1

Exercise 2.2

Let |a0 | + + |an | = N , a0 , . . . , an , N Z. Then we must have ai [N, N ] Z, so there are at most 2N + 1 options for each ai term, and thus less than (2N + 1)n+1 (a nite number of) such possible combinations for any given N . Now note that the selection of a0 , . . . , an Z describes 2n (a nite number of) polynomials with positive leading term: |an |xn an1 xn1 a1 a0 . Finally, note that for each of these 2n polynomials, there can be at most n distinct roots. Thus, for a given N , the number of distinct roots of polynomials such that the sum of the absolute values of the coecients is N , is a nite number. Then, for the set XN of roots of polynomials which satisfy this description for N , we can order this nite set via the dictionary order. If x XN , let xN denote xs position in this ordering. For any x A, where A is the set of algebraic numbers, x is the root of some polynomial with integer coecients. Let p be an irreducible such polynomial (if the polynomial we are given is not irreducible in Z[x], we can factor and continue reducing). Then after dividing out common denominators, and multiplying by 1 if necessary to give a positive leading term, we are left with a unique polynomial px . Let Nx denote the sum of the absolute values of the coecients of px . Now construct a map f : A Z Z via f : x (Nx , xNx ). Then, by construction, this map is injective, and Z Z is countable by Theorem 2.13 and the fact that Z is countable. So A is at most countable. But Z is a subset of A, since every n Z satises x n = 0, so A must be innite. Then A is countably innite.

Exercise 2.3

Since R C, and R A A, we have that R A is at most countable by Theorem 2.8. But R A is a subset of R. If R A = R, then the sets would have equal cardinality. But R is uncountable by Theorem 2.43. Thus R A = R, and there exist real numbers that are not algebraic.

Exercise 2.4

RQ must be uncountably innite, else (RQ)Q = R would be countably innite by Theorem 2.12, since it is the union of countable sets. But this is not the case, so R Q must be uncountable. 1

Exercise 2.5

Consider the set X R given by X= 1 n 1+

nN

1 n

2+
nN

1 n

.
nN

Then 0 is a limit point of X, since for any neighborhood ( , ) of 0, there 1 exists n N such that 0 < n < , by the Archimedean Property. Then this neighborhood contains a point of X. A similar argument shows that 1 and 2 are limit points of X as well. But for any other x R, we can nd a neighborhood small enough such that consecutive sequence terms n and n + 1 will appear on either side of the interval, and thus no terms in X will be contained in the neighborhood, and thus x would not be a limit point. Then X = {0, 1, 2}.

Exercise 2.6

Let x (E ) . Let Nr (x) be a neighborhood of x, Then Nr (x) contains some y E , x = y. Let s = min {d(x, y), |r d(x, y)|}. Then Ns (y) Nr (x) and x Ns (y). Then since y E , Ns (y) contains some z E, z = y. / Then since x Ns (y), it follows that z = x. But z Ns (y) Nr (x). Then / x E . Then (E ) E , so E is closed. Let x E . Then x (E E ) = (E) , so E (E) . Now let x (E) . Then since E is closed, x E = E E . If x E , we are done. Assume x E. Let Nr (x) be a neighborhood of x. Then since x (E) , Nr (x) contains some y E = E E , y = x. If y E, then x E , and we are done. Assume y E . Then x (E ) E by the above, so in any case x E , and thus (E) = E . (E ) = E in general. One example is E = {1/n}nN , which gives E = {0}, (E ) = .

Exercise 2.8

Every point of every open set E in R2 is a limit point of E. Let E R2 be open. Let p E. Let Nr (p). be a neighborhood containing p. There exists some neighborhood containing p, Ns (p), such that Ns (p) E. Let t = min {r, s}. Then Nt (p) Nr (p) and Nt (p) Ns (p) E. Then, if p = (x, y), let q = (x + t/2, y). Then q Nt (p) Ns (p) E, and q = p, and q Nt (p) Nr (p), so p E . Thus E E . 2

The same is not true of closed sets. {(0, 0)} is closed, but (0, 0) is not a limit point of this set.

