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INTRODUCTION
Anxiety is a feeling of apprehension, fear, or worry. Some fears and worries are
justified, such as worry about a loved one. Anxiety may occur without a cause, or it may
occur based on a real situation, but may be out of proportion to what would normally be
expected. Severe anxiety can have a serious impact on daily life. Anxiety can be
accompanied by a variety of physical symptoms. Most commonly, these symptoms are
related to the heart, lungs, and nervous system. You may feel as if you are having a heart
attack.
Panic disorders are composed of discrete episodes of panic attacks. Panic attacks are
frightening but fortunately physically harmless episodes. They can occur at random or
after a person is exposed to various events that may "trigger" a panic attack. They peak in
intensity very rapidly and go away with or without medical help. As with most behavioral
illnesses, the causes of panic attacks are many. Certainly there is evidence that the
tendency to have panic attacks can sometimes be inherited. However, there is also
evidence that panic may be a learned response and that the attacks can be initiated in
otherwise healthy people simply given the right set of circumstances. The American
Psychiatric Association’s official Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
IV (DSM-IV) defines a panic attack as a discrete period of intense fear or discomfort, in
which 4 (or more) of the following symptoms develop abruptly and reach a peak within
10 minutes:
• Palpitations, pounding heart, or fast heart rate
• Sweating
• Trembling and shaking
• Sensations of shortness of breath or smothering
• Feelings of choking
• Chest pain or discomfort
• Nausea or abdominal distress
• Feeling dizzy, unsteady, lightheaded, or faint
• Derealization (feelings of unreality) or depersonalization (being detached
from oneself)
• Fear of losing control or going crazy
• Fear of dying
• Paresthesias (numbness or tingling sensations)
• Chills or hot flashes
Some of these symptoms will most likely be present in a panic attack. The attacks can
be so disabling that the person is unable to express to others what is happening to them. A
doctor might also note various signs of panic: The person may appear terrified or shaky
or be hyperventilating (deep, rapid breathing causing dizziness). Recent literature
suggests that men and women may experience different symptoms during an attack.
Women tend to experience a predominance of respiratory symptoms compared to men.
I have chosen this disorder, not only to fulfill the requirements of psychiatric-mental
health nursing, but also to learn about the disorder: that almost 80% of the world
population experiences but don’t know that they are suffering from it and what I have
been diagnosed with and suffering from for the 6 months. I expect that after this case
study I can gain adequate information on distinguishing panic disorders from other
disorders and help those that suffer from it to manage it.
II. OBJECTIVES
A. STUDENT – CENTERED
After 2 weeks of student nurse – client interaction, the student nurse will be able to:
1. establish rapport with the client.
2. assess for client’s needs.
3. prioritize the identified problems.
4. involve in planning the management of his problem.
5. implement the plan of management of the client’s problem.
B. CLIENT – CENTERED
After 2 weeks of student nurse – client interaction, the client will be able to:
1. establish trust with the student nurse.
2. verbalize feelings about his condition and being confined in the hospital.
3. gain insight about his disorder.
4. explain his current stress management techniques.
5. demonstrate new methods of stress management as taught by the student nurse.
1. PERSONAL HISTORY
1.1 PATIENT’S PROFILE
a. Name: Roberto Villasor
b. Age: 56 years old
c. Sex: Male
d. Civil Status: Separated
e. Religion: Roman Catholic
f. Date of Admission: July 28, 2004
g. Room No: XII
h. Complaints: Palpitations, agitation, couldn’t breathe, insomnia, visual and auditory
hallucinations, imagines some harm coming to him.
i. Diagnosis: Panic Disorder
According to Jean Piaget, middle age belongs to the individuals thinking moves to
abstract and theoretical subjects in the formal operations period. Thinking can venture
into such subjects as achieving world peace finding justice and seeking meaning in life.
Adolescence can organize their thoughts in their minds; they have the capacity to reason
with respect to possibilities. New Cognitive powers allow the adolescent to do more far-
reaching problem solving including their futures and that of others; this thinking matures
with experience in the adult years.
