Nylon is a thermoplastic, silky material, first used commercially in a nylon-bristled toothbrush (1938), followed more famously by women's stockings

("nylons"; 1940). It is made of repeating units linked by amide bonds and is frequently referred to as polyamide (PA). Nylon was the first commercially successful synthetic polymer. There are two common methods of making nylon for fiber applications. In one approach, molecules with an acid (-COOH) group on each end are reacted with molecules containing amine (-NH2) groups on each end. The resulting nylon is named on the basis of the number of carbon atoms separating the two acid groups and the two amines. These are formed into monomers of intermediate molecular weight, which are then reacted to form long polymer chains. Nylon was intended to be a synthetic replacement for silk and substituted for it in many different products after silk became scarce during World War II. It replaced silk in military applications such as parachutes and flak vests, and was used in many types of vehicle tires. Nylon fibers are used in many applications, including fabrics, bridal veils, carpets, musical strings, and rope. Solid nylon is used for mechanical parts such as machine screws, gears and other low- to medium-stress components previously cast in metal. Engineering-grade nylon is processed by extrusion, casting, and injection molding. Solid nylon is used in hair combs. Type 6,6 Nylon 101 is the most common commercial grade of nylon, and Nylon 6 is the most common commercial grade of molded nylon. For use in tools such as the spudger, a nylon is available in glass-filled variants which increase structural and impact strength and rigidity, and molybdenum sulfide-filled variants which increase lubricity. Aramids are another type of polyamide with quite different chain structures which include aromatic groups in the main chain. Such polymers make excellent ballistic fibers.

Chemistry
Nylons are condensation copolymers formed by reacting equal parts of a diamine and a dicarboxylic acid, so that amides are formed at both ends of each monomer in a process analogous to polypeptide biopolymers. Chemical elements included are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. The numerical suffix specifies the numbers of carbons donated by the monomers; the diamine first and the diacid second. The most common variant is nylon 6-6 which refers to the fact that the diamine (hexamethylene diamine, IUPAC name: hexane-1,6-diamine) and the diacid (adipic acid, IUPAC name: hexanedioic acid) each donate 6 carbons to the polymer chain. As with other regular copolymers like polyesters and polyurethanes, the "repeating unit" consists of one of each monomer, so that they alternate in the chain. Since each monomer in this copolymer has the same reactive group on both ends, the direction of the amide bond reverses between each monomer, unlike natural polyamide proteins which have overall directionality: C terminal N terminal. In the laboratory, nylon 6-6 can also be made using adipoyl chloride instead of adipic. It is difficult to get the proportions exactly correct, and deviations can lead to chain termination at molecular weights less than a desirable 10,000 daltons (u). To overcome this

problem, a crystalline, solid "nylon salt" can be formed at room temperature, using an exact 1:1 ratio of the acid and the base to neutralize each other. Heated to 285 C (545 F), the salt reacts to form nylon polymer. Above 20,000 daltons, it is impossible to spin the chains into yarn, so to combat this, some acetic acid is added to react with a free amine end group during polymer elongation to limit the molecular weight. In practice, and especially for 6,6, the monomers are often combined in a water solution. The water used to make the solution is evaporated under controlled conditions, and the increasing concentration of "salt" is polymerized to the final molecular weight. DuPont patented[1] nylon 6,6, so in order to compete, other companies (particularly the German BASF) developed the homopolymer nylon 6, or polycaprolactam not a condensation polymer, but formed by a ring-opening polymerization (alternatively made by polymerizing aminocaproic acid). The peptide bond within the caprolactam is broken with the exposed active groups on each side being incorporated into two new bonds as the monomer becomes part of the polymer backbone. In this case, all amide bonds lie in the same direction, but the properties of nylon 6 are sometimes indistinguishable from those of nylon 6,6 except for melt temperature and some fiber properties in products like carpets and textiles. There is also nylon 9. The 428 F (220 C) melting point of nylon 6 is lower than the 509 F (265 C) melting point of nylon 6,6.[2] Nylon 5,10, made from pentamethylene diamine and sebacic acid, was studied by Carothers even before nylon 6,6 and has superior properties, but is more expensive to make. In keeping with this naming convention, "nylon 6,12" (N-6,12) or "PA-6,12" is a copolymer of a 6C diamine and a 12C diacid. Similarly for N-5,10 N-6,11; N-10,12, etc. Other nylons include copolymerized dicarboxylic acid/diamine products that are not based upon the monomers listed above. For example, some aromatic nylons are polymerized with the addition of diacids like terephthalic acid ( Kevlar, Twaron) or isophthalic acid ( Nomex), more commonly associated with polyesters. There are copolymers of N-6,6/N6; copolymers of N-6,6/N-6/N-12; and others. Because of the way polyamides are formed, nylon would seem to be limited to unbranched, straight chains. But "star" branched nylon can be produced by the condensation of dicarboxylic acids with polyamines having three or more amino groups. The general reaction is:

A molecule of water is given off and the nylon is formed. Its properties are determined by the R and R' groups in the monomers. In nylon 6,6, R = 4C and R' = 6C alkanes, but one also has to include the two carboxyl carbons in the diacid to get the number it donates to the chain. In Kevlar, both R and R' are benzene rings

Concepts of nylon production

The first approach: combining molecules with an acid (COOH) group on each end are reacted with two chemicals that contain amine (NH2) groups on each end. This process creates nylon 6,6, made of hexamethylene diamine with six carbon atoms and adipic acid. The second approach: a compound has an acid at one end and an amine at the other and is polymerized to form a chain with repeating units of (-NH-[CH2]n-CO-)x. In other words, nylon 6 is made from a single six-carbon substance called caprolactam. In this equation, if n = 5, then nylon 6 is the assigned name (may also be referred to as polymer). The characteristic features of nylon 6,6 include:

Pleats and creases can be heat-set at higher temperatures More compact molecular structure Better weathering properties; better sunlight resistance Softer "Hand" Higher melting point (256 C/492.8 F) Superior colorfastness Excellent abrasion resistance

On the other hand, nylon 6 is easy to dye, more readily fades; it has a higher impact resistance, a more rapid moisture absorption, greater elasticity and elastic recovery.

[edit] Characteristics

Variation of luster: nylon has the ability to be very lustrous, semilustrous or dull. Durability: its high tenacity fibers are used for seatbelts, tire cords, ballistic cloth and other uses. High elongation Excellent abrasion resistance Highly resilient (nylon fabrics are heat-set) Paved the way for easy-care garments High resistance to insects, fungi, animals, as well as molds, mildew, rot and many chemicals Used in carpets and nylon stockings Melts instead of burning Used in many military applications Good specific strength Transparent to infrared light (12dB)[3]

Bulk properties
Above their melting temperatures, Tm, thermoplastics like nylon are amorphous solids or viscous fluids in which the chains approximate random coils. Below Tm, amorphous regions alternate with regions which are lamellar crystals.[4] The amorphous regions contribute

elasticity and the crystalline regions contribute strength and rigidity. The planar amide (CO-NH-) groups are very polar, so nylon forms multiple hydrogen bonds among adjacent strands. Because the nylon backbone is so regular and symmetrical, especially if all the amide bonds are in the trans configuration, nylons often have high crystallinity and make excellent fibers. The amount of crystallinity depends on the details of formation, as well as on the kind of nylon. Apparently it can never be quenched from a melt as a completely amorphous solid.

Hydrogen bonding in Nylon 6,6 (in mauve). Nylon 6,6 can have multiple parallel strands aligned with their neighboring peptide bonds at coordinated separations of exactly 6 and 4 carbons for considerable lengths, so the carbonyl oxygens and amide hydrogens can line up to form interchain hydrogen bonds repeatedly, without interruption (see the figure opposite). Nylon 5,10 can have coordinated runs of 5 and 8 carbons. Thus parallel (but not antiparallel) strands can participate in extended, unbroken, multi-chain -pleated sheets, a strong and tough supermolecular structure similar to that found in natural silk fibroin and the -keratins in feathers. (Proteins have only an amino acid -carbon separating sequential -CO-NH- groups.) Nylon 6 will form uninterrupted H-bonded sheets with mixed directionalities, but the -sheet wrinkling is somewhat different. The three-dimensional disposition of each alkane hydrocarbon chain[disambiguation needed ] depends on rotations about the 109.47 tetrahedral bonds of singly bonded carbon atoms. When extruded into fibers through pores in an industrial spinneret, the individual polymer chains tend to align because of viscous flow. If subjected to cold drawing afterwards, the fibers align further, increasing their crystallinity, and the material acquires additional tensile strength.[5] In practice, nylon fibers are most often drawn using heated rolls at high speeds. Block nylon tends to be less crystalline, except near the surfaces due to shearing stresses during formation. Nylon is clear and colorless, or milky, but is easily dyed. Multistranded nylon cord and rope is slippery and tends to unravel. The ends can be melted and fused with a heat source such as a flame or electrode to prevent this.

