variable demand, the receiver volume should be about three times that calculated for uniform demand. In a situation where the air demand is intermittent, requiring a fairly large volume flow for a short period of time with no demand at all for the remainder of the time, it is worthwhile performing a calculation to determine the most economical combination of compressor and receiver. Take as an example an application in which 60 m3/min at 7 bar is required to be delivered for 10 minutes every hour. Clearly one solution would be to have a compressor capable of 60 m3/min working for only those ten minutes. Since the mean flow is only 60 + 6 = 10 m3/min, another solution would be to have a smaller compressor working continuously and storing its excess in a large receiver. The smaller compressor would have a higher pressure rating and the excess flow for 50 minutes would be stored in the receiver at that pressure. The fundamental equation relating pressure drop to receiver volume is: V VI~
-

AP Po

ill

AIR RECEIVERS where

105

VR is the receiver capacity in m 3 V is the air requirement for a given operation in m 3 AP is the pressure drop (bar) experienced in the receiver during the operation Po is atmospheric pressure in bar

If the operation is identified by a flow rate q in m3/s over a time t, this equation can be rewritten as: qt AP = [2] VR Po These equations assume that no air is being added to the receiver during the operation. If the compressor is simultaneously supplying air at a rate qc m3/s, the latter equation becomes: (q-qc)t AP = [3] Vl~ P,, In the above example of intermittent use, the acceptable pressure drop has to be chosen. Taking two possible choices for the maximum pressure, case (a) 20 bar and case (b) 35 bar, both from compressors delivering 10 m3/min. Applying equation [3] to case (a) (60-10) x10 Vl~ _ 20-7 1

so VR = 500-- 13 = 38.5 m 3 and the actual volume of the receiver will be 38.5/21 = 1.83 m 3. Similarly for case (b) V~ = 18 m 3 and the actual volume of the receiver will be 18 + 36 = 0.5 m 3. In deciding which choice to make the most economical solution is when the total cost of the compressor, receiver and fuel is a minimum.
Receiver volume calculations in automatic start/stop control

If the control system involves stopping and starting of the motor, then a receiver much larger than that for automatic unloading is required so as to avoid too rapid a cycling of the controls. The primary requirement is that the receiver must be sized so that no more than about ten starts per hour, evenly spread, take place; this is so that damage to the starter system and the motor windings is avoided. The spread of pressure should be as large as can be tolerated to further reduce the number of cycles. The compressor manufacturer will normally calculate the correct receiver size based on the control system used. Equation [3] can be rewritten as VR = qc (1 - ~) ~tP,, AP [4]

where ~ = q/qc and, in this instance, t is the time between successive starts of the compressor is the actual air demand as a fraction of the amount delivered by the compressor. It

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THE PNEUMATIC HANDBOOK

turns out that the worst condition for frequency of stops and starts is where ~ =0.5, ie when the demand is half the supply. If the demand is greater or less than a half, the number of stops is less frequent so this condition is usually taken as the design point. Replacing V by 0.5, equation [4] becomes:
VR ~

qctPo 4AP

For t = 6 minutes and AP = 1, the relationship becomes; VR = 1.5 qc. Compare this with the formula for the receiver size quoted above for unloading systems of control: VR = 0.1 qc This comparison between the two values for the volume indicates the importance of assessing the correct receiver size to meet the requirements of the system. Air receiver legislation in the U.K. There is a large legislative framework governing the whole area of receiver design and certification which needs much study before it can be applied with confidence. The Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 places a general duty on a number of persons involved with matters of safety; the duties are shared by designers, manufacturers, suppliers, importers employers, employees etc. Regulations in specific branches of industry have been made under the Act. The primary document on pressurised systems (of which air receivers are usually the most critical element) is The Pressure Systems and Transportable Gas Containers Regulations 1989 (SI 1989 No 2169), all of which are now in effect. These Regulations implement EC Directive 76/767/EEC. The Health and Safety Executive have prepared a Code of Practice- Safety of Pressure S y s t e m s - which gives practical guidance on these Regulations. The British Compressed Air Society have gone further and have produced a comprehensive set of Guidance and Interpretation Notes which should be studied alongside the two official documents. It should be noted that these Regulations repeal much of the Factories Act 1961 insofar as it related to pressure vessels, however vessels already in use and bearing markings made in accordance with the Act will not have to be changed unless they are modified subsequently. The Regulations do not give detailed design methods (reference must be made to the appropriate Standards for these) but are concerned with ensuring that pressure systems falling within their scope are properly made, inspected, maintained and marked so as to safeguard those persons affected. The intention is to prevent the risk of injury from the release of the stored energy in a compressed air system. They are in fact wider in scope than compressed air and encompass steam, gases and mixed liquids and gases. The complete system includes the pressure vessels, pipework and any protective devices, where the pressure is in excess of 0.5 bar. If the complete system does not incorporate an

