1003 sec. 3 Western Civilization class notes.

Note-When I refer back to the textbook, Im talking about the Western Civilization book with the CD. 8/26- INTRODUCTION Study of Western Civilization from the Reformation to the present During this period we see Europes political transition from -Traditional agricultural societies and/or -Imperial societies to -Nation states constructed in the 1750s In 1500, Agricultural societies saw most people farming, led by small elite of warriors and knights, clergy. There were also the beginnings of Imperial society, which were aggressive, expansion oriented societies. Otherwise, they resembled agricultural societies. Fewer of these. Modern nation states were invented in the late 18th and early 19th century. France led the way here. This will come up later in the course. -----Imperial states---Seek to gain human and natural resources. Are concerned with status, Perform and express elite values against real human and spiritual enemies. Carry true religion to unbelievers. This is the ideological component of an imperial society. Commoners have opportunities in the new imperial expansions. Ex- Castile, The aggressive Iberian state expanding into the New World during this time The Ottoman Empire-An Islamic empire based in Turkey. Aztecs and Incas- Two American empires the Castilians would topple. ------Economic changes during the period covered in the course------Local economies with limited market connections and long distance trade were the norm in 1500 -Formation of the Eurocentric World System and Atlantic Empires with Europeans winning a world Market. Begins with conquest of New World, and Portuguese discoveries of sea routes to Africa, India.

-Eventually we see the emergence of global markets and a polycentric world system. --------Social changes during the period covered in the course.-----1500- Limited life experiences and expectancy Most Europeans could expect to live to 25, maybe 30 or 35 if lucky In the 18th century the death rate began to fall. Abundant goods began to flood market, and the possibility of a consumer society began to exist. Issues of social status arise from people of modest backgrounds being able to live better. Urbanization arises as food production increases and city sanitation improves the urban death rates. Britain was one of the first nations to become an urban society Voluntary associations proliferate. These had existed in medieval Europe, but during this period they exploded in number The rise of secular individualism -----Intellectual and ideological changes during the period covered----The end of the religious unity of the West Crisis of ancient and other authorities. It was not considered right to question authority before 1500, but this slowly began to change. Emergence of the scientific method The beginning of the Enlightenment and classic liberalism Nationalism and its variants began to arise Various other isms arise. Totalitarianism, relativism, etc. -----Artistic Change during the period covered---Art was initially mostly religious in nature, and used for instruction Renaissance began to place an emphasis on correct perspective and realism Classicism, and reverence for Greek and Roman art

1850- Impressionism began to arise, and emphasized capturing a feeling/moment, not necessarily a realistic portrait. Influence of non western aesthetics began to be felt. Eventually we get to cubist art and other modern abstract art.

Class-8/28- THE REFORMATION The Reformation is how multiple forms of Christianity came to exist within Europe. The religious argument was over what the correct understanding of the relationship between the human and divine was. ---The Era of religious controversy---1517-1648 1517-Martin Luther nails his 95 theses to the church in Wittenberg, Germany 1648-Thirty Years War ends. ----The beliefs of 1500---Providentialism: Nothing happens by accident to people and in nature. It is a result of human actions. Storms happen to punish the wicked, etc. Contractualism: The belief that you can make deals with Saints, the Virgin Mary, Jesus, and even God. For instance, Martin Luther once believed he was going to die in an electrical storm, and promised if he was saved he would become a monk. He survived the storm, and became a monk soon afterwards. The imitation of Christ as the highest form of spiritual life for the clergy and the lay people. Everyone should try as hard as they can to live a Christ-like life. Fragments of folk belief still sprinkled the thoughts of Christian folk. People still believed in things like pixies and fairies and they existed alongside angels. Alchemists were trying to transform lead into gold because the believed you could transform the substance of something. The Catholic Church had constructed a system of beliefs that were supposed to aid Christians in getting to heaven. It was a multi-tiered system that included sacraments, penance, good deeds, and by the time of Luther indulgences were becoming another method of attaining grace for sins.

The Roman Catholic Church came up with the system of indulgences that was originally based on the idea that the pope could commute sins for you if you were penitent, but it eventually morphed in some parts of Christendom into a system of where spiritual pardons were exchanged for money. ---Religious Authority undermined--Authority= Willing obedience by a population because the institution is recognized as having a right to rule Reasons authority of Roman church was undermined a. Some clergy were landlords, and when times were hard, people got bitter at clergy for demanding rent. b. Criticism of some clergy and popes for having lecherous lifestyles. Many in the clergy struggled to be celibate, but people were beginning to demand that their clergy live the imitation of Christ. c. Theological disagreements between the various theological movements within Christianity were widespread. Platonists, Thomists, Nominalists, humanists, and heretics all argued over theological disputes. These movements should all be defined in the textbook or the moodle glossary. ----Popular Movements---Popular movements were formed by lay people who wanted a more involved spiritual life, and aspired to live morally life and engage the community to do so as well. They were sometimes aided by clergymen, but institutional churches often oppose such movements out of fear they will get out of control, and that happened with the Roman Catholic church in regards to these movements. Examples of popular movements 1. Brethren of the common life 2. Confraternities 3. Observant movements among the monastic orders 4. Heretics like the Hussites. (These groups should be further defined in the textbook) ----Reform within the institutional church---The Aims of the reform

A. Remove abusers of canon law. Some clerical offices were being outright bought and sold. B. Restore and enhance position of the male clergy and hierarchy in society. This reform was supported by elites that wanted to reinforce male dominance in a hierarchal society. Example of reform movements and reforms --Conciliar movement in the 14th and 15th century. --Franciscan observant movement --Popular pressure against the clergy for not living imitation of Christ --Further development of the behavioral/contractual sacramental system --Founding of new religious orders ---The Reformation----The Reformation took hold primarily in weak decentralized states such as the Holy Roman Empire as it existed in the early 1500s. ---Martin Luther---Martin Luther was the first reformer, and he brought a simple message 1. God alone saves people. All we can do is believe. 2. Only the bible is authoritative. 3. There should be no priestly caste, but a priesthood of all believers. 4. Church is under the states protection. Luther was a radical, but he wanted to have Christianity as he imagined it had existed in the middle ages, not to fracture the Roman Catholic Church. Lutherism spread through: 1. Enthusiastic students (Luther had been a professor) and lay people traveled and took it to new places. 2. Use of the printing press and cartoons. The spread of Lutherism was one of the first demonstrations of the power of the printing press. 3. The Magistrates reformation in city states resulted in theological conventions to discuss right doctrine and practice and Lutherism got a hearing in such conventions. ---The Spread of Luthers Reformation--National reformations begin in: Sweden-1524

England-1533-1536 (spearheaded by Henry the VIII) Denmark-1536 Luthers reformation opened the door for theological radicals 1. People began reading the bible and interpreting it in their own way. 2. This led to the emergence of many different variations of reform as different people chose different parts of the bible to emphasize. Some notable radicals 1. Primitive church enthusiasts who wanted to imitate the apostles church as it was written about in the book of Acts. 2. Anti-Trinitarians who rejected the idea of the Holy Trinity. 3. Anabaptists- believed that only an adult baptism was valid. Most theological radicals were banned in the Holy Roman Empire by 1529, and Martin Luther approved of this move. He hadnt planned on such people emerging when he opened the door with his movement. 9/9 First class after Hurricane Gustav! -----John Calvin----Calvin was one of the most intellectual of the reformers, and he wrote a systematic exposition of reform ideas using the apostles creed as an outline. This work was called Institutes of Christian Religion, and it reads like a lawyers brief on religion, which makes sense because Calvin was a lawyer. Predestination was Calvins most notable theological contribution. Predestination argued that only some are saved, and God does the saving. Calvin gave 5 tests of assurance to those who were concerned about their soul. 1. Do you believe the story of the Gospel? 2. Have you had any sort of religious experience? 3. Do you live according to the Ten Commandments? 4. Are you a diligent worker? (Protestant work ethic!) 5. Keep a diary. When you look at it, do you see signs that God has blessed you? Calvin and other reformers believed you could found a church anywhere you had a community of believers, and did not need to wait to be sanctioned by authorities like bishops and magistrates. Calvin also believed in living a very disciplined life, and later this became to some the most distinctive trait of Calvinism. ---Catholic Reform---

A. Secular politics delayed efforts to reform the Church. As the leader of the Papal States, the Pope was thoroughly involved in worldly matters. B. Eventually, one pope called the Council of Trent to respond to the Reformation. 1. First two sessions (1545-48 and 1551-52) a. Rejected Protestant ideals, affirmed traditional sacraments, views of Thomas Aquinas. b. Call for standard books. Thomism was used to legitimize priests, authority of clergy. Look Thomisms definition up. Thomism is very complex. 2. Session 4 of the Council of Trent, 1562-1563 a. This session met to deal with the problem of the Bishops powers a. Bishops originally could not police their dioceses, especially the Holy Orders. Now the popes were allowed to exercise authority on behalf of the pope in their dioceses. b. There were other administrative reforms, such as demanding that every diocese must have a seminary, so an adequate supply of trained clergy would be available to minister to the population. ----Social impacts of the reformation----A minor effect on the continuing development of capitalism, but Calvinism has an especially distinctive impact on it, especially in urban areas. B. Status of women somewhat improved -Companionate marriage ideal -Right to divorce -Increased emphasis on womens literacy C. Popular folk culture and beliefs attacked by both sides. Remaining fragments of pagan and animistic beliefs in European folk culture are targeted. D. The Witch Craze E. Fed existing social divisions and helped create wars of religion that became a part of the crisis of the early modern state -----Wars of Religion----1. Schmalkaldic League, 1547-1555- A league of German princes who had confiscated Roman Catholic Church property defend their territory from the army of the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V. The League loses, but then Charles the V decided that he wants to retire and put his son Phillip II on the throne. The Electors of the Holy Roman empire,

Catholic and Protestant, decide they cant let Charles make that choice on his own and drive him out of the Empire. Eventual results- Peace of Augsburg- Princes were allowed to choose the religion of their realms Ecclesiastical reservations- no more confiscating Church property when you convert 2. French wars 1563-1598- Not so much a proper war as a long running period of internal violence pitting French Protestants (nicknamed Huguenots) against French Catholics -Resolved by edict of Nantes, which granted the Huguenots fortified places where they could be safe and publicly worship 3. Dutch Rebellion-1565-1598, 1621-1648. Phillip II tries to increase the taxes on the wealthy Dutch provinces. The Dutch rebel, and eventually the Netherlands become independent. 4. Thirty Years War- 1618-1648- The largest war of religion, a war that devastated the Holy Roman Empire. Ends with the Peace of Westphalia, which is generally credited with inaugurating the international state system. Many of the wars pitted Catholic sovereigns against Protestant nobles. The Spanish Inquisition was founded during this period to root out heretics in Spain. -----Outcomes of Religious Wars---1.Territorial toleration- The local rulers decide what religions can be practiced 2. State power used to peacefully remove Lutherans. 1. Methods-Pressure, Catholics received favored treatment over Lutherans Ex-Bavaria post 1555 Poland 1550-1590s 3. Intolerance continues among the population. Its hard to turn off hatred. 4. Religious considerations intensify. 5. Apparent permanent division of Western Christianity 6. Institutional reform of Roman Catholic Church achieved by 1600. New Catholic holy orders reflect spiritual stress and reform efforts. (A good example of the new orders would be the Jesuits) 7. Conflict over authority and knowing also spreads into emerging study of science

8. State power advanced and enhanced. Monarchs find power increased. 9. Secularization of the West in furthered in the long run due to the empowerment of state, decline of folk beliefs, and further development of a scientific outlook. ---Other Observations--1. Religious zealots will fight to the death. 2. Both sides appealed to state power 3. Political considerations became key to solution 4. Territorial tolerance was a temporary answer to religious tensions 5. The Struggle crippled Spanish domination of European affairs. 6. 30 years war provoked the 17th century Political crisis. --- Economic History, 1492-1650---Emergence of the Eurocentric World System occurred during this era. 50% growth in population of Europe in this period A. Monetarization of the economy 1. More silver becomes available a. From Silesia, then post 1560, from the Americas 2. More paper credit instruments (paper money) Other drivers of monetarization a. Taxes were more useful in money, not exchanged goods like bushels of wheat. b. The logic of markets demanded that rural economies become monetarized to expand market for goods. c. Desire to consume what money can buy (spices, sugars, caffeine). B. The Price Revolution 100-400% inflation over the course of the 16th century 1. A revolution in experience and perception. A revolution in favor of cheaper labor and economic innovation in the Northwest Center. Labor becomes cheaper. Northwestern Center= Southeast England, the Dutch provinces, Northern France were the core powers here. 2. The shift towards the NW Center 1. Common basic products a. wheat b. wine c. cloth d. Metal and metal goods

3. Italian distinctiveness a. Italy mediated trade with Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa for trade goods (lost around 1400)()africa b. Sugar, olive oil, and sea salt were some of Italys distinct goods c. Strong guilds existed in Italy, especially in cloth production, exerting a monopoly on production. d. Stronger, more inflexible social hierarchy. e. Limited regional market. 9/16 Notes 3. Distinct NW European Characteristics a. Furs, Ship masts, and naval stores, salt cod, more wheat (From E. Europe) b. More flexible socio-economic system (Guilds less powerful, less rigid social hierarchy) c. Large regional markets with lots of water routes into the continents. The large European rivers like the Rhine and Elba rivers allowed easy transport of goods into the interior of the continent. d. Direct access to the Atlantic e. Lower labor and other prices due to the price revolution --Results Decline of the Italian center as Atlantic trade with Asia replaces Italian mediation with Arab and African middlemen. Trade in American products becomes important. ---The opening of Atlantic trade--A. Technical basis for expansion 1. Developing a ship that can tack into the wind, longer than wide ships that are big enough to carry supplies for a long voyage 2. Navigational techniques needed to be refined to allow ships to range out farther into the Atlantic. 3. Social/bureaucratic organization that allowed the funding of these voyages. 4. Capital formation- Had to have capital finance these risky voyages. People began pooling capital to share the risks on these voyages. 5. Creation of exchanges where merchants could go to exchange commodities. B. Achievements 1. To 1517 a.1st successful neo Europes where Europeans can kick out natives and replicate parts of Europe. Flora and fauna are transformed. b. Discovery of the Volta do mar, prevailing winds that push you towards the Caribbean, then hitting winds near Florida that take you back home.

c. Discovery of the Americas d. Discovery of routes to Asia e. Conquest of the New World begins Amerigo Vespucci- The man the New world was named after, and the one who figured out that it wasnt Asia. --Achievements to 1564 in European exploration--1. Slave and other trades with African states opened. Africa had surplus labor and an established slave trade. 2. Conquests of Mexico and Peru had both been completed 3. Limited trade with Chinese and Japanese 4. The expansion of knowledge about the world --Achievements to 1621 in European exploration 1. Northern Europeans like the French, English, and Dutch start their own colonial ventures in North America and expand their trade into Asia. 2. Dutch East Indies Company in Asia established one of the first joint stock companies that pooled capital for risky but profitable Asian trade. Sought to create a monopoly and control prices. 3. They didnt succeed. Sugar and spices became much cheaper. ---Response to the price revolution and shift to NW Europe--1. Commercialization of agriculture. Growing produce for a market became common. Landlords seek to enlarge estates and end the renting of small plots, kicking many small farmers of their land. 2. The cottage system of manufacturing goods develops. Agricultural laborers increasingly urged to produce marketable products with their spare time. 3. Expansion of merchant capitalism 4. Mercantilism- Government seeks to get benefits of trade for themselves, and to deny them to their foes. The idea was by running a balance of trade surplus and selling more to others than they did to you, you gained economic power. --European discovery of wider world

a. Favored economies with direct access to sea lanes, especially after 1564 b. Accelerated the price revolution in Spain and Mediterranean, opening price differentials in favor of NW Europe. c. Produced a lot of wealth, again esp. in NW Europe. This wealth fueled the expensive wars of religion and was also used to fund the arts. ---Economic crisis 1600?-1740? --- (question marks indicate uncertainty over when it began and ended) Basic causes 1. Demographic stagnation or decline, partially from the brutal wars of the period. 2. Deflation of prices due to outpouring of silver, increased production 3. Increased price of war runs into weakening economies Results 1. England, France and Dutch weather the storm, Spain declines 2. 17th century political crisis was a result of weaker economies 3. Trade results break out over economic struggles. During this period England and Dutch get in wars that result in England gaining an advantage over the Dutch. 9/18/08 ---The 17th Century Political Crisis or the crisis of the Early Modern State ----

Why do people obey government? 1. Fear of physical force/violence of power 2. Power expressed through the institutions of law 3. Belief that obedience is the right thing to do. (Authority) The crisis was an intensification of a long term struggle between monarchs and elites over who would have power. Reaches a climax in 1640s over the issue of taxation, which is always a contentious issue. Ideologically, the struggle is expressed in terms of Sovereignty, which is defined as the right to give the law to all the people without their consent However, some argued that Justice was the purpose of the state, and that kings had been granted their powers in order to build a just society. But how did one know when the king was unjust so you could rightly resist him. ---Practical expressions of 17th century political crisis--1. Tax laws. Tax laws were always the area of contested views.