Piaget believed that the sequencing of these stages occurs for all children but that
the rate of achievement may vary. He also theorized that this would be true in all cultures.
He acknowledged that biological maturation plays a role in this developmental theory but
believed that rates of development depend upon the intellectual stimulation and challenge
in the environment of the child.
Changes in the cognitive function of middle adults are rare except with illness or
trauma. The middle adult can learn new skills and information. Some middle adults enter
educational or vocational programs to prepare themselves for entering the job market or
changing jobs.
b. Psychosocial Ch44444444444psychosocial changes in the middle adult may involve
expected events, such as children moving away from home, or unexpected events such as
marital separation or the death of a close friend. These changes may result in stress that
can affect the middle adult’s overall level of health. Nurses should assess the major life
changes occurring in the middle adult and the impact that the changes have on that
person’s state of health. Nursing assessment should also include individual
psychosocial factors such as coping mechanisms and sources of social support.
In the middle adult years, as children depart from the household, the family enters
the post parental family stage. Time and financial demands on the parents decreased, and
the couple faces and the task of redefining their own relationship. As grandchildren
arrive, grand parenting styles must be chosen. It is during this period that many middle
age adults begin to take in a healthier lifestyle. Although not advisable to wait until this
stage in life to think about health promotion, “better late than never” those apply.
Assessment of health promotion needs for the middle adult include adequate rest, leisure
activities, regular exercise, good nutrition, reduction or cessation in the use of tobacco or
alcohol, and regular screening examinations. Assessment of the middle adult’s social
environment is also important, including relationship concerns; communication and
relationships with children, grandchildren, and aging parents; and caregiver concerns
with their own aging or disabled parents.
c. Sexual Changes
While it has long been recognized that women experience a dramatic physical and
hormonal change in middle adulthood, it has only recently come to light than some men
also experience physical and hormonal changes. From Dr. Michael Zals book, The
Sandwich Generation, (1992) the"current awareness may be due to the fact that more
men now live to reach the period of life from age 40 to 60 when a general slowing of
physical processes may be expected". Many of these changes require men to adjust
psychologically more than physically.
The hormonal change for men happens over a longer and more gradual period of time.
This is why men do not see a sudden, dramatic change. Typically men begin to see
changes in the 40's and continue into the 60's. The male hormone, testosterone, starts to
decrease and the pituitary gonadotropine hormone increases. Due to this hormonal
change some men may experience the following:
• One may experience an increase in time to achieve an erection.
• Erections may not be as complete as in the past.
• More direct stimulation may be required to achieve an erection.
• The overall decline in sexual potency.
These are all normal changes due to aging. It is crucial that men and their spouses
treat these changes as an opportunity to try new things. Dr. Zal states, "The quality and
enjoyment of sex does not have to change in mid-life." Many couples, for example, can
bring new ideas to improve foreplay, allow their imagination to provide a more romantic
mood with less distractions, and engage in changes that will enhance the intimacy
between them and their spouse.
When a couple works together to understand the changes that all people
experience in life, a smoother transition is made possible. A couple must look at these
changes as positive. This will help to ease the tension of the sexual changes we all will
experience sooner or later.
Cerebrum
Most high-level brain functions take place in the cerebrum. Its two large
hemispheres make up approximately 85 percent of the brain's weight. The exterior
surface of the cerebrum, the cerebral cortex, is a convoluted, or folded, grayish layer of
cell bodies known as the gray matter. The gray matter covers an underlying mass of fibers
called the white matter. The convolutions are made up of ridgelike bulges, known as gyri,
separated by small grooves called sulci and larger grooves called fissures. Approximately
two-thirds of the cortical surface is hidden in the folds of the sulci. The extensive
convolutions enable a very large surface area of brain cortex—about 1.5 m2 (16 ft2) in an
adult—to fit within the cranium. The pattern of these convolutions is similar, although
not identical, in all humans.
The two cerebral hemispheres are partially separated from each other by a deep
fold known as the longitudinal fissure. Communication between the two hemispheres is
through several concentrated bundles of axons, called commissures, the largest of which
is the corpus callosum.