Exercise 2.9

Let E be a set in X. (a) If E = , then it is trivially open. Let x E . Then x is an interior point of E, and there exists a neighborhood N of x such that x N E. Assume by way of contradiction that there exists some y (E E ) N . Then every open set containing y contains a point not in E. We have that y N , and N being open implies that there exists some neighborhood N of y such that y N N . Then N contains a point z E. Then z N / N E, a contradiction. Thus (E E ) N = (N E) E = N E = , and so N E , and thus E is open. (b) Let E be open. Let x E. Then since E is open, x is an interior point of E, so x E . And E is by denition a subset of E, so E = E. Now let E = E . Let x E. Then x E . Then x is an interior point of E. Then E is open. Thus E is open i E = E. (c) Let G E, with G open. Let g G. G being open implies that g is an interior point of G, so there exists some open neighborhood N such that g N G E. Then g is an interior point of E, and thus G E . (d) Let x X E . Then x is not in the interior of E. Then every neighborhood of x contains a point not in E, i.e., a point in X E. If x E, then this point does not equal x, and thus x (X E) X E. If x E, then x X E X E, so in any case X E X E. / Now let x X E. Then x X E or x (X E) . If x X E, then x E, so x E , and thus x X E . Assume x (X E) . Then / / every neighborhood of x contains a point not in E. Then x is not an interior point of E, and thus x X E . Then X E = X E. (e) E and E need not have the same interiors. Take E = (0, 1)(1, 2) R, which has E = E. But E = [0, 2], so (E) = (0, 2) = E . (f ) E and E need not have the same closures. Take E = {0} R. Then E = E, but E = , so (E ) = = E. 3

Exercise 2.11

For x, y R, state whether the following are metrics. d1 (x, y) = (x y)2 This is not a metric, since it fails triangle inequality:

d1 (0, 2) = (2 0)2 = 4 > 2 = (2 1)2 + (1 0)2 = d1 (0, 1) + d1 (1, 2). d2 (x, y) = x y This is a metric. It clearly satises symmetry and nonnegativity. Well check the triangle inequality. First note that for any nonnegative numbers a and b, ( a + b)2 = a + b + 2 ab a + b = ( a + b)2 , and so a + b a + b. Then d2 (x, z) = |x z| = |x y| + |x y + y z| |x y| + |y z|

|y z| = d2 (x, y) + d2 (y, z).

d3 (x, y) = |x2 y2 | This is not a metric, since it doesnt satisify the property that d(x, y) = 0 x = y. d3 (1, 1) = |(1)2 12 | = 0. d4 (x, y) = |x 2y| This is not a metric as it doesnt satisfy symmetry. d4 (0, 1) = 2, while d4 (1, 0) = 1.
|xy| d5 (x, y) = 1+|xy| This is a metric. Symmetry and non-negativity are inherited from the absolute value function. Well check the triangle inequality. First, note that for any x, y R,

|x y| |x| + |y| |x| + |y| + 2|x||y| + |x||y||x y|. Adding |x||x y| + |x||y||x y| + |y||x y| to both sides and then factoring gives |x y|(1 + |x| + |x||y| + |y|) (|x| + 2|x||y| + |y|)(1 + |x y|),

and so d5 (x, y) = |x y| |x| + 2|x||y| + |y| 1 + |x y| 1 + |x| + |x||y| + |y| |x| y = + = d5 (x, 0) + d5 (y, 0). 1 + |x| 1 + |y|

Now let a, b, c R. If we let a = a c and b = b c, we see that d5 (a , b ) = d5 (a, b), d5 (a , 0) = d5 (a, c), and d5 (b , 0) = d5 (b, c). Then d5 (a, b) = d5 (a , b ) = |a b | 1 + |a b | |a | |b | + 1 + |a | 1 + |b | = d5 (a , 0) + d5 (b , 0) = d5 (a, c) + d5 (b, c), so the triangle property is satised.