2. General assertions of who had the right legislate. This was a struggle between kings and parliaments Textbook 354-355 has commentary on the causes of the crisis 1. Rising cost of war result in state claiming more of societys resources, which was resisted as intrusions on traditional liberties 2. Economies are stagnating, especially government revenues after 1600. 3. Religious language becomes a vehicle for expressing social, economic, and political discontent. Used to demonize and dehumanize opponents. 4. Monarchy is personal as well as an institution. Some kings push harder for power than others, and dynastic succession is of paramount concern in politics. Monarchs increasingly claim an absolute right to legislate based on the introduction of - Roman law, which favors the power of executives - Theories of sovereignty that place emphasis on kings power - divine right ideal that claims king is Gods temporal representative Monarchs use 4 new techniques to exert control - Legal training for judges is required (in Roman law, of course) - Judges and bureaucrats from non-noble backgrounds become common as Monarchs take to city looking for promising young men to train in these roles. Many nobles lacked necessary skills for these positions, and non-nobles would be reliable as they were dependent on the crown for their position - Elaborate paperwork established to restrict arbitrary action taken by individuals and force interaction with bureaucracy. - More systematic collection of taxes Consequently, monarchs find themselves increasingly in conflict with subjects over subject of traditional liberties Conflicts- early examples A. The Magistrates Reformation B. The change of the Schmalkaldic League war from one over religion to one over Charles the Vs right to name his son Holy Roman Emperor C. The Dutch Revolts D. The French Wars of Religion E. Ivan the Terrible in Russia killed the Russian nobles (known as boyars) in the 1560s to gain more power and replaced them with compliant boyars. F. Czech Revolt in 1618-1620. The Austrian kings representatives being thrown out a window into a dung heap was one of the triggering events of this war. ---Why the 1640s--1. Economic and demographic problems becoming more severe. 2. Thirty years war larger armies causing severe economic drain 3. Refinement of theories of absolutism nearly complete. 4. Actions of 1620s and 30s to raise revenues for wars cause resentment

---Results--1. Events a. English Revolution of 1640-1660 - King is forced to call parliament over tax issues, war ends up breaking out over these issues b. Catalan and Portuguese revolts, 1647-1652 -Spanish Kings attempts to raise taxes backfires. Portugal gains independence, Catalans escape further taxes c. The Fronde 1647-1652 -King of France is a child, and nobles take advantage of youth by trying to regain lost powers. When the king tries to raise new taxes, his bureaucrats refuse to obey him d. Prussia 1653 -King goes to nobles of country to argue for taxes for a good strong army and monarchy in wake of devastation causes by thirty years war. e. Russia 1690s -Peter the Great raises revenues to modernize Russia. When he runs into problems with the nobility over taxes, he does the Russian thing and kills them for objecting. ---Outcomes--Absolutism triumphs in Russia, Prussia, and temporarily in Austria. Absolutism is further defined in textbook pages 381-383 Absolutism involved trying to break nobles powers and patronage networks. Louis the XIV of France did this by requiring that the nobles of the country wait on him in Versailles, which separated them from their lands and local power networks. The building of a ministerial system to ensure crowns power Building of professional state armies New royal provincial agents sent to control policy, income, quartermaster tasks. The triumph of absolutism in France was not complete, because Louis the XIV did not gain the power to impose taxes on his own. The older system of monarchy continues in Spain And in England, the subjects overthrow their king. These events were 1. Obviously political rather than religious 2. Signal a new age (era of absolutism) 3. Change of system is acknowledged in key states

4. Coincided with each other Contract theory comes out of the English Revolution - Individuals possess natural rights - Individuals delegate some of their natural rights to state for specific ends - Political power arises from the society and is subject to being changed by society - Society is the ultimate sovereign Thats all the notes I have. Make sure that youve done all the readings. Know the bolded glossary terms. Im pretty sure Hoffman has put some things on moodle that might be useful to study. If you have any questions or want to see me before the test, email me at jlambi@lsu.edu and I will see what I can set up. Good luck. 9/25 The Scientific Revolution A strange genealogy in the Crisis of Authorities and the religious concerns of the 16th century, or How did religious True Believers create the first Scientific Revolution --The Natural World of 1500 A. Educated people believed in a small, geocentric universe -Orderly, unchanging heavens versus Earths disorder, decay, limited natural laws. People preferred to think of the heavens as a better place than the earth. -Planetary movements were a problem, 80 cycles and epicycles. They couldnt explain the movements of these heavenly bodies in their geocentric models without these cycles and epicycles. B/ The universe was a providential one! Divine forces are at work! -Gods sends storms to punish people -Via contractualism you can manipulate the spiritual world, and therefore manipulate the natural world to a degree. People would worship saints that ensured that they received good weather for example. C. From and Function are related. The shape of certain kinds of roots for instance are thought to relate to certain parts of the bodies and can maybe heal those parts of the body. -accidents and substances can be changed with the right magic. (text refers to as the Hermetic tradition). Alchemists were out there trying to changed lead into gold. Transubstantiation of the Eucharist. D. Academics did not pay much attention to studying nature first hand anyway. They trusted the words of ancient and medieval writers. -Farmers and craftsmen who knew how things worked lacked theory and literacy. So while they might have intuitively known some scientific practices, they couldnt explain why what they did worked. ---Medieval Science---

A. The four academic traditions of Medieval Science 1. Aristotlean tradition- Incorporated the ideas of Aristotle into theology. It was an observational tradition. You know about things by observing them and making inductive reasoning about your observations. 2. Platonist tradition- You can use deductive reasoning because we have in our minds general principles and ideas that we can use to find what God is thinking. 3. Nominalist tradition- A strong tradition in Paris, Oxford, Padua. They believe that all the arguments between Aristotleans and Platonists were on the wrong track. They enjoy picking at the problems in both theories. 4. Neo-Platonists- Brought a heliocentric view to the debate. Believed the sun was so large and brilliant that it must be at the center of the universe. The Textbook also talks about other traditions. Look them up on your own, He didnt explain them in class. The Mechanistic tradition was the only one he addressed in class. They believed there were nine elements. Another tradition, Scholasticism, no longer worked well. Scholastics believed that there was only one truth about the world, and would use logical gymnastics to harmonize Aristotle and Plato. But Humanists insisted that each author was saying something different, and therefore the scholastics were being foolish. These multiple competing traditions resulted in a crisis of authority C. Authority: a source appealed to as having special knowledge and expertise, whose views should be accepted as correct. A variation on political authority. This was like the problem in theology. And in the 1580s, Europeans finally got their hands on the works of Ancient Skeptics who argued that all knowledge was subject to being unprovable. And there was other evidence that called into question the authority of the ancient texts of the Classical World. This evidence 1. The New World. The ancients never mentioned this! What else did they not know about? 2. Vasalius anatomy book in 1543 overturned the view of Galen, an ancient Aristotlean who had written a book on anatomy. Could the ancients have been wrong about other things? 3. Artists developed perspective drawing, a form of applied geometry. Engineers develop artillery trajectories through experimenting with weights of cannon shot, elevation of cannon. Observation can lead to new developments. 4. New observations were correcting Ptolemys observations of planetary motion. One little tool that became useful. Ockhams Razor= Simpler explanations are MORE likely to be correct. He didnt know if it was true or not. It was a judgment in favor of simplicity.

---1580s- through 1620s--A. General Developments 1. More Observations, more disagreements with the Ancients 2. Bacon stresses observation, echoing Aristotle. 3. New Mathematical work comes out a. Descartes, 1619, Physical forms of math and the reverse!! (And he was an Orthodox Catholic). In his work he was arguing you can express physical realities mathematically. 4. Three bases for a new methodology a. Expectation of an orderly universe. b. Observation is the way to learn facts. c. Order in the facts could be described with mathematics (Using numbers is a habit of some standing by 1580s.) B. The emergence of a new planetary theory 1. Copernicus: Took about ten years to get through college. He was from a noble family in Danzig, and had a church office. He studied with the best professors he could find. He embraced Neo-Platonists. He wanted to prove the heliocentrism of the New Platonists was correct. He plugs Ptolemys data into a model where the sun was at the center. It simplified the model from 80 cycles and epicycles to 34 cycles and epicycles. 2. Kepler: Better data, elegant models. (Last work, 1627). He thought Copernicus was on the right path, and set off to prove him right. He gathered accurate data on the movement of the planet from Tycho Brache. Neo Platonists are on there way out at the time, as Roman Catholicism had embraced Thomism during the Council of Trent. He decides to use ellipses to explain movement of the planets. It works! One orbit for a planet. But why do they move in this orbit? 3. Galileo: Another man who got caught up in the Neo-Platonism being taught at the University of Padua. He was a Nominalist. He made use of an early telescope with 20X magnification. Not very powerful, but it had a wide range of field. While observing Jupiter he discovered some of Jupiters moons. Not everything in the universe revolved around the Earth! Galileo was forced to retract his discoveries, but he was right. He made use of Copernicuss work. 4. Rene Descartes: Rubber Ducky Model. Descartes realized that Galileo was correct. He conceived of the universe as a giant bowl where planets float on transparent atoms. There were obviously some sort of force acting to move the planets. He called it a whirlpool. Gotta remember that these people hadnt quite grasped gravity yet. ---Collateral Developments, ca. 1630-1687--A. Vacuums and Gases 1. Torricelli and Pascal. Two men who tried to prove that a vacuum could exist. 2. Scientific societies founded around 1660 like Englands royal society. There these learned men could get together to discuss theories and spread information. -----The Newtonian Revolution---

A. Parabolic Path of Cannon Ball, Elliptical orbits and fall of apple are all the same thing. He discovered the force of gravity. B. Published Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy in 1687. He was helping discover important elements of modern physics. --Summary A. A new way of knowing 1. Observation under controlled conditions. 2. Assumption of ordered, regular, relationships 3. Mathematical descriptions are the best conditions. 4. Common Sense explanations cannot be assumed to be correct. 5. Essential qualities or ends are not important. --9/30 A New View of Nature 1. The universe is now assumed to be much larger than medieval thinkers had believed it to be 2. Natural Laws apply in heavens and on the earth. 3. This new way of thinking increasingly separated the physical world from the natural world. European elites begin to abandon the idea of the providential world and the idea of spiritual forces operating the world Up until the time that Newton published his works on natural philosophy (as science was called back then), there had been arguments that the ancient world had known everything worth knowing while others had argued that modern people could learn things that ancients had not. Newton and others helped proved that contemporary Europeans could know more about the natural world than the ancients had. Suddenly it seemed that progress could take place and that contemporary Europeans could do better than the ancients had. -------THE LATER 17th CENTURY------These notes are based on a textbook chapter A. Mixed motives 1. Import substitutions to avoid Iberia. The Spanish King had put an embargo on Dutch trade during the rebellion in the Dutch provinces. This hit the Dutch, and eventually the English who were also embargoed, very hard, as the Iberian was the primary source of salt for Europe. (Salt was a crucial commodity) But the Dutch knew where to find salt, which was right off the coast of the Caribbean. But other goods from Iberia could not be so easily replaced, and this motivated the desire for colonies 2. The English, French, and Dutch also desired to attack Spanish shipping from the New World and deny the Spanish king his goods. By establishing a colony they could have a

forward base for their attacks. Rio De Janeiro was founded by the French as a colony for such purposes. 3. Control of production- The Dutch were particularly good at this. Rather than getting their spices from Portugal and other traders, they would go to the source and get it themselves and not be reliant on a middlemen. 4. Complementarity (between North America and West Indies) The North America produced goods needed to run a sugar plantation, most notably food. The West Indies were soon devoted to producing sugar, and relied on North America for food. B. Colonies 1. British colonies in Roanoke and Jamestown, 1585 and 1607 respectively. Roanoke was the famous lost colony. Jamestown survived, but barely. Tobacco made the fortune of the settlers there. 2. French colony in Canada (1608) 3. Dutch colonies in the West Indies and Brazil. The West Indies served as trading posts for the Dutch to smuggle into and out of the Spanish Empire. They also manage to gain a temporary toehold on Brazil 4. The Lesser Antilles.- Beginning in 1624 the French and English begin to occupy some of the Lesser Antilles. They are remote from Spanish power and they could grow tobacco on these islands. Eventually sugar became a huge crop there. C. New forms of organization 1. Joint stock companies became a popular way to pool capital for risky but potentially profitable overseas trade. East India Company is a good example. In 1621 the Dutch created the West Indian Company for their activities in the New World. 2. The Dutch emerge as the number one power in the early 17th century due to their economic power and role as carrier of commodities that they had developed since the middle ages. The Dutch city of Antwerp was the primary trading center of Europe during this time. The British eventually went to war with the Dutch over trade and managed to gain much of the economic power of the Dutch. ----The wars of Louis XIV---A. Absolutism had allowed Louis the XIV to create a professional army on a scale that had not been seen in Europe up to that time. B. Louis XIV was trying to regain the Natural Frontiers of France. He said the natural frontier was the Rhine River. However, some of the Germanies and the Netherlands were between France and this river. Louis believed that since the area had once been controlled by France, it was rightfully his. His aggressive wars provoked the creation of alliances to defeat him. England, the Low Counties, Austria, some German principalities, and Spain are the primary members of this alliance. The League of Augsberg was an example of one of the alliances. C. The war of Spanish succession. Charles the II, king of Spain, was about to die with no heirs. The Spanish sought to keep their empire intact, so they decided that France was most likely to help them do so. They convince Charles II to will his domain to Louis