Several major sulci divide the cortex into distinguishable regions. The central
sulcus, or Rolandic fissure, runs from the middle of the top of each hemisphere
downward, forward, and toward another major sulcus, the lateral (“side”), or Sylvian,
sulcus. These and other sulci and gyri divide the cerebrum into five lobes: the frontal,
parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes and the insula.
The frontal lobe is the largest of the five and consists of the entire cortex in front
of the central sulcus. Broca's area, a part of the cortex related to speech, is located in the
frontal lobe. The parietal lobe consists of the cortex behind the central sulcus to a sulcus
near the back of the cerebrum known as the parieto-occipital sulcus. The parieto-occipital
sulcus, in turn, forms the front border of the occipital lobe, which is the rearmost part of
the cerebrum. The temporal lobe is to the side of and below the lateral sulcus. Wernicke's
area, a part of the cortex related to the understanding of language, is located in the
temporal lobe. The insula lies deep within the folds of the lateral sulcus.
The cerebrum receives information from all the sense organs and sends motor
commands (signals that result in activity in the muscles or glands) to other parts of the
brain and the rest of the body. Motor commands are transmitted by the motor cortex, a
strip of cerebral cortex extending from side to side across the top of the cerebrum just in
front of the central sulcus. The sensory cortex, a parallel strip of cerebral cortex just in
back of the central sulcus, receives input from the sense organs.
Many other areas of the cerebral cortex have also been mapped according to their
specific functions, such as vision, hearing, speech, emotions, language, and other aspects
of perceiving, thinking, and remembering. Cortical regions known as associative cortex
are responsible for integrating multiple inputs, processing the information, and carrying
out complex responses.
Cerebellum
The cerebellum coordinates body movements. Located at the lower back of the
brain beneath the occipital lobes, the cerebellum is divided into two lateral (side-by-side)
lobes connected by a fingerlike bundle of white fibers called the vermis. The outer layer,
or cortex, of the cerebellum consists of fine folds called folia. As in the cerebrum, the
outer layer of cortical gray matter surrounds a deeper layer of white matter and nuclei
(groups of nerve cells). Three fiber bundles called cerebellar peduncles connect the
cerebellum to the three parts of the brain stem—the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla
oblongata.
The cerebellum coordinates voluntary movements by fine-tuning commands from
the motor cortex in the cerebrum. The cerebellum also maintains posture and balance by
controlling muscle tone and sensing the position of the limbs. All motor activity, from
hitting a baseball to fingering a violin, depends on the cerebellum.
Thalamus and Hypothalamus
The thalamus and the hypothalamus lie underneath the cerebrum and connect it to
the brain stem. The thalamus consists of two rounded masses of gray tissue lying within
the middle of the brain, between the two cerebral hemispheres. The thalamus is the main
relay station for incoming sensory signals to the cerebral cortex and for outgoing motor
signals from it. All sensory input to the brain, except that of the sense of smell, connects
to individual nuclei of the thalamus.
The hypothalamus lies beneath the thalamus on the midline at the base of the
brain. It regulates or is involved directly in the control of many of the body's vital drives
and activities, such as eating, drinking, temperature regulation, sleep, emotional behavior,
and sexual activity. It also controls the function of internal body organs by means of the
autonomic nervous system, interacts closely with the pituitary gland, and helps
coordinate activities of the brain stem.
Brain Stem
The brain stem is evolutionarily the most primitive part of the brain and is
responsible for sustaining the basic functions of life, such as breathing and blood
pressure. It includes three main structures lying between and below the two cerebral
hemispheres—the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.
Midbrain
The topmost structure of the brain stem is the midbrain. It contains major relay
stations for neurons transmitting signals to the cerebral cortex, as well as many reflex
centers—pathways carrying sensory (input) information and motor (output) commands.
Relay and reflex centers for visual and auditory (hearing) functions are located in the top
portion of the midbrain. A pair of nuclei called the superior colliculus control reflex
actions of the eye, such as blinking, opening and closing the pupil, and focusing the lens.