When dry, polyamide is a good electrical insulator. However, polyamide is hygroscopic. The absorption of water will change some of the material's properties such as its electrical resistance. Nylon is less absorbent than wool or cotton.

Historical uses
The worn out nylon stockings will be reprocessed and made into parachutes for army fliers c. 1942 Bill Pittendreigh, DuPont, and other individuals and corporations worked diligently during the first few months of World War II to find a way to replace Asian silk and hemp with nylon in parachutes. It was also used to make tires, tents, ropes, ponchos, and other military supplies. It was even used in the production of a high-grade paper for U.S. currency. At the outset of the war, cotton accounted for more than 80% of all fibers used and manufactured, and wool fibers accounted for nearly all of the rest. By August 1945, manufactured fibers had taken a market share of 25%, at the expense of cotton. Some of the terpolymers based upon nylon are used every day in packaging. Nylon has been used for meat wrappings and sausage sheaths.

[Use in composites
Nylon can be used as the matrix material in composite materials, with reinforcing fibers like glass or carbon fiber; such a composite has a higher density than pure nylon. Such thermoplastic composites (25% glass fiber) are frequently used in car components next to the engine, such as intake manifolds, where the good heat resistance of such materials makes them feasible competitors to metals.

Hydrolysis and degradation

All nylons are susceptible to hydrolysis, especially by strong acids, a reaction essentially the reverse of the synthetic reaction shown above. The molecular weight of nylon products so attacked drops fast, and cracks form quickly at the affected zones. Lower members of the nylons (such as nylon 6) are affected more than higher members such as nylon 12. This means that nylon parts cannot be used in contact with sulfuric acid for example, such as the electrolyte used in lead-acid batteries. When being molded, nylon must be dried to prevent hydrolysis in the molding machine barrel since water at high temperatures can also degrade the polymer. The reaction is of the type:

Incineration and recycling

Various nylons break down in fire and form hazardous smoke, and toxic fumes or ash, typically containing hydrogen cyanide. Incinerating nylons to recover the high energy used to create them is usually expensive, so most nylons reach the garbage dumps, decaying very slowly.[6] Some recycling is done on nylon, usually creating pellets for reuse in the industry.[7]

MAKING OF NAYLON

Of course, there are a few more details to the reaction than you see up there in that little picture. To make nylon 6,6 on doesn't need a catalyst, but acids do catalyze the reaction, and wouldn't you know it, one of the monomers is itself an acid. A little reaction happens between two adipic acid molecules. One will donate a proton to a the carbonyl oxygen of another.

. When this oxygen is protonated the carbonyl oxygen becomes much more vulnerable to attack by the nitrogen of our diamine. This happens because our protonated oxygen bears a positive charge. Oxygen does not like to have a positive charge. So it pulls the electrons it shares with the carbonyl toward itself. This leaves the carbonyl carbon lacking electrons, and ready for the amine nitrogen to donate a pair to it:

Click here to see a movie of this reaction. Then the electrons play musical chairs. One of the electron pairs form the carbonyl double bond shifts entirely to the oxygen, taking care of the problem of the positive charge at that atom, but now our nitrogen has a positive charge.