XIVs grandson. However, this grandson refuses to relinquish French throne. Another war is fought. France loses. The Spanish Empire in Europe is divided. D. Russian expansion under Peter the Great. Peter the Great was responsible for much modernization in Russia. ---Economic and Social changes--A. Mercantilism and Navies- In order to ensure mercantilism works you need a strong navy. The British are the first to realize this, and they developed a strong naval tradition. It was prone to occasional neglect due to the expense of maintaining a navy, but eventually reforms created a strong royal navy. The Dutch also create a strong navy. France and other countries try to catch up. The result is a naval arms race. B. Who benefited? The Dutch Traders. Landowners who convert to commercial production C. Increased social stratification -Increased maldistribution of wealth. Rich get richer, poor get poorer. -The poor begin to be thought of as lazy and subhuman. The poor are blamed for their plight. Many of the poor were dispossessed tenants. -Gentility lifestyle as status. The textbook has a good section explaining this better. - Some improvements in housing. Houses get a little bit bigger, more refined, and comfortable in the cities. 10/2 -----Society before 1789---Chapters 17&18 in the textbook Four Major Points 1. In Europe up to this time, there was VASTLY unequal distribution of wealth and privilege, except for England and the Low Countries (Netherlands) 2. The Course of Life and Life Expectancy were very different from ours. Even our modern poor live far better than a lot of people from this period. 3. 18th Century diet more like ours thanks to New World plants and crops being introduced to the European diet 4. There are revolutions in LAW and ECONOMICS, with social changes following these changes. I. A Corporate Society

A. Social groups with legal rights. Not everyone has the same legal rights. Nobles have more than non-nobles, for instance. It was like having separate legal entities within the same nation. 1. Clergy (1st Estate) In Catholic countries canon law governed the clergy. 2. Nobles (2nd Estate) often had tax exemptions, privileges such as right to own weapons 3. Commoners (3rd Estate) a. Many places distinguished between commoners in towns (Germany, Scandinavia) b. Most places trust treated commoners as an entire group. However, some commoners within guilds that gave them legal privileges. B. Actual Hierarchy 1.-a. Nobles (2% or less of population except Poland, where up to 10%. Two kinds, old nobles descended from middle age nobility, and new nobles that gained status for recent service.) 1. Nobility is divided between the Great Nobles (Magnates, Grandees)a very few families, usually under 50 families. 2. Lesser nobles, often provincial nobles with lesser titles, live out in the countryside. b. Nobles hold more than 30% of the land in some place, sometimes up to 70% in some countries. -.In Bohemia 100 families owned a third of the land - England saw 400 families dominating land owning. 2. Townsmen (Merchants, Government agents, professionals, master craftsman) 2-5% of population. In England 38% did, but that was the exception. 3. Rural Laborers (65%-90%) a. Land owning peasants who employ others. The best off of this group. These are entrepreneurial peasants b. Land owning peasants who do not own enough land to need to employ others. c. Tenant Farmers who rent land on long term contracts. These people were under pressure when commercial farming became popular and people wanted to farm their land as a large unit in a commercial farm. d. Landless laborers- biggest part of rural population. May own a cottage, but do not own land to work. Depend on being a wage laborer for those who have land. e. Vagrants and other road people- Vagabonds who must live by their wits. People feared these drifters. In England the 65% of population that were rural laborers were mostly free In France 75% of the population were rural laborers, some were serfs, most are free In Poland 85-95% of population were rural laborers, only 20% of these people were free, (rest were serfs). Rest of Eastern Europe, 95% are rural laborers, 2% or less are free. Further east you go, the more serfdom you see.

The Elba-Trieste land, which bisects Europe, was a dividing land between NATO and the Soviet Union in the 20th century. In the period we are discussing, it divided two different societies. In West, land owning was not as highly concentrated as it was in East. In England, Peasants own up to 40% of land and are mostly free. In Russia, peasants owned only 1% of land and were mostly serfs. Still, even in West there is overall vast wealth inequality. England is the Great Exception with its high urban population and high rates of peasant land ownership. ----Material Life--The Peasant Dilemma - Crop Yields are - 1:4 in Russia - 1:6 in Spain and Italy - 1:10 In England and Dutch areas. 1. 20% of harvest has to be kept for seeding the next years crop 2. You may owe up to 40% of your crop to local nobles (feudal dues) or kings taxes. These are usually fixed taxes, so in a bad harvest it could be worse. 3. So there is 40% of the harvest to live on and trade with. And this is in a good year. Bad years could be brutal. Might need to eat seeds for next years crop, but also might try starving and hoping next years a good crop. There are generally famines across Europe every few decades. Many peasants are chronically undernourished --Home life for peasants--For most peasants, housing is a single room. Whole families lived in a single room. No privacy. You might have one chair. It was for the man of the house. There were also stools, benches. You had relatively few clothes. They might be hand me downs from nobles who sold their old clothes. These clothes are pretty heavy fabric. And these clothes are infrequently washed. Imagine the smell. Bedding? Most people slept on the dirt floor on mats. If you had a bit of money youd sleep on a straw bed. Which was infested with vermin. Vermin are everywhere. Rats, mice, insects. You just had to live with it. You usually lived out of doors. You only lived in building to sleep at night. Rest of the time you were out and about. Towns are a bit different, but in countryside you got yourself a tan.

---Town life--City life excites, astounds many peasants. 1. Towns were traditionally legal corporations in society. Most by 17th century are no longer independent, though some separate free cities still exist. You had to have parliament create a corporation for you to exist as a town. Otherwise, no city government, civil services, etc. 2. Needs immigration to maintain population. There was a high mortality in these cities as crowding and awful conditions led to epidemics. Needed to have people coming in to replace those who died. 3. Towns feared peasants and vagabonds. Some in town had wealth, and they feared these people would desire it. 4. Only a few towns and cities are as large as 100,000 people. ---Life Course--1. Life was short, brutish. -a. High infant mortality, low life expectancy. Look at table (18:10) in textbook for rates on these statistics. You just werent likely to live long. 2. Lots of endemic and epidemic disease. (18:4, 18:5) tables in textbook detail disease rates in different places. 3. Poor diet. Most people were getting 40-50% of their calories for grain. Not lots of meat, its expensive. Spice and sugar are expensive. Things begin to change during this period though. \4. Medicine was more likely to kill you than to cure you. Most physicians were trying to restore balance your bodily humors. (Based on the theory of Galen, an ancient doctor). Enjoy getting arsenic and lead in you medicine, then dying of an infection after being bled. Herbal medicine, a practice that mostly women carried and passed on, was somewhat better, but was associated with witchcraft. 5. Water? Sewers? Garbage pickup? These services were not likely to exist in the cities. Some better run cities might have public water wells, but not many did. Sewers? Roman cities from antiquity had them, but most cities didnt have them. So theres shit all over the place. And no one is coming to pick up your garbage. Drinking beer and alcohol was smart because you wouldnt want to drink the water in these cities. Cities are beginning to deal with this lack of services during this period though. B. The Life Cycle (table 18.9) 1. Birth with pain, dirt. 2. Wet nurses, (upper class families gave their kids to women who provided mothers milk for them) and infanticide (lots of time people dont want these babies) 3. No real childhood. As soon as you can walk you are put to work. By the time you are ten youve been put into service, trades. 4. Marriage in the late 20s. 5. Informal methods of divorce. 6. Sex and birth control. People had lots of taboos about sex outside of marriage. There was some birth control, it wasnt very effective

7. Old Age. It was O.K. if you were a man because old men ruled the roost. --10/7--A. 17th Century political crisis yields claims of absolute power and Lockes contract. Kings say they must have power to tax because of wars, expenses of governing. Noble subjects said no way, traditional liberties, etc. - Absolutism has limited meaning (military organization, reduction of ties of nobles to power bases, some fiscal reorganization, and assertion of sovereignty. - English slow to show full meaning of the contract after the events of the restoration. Not really formulated until after the Glorious Revolution B. Chapter 19 (textbook): The reality, Restraints on Royal Absolute power -1. Aristocrats/Magnates/Nobles are still around to restrain the king -2. Kings are still restricted by law and legal systems and assemblies they have to respect. -3. The Official church (whether it be Catholic, Lutheran, Church of England) still has some power. It tends to argue in defense of the existing system. 4. Poor Tax system, financial dependency. Most taxes are farmed by private collectors, whom usually pocket a great amount of it for themselves. Theres no tax collecting bureaucracy. 5. Traditions and grants of privilege. Monarchs had been granting privileges to the church and nobles for hundreds of years, and its hard to take them away. Tradition had become ingrained, and this was the way things were. Not all aspects of Govt. restrained. Peter the Great could personally kill his enemies. God bless those crazy Russians. A Mixed or limited monarchy describes this claim of absolute power that is restrained by changing reality. Even Louis XIV of France absolutism had restraints on it, most notably of which was the right to tax on the kings say-so. ---Aristocratic Resurgence---1. Qualified victory of absolutism in the 17th century crisis left most of the nobles still standing. 2. Nobles are better educated with national view. More concerned with nation as a whole rather than their own parochial interests, which means they can compete with the crown in national government. 3. Kings generally not strong personalities except for Phillip V in Spain, Frederick William in Prussia. Louis XIV in France is succeeded by Louis V, who is a mere boy and never really grows into a strong leader. 4. Tacit agreement among nobles and kings to maintain internal peace v. the lower social orders. Bread riots had become very common and there were other forms of civil unrest, especially against new taxes. People at the top have to stick together to keep a lid on these problems. 5. Debt, tax farming, exemptions keep the national government weak. Finances of the crown still not on stable ground.

6. Post 1748 sees increased spread of Enlightenment ideas. (1748 sees censorship laws relaxed in France, allowing these ideas to spread). Many enlightenment ideas are critical of the monarchy. 7. Limited wars - Smaller, professional armies - Limited objectives: Maneuver, 1-2 battles. Not constant battle. - The idea of a Balance of Power in Europe begins to be talked about. II. Periods A. 1715-1740. Peace reigns -1. This period allows kings to pay down debt from Louis XIVs wars. -2. More countries move towards ministerial government, a somewhat more efficient and stable government. Some had government by council, but there they had issues of who was responsible for making hard decisions. -3. Example: England -George I and II left government to Robert Walpole -Walpole built up the cabinet and patronage system to support his ministerial government. -Supremacy of lower house (House of Commons), with some ministerial responsibility. Whoever controlled majority in the lower house became prime minister. England also fixed terms for members of parliament. -England cuts land tax from 20% if assessed value to 5% of assessed value. Thats great stuff if you can pull it off and still run the government. - Emphasis on trade, which is easily taxed. - Parliamentary parties appear (Whigs=critical of monarchy, Tories=supportive of monarchy) 4. Example: France -Cardinal Fleury (1726-43) -Ran government until Louis V was an adult -Created an orderly government, with some policing of tax system -Failed to reverse grant of wide VETO to parlaments. Parlaments are law courts. Its not like the English parliament. They served the function of seeing if a kings decree was consistent with existing law, then validating it within their jurisdiction. However, now parlaments could declare that a kings decree was invalid. 5. Example: Prussia. - Prussians began the study of bureaucratic government as a science (cameralism) - Nobles have to serve in Army or bureaucracy. They had to serve the state and pay taxes. B. Wars, 1740-1763: New Crisis 1. War of Jenkins Ear blows up into a major war over Silesia, a major mining center in Europe. 1. Seven Years war- the great war for empire. First world war. Battles took place in India, America, on the high seas, and in Europe.

-At end of these expensive wars there is not enough money, and debt service, inefficient and unequal taxation= not enough money for the government. - Wanted= More efficient government and new taxes on the untaxed. England comes out of wars with 800 million pounds of debt. This was a fuckton of money back in the eighteenth century. France was also heavily in debt. They had to use 62% of their yearly revenue to pay interest on the debt. The discretionary income of the state was severely restrained. Austria also had a very heavy debt, and Prussia has debt and needs to recover from its manpower losses. Russias ambitions drive needs for more revenue and Spain needs money to build navy and prepare for the next big war. C. Responses to new crisis 1. England tries to tax the US colonies, and we kick their limey asses. (American Revolution) -1780s saw efforts to make parliament more representative of the cities, which are growing rapidly. (Wikes, William Pitt the Younger lead these efforts) 2. France saw Louis XV try to continue 5% wartime income tax during peace, Parlements reject it, Louis XV responds by abolishing the parlaments -Louis XVI attempts general reforms in 1776 and Six Edicts from 1778-1781, in 177881. Calls the Assembly of Notables in 1787 to help him with his reforms. 3. Austria - Refusal of Hungarians to help pay debt, met by limited freeing of the serfs in 1767 as a retaliation for their refusal. Extended in 1771-78, and eventually fully freed in 1781-1785 by Emperor Joseph II - The broader goal was : broader political support of crown, economic boom per French ideals of market, then more revenues. - Church lands restricted, then seized and sold (thus becoming taxable) 1781-1789 - Bueracratic reforms: German is official language. Some rationalization -Religious toleration, other Enlightened reforms. (E.G. civil and criminal codes) A. Post 1763 changes/ Enlightened absolutism Methods: Apply reason and some enlightened ideas - Greater factual control: Census and report. - Rationalize bureaucracy - Subordinate church to state, the case of the Jesuits in (1760s) - Legal codification and review - Ameliorate or end serfdom - Increased responsibility for economic prosperity under new natural law. More system in tax collection, budgets - Generally less willing to tolerate resistance to change. ----10/9---B. Legitimacy (authority) suffers due to the changes to tax policy and other changes. -Rapid changes get ahead of the government. Their notions of government arent up to date with whats happening in society at large.