A second pair of nuclei called the inferior colliculus, control auditory reflexes, such as
adjusting the ear to the volume of sound. At the bottom of the midbrain are reflex and
relay centers relating to pain, temperature, and touch, as well as several regions
associated with the control of movement, such as the red nucleus and the substantia nigra.
Pons
Continuous with and below the midbrain and directly in front of the cerebellum is
a prominent bulge in the brain stem called the pons. The pons consists of large bundles of
nerve fibers that connect the two halves of the cerebellum and also connect each side of
the cerebellum with the opposite-side cerebral hemisphere. The pons serves mainly as a
relay station linking the cerebral cortex and the medulla oblongata.
Medulla Oblongata
The long, stalklike lowermost portion of the brain stem is called the medulla
oblongata. At the top, it is continuous with the pons and the midbrain; at the bottom, it
makes a gradual transition into the spinal cord at the foramen magnum. Sensory and
motor nerve fibers connecting the brain and the rest of the body cross over to the opposite
side as they pass through the medulla. Thus, the left half of the brain communicates with
the right half of the body and the right half of the brain with the left half of the body.
Reticular Formation
Running up the brain stem from the medulla oblongata through the pons and the
midbrain is a netlike formation of nuclei known as the reticular formation. The reticular
formation controls respiration, cardiovascular function, digestion, levels of alertness, and
patterns of sleep. It also determines which parts of the constant flow of sensory
information into the body are received by the cerebrum.
Brain Cells
There are two main types of brain cells: neurons and neuroglia. Neurons are
responsible for the transmission and analysis of all electrochemical communication
within the brain and other parts of the nervous system. Each neuron is composed of a cell
body called a soma, a major fiber called an axon, and a system of branches called
dendrites. Axons also called nerve fibers, convey electrical signals away from the soma
and can be up to 1 m (3.3 ft) in length. Most axons are covered with a protective sheath
of myelin, a substance made of fats and protein, which insulates the axon. Myelinated
axons conduct neuronal signals faster than do unmyelinated axons. Dendrites convey
electrical signals toward the soma, are shorter than axons, and are usually multiple and
branching.
Neuroglial cells are twice as numerous as neurons and account for half of the
brain's weight. Neuroglia (from glia, Greek for “glue”) provide structural support to the
neurons. Neuroglial cells also form myelin, guide developing neurons, take up chemicals
involved in cell-to-cell communication, and contribute to the maintenance of the
environment around neurons.
Cranial Nerves
Twelve pairs of cranial nerves arise symmetrically from the base of the brain and
are numbered, from front to back, in the order in which they arise. They connect mainly
with structures of the head and neck, such as the eyes, ears, nose, mouth, tongue, and
throat. Some are motor nerves, controlling muscle movement; some are sensory nerves,
conveying information from the sense organs; and others contain fibers for both sensory
and motor impulses. The first and second pairs of cranial nerves—the olfactory (smell)
nerve and the optic (vision) nerve—carry sensory information from the nose and eyes,
respectively, to the undersurface of the cerebral hemispheres. The other ten pairs of
cranial nerves originate in or end in the brain stem.
Vision
The visual system of humans is one of the most advanced sensory systems in the
body. More information is conveyed visually than by any other means. In addition to the
structures of the eye itself, several cortical regions—collectively called primary visual
and visual associative cortex—as well as the midbrain are involved in the visual system.
Conscious processing of visual input occurs in the primary visual cortex, but reflexive—
that is, immediate and unconscious—responses occur at the superior colliculus in the
midbrain. Associative cortical regions—specialized regions that can associate, or
integrate, multiple inputs—in the parietal and frontal lobes along with parts of the
temporal lobe are also involved in the processing of visual information and the
establishment of visual memories.
Language
Language involves specialized cortical regions in a complex interaction that
allows the brain to comprehend and communicate abstract ideas. The motor cortex
initiates impulses that travel through the brain stem to produce audible sounds.