Click here to see a movie of this reaction. So then we get an even more elaborate game of electron musical chairs. The electrons from the hydrogen oxygen bond go back to the oxygen, freeing the proton, regenerating the acid catalyst. Then the carbonyl oxygen shares its newly regained electrons with the carbon atoms, regenerating the carbonyl double bond. Of course, this isn't enough. The oxygen of the hydroxyl group decides to do a little bit of electron shuffling of its own. It takes the pair it shares with the carbon and hogs them to itself, severing the bond between it and the carbon. It then donates a pair of electrons to a hydrogen connected to the nitrogen. That gets this hydrogen thinking. As it now shares a pair of electrons with the oxygen, it sees no need to keep the pair it shares with the nitrogen, so it lets go of that pair, giving it over to the nitrogen. This shift of electrons breaks the bond between the

hydrogen and the nitrogen, and gets rid of the positive charge on that nitrogen. It splits off H2O, and generates the amide-containing dimer. So what does this dimer do? Look close, and you'll see that it has an acid group at one end, and an amine group at the other. This means that it can react with a molecule of the diacid, or a molecule of the diamine. Either way, you get a trimer.

Wanna know a little secret? Our dimer can also react with other dimers, to make a tetramer if it wants to. Or it can react with a trimer to form a pentamer, and it can also react with bigger oligomers. Eventually, when this happens, dimers will grow into trimers, tetramers, and bigger oligomers, and these big oligomers will react with each other, to form even bigger oligomers. This keeps happening until they become big enough to be called polymers.

For the molecules to grow big enough to be called polymers, we have to do this reaction under a vacuum. When we do this, all that by-product water will evaporate

and get sucked away. We need to get rid of the water because of a little rule called Le Chatelier's Principle. Now remember how at the beginning of this little lesson I said that the reaction doesn't need an acid catalyst to take place? The reason we know this is that near the end of the polymerization, when there aren't many acid groups left to be catalysts, the reaction still goes on. You see, the amine can react with the unprotonated carboxylic acids. If this were not so, high molecular weight nylon 66 could not be made without an external catalyst, because the reaction would stop at higher conversions, when there aren't many acid groups left to be catalysts. Wanna know something else? Nylons can also be made from a diamine and a diacid chloride:

This reaction goes by the same mechanism, but you need to add a little bit of acid to act as a catalyst. (When you make nylon the other way, adipic acid acts as the catalyst.) Also, it produces HCl gas as a byproduct rather than water.

Production Process

Pall Recommendations

Nylon 66 fibers for use in textiles, carpet, 1. Hexamethylene Diamine and 5. For the Ti02 slurry in water, and tire cord are produced by extruding Adipic Acid Ultipor GF Plus Profile II cartridge grades RF100

molten polymer through spinnerets and grade U2-20Z is recommended for to RF200 (rated 10-20 m stretching to their final thickness and this feedstream for promoting an absolute) are recommended for weight. efficient nylon salt reaction. nylon 66 manufacture. The make up water should also be filtered 2. Water feed to the nylon salt

The polymer melt must be homogewith Ultipor GF Plus grade U010Z

reactor should be filtered with neous, gel free, and without oversize before mixing with Ti02 . Filtration of Ultipor GF Plus grade U2-20Z additive agglomerates to achieve high Ti02/water slurry stops passage of cartridges to remove harmful quality fiber and yields. Filtration of the large particles which could reduce minerals that will contaminate the process feedstreams, additive slurries, the tensile strength and quality of and polymer melt itself are essential to nylon salt intermediate. the finished fiber.

help eliminate fiber breaks and enhance salt solution a Pall 6. The final nylon 66 polymer Not only is

3./4. For the nylon

fiber strength and uniformity. K backwash filter transfer line" filter typically

Rigimesh grade

fiber quality improved, but production contaminant consists of high pressure pleated rates can be higher with less process levels are high, elements 10-40 m

is recommended if

concentration PMF

downtime. ending on the denier fiber being

followed by an Ultipor GF Plus dep grade U2-20Z polishing filter.

These pro duced. For the finest denier filters remove extrinsic particulate nylo n fiber grade FH100 10 m contamination such as iron oxides abs olute is recommended. PMF and other debris which will reduce ele ments ensure superior quality polymerization efficiency and fiber nylo n fiber, and the ability to spin at quality.