-US revolution is example of successful Enlightenment-style government. Calls into question the character of enlightened absolutism. People could say it was possible to have a representative style government C. Evidence of Enligthened Measures -1776 French 6 Edicts (mildly Enlightened) These edicts end most internal tariffs on grain, end guild monopolies over production of certain kinds of commodities (such as cloth). Other edicts ended corvee (unpaid labor dues) of peasants, replaced it with taxes and paid labor, cut government expenses. -In Austria 1767-85 The Austrian government ended serfdom in their territories, reduced monastic life and assets of the monasteries, and passed edict of Toleration in 1781 that allowed other religions, but required state control over them. They made their laws more uniform. -In Prussia, 1740s (Frederick the Great) End of judicial torture in criminal cases. Also allowed freedom of religion, but like Austria it insisted on state control. Even instituted limited freedom of the press. Also set up Berlin Academy of Sciences to encourage scientific research. -In Russia, 1760s (Catherine the Great) Occasional end of judicial torture, talked of uniform laws, ended serfdom of royal estates which amounted to over 50% of total serfs in Russia. She also reformed provincial governments in 1775 and 1785. -In Spain, 1763-1790s Reform of colonial trade laws to free trade and lower tax rates, stimulate colonial production and trade, and a intendency system is established to reorganize finances. Appointment of military officers as administrators (they are trained, disciplined and capable of governing) France, of course, had a little revolution ----The Enlightenment---A European movement of critics of existing arrangements who evolved models of economics, politics, persons, and society based on natural law, which if followed would solve societys problems. This is a distinct part of Western civ. Reason as a tool for rational, systematic investigation, organization, and action New natural law of economics. New, secular optimistic model of human beings that could account for evil without resort to original sin Argued for a society based on merit and achievement

Text lists four characteristics - Skepticism - Belief in natural laws

Use of reason Belief that progress will follow if their methods are adopted

Text gives these origins - In skepticism v. tradition (DeCartes and others) - Science (scientific method for use of attack on tradition) - Classicism (use of ancient world as a social model. Particularly Roman world) The Crisis of knowing (Review) - Use of observation to understand and solve mysteries of nature. - Newtons demonstration that modern human beings could learn more that was correct than the ancients had known. We could come to some new understanding of the world. A. Individualism 1. Pre-17th century origins a. Renaissance manliness virtue. A person who could do everything well. - Personal piety. (mystics and others) Gave a model of personal experience with God rather than a common experience with God. 2. Political: Hobbes and Locke both have theories that stress the individual B. Reason: Rationalism and Empiricism Rationalism: Use of deductive and inductive reasoning. Comes from Rene Descartes and his book Discourse on Method. The problem of innate ideas. Classicism reinforces ideas of rationalism. Lockes empiricism: the senses accurately report the world to the Tabula Rasa (blank slate) Lockes idea had 3 virtues and 2 disadvantages Virtues 1. Rooted in the material world and in the material nature of the mind. 2. Based on the latest science 3. It avoids the problem of innate ideas Disadvantages 1. We think in very complex ways. Its not obvious that everything we know about the world comes through our senses. 2. Doesnt account for where our values come from.

Kants solution: Locke is right that the senses accurately report outside sensations to our brains, but it is in the nature of the mind that has certain things hardwired into our brain that allows us to recognize powers. What is reason? a. 3 ideas about data. You observe and collect your data first hand. Dont rely on books, get out there and collect observations. Recognize individual bits of data are discrete. Must use critical techniques to interpret data and make a systematic observation b. 5 ideas about how to understand the facts. Question existing data and understanding. Use formal reasoning to come to a theory about the facts. Expect an orderly universe (there are natural laws and we expect to find them) If all else fails, say that all right thinking men will agree with you. Price equation was one example of the new equations that came out of the enlightenment. C. Relativism and Natural Law 1. Pierre Bayle, a unique, true relativist (from systematic doubt, social construction) He was one of the few relativists of the Enlightenment. His sort of thinking was NOT common in the enlightenment. 2. Implied hierarchical scheme of other 17th and 18th century relativists 3. The noble savage, man living per natural law is a European construct. The Natives of the Americans are often used as an example. 4. Natural Law and liberty ----The Enlightenment--A. Political Agenda - Government like the English a. Sources: Voltaire, Philosophical Letters on the English (1733) Montesquieu, Spirit of the Laws (1748) b. Program: Constitutional government (Representative of Property) with separation of powers. B. Economics (Law of Prices and Markets) - Quesnay, Economic Survey (1758) - Program: Lower taxes on the poor, free the market, stimulate production. - Adam Smith, the classic theory A. Rational self interest. (Im personally unconvinced that people are rational) B. Trade as a source of wealth. - Signifigance: Economics becomes a discipline, programs of the French revolution, Smith helps England ends English mercantile laws. 10/14

---What the Enlightened did with this---C. New Model of Humankind 1. Nature is good. God created the earth and it pleased him. 2. Man is part of nature. 3. Therefore, Man is naturally good, but learns through empiricism. 4. Man learns evil when unnatural laws and institutions that teach evil because we arent born evil. If these institutions and laws are reformed, we will be good. 5. Therefore, we should restore liberty and natural laws and institutions. Then people will be good. 6. This model is in opposition to the traditional Christian model of the naturally sinful person. It is an optimistic model of mankind. We could make our own future through the use of Reason. 7. The Catholic Church became an obvious object of attack for people who believed in this new view, because of its support for older pessimistic views of humanity. 8. Legacies: - Laws will fix problems. - Poverty is the cause of crime, not inherent evil of the poor. There was a problem. Never really addresses where these evil laws, institutions come from. Emmanuel Kant believed that someone made a decision that it was to be the law despite the fact these laws and institutions were incorrect. Divine (Perfect) Natural World/Nations Statute Laws (Not perfect, but we want it to match up with natural laws) They have to construct a unified theory to critique existing structures. The old statute laws have to be overturned because they are based on old/bad models of humanity. D. Literary Industries 1. Writing- The Enlightenment was very fond of writing. Letter writing, books, pamplets. There was a lot of value placed on the written word. 2. Salons- A model for the new society based on merit. Salons are almost all run by women. E. General Reactions to the Enlightenment 1. Pietism: A more emotional religion. Emphasized a warmer, more personal religion in reaction to the colder, more mechanical Enlightenment view of religion. Ex. John Wesley, Moravians, Certain Jewish sects. 2. Romanticism: Man is not solely a thinking machines, we are also driven by our emotions. Uniqueness matters. Summary -stress on individualism, rationalism -human beings can make a better world by the use of their reason

-(unnatural) laws and institutions are the source of problems in the world. -A summation of 300 years of developments, Renaissance to the Glorious Revolution -Humankind is the master of its fate in a disenchanted world.

------The French Revolution of 1789----------1. This event, which is less than a generation long, gets a whole chapter in the textbook. Not even WWII gets its own chapter. It is an important event. We will cover stages, causes, immediate causes, goals and their attainment, and the problems the revolution created for itself. ---Stages---A. Constitutional or mixed monarchy: THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY 1. 1789-1792. 2. Single Chamber, indirectly elected. 3. Wrote the Constitution of 1791. B. Second stage: The First Republic. 1792-1804, Phase One, A.K.A. THE CONVENTION 1. Directly elected single chamber 2. Committees serve as executive C. The First Republic, Phase Two: The DIRECTORATE, 1794-1799 1. 2 chambers indirectly elected in 3 steps. No more mob rule (popular democracy) 2. Directors are executive D. The First Republic, Phase Three: THE CONSULATE, 1799-1804 1. 3 Chambers, indirect and mixed franchises 2. 3 Consuls are executives. Patterned after Roman Republic 3. Napoleon emerges as leader. One Consul dies quickly, the other decides Napoleon needs to run things. 4. Important reforms. Completes reforms national assembly had begun. E. Empire 1804-1814 1. Napoleon emerges as dictator/emperor of France. Decides to crown self as head of empire. 2. Senate and lower chambers, appointed and highly indirect elections. These chambers were there to rubber stamp Napoleons decisions. ----Origins/ Causes of revolution---A. Coincidence of 4 Movements -1. Aristocrats thwart king, force the calling of the Estates General over the issue of taxation. Estates General hadnt met since 1614 due to rise of absolutism. Estates General had been a parliamentary body for France.

-2. Bourgeois Revolution challenging nobles and demanding reforms. Bourgeois are relatively successful and wealthy merchants, lawyers, etc. who were not nobles. The traditional method of ascent into the nobility had been cut off. Usually, king had granted nobility to wealthy subjects who aided him financially. But established nobles had them cut off from this method of ascent. Suddenly conscious of their class, they demand a share in government of France since they feel their wealth, talents merit them a say. -3. Peasant Revolt over price of food and abuses. There had been bad harvests recently. And in late 1780s, these revolts were coinciding with other unrest -4. Urban unrest over price of food, unemployment. B. Effects of the Enlightenment 1. Authority of political rulers questioned 2. Suggestion that taxes on poor should be reduced 3. Public Opinion exists, and begins to exert influence. 4. Govt. used reason to increase power, tending to reduce everyone to a common level. 5. Govt. responsible for economy (new natural law) C. Personality of Louis XVI: Fails to use the power he had. 1. June 1789: National Assembly gets away with defying him. 2. July 15, 1789: Withdraws provincial troops from Paris, allows national assembly to form new military force called the National Guard. 3. October 5, 1789: Louis captured by poor women of Paris (symbolic emasculation?) ----Immediate Causes of French Revolution---A. The question of the number of delegates to the Estates General and the Vote. The Third Estate wanted the same amount of delegates as the other two estates, and individual voting of all delegates instead of voting as estates. B. Third Estate allowed to create a list of grievances. This implies that there will be a remedy to these grievances. - Enlightened want reforms in govt., economy, laws, Liberty - Poor seek revenge, end of their oppression. Get rid of various labor dues to the nobility. C. Riots, the Fear, and other disorders. The Fear was various disturbing, frightened rumors that were spreading around France at the time. 10/16 IV. How did the Goals work out? A. Goals of the Poor 1. Vengeance- to varying degrees. Poor had been abused by the elite of France for a long period of time.

2. Protection from the Free Market (Only in 1793-1794) The French Revolutionary leaders hadnt wanted to restrain markets, but the poor affected by events such as famines and bad harvests did not want the market to cause food prices to rise to levels they could not afford. 3. A degree of social mobility- Especially in the new French Army. The old officers of the French Army had been culled, and there were plenty of young men out there who took advantage of the opportunity to be promoted up the ranks. B. Goals of the Enlightened 1. Achieved a constitutional monarchy (Given, 1816) The idea of sharing power between the king and his subjects was preserved. 2. Equality under the law. a. One man, one vote at the lowest level of elections. (This does not survive the revolution.) b. End of Economic inequality. End of monopolies, tax law made uniform for all the districts of France, and France is made a single market with no internal barriers. Feudal dues done away with. This endures after the Revolution c. Uniform Administration of France. All districts of France brought under a uniform national bureaucracy. This also endures after the revolution. d. Unified law codes, 1802, 1807, 1810. This brought a systematic, uniform set of laws to the entirety of France. Much of new law codes derive from Roman law codes, but other law codes such as Spanish law are influential as well. All were brought in with the idea that the new codes would help create a better, more just society. e. Uniform, free educational system open to talent. This endures beyond the Revolution. However, Napoleon compromised and allowed primary education to be taken care of by parents, Catholic teaching orders. To get into the higher, state supported levels of education, you had to pass a test. This effectively shuts out the poor who could not get a decent primary education for their kids to get in. 3. Liberty, right to pursue their economic interests. ----Problems of the Revolution--A. Problem of the Executive 1. King executed, January 1793. Who will be the leader of the state? 2. End result is the approval of Napoleon as emperor. B/ Problem of the Church and its property. 1, Property seized to pay off French national debt. 2. Clergy who lose their income are made employees of the state and provided with a state salary. The Clergy have to swear allegiance to new French government. 3. Property distributed to supporters of revolution, who would lose it in case of a restoration

4. The Convention, most radical phase of the revolution, declares open war on the Church, and creates new state religion (Religion of Reason). 5. Consulate negotiates Concordat of 1801 with Trojan Horse. Church given theoretical independence from state. Not given property back. However, the State was given right to regulate the public exercise of religion in order to maintain civil order. If you say the wrong thing in a sermon, suddenly building inspectors will come and say the church were the sermon was preached is dangerous and needed to be closed down, for example. VI. Significances A. The French Revolution became the model of change and revolution. B. Forced Louis XVIII to give his subjects a constitution, with 2 houses, limited property franchise C. Created Bureaucracy and Educational system that endures in France. D. Idea of Equal rights, including Jewish emancipation. France had been the first country to grant full citizenship to its Jewish inhabitants. E. Created national, less regulated and taxed market. F. Redefined society to be an inclusive term. G. Began the construction of the nation through local patriotism. Helped create the idea of the modern nation state. H. Gave new meaning to time as an arena of change. Time can be short, and you can force all kinds of changes in this short amount of time. I. Showed humankind could make its own future, and was not trapped in its current forms. Change could happen. --10/21--I. The Vital Revolution- A gradual increase in life expectancy and the number of people in Europe C. 18th Century changes 1.- Increased Agricultural yields a. Renewed enclosure movement due to the commercialization of agriculture. Enclosure involved farmed a landlords land as a unit instead of as a series of strips of land rented to individual tenents b. Improved soil science. Spread of best practices to improve fertility of the soil c. Breeding of better animals. Ones with more meat on their bones. d. Spread of new world starch foods. (Potatoes and maize) 2. Better sanitation in towns a. Miasma theory of bad vapors as a cause of disease. Therefore, we must keep the bad vapors away. b. Swamps drained or filled c. Garbage collected d. Streets paved and sewers begun. (Roman example) e. some attempts to make quarantine measures

3. Inoculation with weak smallpox or cowpox to prevent smallpox epidemics. (1790s) 4. Canals, better roads allow the movement of food to begin to overcome local famines. 5. Efforts made to discourage infanticide, especially with foundling hospitals and repeated use of criminal law to prosecute infanticide. 6. Some indication that the elite were beginning to use birth control. Summed up, the death rate began to fall because of these improvements. Birth rates remained at a normal level, death rates fall, and population expands. D.19th century population explosion 1. Life expectancy at birth rises to 50 or higher in NW Europe, comes later in Southeast Europe. -Why the increase in life expectancy? a. 18th century improvements continue b. Vaccination spreads (cowpox). Opposed by Catholic Church, conservatives. c. Transportation Revolution: Railroads, steamboats, good roads, food can now move to those who need it. d. 1870s breakthroughs with bacterial diseases 1. Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch are some of the pioneers of this work on bacteria. 2. Ignaz Semmelweiss, 1840s, discovers reason for child bed fever. 3. Joseph Lister, 1860s, works on antiseptic practices. (Heard of Listerine?) 4. Anesthetics developed in 1846 meant less death from surgical shock. e. Free trade brings cheap food. f. Canning preserves food (late 19th century) g. More protein in the diet, more calories. Suddenly more people are getting the calories they need. h. Gradual regulation of food quality to prevent the selling of rancid food. i. Age of marriage falls in town. 3. Measures of the improvement in nutrition -. Soldiers average height increase from 51 to 56 - Longer life expectancy at birth. - Rapid rise in population despite the fact that Europe was expected tens of millions of people to the New World. .4. Counter Trends o Spread of Birth Control o Divorce and abortion become more common. 5. Other Aspects of Material Life a. More, cheaper quality consumer goods.

b. Post 1870 spread of primary education, even for girls, in face of Catholic and other traditionalists opposition who oppose public, secular education. F. Great Britain becomes first urban society in the 1850s. (More than %50 of population lives in urban areas.) II. INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION A. Textiles - Why textiles the first to be produced using machinery. Textiles were hard to make and took time by hand. If you could mechanize the system, you could make big savings. - The invention of the flying shuttle, Jenny and the Mule - The invention of power looms in 1785. By 1820s all fibers could be woven by powered looms. B. Iron - Britains advantage: low phosphorus iron ore and coal. - Early uses of Chemistry: to make coke (Charcoal) (1709) - The Steam Engine (Issac Watts Inc) - Cannon, Railroads, factories III. The Second Industrial Revolution o Chemistry (artificial dyes) o Electricity. o Internal combustion engines invented o Creation of research institutes and universities Science comes of age with technology. Effects of revolution - Temporary decline in life expectancy in the English industrial cities, which could not keep up with rapid development. - New patterns of social organization emerge. Breakdown of the extended family as place of production of goods. Connection between worker, owner, and means of production separated. - Long-term abundant, cheap goods of uniform quality. - Technologies to support growing population in towns and cities. - Increasing differential between NW and SE Europe, and between cities and the country. - Countries with mineral resources have advantages, especially in industrial warfare (Mass numbers of heavy weapons, artillery) Patterns in spread of industry British tried to limit spread of industry pre-1789. They felt they had an advantage in being the only country with industry. Post 1814, Transfer of technology increases. Post 1820s, Britain sells technology, machines for profit -After spread begins, Urban populations increase and a few industrial centers pop up East of Trieste Line (e.g. Berlin, Prague, Vienna). Most new cities remain in NW Core.