Neighboring regions of motor cortex, called the supplemental motor cortex, are
involved in sequencing and coordinating sounds. Broca's area of the frontal lobe is
responsible for the sequencing of language elements for output. The comprehension of
language is dependent upon Wernicke's area of the temporal lobe. Other cortical circuits
connect these areas.
Memory
Memory is usually considered a diffusely stored associative process—that is, it
puts together information from many different sources. Although research has failed to
identify specific sites in the brain as locations of individual memories, certain brain areas
are critical for memory to function. Immediate recall—the ability to repeat short series of
words or numbers immediately after hearing them—is thought to be located in the
auditory associative cortex. Short-term memory—the ability to retain a limited amount of
information for up to an hour—is located in the deep temporal lobe. Long-term memory
probably involves exchanges between the medial temporal lobe, various cortical regions,
and the midbrain.
APPRAISAL OF STRESSOR
COPING RESOURCES
COPING MECHANISMS
Constructive Destructive
4. NURSING INTERVENTION
Taking care of panic attacks at home is possible, but be careful not to mistake another
serious illness (such as a heart attack) for a panic attack. In fact, this is the dilemma that
doctors face when people experiencing panic are brought to a hospital's emergency
department or the clinic.
If a person has been diagnosed with panic attacks in the past and is familiar with the
signs and symptoms, the following techniques may help the person stop the attack.
• First, relax your shoulders and become conscious of any tension that you may be
feeling in your muscles.
• Then, with gentle reassurance, progressively tense and relax all the large muscle
groups. Tighten your left leg with a deep breath in, for example, hold it, then
release the leg muscles and the breath. Move on to the other leg. Move up the
body, one muscle group at a time.
• Slow down your breathing. This may best be done blowing out every breath
through pursed lips as if blowing out a candle. Also, place your hands on your
stomach to feel the rapidity of your breathing. This may allow you to further
control your symptoms.
• Tell yourself (or someone else if you are trying this technique with someone) that
you are not "going crazy." If you are concerned about not being able to breathe,
remember that if you are able to talk, you are able to breathe.
• If a person is diagnosed with any medical illness, especially heart disease, home
treatment is not appropriate. Even if the person has a history of panic attacks,
home care is not appropriate if there is any new or worrisome symptom.
Medical Treatment
Generally, panic attacks are treated with reassurance and relaxation techniques. By
definition, panic attacks last less than an hour, so many times a person already feels much
better by the time he or she makes it to the doctor's office. Nevertheless, because the
diagnosis is made by excluding more dangerous causes, people may be given medications
during their attack.
• If the doctor is suspicious of a cardiac (heart) cause, then the person may be given
aspirin and various blood pressure medicines. An IV line may be started and
fluids given. Some doctors will prescribe various antianxiety medicines such as
diazepam (Valium) or lorazepam (Ativan) during the evaluation.
• Once the diagnosis of panic attack is made, however, the person may be surprised
that no medicines are prescribed. Before medications are started, the person
requires further evaluation by a mental health professional to check for the
presence of other disorders. These may include anxiety disorders, depression, or
panic disorder (a different diagnosis than panic attack).
The disorder may be long-standing and difficult to treat. Although some people
with this disorder may not be cured with treatment, most can expect rapid improvement
with drug and behavioral therapy. The prognosis of the client is good because he is
learning to adapt to his state and learning to manage it.
B. NURSING EDUCATION
This case study will be able to fulfill the future student nurses’ hunger to learn
about panic disorders which is very rampant in the world today especially among the
youth. This will help them be aware of the essence of the panic disorder to the person
affected.
C. NURSING RESEARCH
This case study suggests that further research should be done to further
understand the causes, both physiological and psychological, and to understand the
therapies that each person should undergo, since different people with panic disorders
respond to different kinds of therapies.
VIII. BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Keltner, Norman L. et. Al. Psychiatric Nursing. 4th edition. Missouri: Mosby Inc.
2003
E. Shives, Louise Rebraca and Isaacs, Ann. Basic Concepts of Psychiatric – Mental
Health Nursing. 5th edition. USA Lippincott, Williams, Wilkens. 2002