Properties
nylon 66 is a semi-crystalline engineering thermoplastic with universal applications. The main characteristics of Nylon 66 are: It has good sliding properties Is very abrasion resistant Resistant to many oils, greases, diesel, petrol, cleaning fluids Strong and tough Rigid

 Electrically insulating Easily machined Easily welded and bonded The preferred fields for the use of Nylon 66 are: mechanical engineering, automotive engineering, transport and conveyor technology, textile, packaging and paper processing machinery, printing and drinks dispensing machinery, household articles, electrical engineering, building machinery, and agricultural machinery Popular applications for the use of Nylon 66 are: Gear wheels Friction strips Bushes, spindle nuts Piston guides Castors Impact plates Friction bearings Conveyor screws Cam discs Rope pulleys Plug parts Damping plates

Popular applications for the use of Nylon 66 are: Gear wheels Friction strips Bushes, spindle nuts Piston guides Castors Impact plates Friction bearings Conveyor screws Cam discs Rope pulleys

 Plug parts Damping plates

Production for nylon

The chips of nylon polymer are fed through a hopper A, into a spinning vessel B, on an electrically heated grid ( perforated plate) C. The perforations are so small that the chips do not pass through, but when melted, the liquid can pass. The molten nylon collects as a pool D, at the bottom of the vessel. This liquid should not come into contact with oxygen or air and hence nitrogen is introduced into the vessel. The molten polymer is kept at a temperature of about 288 deg C and sucked by a pump F, into a spinnerette E. The molten polymer solidifies as soon as it emerges out of the spinnerette. The filament thus formed pass through a colloing zone, in which cold air G circulates directed towards the filaments. The filaments are then passed through a steam chamber H, to wet them before winding on the bobbin L. Drawing Nylon filaments as obtained are not very strong. They have to tbe drawn 4-7 times their original length. This is done by cold

drawing. The yarn in pulled off from bobbin L through guides M and N, between a pair of rollers O. The speed of rotation of these rollers determines the initial speed. The yarn then goes over a deflector P, and two to three times around roller Q, running at five times the speed than that of O. The yarn subsequently courses through another guide R, and wound on another bobbin which rotates at very high speed, to impart twist in the yarn before being wound. Manufacturing Process of Nylon 6
Manufacturing Process of Nylon 6 Nylon Manufactured in India at present is of this type. This is made from Caprolactum which is made by a series of reactions using products obtained from coal tar Coal Tar--> Benzene--Chlorine--> Chlorobenzene--> Sodium Phenate--HCL--> Phenol-H2 (Nickel)-->Cyclohexanol--Oxidation Air Fe, Zn Catalyst--> Cyclohexanone--> Cyclohexanone Oxime--H2SO4--> Caprolectum Polymerisation Caprolectum is a white flaky solid, melting at 68 deg C and is soluble in water. the polymerisation is carried out in stainless steel cylinders. Hot Caprolectum is mixed with a suspension of pigment, acid promotor and acid chain stopper. The extent of polymerisation depends upon the temperature of polymerisation. The purpose of acid chain stopper is to stop furthur polymerisation so that a desired density of molten polymer may be obtained. The molten polymer is extruded into ribbons and cut into chips. These chips are used for the production of continuous filaments. Melt Spinning Continuous filaments are made by melt spinning. Dry polymer chips are fed to a melt spinning apparatus, wherein one section of the chips fall, into a melting region where they are heated electrically to 250-260 deg C. The molten polymer flows into a conical section to form a pool, which feeds a spinning pump and spinnerette. The pool is kept under an atmosphere of nitrogen to prevent decomposition by air. The molten polymer leaving the pump is filtered before entering the spinnerette which is a stainless steel disc having a number of holes, the number and diameter of which determine the type of yarn formed. Before reaching the machine in which cheese is build up, the filaments are moistened with water to ensure dimensional stability of the final packages. The yarn thus formed is not strong enough and has a very high extensibility. the yarn contains a large number of macro molecules which are unoriented and these must be

oriented so as to lie parallel to the length of the fibre to develop full strength. This is done by stretching the yarn to 3-4 times its original length.