AIR RECEIVERS

107

air receiver, it may not be covered by the Regulations but it would be unwise to assume that to be the case without expert advice. In the Regulations a system can be classified as Minor, Intermediate or Major, depending on the product of the gauge pressure of the system in bar and the internal volume in litres (ie the product PS.V). A minor system has a maximum operating pressure below 20 bar (gauge), the largest pressure vessel in the system has a PS.V less than 2 x 105 bar litres and the operating temperature between-20C and 250C. An intermediate system is one which either (a) has a system pressure of 20 bar or above where PS.V is less than 1 x 106 bar litres or (b) has a system pressure less than 20 bar and a PS.V greater than 2 x 105 but less than 106 bar litres. A major system is one in which PS.V is greater than 1 x 106 bar litres. If PS.V is less than 250, certain of the Regulations do not apply (particularly in respect of marking), although such a vessel may come within the scope of the Simple Pressure Vessels Regulations, see below. Most compressed air systems will fall into the Minor category. The Regulations place a different burden on the organisation responsible for carrying out the inspection and operation of the system according to the category in which it falls and defines the levels, qualification and experience of the "competent person" who draws up an examination scheme. The Simple Pressure Vessels (Safety) Regulations 1991 (SI 2749) apply to smaller pressure vessels. These Regulations are the national implementation of EC Directive 87/404/EEC (amended by 90/488/EEC). A simple pressure vessel is defined as one which is welded and made of non-alloy steel or non-alloy aluminium or non-age hardening aluminium alloy; the simple construction implies that it is to be cylindrical with convex ends or hemispherical; it must have a working pressure not greater than 30 bar and the product of the working pressure and the volume is not to exceed 10 000 bar litres. A pressure vessel coming under these regulations can be classified as AI, A2, A3 or B, depending on the product of the gauge working pressure and the internal volume (PS.V):

Classification
AI A2 A3
B

PS. V (bar litres)

> 3000 > 200 > 50 < 50 < 10 000 < 3000 < 200

Different Regulations apply to the different categories, the main differences being the type of certification procedure which must be applied. Meeting the requirements of S12749 may be less onerous than SI 2169, so it is important to determine into which category and sub-category a particular pressure vessel falls and establish the inspection and certification procedure accordingly.

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THE PNEUMATIC HANDBOOK

Most compressed air systems containing a receiver will fall within the scope of the Simple Pressure Vessels Directive. Countries other than the U.K. For members of the European Community other than the U.K., the same EC Directives apply, which makes for simplicity in design and certification and ensures that a pressure vessel acceptable in one European country will be equally acceptable to the others. For other countries general reference should be made to Boilers and 'Pressure Vessels - An International Survey of Design and Approval Requirements' published by BSI. This is a comprehensive reference to the national regulations, design codes and approval organisations of a large number of countries. Fortunately European and American Codes are widely acceptable. In a subject which is constantly changing, the latest edition of this publication should be studied. Design of pressure vessels There are three British Standards to which reference should be made for information about design, manufacture and inspection - BS 5169:1992, BS 5169:1975, BS 5500:1994 and BS EN 286. BS 5169 gives information specific to fusion welded steel air receivers (excluding vessels covered by SI 2749). BS EN 286 replaces BS 5169:1975 and is for vessels covered by S12749. It is for simple unfired pressure vessels designed for air or nitrogen.