10/28/ The 19th century is part of a Larger Era, ca. 1660-1914 1. Positivist science- The universe is as it appears to be. We can discover everything there is to know. 2. Rise of the national states and shift to popular sovereignty 3. Acceleration of European Population Growth. 4. Era of Industrial and Urban revolutions 5. Growth to near the maximum of Eurocentric World System 6. Era of modification of old social hierarchy by growth of middle class and urban working class. Periodization of the 19th century 5 key dates: 1. 1814: Restoration of absolute monarchy in France, end of Napoleonic Empire. Exception: 100 days in 1815. 1. In aftermath of end of Napoleonic Wars, the great powers of Europe got together to create the concert of Europe, which was meant to maintain the status quo. The idea was to create an agreement among nations to maintain political and territorial status quo. -- Begins period of reaction to 1830, which was a reaction against the French Revolution. --Appearance of classical liberalism and other early isms. (romanticism, etc.) --Industrial and demographic transformations begin on the continent. (Had already begun happening in Great Britain. 2. 1854: Beginning of Crimean War, end of the concert of Europe 1. Concert of Europe had died before war, but Crimean war made clear to everyone that this had happened. -- Italian, German, Hungarian moves to unify national states. -- demographic take off starts (Disease understood, doctors begin to get an actual grasp on medicine) -- Second industrial revolution begins. -- First Urban society born in 1850s in Great Britain, where more people live in city and towns than in the countryside. -- Impressionism breaks with classicism. 3. 1871: Formation of the German Empire -- Most Germans finally united under a nation state. United after Prussians kicked the shit out of the Austrians in a short, decisive war. -- This new empire shifts balance of international power in Europe. For almost 350 years the most important and powerful country in Europe was France, and containing France had been center of European attention. However, the new German Empire is very powerful (has huge population, industrial and agricultural

resources), and actually defeats France in a short, decisive war in 1871. Eventually France creates new alliances to contain Germany. -- Universal manhood suffrage (French 3rd republic, German Imperial Elections) -- Isms based on Darwin become especially strong (Darwinism, racism) 4. 1890 Imperial rivalries and colonial wars -- Impressionism shifts to cubism and other forms of non-representational art. -- Radioactivity and theory of relativity. Positivistic science confused by new discoveries. -- Cultural anthropology and cultural relativity begin to be talked about in the West. -- i.e. An end to certainty and the Newtonian universe. Maybe we cant know everything. 5. 1914 World War I, the beginning of a new thirty years war. (Some historians consider World war 1, 2 part of the same conflict. -- World War 1 destroyed a lot of illusions. Showed leaders of Europe could be idiots. Greatly increased doubts about rationality of mankind. --19th Century Politics We learn a lot about this. Its not that long ago, after all! I. Ideology A. liberalism 1. Word has roots in word liber 2. To use ones natural rights 3. Term enters European vocabulary from Spain, from conservatives who used the word as a insult. a. Program of the liberals 1. Constitutional monarchy, limited property based franchise lower house, upper house by right and appointment. 2. Economic Liberty; national free markets, uniform laws and administration, and low taxes. c. Society of Individual Liberty under uniform laws, administration, open to Talent (Meritocracy) 1. One thing to note about liberalism. Unequal results were assumed. Naturally some people were assumed to be better than others. B. MEMORY MATRIX. 1. Implies ideas moved by persons. Hoffman gave a handout on this, so be sure you have it because it wasnt really something I could take good notes on. Be sure you understand how Lockes theories applied to actual governing, and the stages of liberalism II. Chronology of Events. A. Base Line, 1816 - Great Britain, stage 4

- France, Stage 3 (and 4) - Spain, Austria, Prussia, Denmark, Sweden, Russia, Italian states, Stage 1 -Belgians, Poles, ethnic minorities in Austrian, Russian, Turkish empires are at step A, since they do not even have a state. B/ 1816-1831: Reaction and the Concert of Europe Britain and France have type III events Britain: Franchise (vote) expanded, 1828, 1829, 1832. Each expansion extends voting to people with less property. France: Franchise expanded to wealthy bourgeois. The kings of France were reluctant to do so but realized they had no choice. Also, ministers were realized to be responsible to the lower houses. Spain and Naples attempt Type II government. -Revolutions of 1820 (Liberal Monarchy) Belgium and Russian Poland attempt to form a state (Type I). Belgium reaches Stage 3 (Liberal monarchy, self-government). Russia sends in Cossack armies to crush Russian Polands attempts to form an independent country. Russia doesnt want to let go of imperial domains. C. 1831-1848: Industrial and urban transformations Britain: Type III, Type IV events? Spain: Type II event, 1837: Type III, 1844. (Liberal Monarchy, Franchise and voting districts) reaches Stage 4. D. The Year of Revolutions, 1848 France, Type III (Franchise, Monarchy overthrown), Type IV (Socialism) Louis Blanc comes up with idea of national workshops where the poor were given food and shelter, and in turn expected to go out and do public works like building roads. However, agitators would get in these workshops and stir the poor up. And in the Austrian Empire: Austria, Type II, (Liberal monarchy established) Hungary (Type I, II) Form state, liberal monarchy Austrian Italian areas rise to create states, almost in every case are a liberal monarchy. Czechs, Type I, II, From state, liberal monarchy. Almost none of these national revolutions succeed. They failed to clean out the army of people loyal to Austrian Empire. These army folk suppress the uprisings. 10/30/08 II. Chronology of events continued from the last class. D. The Year of Revolutions, 1848

Prussia, Type II, Reaches stage 3-4 (Liberal Monarchy given, 1850, but ministers not responsible to parliament, but to king. Prussian kings managed to maintain a lot of power. The Germanies, Type, I and II. (Attempt to form a national government, Liberal Monarchy with the constitution of 1849 with two chambers and franchise for property owners, ministerial responsibility to parliament.) E. Summary France- Type III, Type IV (2nd Republic of France) Austria- Type II (Fails) Hungary- Type I, II (Fails) Austrian Italian Areas, Type I, II (Fails) Czechs, Type I, II (fails) Prussia, Type II, Reaches stage 3-4 The Germanies, Type I, II (Fails) Italian States, Type II In 1848, in England there was a petition circulated to expand franchise to non-propertied owners. Parliament believed that the ten-pound franchise was good enough. Summary 1814-1854 Liberal governments begin to appear on the continent, but mostly in the Northwest Constitution given by Absolute Monarch to get opposition to monarchy within the government and under supervision. o France 1816 o Prussia 1850 All owed their origins to unusual circumstances Successful national revolutions due to international pressures: Belgium 18301831 All other national revolutions fail in 1831, 1848. The revolutions are too urban, and they fail to destroy Imperial power centers like the army, which crush them. Internal revolution due to civil war over succession to the throne in Spain, 1837, 1844.

1849-1871: Liberalism Ascendant - Prussia, Type II (Had the constitution of 1850) - Italy, Type II (Sardinia); Unifies all of Italy except for Rome during this period (1859-1861) - Scandinaiva, Reaches Stage 3-4 (Monarchs give more concessions over time) - Austro-Hungarian Empire, Type II, III (In 1867, Austrian Empire is reorganized with a dual monarchy after defeat in Austro-Prussian war of 1866. Hungarians get a monarch. Liberal constitution also granted.) - Austrias defeat in 1866 also sets the stage for the formation of the German Empire in 1871, Type I & II, stage 3. (question of ministerial responsibility still not dealt with)

Summary: Classic Liberalism moves people to demand self-government (Type I, II) - Where successful, Stage 3 is attained. - While in England and France, the argument is not over Liberal Monarchy, but over who gets to vote! - Stages in the Lockean model tend to telescope together over time. People want to skip stages. - All states have ordinary politics - Franchise tends to widen over time to people with less and less property. - In NW Europe, Type IV issues tend to be Urban, Industrial, Social Welfare sooner than in SE Europe, where a rural focused agricultural economy continues post 1850. - The general movement is the challenge multinational empires and to form National states. - The National ideal also challenged local patriotism as it demanded that everyone within the bounds of the state be more or less alike. This made things rough for local minorities. The parameters of the nation state did not always correspond to the reality on the ground. - Government by Notables, not democracy. At this point at least. --Isms The Secular Religions of the Nineteenth Century (Text, Ch. 25, 26)--Overview - Ideas for changing the Metternichian Order (Reaction of post 1814) - Some are political ideologies - Some are like religion: offering explanations for present conditions and hope for a better world, if only (insert ideology here) - The Isms have that gut level appeal to humans that religion has. A. Liberalism; From Lockes contract theory and from the physiocrats economic ideas -Laissez Faire (economic ideal) sums it up (Let them do what they want, I.e. liberty to follow enlightened self interest and use of natural rights.) B. Utilitarianism (Practical Politics) - How to enact laws that will do the greatest good for the greatest number - Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill are the big theorists for utilitarianism - Pain and Pleasure principle. Make bad behavior painful, good behavior rewarded. C. Radicalism (Republicanism/ Democracy/ Progressivism) - Rousseaus Social Contract. Everyone in society is effected by government, so everyone should have a right to vote for who governs them. This is a recipe for democracy. - Universal manhood suffrage and direct election of lower house

- Had a bad name because of the Convention (the radical phase of the French Revolution) II. Humanitarianism

A. Origins - Religious pietisms desire for individual moral (and social) perfection. - Enlightenments theory that unnatural human laws create bad people, so we should change them. - Reflected Elite values of what makes a good society. Programs - Anti-slave trade, then eventually anti-slavery (1790s-1830s) - Laws for child, female labor, 1820s-40s - Factory Act - Mine Act Methods -Gather the facts (and verify them) to prove your case. -Publicize the facts, media, meetings. - Petition Parliament for change. - Repeat as needed until change is made. - These methods were necessary because not all people could vote yet - It was an alternative to street demonstrations, riots, and revolution. A. Romanticism - A reaction against the extreme Rationalism of the Enlightenment. a. Stress on Emotions, feelings, Spirit (Hence are pro-religion, love mysteries, miracles) b. Find new industrial cities unpleasant, long for an idealized return to nature c. Admiration of the Medieval Past (Monarchies, Christianity versus neoclassical order.) Its an IMAGINED Medieval past, one that is very idealized. d. Stress on Individual uniqueness versus the Universalism (i.e. all right thinking men) of the Enlightenment. e. The HEGELIAN HERO versus the masses of people. (Hegel was a German philosopher who talked about the unique nature of people who change the world. These heroes are believed to have the ability to lead and inspire the masses, and to have a unique understanding of his historical moment and uses this understanding to shape history) 11/4 A. Romanticism 2. Arts and Letters

a. The picture of wild nature and mystery. b. Love of folk tunes and other music devices that are incorporated into symphonic music. c. Napoleon as a hero. B. Conservatism (Edmund Burke) Societys created political institutions are created over time, and have a kind of accumulated wisdom. No individual has a right to destroy the accumulated work of generations to reorder society. Of course, Edmund Burke had a plum place in the natural order of society. C. Nationalism (Herder, Fichte) 1. Language is the basis of the nation. 2. State embodies the nation (Like the Hegelian Hero) and expresses the General Will of the nation (from Rousseau) 3. The Nation often trumps liberty. 4. Paradox: Service to state produces Freedom (Comparable to Christianity) (this ideal has the roots of totalitarianism) 5. Anti-imperial, anti-localism D. Socialism: rejection of capitalism Marx believed there were two types of socialists 1. Utopians who try to appeal to the people who have power to improve the lot of the working man. (Robert Owen, Oneida, who believed in a communal rural existence, and Louis Blanc, who came up with the idea of the state employing the poor in National Workshops) Marx sneers at these people! 2. Scientific socialism (Marx) There were also a third kind 3. Anarchists (Bakunin) who believed that all that was needed was some violent deed to end the oppression of the state and establish a communist utopia. IV. Marxism A. Sources

- From Enlightenment. Marx is a child of the Enlightenment, as are many people even today. a. Natural laws govern human affairs b. Materialist view of humankind. c. Systems of production and their ownership are the key to history. (Production systems: Ownership, technology, and labor to use land, tools, and machines.) d. The State is believed to be a means to defend property. - From Romanticism a. Hegels view of history as the self realization of the world spirit via a dialectical process. (Dialectic You have a thesis, which has to have an antithesis, and eventually come to a synthesis. Might want to look it up on wikipedia or something, its complicated.) b. rejects the industrial city; idealizes the lost past. c. violence can be a GOOD thing. d. The workers are the primitive man, the repository of all virtue (if given a chance) - Observations from his time a. Ricardos Iron Law of Wages There were more workers available than there was a demand for labor. That being the case, the capitalist can offer a minimal wage and enact harsh discipline because there was always someone else who would take the job. Believed in the labor theory of value, which made him believe that owners were stealing the value of the workers labor. b. New technologies bring new social forms c. Capitalists and their calculations. Human factor taken out of their calculations. d. New legal and governmental forms. - That is, each system of production has its unique socio-politicalintellectual forms. B. The Marxian Model 1. Feudal/manorial: ownership of the means by a very few (Nobles) 2. Rise of merchants and other capitalists, who arise as the antithesis of the feudal nobles. 3. French Revolution is triumph of capitalism 4. Rise of proletarians (wage workers) in a factory system. These proletarians are the antithesis of the capitalists. He figured over time there would be more and more of these people who would tire of their misery and oppression and overthrow the master class 5. A vanguard party lead a revolution at the right time in history. Marx and others like him in effect believe themselves to be Hegelian heroes.

