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Introduction
The use of waste derived "alternative" raw materials and fuels can contribute greatly to resources conservation in the industry and to the implementation of an efficient waste management system in a national economy. The cement industry in particular, due to its nearly global presence and its process-inherent advantages, lends itself optimally for co-processing such materials. The training module on hand therefore provides a short introduction to the basics of cement chemistry, cement process technology and to those special process characteristics which render the cement kiln option rather unique in this application.
Learning Targets
Stakeholders from the public sector have a basic knowledge of cement production (chemically, process-technologically and environmentally). They also have the basic knowledge to understand and discuss the environmental behaviour of a modern cement kiln system
Content
1 Cement is made from raw materials
slide 3 This slide introduces the term of "cement raw materials" in a wider sense. Basically, raw materials can be subdivided in raw materials for clinker production and raw materials for cement production (from clinker and...). Corrective materials are required to adjust the composition of a materials mix for the target values.
slides 4, 5 For all "raw materials" there are natural and alternative (waste derived) options. A few examples are given with pictures.
slide 7 The classical cement chemistry distinguishes main, minor and trace elements contributing to raw mix, clinker or cement composition. Composition ranges are given, particularly also of trace elements (or heavy metals) which demonstrate that heavy metals are a natural part of minerals and thus also of cement.
To turn raw materials into clinker, they need to undergo several treatments
slides 8, 9 These slides describe the process steps up to "clinker manufactured", in particular the main process steps taking place within the kiln system.
slide 10 Explains the standard cement making process technology of today, i.e. a process including a precalciner kiln and roller mills for raw materials and cement grinding as well as mainly bag filter technology for process dedusting. Other (historic but still in use) processes are described in the annexes.
slide 11 Provides a closer look at the main equipment of any cement process, the kiln system, and introduces the respective terminology.
Firing a cement kiln: feeding continuous streams of uniform quality combustible materials
slide 12 This slide explains the desired main characteristics of conventional and alternative fuels and demonstrates that each and any fuel, prior to use (= co-processing) has to
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slide 13 Gives the only applicable feed points for fuels to a cement kiln system.
slide 14 Provides a block diagram of clinker, cement and concrete manufacturing together with approximate material flow data to provide an impression of those important material flows linked to cement and concrete.
formation in the calcining stage. All SO2 emission stem from volatile sulphur compounds in the raw materials roasted off during preheating.
13 No. 4: atmospheric emissions largely given by roasting off of volatile raw material components
slide 19 This slide clearly demonstrates that all emissions of a cement kiln system are from volatilizable (by heat) components in the raw materials (with the exception of NOx which comes from the high temperature combustion of natural and alternative fuels. The need of regulating emissions from modern cement kilns is therefore independent of the type of fuels used.
15 No. 6: all trace elements (heavy metals) safely embedded in final product
slides 21, 22 Also heavy metals are safely embedded in clinker, cement and concrete and do not leach out of the concrete, i.e. do not travel back to the living environment. Concrete could therefore be used (abused?!!) as a final storage for heavy metals. This is detrimental to the interest of the cement industry which aims to preserve the recyclability of concrete.
17 No. 8: reduction of country CO2 emissions through alternative fuels (AF) utilization
slide 24
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Waste derived/alternative fuels often are biomass fuels or include biomass components and thus contribute to the reduction of CO2 emissions thus assisting effectively national efforts to reduce CO2 emissions.
19 Emissions
slides 30 to 34 Rough information on effects, characteristics, historic cases and origin from within the cement industry of various air pollutants are given as a short introduction to the issue.
21 Air quality
slides 37 to 40 Basically, a country defines its air quality (or immission) target values (e.g. as proposed by WHO) and measures them continuously with an air quality observation network (measuring stations). If the target values are not achieved, air emission limit values are set by the authorities for different types of emitters and for the various emission components. The authorities also define the emission measuring and evaluation methods. If after some years (e.g. 10) the air quality targets are reached, the emission limit values can remain as they were. If not, they are tightened according to requirements and in agreement with the stakeholders.
FAQ
Q: What requirements do conventional and alternative cement raw materials and fuels need to fulfill to make them suitable for cement production?
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FAQ
A: Alternative raw materials and alternative fuel ashes must chemically fit into the existing raw mix, i.e. not change its composition (and thus the quality characteristics of the product) intolerably. The contents of the raw materials of volatilizable components (pyritic sulfur, organics, mercury, etc.) should not cause the exhaust gases to exceed emission limit values or, in the case of alternative materials, to greatly exceed the baseline emissions, i.e. the emissions without alternative materials. Alternative fuels should be low in chlorines and close to nil in mercury. All materials (and all respective handling and process equipment) must comply with the applicable OH&S standards (special focus on hazardous, alternative fuels). All materials should not impair the kiln operational stability and its availability.