These two are mutually exclusive. BS 5500 is for unfired fusion welded presure vessels.

BS 5500 is a comprehensive work with a wealth of material on all aspects of welded pressure vessels and should be studied by anyone embarking on the design. This chapter can only give an outline of the straightforward principles of design of receivers. For more complex matters such as the design of flanges, reinforcement of access openings, numbers and location of bolts and welding sizes, the original standards must be referred to. Computer programmes are available which remove some of the burden of calculations. Materials for manufacture A limited range of materials is permissible to meet the requirements of the standards. Reference should be made therein. Broadly certain steel grades contained in BS 10207 and BS 10208 are acceptable for plates, strip and bar; material for tubes and forgings are specified in ISO 2604. For aluminium and aluminium alloys refer to the standard. Design in accordance with BS 5169 BS 5169 specifies three classes of air receivers: Class I - No limitation is placed on the design but all welded seams require non-destructive testing.

AIR RECEIVERS

109

Class I I - The design pressure shall not exceed 35 bar and the product of design pressure and internal diameter shall not exceed 37 000 bar mm. Class III - The design pressure shall not exceed 17.5 and the product of design pressure and internal diameter shall not exceed 8800 bar mm.
W a l l thicknesses

Simple theory for determining the thickness of a cylinder subject to internal pressure produces the relationship:
t =

pd 2f-p

[5]

where:

t is the wall thickness f is the nominal design stress p is the internal pressure d is the internal diameter

This equation is true for any system of consistent units. The equivalent equation given in BS 5169 states that the thickness of the shell plate shall not be less than t = where: pd 20fJ-p + 0.75 [6]

t is the thickness of the wall in mm p is the pressure in bar d is the inside diameter of the shell in mm f is the design stress in N/mm 2 J is the joint factor, which may vary from 0.4 to 1.0 0.75 is the allowance in mm for corrosion, providing that in no case shall the thickness be less than 4 mm, or, in the case of Class III receivers where the internal diameter does not exceed 300, the thickness shall be not less than 2.5 mm or 0.01 D, whichever is the greater. Where the ultimate tensile stress (uts) is known, the design stress is f = uts / 3.5
D e s i g n of ends

Ends shall be hemispherical or semi-ellipsoidal and may have manholes or hand holes. In the case of Class II and Class III receivers, and Class I receivers where the internal diameter does not exceed 600 mm, flat ends are permitted. If semi-ellipsoidal ends are chosen, the ratio of the major axis to that of the minor axis shall not be greater than 2.25:1. For hemispherical ends the thickness of the end plate shall not be less than pR + 0.75 [7] k. = 2 0 f J - p where: R is the radius of the hemisphere is the thickness of the end

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THE PNEUMATIC HANDBOOK

i t"

oi

"("
L; For other concave shapes
=
. . . . . . .

FIGURE 2 - Pressure vessel end showing a closed end to the right and a typical opening on the left.

pdK 20fJ

+ 0.75

[8]

In both cases J = 1 for endplates made of one piece, and for plates made of more than one piece J is the appropriate factor obtained from the tables in the Standard. K depends on the ratio (h + t )/D, where h is the height of the height of the dished end and D is the outside diameter. K is read from Figure 3. In no case shall the thickness be less than that of the cylinder. In some cases it is permissible to have flat ends rather than concave ends for an internal diameter not greater than 600 mm.
4.0

3.0

"::

:i!t:--~th.:J.... 1 ........... ~,, !@=~

K 20

[_~." I~ ! ' ! i ~ [ ] [ l i : g ! ~ ] ~ ; i ~ ! I I I ]

-:r,]'.H~,

O.I

015

0.2

025

0.3
/~+t e D

0.35

04

045

0.5

FIGURE 3

AIR RECEIVERS F o r flat p l a t e s w e l d e d to the c y l i n d e r te = / pd2 CS + 0.75 [9]

111

q
where:

S is the m i n i m u m tensile s t r e n g t h o f the plates C = 14.3 for u n f l a n g e d e n d plates or = 17.4 for f l a n g e d e n d plates.