6. When the proletarians win the revolution, they will own the means of production. Since the proletarians are assumed to be virtuous, they will share everything, and there will no longer be any need for a state. C. Marx and the Socialists 1. Workers: conditions were improving, new laws improve things. Marx urged workers to reject wage increases because they were capitalist tricks to keep them in subjugation 2. Workers: The vote is being extended to the working classes. Marx urges people to reject the vote as another trick. The socialists however, believe that the workers can use their political power to bring about a peaceful revolution. 3. In sum, workers need to prepare for a bloody revolution led by a vanguard body, and gradual amelioration of the working mans plight are all capitalists tricks. Text 719-733 What Napoleon III sowed, others reaped. The Story of the unifications of Italy and Germany. I: European International Relations as a zero sum game A. Definition of a zero sum game: There is only so much to go around, if I win, you lose. Think of it as a pie. The bigger slice you have, the less is left for others. B. The loss of buffer spaces by 1814. There was less territory on the continent to be gobbled up without rubbing up against another great power. C. Compensation and balance of power. Trade offs have to be made to maintain the status quo after an upheaval. If someone takes over new territory, other people get compensations in the form of other territories or another form of compensation. This system proved to be balanced, and was effective against minor revolutions in Spain and Naples, but the system was dead by 1830. D. Keys to the system were Austria, Russia. Because both were interested in gobbling up parts of the Balkans that belonged to the deteriorating Ottoman Empire. 10/6 III. Napoleon III undoes the system A. Napoleons goal: to be a romantic hero like his famous uncle. B. 3 Steps to undoing the system - The Crimean War of 1854-56 (Austria feared being isolated by the Russian advance into parts of Asia. Russia was a country that had to keep expanding to maintain its stability. Other countries were scared by the advance of Russia on the Straits of the Dardanelles and parts of Asia. Russia did so under the justification of protecting the Christian inhabitants of the crumbling Ottoman Empire. Other nations side with the Ottomans,

since they dont want Russia to be able to get its fleet out of the Black Sea and into the Mediterranean Sea. Even the Italian kingdom of Sardinia joins in on the coalition against Russia. Sardinia does so because it wants to be seen as a great power.) Russia is defeated in the war by the coalition. Napoleon the III requests the peace conference be held in France so he could act as an arbiter of peace. Austria is isolated by the Peace moves after the war, since they are alienated from Russia after the war and not given much by the peace moves of Napoleon. - The Italian War, 1859, with unification in 1859-160. Napoleon III saw this as a nice little war where he could gain military glory. The Kingdom of Sardinia agrees to support Napoleon in his campaigns against the Austrian held provinces of Italy. The French and Sardinians defeat the Austrians. The French then make a separate peace and leave, while the Sardinians encourage nationalist uprisings in the Austrian held parts of Italy. A man named Garibaldi organized these campaigns. Garibaldi, after overthrowing Kingdom of Naples, allows the kingdom to be absorbed into a unified state of Italy. Only Rome remained not part of Italy. Rome was part of the Papal States, and France threatened to invade if it was taken. The Italians eventually seize Rome while France is busy getting worked over by the Prussians in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870. - The Polish uprising of 1863. The Poles rise against the Russians, and the Russians repress them in their usual brutal manner. However, news of the brutality there floods into France, creating a sensation and stirring resentment of how the Russians treated the Poles. The Russian-French friendship is broken. C. Bismark and Prussia benefit 1. The German chancellor of the time, Bismark, had been wanting to unify the many German states into a wider state for some time. In the 1850s the Prussians knew they would have to take on the Austrians to do this, and were not quite ready. However, in 1864, the Prussians launched a war to gain two provinces of Denmark. They win a quick victory. In 1866 the Prussians manufactured a cause for war with Austria, where they quickly crushed the Austrian army in a six-week campaign. Austria was forced out of the German states, and Prussia now dominates the German states. 2. In 1867, Prussia created the North German Confederation bringing many of the German states into a confederation that they dominated. 3. Franco-Prussian War of 1870 breaks out because in Spain the monarch had been thrown out. Spain went looking for a new king in Prussia. The idea of having Prussians ruling kingdoms in Spain and Prussia, in effect surrounding them with hostile states. The Prussians win the war ignited by French fears. The French have to give up Alsace and Lorraine provinces to Prussia. This makes them really unhappy. 4. German Empire created in Versailles in 1871 where peace was being negotiated, almost like the Prussians were really trying to rub it in. IV. Significance of German Unity

A. Prussia becomes Ascendant within the Germanies B. For Europe: - A new center of power created, displacing France. Now everyone is scared of the German Empire. - Austria, Russia, and the Turkish Empire remain the keys to peace in Europe. - For France, the important thing became searching for allies against Germany. The ally they wanted was Russia, a big scary place that could throw hundreds of thousands of soldiers against their foes. ----THE RISE OF DEMOCRATIC GOVERNMENT (in Europe)-----When does universal manhood suffrage appear in Europe? I. Resistance to Universal Manhood Suffrage to 1870 A. Demands for the vote for all men -Rise of Public Opinion and petitions and of clandestine labor unions, 1820s: a hint of what is coming in a time when the franchise is restricted. -The Peoples Charter Britain, 1838, 1842. The English Parliament are not ready to accept this yet though - In France, French Socialists begin demanding Universal Manhood Suffrage during the 1840s, echoing the philosophy of Rousseau. - After the Revolution in 1848, after throwing out both traditional line of French Rulers, they create another Republic. Napoleon III ran for office in this Republic. He did what we now consider to be a normal campaign, introducing himself to the wider public. This was considered uncouth by the snooty aristocrats of Europe. Napoleon III got the idea from his time in the USA, watching US politicians campaign. France has Universal manhood suffrage after 1848. German empire had it after unification in 1871. B. Notables Resist this trend - Notables: Propertied persons with the vote, key bureaucrats, generals, intellectuals, professionals (basically the elite.) - Reject universal manhood suffrage and Womens suffrage because a. They fear the mob. They remember the Terror of the French Revolution. b. Older ideas of classical liberals stressed that the vote be restricted to people of property. c. Examples of Universal Manhood Suffrage to the notables show that masses dont understand the real issues (i.e. Liberal Economic doctrines) d. Post 1848 labor ideologies are anti-liberal, anti-unequal economic outcomes.

e. Women were thought delicate, and unable to understand political issues. Would vote as fathers, brothers, husbands, and priests told them to. Priests in particular viewed as a threatening influence by classical liberals. f. Remember, at this time voting is usually oral, not written. And supervised by many notables. Therefore, it took some courage to vote against what these people wanted. - Second Reform Act in the U.K., 1867- Urban workers (Not servants though) get the right to vote. - In 1872, the secret ballot was adopted, where you can finally vote in secret and not be intimidated by notables during oral voting. - In Third Reform Act of 1884 in the U.K.Most Rural workers get the vote. - On the ever of World War 1, 20% of males still had no vote in the U.K. B. Universal Manhood Suffrage was meant to diffuse the discontent of urban radicals. - French experiences, 1797, 1799, 1848, 1870. Constantly see people voting to restore monarchy in rural provinces. Rural provinces consistently send people who were more conservative than the people living in the metropolitan areas. - German Empire, 1871, (Prussia 1850s)- Urban population allowed to vote as they want, because Bismark and other Germans trust the majority of German population in the rural areas to support traditional authority. - Spain, 1890 (Against Labor) Again, the vast majority of Spanish people live in the countryside, and Spanish notables were experts at fixing elections anyway. - Italy, 1912 (against northern cities and labor) same trend that happens in other countries happens here too. - Austria Hungary (1907-1908) same thing. The thing to know is theres only a commitment to democratic government as long as the results are assumed to be acceptable. C. Manipulation of Elections, UMS was made safe for notables. D. Public Primary Education: A marker. (Literacy is needed for informed voters.) - Prussia, 1819, makes it state policy to educate boys in order to prepare them for military service. - France, 1833 (law passed for public primary schools), the Catholic Church opposes this, even rural parents who dont want to lose the labor of their children. In 1880, the establishment of a SECULAR education system was a huge issue. - Great Britain after 1880 you could get in trouble if your kid was not in school. - Post 1880 this becomes more universal. - United States from 1820s onward.

11/11/2008 III. The Party Problem under UMS: Parliamentary to National? A. Pre-1870s parties, Parliamentary notables with local/regional base, not national (except at parliamentary level) B. Creation of National parties under wider franchise and UMS. New urban based parties challenge the hold of rural notables over government - In Britain, Franchise is widened to build parties, but Labor appeared late 19th century to challenge notables. - In France, parties remain divided, multiple parties but no true national parties, have to have rule by coalition governments. - In Germany, notable parties also fail to nationalize. Compete with Catholic Social Democratic Party (Formed by Catholic laboring men) and Socialist Party (Marx-inspired). Both parties purport to represent the interests of working men. - In the Austro-Hungarian Empire, a national party forms in 1867, but smaller nationalist parties representing ethnic minorities in the empire also form. IV. The Radical Fringes A. Radical Right Parties: reaction to loss of place of notables, labor unrest, general changes. - Often anti-semitic - Often use Social Darwinian rhetoric (Strong will flourish and the weak will perish in a struggle, competition. Poor are poor because they are inferior) - Some are ultra-nationalist. Examples are Russian Black Hundreds, German Farmers League. A preview of the fascist parties of the 20th century B. Womens Suffrage - US and the UK lead on this issue. 1860s sees the start. Want to see women get vote, legal reforms (Women often had legal restrictions placed on their holding of property), educational opportunities. Wyoming gives to vote to women in 1869 (as part of their territorial government). 1890 (when they become a U.S. state) - Britain: 1906 saw temporary granting of suffrage, then denied - In 1914, they extend it again, but postpone it due to outbreak of World War 1 - Continental: socialist parties are the only ones who really push womens suffrage - World War 1 really broke resistance to Universal Manhood Suffrage and Womens suffrage. In 20s we see franchise extended to everyone in most countries. V. Summary The sense of the hierarchical society governed by notables endures in Europe up to WW1. Notables resist UMS and public primary education or use UMS against

urban and nationalist radicals by voting the rural areas that were deferential and that could be manipulated. Notable parties slow to become national. I. E. Liberalism failed to evolve in many countries. ----19th Century Science---Overview of Period A. Science - To 1870, Positivism; Materialism prevail. Basically, the model weve covered before relating to Newtonian tradition is unchallenged - 1870s-1890s: Science is increasingly used to try to discuss the human condition. -1890s: Positivism challenged by what Hoffman calls relativism B. Fine Arts - 1871 not useful marker. (Its in the middle of the era of Impressionism 1850s1890s) - 1890: Non-representational art (subjectivism) This is when we start heading down the road to cubism and art that has more to do with feelings and such II. Science Per Se A. Post 1850 Advances - Math, Chemistry and Bacteriology coming along quickly - Electricity and Thermodynamics see big breakthroughs. Machines become more powerful, efficient. B. The problem of linear change - What are the laws governing human history? - The Fossil- Living form question. - Darwin a. The Books - Origin of the Species by Natural Selection, 1859. Talks about Natural selection, but doesnt address humans - Descent of Man, 1871. Finally addresses natural selection in role of human development. b. Ingredients. - Paleontology. Study of fossils - Malthus: Malthus had been an aristocrat who became interested in demographics of his parish. He discovered that human population increases exponentially over time, and the production of food rose arithmetically (at least during the period he looked at) At a point, a crisis would happen that would cause a plunge in population numbers due to malnutrition, diseases. Only the Strong survive the crisis of competition for limited resources. Darwin could apply this to animals as well.

- Enlightenment? Darwin takes the idea that says its things outside of you that determine what you are. Or stated more clearly (thanks for being obtuse, Hoffman), the external environment in which you grow up influences what you become. You adapt to changes and keep on going, or you cant adapt and die out. c. Flaws. - Assumes natural processes and changes are slow, steady and orderly. This is not always the case. - Emphasizes environment over individual differences. - Maybe these changes are due to catastrophic events that wipe out entire species, not nice orderly changes. This is the kind of thinking that modern studies of evolution emphasize. Also, we know the importance of genetics, which Darwin didnt really understand. III. Scientism A. The cult of science. -Comtes Positivism. Comte was a guy who argued that history of knowledge moved in stages. He identified a stage of theological knowledge, philosophical knowledge, and argued that everyone was now living in an age of scientific knowledge, and that scientific method could be used to discover laws that governed society. - This idea lead to the birth of sociology, the scientific study (at least thats what they claim) of society. - They believed that society could be transformed with the knowledge they gained, and they would solve all the problems. - This new science emphasizes society of Europe as the ideal society, and the ideas of order and progress 2. The Misuse of Biological Findings a. A man named Spencer created the idea of Social Darwinism that applied Darwinian thinking to human society to explain why human society had social classes. Spencer would argue that ameliorating the poverty of the poor was interrupting with the natural processes of evolution. b. Scientific Racists. (Haeckel, Gabineau, H.S. Chamberlain). These men seek to put racist assumptions on scientific foundations, explain that non-European races were simply naturally inferior. B. History (the discipline) as a science - The idea of empiricism led many to try to turn History into something resembling a science. - Of course, now we would be reluctant to make such assumptions. We are kind of a science, but we are not quite science in the same sense that chemistry is. C. Religion. - Science and Religion get into quite a few scuffles over Darwinism.