Engineering Plastic Grade

Specification Application Luster R.V. Lot.no. low 2.45 N-140 compounding middle2.71 N-150 compounding BR N-180 compounding high 3.3 BOPA N-190 fishnet tire cord Spinning Grade Specification Application Luster R.V. Lot.no. BR N-130 FDY SD N-131 MOY low 2.45 HOY FD N-136 ATY carpet yarn BR middle2.71 N-160 high tenacity yarn Properties Purpose For spinning High Tenacity High Tenacity & Film For engineering

Product Features Good mechanical properties, excellent impact properties Big surface hardness, small friction coefficient Good electricity properties, anti-low temperature properties Good chemical resistance,and oil resistance

Product Features Good quality stability Good evenness of molecular arrangment, low variation rate Low oligomer, low yarn breakage rate

Specific Viscosity Moisture (ppm) Extraction (%) TiO2(%) NH2 - (meq/kg) (Spec.) (R.V.) BR 0 abt. 45 SD 2.45 800 0.6 0.3 abt. 40 FD 1.6 abt. 45 BR 2.71 800 0.6 0 abt. 35 400 BR 3.30 0.6 0 abt. 39 800 2.45 abt. 45 BR 2.71 1000 0.6 0 abt. 35 3.30 abt. 39

The detail specification list for engineering plastic grade nylon chip 1. for High Tenacity yarn & Film N160 , N190 , N200 2. for compounding N140 , N150 , N180 Characteristics strength 1. Great degree of polymerization concentrated molecular weight distribution, suitable for high speed spinning.

2. Superior quality low monomer contamination, great polymer purity. 3. Good thermal stability minimum degradation caused by heat, resistant against etiolation and deterioration. 4. Great packaging quality moisture and sunlight proof to ensure product quality. Packing 1. Package type Package Weight (kg) 2. Container type Container 20 ft . Large 800kg 20 820kg 20 W/pallet 600 Small Wo/pallet 720 Large 800 820 Small 25

Engineering Plastic Grade (RePET-P)

Properties For 3C applications Spec. flowability sp.gr. moisture% Tensile strength Enlongation Bentch strgngth Bentch moldulus Method ASTM D1238 ASTM D792 ASTM D570 ASTM D638 ASTM D638 ASTM D790 ASTM D790 Unit g/10min % Kg/cm2 % Kg/cm2 Kg/cm2 Status LL-Re-PET-1 2602.16 kg 23 1.2 0.4 575 180 950 34500

IZOD impact strength Heat Defect temperature Soften temperature linear thermal expansion coefficient shrikage FR property

ASTM D256 Kgcm/cm ASTM D648 ASTM D1525 ASTM D696 ASTM D955 UL94

85 80 105 5~7 0.4~0.6 1.5mm V0

10-5 cm/cm/ %

1. Recycle PET and PA6 are major additives in composite product applications 2.Expected mechanical properties are slightly lower with respect to vergin ones. 3.Test results are only references for applications, real parameters are depended on manufacturing equipments possessed by customers.

Structure 8.1 Introduction Objectives 8.2 Manufacturing Process of Nylon Filaments Nylon 6 Nylon 6,6 8.3 Characteristics of Nylon Fabrics 8.4 Summary 8.5 Terminal Questions 8.6 Answers 8.1 Introduction The synthetic fibres also called as chemical fibres are the synthesised polymers, which are not found in nature. There are different types of synthetic fibres of which the manufacturing process of nylon is discussed in this unit. Nylon is the first man made synthetic fibre (pure chemical fibre).

As defined by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), nylon is a long chain synthetic polyamide in which less than 85 per cent of the amide linkages are attached to two aromatic rings. Objectives After studying this unit, you would be able to: explain the manufacturing process of nylon fibres. discuss the different properties of nylon fibres. 8.2 Manufacturing Process of Nylon Filaments The two varieties of nylon, which are used for apparel purposes which include Nylon 6 and Nylon 6,6. Nylon 6 is made from one monomer (Caprolactum) containing 6 carbon atoms. Nylon 6,6 is made from hexamethylene diamide and adipic acid which has six carbon atoms each. 8.2.1 Manufacturing Nylon 6 The raw material for manufacturing Nylon 6 is coal. Cyclohexane oxime is produced by a series of chemical reactions on coal. Cyclo heaxaneoxime is then treated with sulphuric acid to form caprolactum. The caprolactum is a monomer with 6 carbon atoms that are polymerized to from chains of caprolactum. Polymerization is done by gently heating it in a steam jacked stainless steel vessel. The solution is stabilised as a super polymer under constant steam and pressure. Nylon may be delustered by adding the delustering agents like titanium di oxide, barium sulphate, zinc oxide, and zinc sulphate. The molten nylon 6 polymer is allowed to flow onto a slowly revolving casting wheel. These are sprayed with cold water, which hardens it into milky white ribbons. The ribbons are transformed into flakes that are sent for spinning and are then drawn into the fibre form.