Q: Are heavy metal emissions a problem in the cement industry? Which factors are responsible for changes in heavy metal emissions from cement kiln stacks?
A: With the exception of a few isolated mercury cases (if compared with the European WID limits), there are no problems known with heavy metal emissions from modern cement kilns. Chromium inputs should be kept low for health reasons in the application of the final product (concrete). Heavy metals are natural components of raw materials and fuels. Those volatilized in the kiln system from the fuels and raw materials are trapped (adsorbed) by the pulverized raw materials in the preheater / precalciner / raw mill system and fed back to the process via the kiln dedusting equipment. 80% of the heavy metal analyses of clean gas dusts remain below detection limits. Heavy metal emission changes are mainly due to dedusting efficiency changes.
Q: In what respect do historic-but still in use cement production processes differ from the today's standard process (process technology, energy consumption, environmental friendliness)?
A: Some processes use wet raw materials preparation or dry preparation with subsequent water based raw meal granulation. All these processes are thermally less efficient. Also, none of their preheater solutions can match the cyclone preheater / precalciner with regard to retention capacity for emission components. The today's standard cement production technology is clearly best available technology (BAT).
FAQ
adequate fuel preparation whereby also water and ash content issues are of importance. The higher the share of a fuel type in the total fuel mix, the better the preparation (pre-processing) needs to be.
Q: Are there other advantages of the use of cement kilns for co-processing selected waste streams than those mentioned? By the way, what are the disadvantages?
A: One important aspect has not been mentioned: It is the economic advantage of using already existing equipment for dealing with a new task. Disadvantages? Close to none, in our perception. Some people fear, however, that a cement kiln solution for selected waste streams would not be BAT, would be operated irresponsibly / unprofessionally by the cement plant operator or would delay total solutions for all waste streams.
Q: Hard to believe that emissions will not change to the worse, even if everything is done correctly. Are there cases where AFR use had to be stopped for any reasons or where permits where denied at all or not renewed?
A: Yes, a few such cases are known. They usually result from the opposition of people living in the vicinity of cement plants with a poor environmental record (dirty stacks, buildings, roads) and corresponding poor communication behavior.
Q: Why are some people against waste incineration in general and against co-processing in particular?
A: Wastes are raw materials, but in the wrong place and often also not in the right form. They should preferably be reused again as raw materials (see "waste hierarchy"). So, some people accept incineration only as a last link in the waste management chain and require priority implementation of the upstream links first. They perceive coincineration as a door opener to direct incineration thus bypassing the desired waste hierarchy.
Q: Sometimes the term of "bypass technology" is found together with coprocessing/co-incineration/co-firing. What is this all about?
A: In the cement industry two types of bypass systems are distinguished: the kiln bypass and the "DOM-dust-to-cement-mill" bypass. The kiln bypass system guides part of the rotary kiln dust and gases to a quench and dedusting system. Aim is, for operational reasons, to limit chlorine and sulfur circulation in the kiln system to non disturbing levels. The extracted dust is enriched in mainly chlorines and sulfur and is added to the A GTZ-Holcim Public Private Partnership managed by FHNW v2.0, 10.07.2009 7 of 9
FAQ
cement mill (final product) or landfilled. The DOM-dust bypass (as the name implies) extracts the "direct operation mode" dust from the main dedusting equipment and feeds it to the cement mill. Aim is to limit the enrichment of volatile elements (mainly heavy metals and organics) in the fine dust fraction (for reasons of potential emissions and of OH&S issues).
Q: How can alternative fuels utilization contribute to CO2 reduction of the industry or a country?
A: Some alternative fuels are renewable alternative fuels, i.e. their carbon content originates from the CO2 in the atmosphere (biomass as e.g. waste wood, rice husks, nut shells, animal meal, etc.). In addition, presently also CO2 and other greenhouse gases from waste disposal and incineration are not counted in national CO2 balances. Therefore, using biomass and waste derived alternative fuels, contributes to (calculated) low emission numbers.
Q: If cement kiln emission "do not change" when using AFR, why do authorities often regulate emissions together with the issuing of a respective permit?
A: There are countries with a still poorly developed environmental legislation. Authorities may then want to profit from the opportunity to correct such shortcomings (at least partially). Also, they may belive that emission increases would inevitably accompany an alternative fuels co-processing scheme or they may feel public pressure from stakeholders to play an active role. Finally also the cement plant operator may wish to have to stick to emission limit values in order to demonstrate compliance with responsible and efficient lawmaking.
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