IV. Positivism Challenged A. Nietzsche - Rejects absolute knowledge. The idea that scientists have discovered real truths isnt true! - Also liked to talk about Superman who have a unique ability to shape history and natural morality. Nietzsche is the perfect philosopher for your misunderstood, misanthropic, wearing lots of black high school years. (Just my personal opinion, if you like the guy thats fine) - Wrote tons of pithy aphorisms. He was like a sociopathic Ben Franklin. B. Social Sciences - Sigmund Freud and the non-rational mind. Freud worked in a mental hospital and he and others worked for a medical professor who wanted to understand mental illness. The original plan was to find brain abnormalities that explained mental illness, but they could never find anything in their dissections. (The subjects were already dead, dont worry) - Freud tried other methods (electro-shock therapy was one). Eventually he just started asking questions, and discovered that many of his subjects had been sexually abused as children. He came up with idea of three parts of the mind (id, ego, and superego if I remember right), and repressed memories affecting the behavior of grown up people. - Max Weber was another social scientists who eventually said you could not find natural laws in history. The best you could do is to make generalizations. Weber was a pessimistic man, unsure about a future where there would be democratic society with large industrialized concerns. 11/13/08 Cultural Anthropology (Pitt-Rivers, Boas, and Mead) Cultural Anthropologists would go out and try to live in a society in order to understand a society as it understood itself. They discovered that societies did not agree on what was good and what was just. Europeans probably should have realized this, but they didnt. Also, they discovered societies that had features that many Europeans had assumed to be contrary to nature. There was no universal set of principals and values, as the Enlightenment had assumed. Cultural relativism could emerge latter in history from this discovery

C. Sciences 1. Radioactivity discovered by Becquerel, studied by him and Marie Curie, among others. 2. Doppler Effect and General Relativity. Doppler Effect has to do with Doppler radar, Hoffman gave an explanation of it but you probably want to look it up if you want to understand it. Doppler Effect basically meant that what you hear is not necessarily what was there. You hear a different pitch from what was being created depending on your position in time and space. Also ideas of General Relativity were formulated. This destroyed the idea that Energy and Matter were separate entities. This destroyed many of the assumptions of the Newtonian model. By the 1920s, Physicists were talking about

probabilities, not certainties. Suddenly people realize that they dont know as much about the universe as they had assumed under the old positivist models D. Arts 1. Japanese simplicity (architecture) emulated in European architecture, but coupled with steel frame production. 2. Form and content divorce (subjectivity) Subjectivity meant that art was no longer representational of things in the world as we see it. It was abstract and came out of the mind of the painter. 3. Art audiences become fragmented. All of a sudden people become fond of certain niche arts. Not everyone likes cubism. Lots of different tastes become represented. Remember Periodization. 1815-1854- the era of the Concert of Europe 1854-1871- movement towards a new balance of power. Movement towards UMS. Second Industrial revolution. Urbanization increases. Impressionism appears in art and painting. 1871-1890- German Empire created in 1871. Despite that, international situation generally stable. Movement towards UMS slow, except for Third Reform Act in 1884 in England, which enfranchised 80% of men there, and Spain instituted UMS during this period as well. Labor unions and movements really come into their own during this period. Use of science to reinforce social prejudice gets underway. (Social Darwinism, Scientific Racism.) This is the period when objective, orderly Newtonian vision of the world comes under real pressure. Even more rational, irrational ideologies beginning to appear. --The New Imperialism and Increased International tension--I. Eurocentric World System started arguably with Colombuss first voyage. Europeans go out into the world and build up colonies. Beginning in 1776 and ending in 1826, the first phase, most of the European possessions in the Americas gain independence. Aside from islands in the Caribbean, most of American continents now self-governing. This was the end of the 1st Eurocentric World System. However, the 2nd phase of the Eurocentric World System begins in 1857 with the Sepoy Rebellion. Why? Europeans had been unable to establish settlers in places such as Africa and Asia because they were unable to cope with environment. But after 1857 international competition for markets was driving them. The resources other countries had translated into economic power back home. People think that if they have control over resources, they can deny it to their competition. Also, the notion is that Europeans are ahead of the rest of the world, and they could dominate the natives of the countries they took. We know that what happens is that Europeans from 1850s onward begin to understand how to live in the tropics. They start being able to survive in Africa. Also, moving into the inland of Africa and Asia where its a healthier climate. Europeans also had much

better weapons than natives by then. Weve got breech loading artillery by now, gatling guns, and eventually machine guns. This gave Europeans an enormous firepower advantage. Europeans also had far better communications. The Sepoy Rebellion. The Sepoys were the auxiliary troops of the British East India company. What touched off the rebellion was a change in the ammunition the company gave the troops. The new ammunition required grease to load the ammo. Indians who did not like the Europeans told Hindu soldiers beef fat was used in the grease, and the Muslim soldiers pig fat was used in the grease. This helped ignite a rebellion, which had to be suppressed rather brutally. Suddenly the British government realized the British East India Company was acting like a state in India, but not doing a very good job of it. So the British government decides to take on the task of governing the British East India company territories itself. Declares India to be a colony, basically. This makes Britains rivals realize that they need to grab their own territories. French moved into Indochina (Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos) to build rubber plantation. French planters appeal for protection for plantations from local government, and France takes over Indochina Also, struggle for Africa starts. 2nd Berlin Congress called in order to prevent a war between competing European interests in Africa. They draw lines on a map to make lines for future European colonies, not even taking into account the ethnic lines in making the boundaries. 1896- Japan, which had been isolated and non-industrial until Commodore Perry of the U.S. Navy showed up and demanded the right to trade with them by pointing cannons at them. Japan, realizing that the Europeans had powerful technology that could overwhelm them, finished up what had been a massive project of industrialization, using their impressive and slightly frightening ability to take their workforce into overdrive. They are now ready to emulate the Europeans in the whole game of colonization. So they went after Korea. Europeans arent the only people who can do colonization! During the same period, Europeans are carving out zones of influence in China. 1898- Fashoda (This is a god-forsaken town in the middle of Sudan, a very arid place), where the advancing British and French armies of colonialism met. Sudanese circle the meeting, waiting to pounce on them. Both commanders posture at each other, but both agree that expelling the other was not a good idea. They agreed to send telegrams back to governments demanding reinforcements, basically forcing the governments to take responsibility for any way that would erupt. Both governments decide they dont want war and back off, and British eventually end up with the Sudan. 1898- Boxer Rebellion. Chinese nationalists, resentful of the presence of Europeans in their cities, rebel. European troops, including U.S. Marines, who never met a foreign war they didnt love, put down the revolt.

1898- Spanish American war. U.S. gains a giant chunk of colonial possessions in Asia by beating the hell out of Spain. We get the Philippines, Cuba, among other possessions. A glorious little war for the U.S. 1899- British war against Boers in South Africa begins. Boers are Dutch settlers in South Africa that Britain wants to control. Boers dont want to submit to British control, begin a brutal, 3 year war that saw Britain use concentration camps to defeat the Boer guerillas. (You thought the Germans came up with that idea? The Brits were just as cold-blooded as any Kraut during this era.) 1904- British and French reconcile over imperial rivalries, because they are afraid of the power of the German Empire on the continent. They enter into the Entente, which was basically an agreement to peacefully resolve their differences. It was not really an alliance. 1905- Russians get defeated by Japanese armies in Manchuria, which shocks the world. (Europeans losing to and Asian army!?!) Russia turns its attentions back towards Europe, and the Balkans in particular. 10/20/08 From Eurocentrism to Globalization The long 20th century. A selective journey through the bloodiest century. Eurocentrism to Globalization A. The creation of the 2nd empires in the 1860-90s B. The World in 1914 was rapidly being carved up into zones of influence by the Great European Powers. They could finally conquer these areas due to the advances they had made in medicine and figuring out how to live in tropical areas. 1. Europe and Neo-Europes (remember all that stuff from Crosby, even if you desperately want to forget that boring shit.) 2. Industrial Asia (Japan, successfully imitating the round-eyes) 3. Indo and Afro Americans (Undeveloped or source of resources for exploitation) 4. Colonial Asia (European run colonies in Asia.) 5. Colonial Africa (same as above, but in Africa) 6. Turkish Empire (this empire is not going to be around much longer because of...)

WORLD WAR 1

C. World War 1: The order of the 19th century is replaced by a bloodbath on a scale you cant imagine 1. Idea of rule by notables fails when notables disgrace themselves with their leadership during WW1. Democracy becomes more popular. 2. Bolsheviks and Labor become more powerful after notables disgrace themselves in WW1. 3. Europe becomes a debtor to US. 4. Wilsonian idealism let loose. Wilsons 14 points for the armistice after the war stir a lot of argument and controversy. (Read up on what they were in wikipedia, because this was important.) 5. Other legacies (Colonial troops brought to Europe to fight war. Just think of it, thousands of colonials are being shipped to France to kill white people.) D. The Great Depression 1. The problem of credit. Just like now, the first thing to collapse is the credit market, and credit is vital for the functioning of business. E. World War II: Empires shattered 1. A truly global war. Everyone remembers D-Day and the fighting in France and Russia, but at the same time that was going on Indian Army troops and Japanese soldiers were chucking grenades at each other on the border of India. 2. Japan once again initially beats Europeans and Neo-Europeans. Of course, all they got in the end for all their trouble was a couple of atomic bombs dropped on their asses, but it does reinforce the fact that Europeans can be defeated in battle if you are willing to fight hard. 3. Colonial nationalists recruited to fight against Axis. These colonial nationalists expect to be listened to afterwards. 4. New Science (DDT and other things. And of course, the atomic bomb) Government began to sponsor science and give it money to support innovation. 5. The Soviet Union gets an opportunity at the end of WWII. They took over Eastern Europe, and made their own little communist economic system to compete with the capitalists. (Long story short: didnt work out for them) 6. The problem of European empires. The Europeans wanted to reoccupy their empires after the end of the war, but the U.S. didnt want to see that happen because we claimed to be against empires, and for open markets and everything, which coincides with our economic interests. (oh, and maybe the natives will finally be able to determine their own future, but if they do something we dont like, like veer towards communism, that ends up being an issue) In the end, we allow some European powers to try to reconstruct their empires, but it generally ends badly. (France got itself into two nasty wars in former colonies of Algeria and Vietnam after WWII, for instance. Their war in Vietnam we remember because we ended up making the same mistake. At least we got some cool movies out of it, I guess!) F. The Cold War (1944-1991)

1. Europe divided by an iron curtain. Eastern Europe controlled by Soviet Union. 2. Market economies expand during Cold War. 3. New Technologies spread. (New countries all want the latest and greatest in arms technology. Everyone wants to be the first kid on the block with the latest tanks and fighter jets.) 4. End to 2nd empires. Despite the fact we humored Europeans and let them try to keep their colonies, it just doesnt work. (France: we can totally take Vietnam back. Oh shi-) Soviet Union made assisting national liberation movements their business, which is why every dirt farmer who wants to overthrow the imperialists could get their hands on AK47s and Rocket Propelled Grenades after their leaders brushed up on their Marist literature. That equipment is still pretty effective for guerilla warfare, as anyone who has served a tour in Iraq and Afghanistan could tell you. G. Breaking through 1. Demographic Tsunami . The baby boom after the war. After years of being at war, the soldiers finally get their peace dividends After the great wave of young people, suddenly birth control is finally perfected in the pill, and the sexual revolution starts. Social conservatives horrified by people having sex but being uninterested in having lots of children. Also, due to better health, these kids are all living to be healthy adults for the most part. Look at the modern Mddle Est. The average age over there is around is very close to what wed consider the teenage years. (Around 16-18.) 2. Digital Revolution. We now have television, the second greatest invention on the planet, after beer. Also, the revolution makes computers more powerful. Internet is set up. First used for passing scientific information, then porn. Hoffman gets crotchety here talking about us crazy kids and our cell phones. 3. Energy gives power. But a lot of it is under the power of people were not fond of, and who are likewise not fond of us. This is why the Middle East is the cool, hip place to have military forces these days. H. Contested Globalization (Warning: this section contains a heavy dose of your TAs opinion on current events. Do not repeat the more cynical portions on your test essay or you might get me into trouble. And you dont want that to happen, do you?) 1. Globalization is contested. For instance, western films often have lots of sex, and women acting in ways that traditional societies dont want them to behave. But sex fucking sells! *badum ching* (rimshot, if that wasnt obvious enough) 2. Urbanization. Everyone is moving to the cities these days, around the globe. (You live in a city. Baton Rouge aint New York, but it aint Bumfuck, nowhere either.) Ill go off the cuff here and give my own example, thank you very much! Karachi, the capital of Pakistan, grows by about 250,000 people a year, roughly. (rough approximation, do not cite on test!) Thats a lot, a metric fuckton in unscientific terms. Theres no land for the children of the demographic explosion in Pakistan to inherit, so they move to the city where they find themselves cut off

from their traditional roots. Some adapt, some dont, some get angry and blow up Prime Minister Bhutto. 3. Unequal economic exchanges. An example here is American agriculture, which is competitive in the world market due to massive government subsidies that African and Asian agriculture do not provide to their growers (This is one thing that LA senators are elected to do!), and could not afford. (For now actually, well probably always be able to pull this off as long as were willing to pay for it.) 4. Non State-Actors, asymmetric warfare. Think Al-Qadea for an example of a non-state actor who uses asymmetric warfare. Or the KLA if you want a European example. (We ended up giving the KLA an independent Kosovo, pissing Russians and Serbians off a great deal.) 5. The problem of not us in Europe and Neo Europe. Theres tons of new immigrants, but its hard to integrate in countries in Europe where identity and citizenship is more based on blood and older ideas of the nation (ONLY FRENCHMEN CAN BE TRULY FRENCH), much more so than the United States, where at least theoretically anyone who is born here is considered a full citizen. (Doesnt always work out in practice, but hey, we just elected a black dude. That probably wont happen in Europe in the foreseeable future) 6. Minority nationalism. The disintegration of Yugoslavia is a great example of a multi-ethnic country with no majority that sorted itself out into more ethnically homogenous nations. They did it violently. Others have done it peacefully, so its not all doom and gloom. Just most of the time! 11/25/08 WORLD WAR I The War to End Wars that did not. (Chapter 27) The War shocked European Society. This was a war that couldnt happen, they thought they had gotten beyond mass slaughter. I. Origins A. Russia in July of 1914 began mobilizing military forces in order to back up the country of Serbia in a dispute between Serbia and the Austria-Hungarian Empire. The Germans took that as a sign to begin their own mobilization to back AustriaHungary B. Background 1. The German War Plan: Schlieffen Plan, 1892. Germans feared a two front war with Russia on one side and France on the other. Germany had relatively more sophisticated military mobilization system than the other two, so the plan relied on them taking out France really quickly, then turning to take care of Russia. The Germans would have to steamroll Belgium in their plan, which would provoke Britain, but the Plan counted on taking out France quickly enough to render British intervention on the

continent difficult. The Germans feared the size of the Russian army, but it would take a long time to get the Russian army in the field and conducting combat operations. 2. The Balkan Crisis of 1908: Russia had its grubby hands all over the Balkans. The Turkish empire was crumbling in the Balkans, and the Russians wanted to pick up parts of it as allies under their protection. Austria Hungary was playing the same game. The Russians got screwed in an agreement with them in 1908, and in 1914, when Austria-Hungary wants to crush Serbia, which is causing difficulties for them, the Russians decide to support their buddies the Serbians. 3. Collapse of the 3 Emperors League in 1890. German, Austro Hungarian, and Russian emperors have a falling out. While they were friends peace on the continent was pretty much assured because no sane power would fuck with such a powerful block. But the Balkans was causing issues between the Austro-Hungarians and the Russians, as we see. Germans hold onto Austro-Hungarians as allies and alienate Russia. 4. Formation of Serbia in 1817. Serbia was one of the first provinces of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans to become autonomous state. Became the foundation of Slavic and Serbian nationalism in the Balkans. 5. Ethnic Geography of the Balkans was very mixed. As national states based on ethnicity appear, there is increased unrest. II. The War. A. The Unexpected War 1. This wont be so bad. Six weeks to Victory!(August, 1914) Everyone was convinced their side would win quick. 2. Trenches and Attrition, 4 years of war. The Russians had gotten an offensive going two weeks into the war, fucking up the Germans nice timetables and forcing them to divert strength from the Western thrust. Also, the Belgians fought like animals against the Germans, stalling their advance. The German advance makes it to Northern France, but is stopped there. War of attrition goes on. 3. Defense was superior to offense right now. Over the top charges into machine gun fire really didnt work often. On the Eastern front it is a bit more mobile, because it was a much wider front and their was less ability to entrench their forces. B. The War of Attrition: Human and Economic Resources 1. Central Powers: German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman Empires, and Bulgaria. -22.25 million men, c. $20 billion GDP 2. The Allied Powers: France, Great Britain, Russia, Serbia, Italy (joins 1915) Romania (1916) 36.4 million men and $28 billion GDP. When USA joins in 1917 it brings allied numbers to 41.1 million men and 65 billion GDP. 3. Advantage of Allied powers before U.S.: 1.64 to 1 in men; 1.4 to 1 in GDP. Not decisive ratios really. With U.S. it becomes:

1.85 to 1 in men and 3.25 to 1 in GDP. C. War of 1916-1917 1. Russia collapses. March, October Revolutions. Bolsheviks take over Russia. Negotiate treat of Brest-Litovsk in March of 1918. Germans can move troops from Eastern Front to the Western Front. 2.US Joins War over German use of submarines against American shipping and the Zimmerman telegram, a German offer to help certain Mexican rebel groups reverse the outcome of the Mexican-American Wars. (A lot of American shipping was bringing arms and supplies to the Allies, so we werent totally innocent.) 3. War becomes even more of a morality play thanks to Woodrow Wilsons ideological BS. It becomes the war to make the world safe for democracy against the evil Huns. 4. Tanks and Yanks restore mobility in the West. Tanks make it possible to cross no-mans land and smash through the trenches. American troops provide fresh manpower for new offensives. Germans, facing certain defeat, seek truce. 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month (11/11/1918) III. The Problem of Peace A. Ethnic Geography of Europe does not match Political Geography. B. Nationalism defines the nation by languague, religion, and is against ethnic minorities in their states. - Treaties define Nation by history and geography (defendable borders) C. Germany and Austria and Hungary must pay! (Reparations/ Damages) The Allies put a huge economic burden on the Central Powers to pay for damages and to vindictively punish them. IV. Breakup of some Empires A. Broke up the 4 empires of Central and Eastern Europe 1. Austro-Hungarian, German, Russian, Turkish empires dissolve. 2. Ethnically majority states formed: Poland, Austria, Hungary 3. Blended States. Yugoslavia (Union of the Slavs, Serbs dominant in this state); Czechoslovakia (Czech and Slovenes) 4. Ottoman Empire Divided into mandates- European Empires grow. But they say theyre preparing them for eventual independence -France administer Lebanon, Syria Great Britain got Iraq, Palestine, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Emirates. V. Other Consequences 1. Bolsheviks: Totalitarian version of Russian tradition of service to state taken to a new level, with an added dose of Marxism. 2. Marxism to attract those who want a better society v. exploitation of the market (capitalist) system. A legacy of bitterness used to help create WW II. -1. Germans: Reparations: myth of civilian and politicians betrayal of undefeated army. Continuation of nationalist dream frustrated, but it wont go away. Hitler and other

Germans were schooled with nationalist texts that argued that the German people must be unified to become the next great power. This lead to increased social tensions. 2. Successor states opposed to the interests of minorities in their midst. Determined to create national unity. Covet fellow ethnics trapped in other states. Social tension of elite v. masses leads to postwar authoritarian governments. 3. No lessening of late 19th century ideologies: social Darwinism, racism, Marxism/labor vis capitalism/notables; democracy/notables. Fascism appears on the scene too. Fascism 1. Name comes from Fasces symbol of authority of Roman tribunes. 2. Anti-Communist, Anti-Labor, Anti-Liberal (Because they are single party/totalitarian) 3. Cult of the leader 4. Nationalist: Glory, Empire, Reverse WW1s outcomes 5. OK with Capitalism and private property, but various degrees of subordination of private enterprise to the State Interest. 6. Social programs: worker housing, public works not previously accomplished, but STATE CONTROL. 7. State control of economy and labor via corporate groupings/ vertical unions. 8. Scape-goating of someone, Labor unions, Jews, and other marginalized groups are popular targets. 12/2/08 B. Legacies of Bitterness used to Create WWII. 4. Problem of the stateless person. (Mostly Russian refugees from the Bolshevik revolution) There are a lot of permanent refugees from states dismembered during the war and its aftermath. And not having citizenship of a state back then was awful. C. Longer term Developments 1. Rise of the USA as a creditor, hence the end of the Eurocentric World System. Europeans had gone into debt 2. Asian Nationalism (China, 1911) given boost in India, 1917, and Japan became an Allied Power. Asians were getting tired of Europeans being able to dominate them. 3. Need for League of Nations, which is an idea similar to the Concert of Europe, where Europeans powers came together to maintain the status quo and peace. League of Nations was kinda like the forerunner of the U.N. However, they excluded the Germans from the agreement because of war bitterness. They also loaded the Germans down with reparations. The Germans would have to pay a ridiculous amount of money to for the damages of the war. Also, the treaty they signed neutered the German army, basically reducing it to a glorified police force. The Germans were getting shafted badly, understandably making them bitter. - The Allies without Russia: were roughly equal in manpower and GDP to the central powers

- If only France and Great Britain v. Germany: The Allies would have only a very slight advantage. Men: 17.3 Million v. 11 million. GDP 17 billion v. 12 Billion. By the way: GDP= Gross Domestic Product I. War after the War. A. Actual territorial adjustments by war or plebiscite 1. Poland and Russia tangle over territory 2. Minor areas decide what state they want to be a part of via plebiscite (A vote of all the people in the area) B. Reparations Crisis: the Ruhr Crisis of 1924 1. The French occupied the Ruhr region, a big coal and iron producing industrial area to collect reparations from Germany. German workers in the area retaliated by going on strike whether than working for coal. German government paid unemployment benefits to these workers to support them, but rapid inflation combined with the printing of money for these benefits causes the German Currency to collapse. Hyperinflation makes paper money essentially worthless. Frances reparations are now in worthless, inflated German currency 2. U.S., Frances creditor, steps in and negotiates reduced reparations to where the Germans could actually pay them and not suffer, and helped stabilize the value of the German currency (the mark) and banking system. Helped bring Germany back online. C. Collapse of the League of Nations as a means of collective defense after 1918. 1. U.S. refuses to join in 1918 because our Senate refused to support our entry. 2. 1925 Locarno treaties guarantee the western settlement of territories, leave the eastern one open to arbitration. It never gets settled, and Poland and Germany continue to argue over who owned what land. 3. That is, traditional treaties are replacing arbitration by the League of Nations. II. Authoritarian Governments A. Not all successor states after the war are republics. B. Notables resist the idea of democratic government, install dictators or welcome nationalist parties (often Fascist) III. Totalitarian Government A. Law (and police) and Bureaucracy define (per Weber, as in Rubenstein) 1. Who is a citizen (They can revoke citizenship for their own whims) 2. What citizens may do 3. What is done with property. B. State embodies the Will of the Nation which is expressed through the Party and often, the Leader (Who is a sort of Hegelian hero who understands the spirit of history and the Nations role in it.) This can result in a scary worship of the leader, and no place for minority points of view.

C. All come to power through legal means, or the appearance of legal means. Two exceptions were Russia (Through revolution) and Spain (Through Civil War) D. Use law and legal processes to carry out their program. (makes them harder to resist) E. Individual rights as existing BEFORE society or state are not recognized. The State GRANTS individual rights, and can take them away and say how you can exercise them. F. Italian Facists, Russian Bolsheviks, and German National Socialists (also known as the Nazis.) IV. The Depression A. Causes 1. Overproduction relative to market (Rural markets weak due to low commodity prices) 2. Unregulated banking and stock markets. Think of today, when people in the banking industry arent even aware of how many toxic assets are on the books. And back in the 1920s, the stock market and banking was even more unregulated than it is today. 3. International interconnectedness due to war debts, reparations, and the solution of the 1924 Ruhr crisis ensures an economic crisis in one country will spread to others. 4. Absence of international mechanisms to regulate currency. 5. Defensive tactics taken by governments after start of Depression make it worse. (Protective tariffs and the like. International trade grinds to a halt) B Effects 1. International trade drops to 1/3 of 1928 levels in 1932 2. Unemployment as high as 30-40% (U.S. Average had been 18% at the time) Really high in the city. And urban unrest equals riots and revolution and radicals can harness all this unrest to their own ends C. Remedies 1. Government spending a. In the U.S., the New Deal: Public works and other direct payments to workers b. Germany: Rearmament and public works (like the Autobahns, that support military needs.) 12/4/08 World War II and the Cold War I. Strategies of the Aggressors A. Germany 1. WW1: In this war, the decision by the German General Staff to go to war in the West had to do with the fear that they would lose a two front war with Russia and the French. However, there were those who hoped for victory in order to expand German territory.

2. WWII: Living Space for the German people. In particular, Germany wanted to take Russian territories for German settlement. Places like the Ukraine, and the areas on the Black Sea. Also, he wanted to get rid of the people who were there. The original idea was that Russian population in conquered territory would serve as slave labor, but eventually his ideas took on a genocidal tinge. Hitler wanted to eliminate the gypsies, Jews, the unfit, and other undesirable populations. B. Italy: A New Roman Empire 1. They wanted to reestablish the glory of Rome. They had invaded Ethiopia, but it took several attacks to subdue Ethiopia. Italy really just wanted glory and respect. C. Japan: 1. Autarchic Empire. Or, in plain English, an empire that would be economically self-sufficient. (They called it a Co-Prosperity Sphere) The Japanese home islands had limited amounts of areas to grow food, coal, iron, and other necessities. They wanted to secure these resources. Manchuria, a Chinese province to the North of Korea, was a target of early Japanese attempts to secure these resources, and make a closed market for their goods. They also expanded towards Indochina. One target of expansion was Phillipines, which had been a U.S. colony for a few decades. II. GDPs and the War -1937 -United States- $68 billion -Germany- $ 7 Billion -Japan- $ 4 Billion -Russia- $ 19 Billion (This number might not be accurate due to Stalinist pressure to show good production or get shot by secret police. Also, right before the War started, Stalin purged his experienced officers out of fear they were not loyal) What are these crazy Axis powers thinking? Germany: We got the central position, an experienced army, if we move quick we can grab our empire before the Allies are ready to fight back. III. The War. Not much time spent on this. But I can tell you we won. USA! USA! IV. The Problem of the Post War World A. The Western Powers -The Atlantic Charter in (1941) promised freedom and a return to the status quo ante. (Status quo ante means the status quo before

Hitler started expanding Germany in 1936) Theres problems though. The British would want this agreement more than anyone in order to maintain their empire. The Nazis had been legally elected in 1933, would they be allowed to return? Read the Atlantic Charter yourself, its in the textbook or online. Bunch of idealistic stuff that didnt work out as well they would have liked. Russians never signed on for this. Stalin wasnt going to go for this bullshit. - Unconditional Surrender (1943) At the Casablanca Conference, the idea of negotiated peace is rejected after Roosevelt blurts out that Germany must surrender unconditionally. - In the US, there was a general feeling that the US should not expand or restore anyones empire in the postwar peace. The Brits and French were not fond of the idea that the US didnt want to help rescue their empires. The US also wanted the establishment of what would become the United Nations. - Above all, the US tried to avoid discussing the postwar world to avoid political wrangles during the war. B. Josef Stalins Policy: The Fruits of Victory. - We won, we want something out of it. He wanted to expand westward to regain lands lost in 1918-1920. (And temporarily regained in 1939-1941 - We need to create a buffer against the West, which is ideologically opposed to us since were communists. We also cant compete against them in the open market, so well need to create our own closed system of captive, satellite markets. - Loot Germany for the Benefit of the Soviet Union. Every ally did this to some extent, but the Russians took everything not nailed down. - Create a captive market for Russian Industry and economy. The areas of Eastern Europe that the Russians had overrun in their counter-offensive against Germany fit the bill very nicely. C. Great Britain, France, the Netherlands: - Wanted to regain their empires D. Asian nationalists: The uninvited players - They wanted westerners to allow them to form their own nations - Indian Congress Party was pushing for independence for India . - Vietnamese Resistance (Ho Chi Minh) The CIA helped them fight the Japanese. They wanted independence, but France wanted to retake their colony - Indonesia and other nationalists E. Failure of the Nationalist government in China. (Communists are alternative to their failures. USSR helped their ideological comrades.) - Nationalists had failed to defeat the Japanese, or to improve the life of Chinese peasants.

F. Creating facts on the ground. The person who controlled the territory at the end of the war got to decide what happens next. - USSR had advanced into Central Europe during their war against Germany. The US OKs their advance into Manchuria as price of its participation in the war on Japan. - The Yalta accords set the limits of Army advances in Europe. The agreement basically set up how Europe would be divided for occupation. Dividing line ends up being the Elbe river. US Army stopped there even though they could have raced to Berlin, where the final showdown between the Red Army and the German Army was happening. - US policy is to bring the boys home as rapidly as possible, uncertain as to many other goals. USSR wouldnt have to worry about a powerful US Army in Western Europe. (Apparently) But we had a little ace in the sleeve called the atom bomb. THE COLD WAR, 1944?-1989 Conventional dates 1948-1989 A. Stalin claims the fruits of victory for USSR. B. British Conservatives were voted out of office at end of the war and replaced by a Labor government. British conservatives and US interests needed a foe. -1. Churchills Iron Curtain speech. Talks about decent of communism into Eastern Europe. -2. The U.S. needs to avoid isolation after war according to its policy experts. In order to get the population to support involvement abroad, it was made obvious to the American public that our interests abroad were threatened by the USSR and communism. -3. Ideologically, West was anti-communist, and very different in their conception of government from the communist East C. Refusal of Soviets to restore Status Quo Ante in areas they controlled, especially regarding who could vote from 1945-47. Those countries were getting a communist government whether they liked it or not. D. Communist Guerillas make moves in Greece: The pro western government of Greece requests U.S. aid. E. U.S. Declaration of - Truman Doctrine: Aid to any government threatened by armed insurrection. Well, any pro-western government. Truman was specifically talking about the Greeks when he issued the doctrine, and we gave them lots of guns that helped them defeat the communist guerillas. - Marshall Plan: Economic aid to all of Europe (I.E., extend the world market economy to the whole continent, including the USSR). The USSR refused this aid, and forced the countries it occupied to refuse this aid. Western Europe accepts it.

- Idea of Containment- use alliances (North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is the famous example of such alliances.) to keep an expansive USSR and allies inside their post-war borders. It is debatable whether the USSR was expansive or not, but this was how most Western policy experts saw them. II. Events in Cold War A. Coup in Czechoslovakia in 1948 B. Loss of China to communists in 1949 C. Korean War, 1950-53. North Korea (Communist) invades South Korea (NonCommunist) A hot war in the Cold War. D. Communists insurrections, which the USSR and China made their business to support in order to tie down Western armies and economic power. -Malaya. (Put down by Brits) -Indochina (French leave in 1954.) - Africa (e.g. Mau Mau in Kenya), 1950s. Brits defeat them. (Brits are good at counterinsurgency) Europe recovers from wars, especially after 1960. Asian Empires of Europe crumble under forces of Asian nationalism. Lots of examples 1. Indonesia 1945 2. Phillipines, 1946 3. India, Pakistan, 1947 4. Burma, 1948 5. Indochina, 1949-54 6. Malaya, 1957 African Empires of Europe crumble in 1960s as well. Decolonization. Too much nationalism, and communists were very willing to funnel arms to these movements. Plus, the Western Worlds professed ideas of self-determination used against them D. Development of OPEC in 1960s E. Microprocessor Revolution of 1960s F. Globalization and Fundamentalism. V. Final Phase of the Cold War. A. Reagan and Margaret Thatcher (Prime Minister of Britain) reignite the Cold War. -Solidarity and other resistance movements in eastern Europe.