Openings in shells and plates

O p e n i n g s h a v e to be p r o v i d e d in r e c e i v e r s for the p u r p o s e o f i n s p e c t i o n , see T a b l e 2. All o p e n i n g s h a v e to be r i n g r e i n f o r c e d to s t r e n g t h e n the vessel in the r e g i o n o f the m a t e r i a l r e m o v e d . A g o o d d e s i g n g u i d e is to m a k e the ring f r o m as m u c h m a t e r i a l as w a s r e m o v e d . R e f e r to the s t a n d a r d for details. T A B L E 2 - Examination holes and manholes for air receivers

Number of openings (minimum) Vessel internal diameter mm

0 to 300 > 300 to 450 > 450 to 800

Length of cylindrical section mm

0 to 1500 0 to 1500 0 to 1500 > 1500 to 2000 Over 2000

Small sight hole

2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Large sight hole

0 2 see note 1 2or 1 see note 2 0 0 0 0 0

Hand hole
0 0 2or 1 see note 3 2 or 1 see note 2 see note 4

Head hole
0 0 0 2 or 1 see note 3

Manhole
0 0

>800 to
1500

0 to 2000 Over 2000

2or 1 see note 2 see note 3 see note 4 0 0

0 0 1

Over 1500

Unlimited

Note 1: Where the length is more than 1500mm additional sight holes may be provided. Note 2: In the case of a cylindricalbody the holes shouldeach be sited near the ends (within sight of the longitudinaljoint and the base) or else in the centre of the ends. Note 3: A single head hole or hand hole which should be situated in the central third of vessel length. Note 4: The numberof inspection holes shall be increased accordingly.For a length of less than 3000 mm it is, however, sufficient to site a head hole in the centre of the cylindricalbody. On the cylindricalbodythe greatestdistance between the head holes shall not exceed 3000 mm, and between hand holes 2000 ram. The latter shall each be locatedeither near to or in the ends.

Design in accordance with BS EN 2186

T h e a l t e r n a t i v e p r o c e d u r e o f this d o c u m e n t is c o n f u s i n g to the d e s i g n e r u s e d to the earlier s t a n d a r d s b e c a u s e the n o t a t i o n and the w a y in w h i c h the e q u a t i o n s are e x p r e s s e d are different. A i r r e c e i v e r s m a d e in a c c o r d a n c e with this s t a n d a r d are o f s i m p l e c o n s t r u c t i o n ,

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THE PNEUMATIC HANDBOOK

primarily welded and serially made. If possible this standard is preferred provided that the conditions it covers are met. The normal design stress is the lower value of 0.6 Roy or 0.3 Rm ,where tL,v is the guaranteed minimum tensile yield strength and Rm is the guaranteed minimum tensile strength. The normal thickness (e) takes account of corrosion and tolerance in the specification of the material thickness. e _> e c + s + c where ec is the calculated thickness s is the corrosion allowance c is the absolute value of the negative tolerance on the material thickness.

There may also be an extra allowance to cater for thinning in production. PDo ec = 2 0 f + p Kc [10]

In this relationship, Do is the outside diameter in mm P is the design pressure in bar (< PS, the maximum working pressure) f is the nominal design stress in N/mm z I~ is a calculation coefficient which depends on the welding process and the inspection method (varies from 1 to 1.15). For hemispherical ends ec For flat ends without openings e=C PS Do 40f + PS [11]

DJ PS 10f

[12]

where:

C is a coefficient determined from a consideration of the end design D = design diameter of the flat ends. For a simple welded end this is the internal diameter.

The above treatment is only an outline of the general approach to the design of air receivers. Any serious designer should study the full standards; they contain a great deal of useful material. A competent person, as defined in the Regulations must demonstrate a full understanding of the appropriate standards.