Spinning of nylon 6: The spinning of the nylon fibres is carried out with melt spinning. There are two methods of melt spinning: grid spinning extruder spinning. Grid spinning is employed for the production of finer filaments. The nylon flakes are made to fall on a hot grid that melts the nylon flakes. The molten nylon is pumped through a sand filter to the spinneret. The type of filament produced depends upon the number of holes on the spinneret, the size and the shape of the holes. The molten nylon as extruded from the spinneret solidifies and forms filaments as exposed to the air. Extruder spinning is generally used for heavier yarns. The nylon chips flow by gravity into a device that forces them by screw action through the heated zones. The combined action of the heat and screw pressure melts the chips. The molten polymer is then extruded through the spinneret, which solidifies when the polymer comes in contact with the air. Drawing:

The filaments obtained from spinning are stretched by drawing process. The drawing process is accomplished in two stages: unwinding the yarn from one godet, or wheel, winding it onto another godet that is rotating much faster. The speed of the second wheel determines the amount of cold-drawing or stretching. The yarn from the second godet is wrapped on a cylindrical tube called a pirn. The filaments can be stretched from 2 to 7 times their original length. The molecules in the filament structure straighten out, become parallelized, and are brought very close together. 8.2.2 Manufacturing Nylon 6,6 The manufacturing process starts with the production of two chemicals hexamethylene diamine and adipic acid both of which contains 6 carbon atoms from coal. These chemicals are combined to form the nylon salt, which is dissolved in water and sent to the spinning mill. The nylon salt solution is made into a concentrated solution by heating in large evaporators. The concentrated solution is then heated in an autoclave under the pressure and temperature. The polymerization takes place combining the two chemicals into polymers which are like a giant chains. The molten polymer is processed in a manner similar to nylon 6. The flow chart is as follows:

The symbolic representation of the manufacturing process of nylon 6 and nylon 6,6 is given in figure 8.1:

Figure 8.1: Manufacturing Process of Nylon 6 and Nylon 6,6 Self Assessment Questions 1. Caprolactum is a monomer consisting of ____ carbon atoms. 2. ______ spinning is employed for nylon filaments. 3. ______ and _____ combine to form nylon salt. 4. Grid spinning is meant for ____ yarns. 8.3 Characteristics of Nylon Fabrics Nylon is very much suitable for hosiery and the knitted fabrics because of its smoothness, light weight and high strength. Nylon is a lustrous fibre. The lustre of the fibre can be modified by adding the delustering agent at the molten stage. Composition: The nylons are polyamides with recurring amide groups. They contain carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen elements. Strength: Nylon has good tenacity and the strength is not lost with age. Nylon has a high strength to weight ratio. It is one of the lightest textile fibres is at the same time also one of the strongest. It is one of the fibres which are added at the points of wear such as knees and

seats of jeans and toes and heels of socks. The strength of the nylon fabric is lost when wet. Nylon has excellent abrasion resistance. Elasticity: Nylon has good elasticity which makes it much suitable for the apparel purposes. The excellent elasticity would mean that the nylon materials return to their original length and shreds the wrinkles or creases. Nylon like other fibres has its own limit of elasticity. If stretched too much, it will not completely recover its shape. The high elongation and excellent elastic recovery of nylon contributes to the outstanding performance in hosiery. Nylon hosiery recovers to its original shape at knees and ankles instead of bagging. Resilience: Nylon fabrics have excellent resilience. Nylon fabrics retain their smooth appearance and the wrinkles from the usual daily activities can be removed easily. Drapability: Fabrics of nylon filament yarn have excellent draping qualities. The drape of the fabrics made from nylon can be varied depending on the yarn size. The light weight sheer fabrics of nylon night gowns have high-draping quality. The medium-weight dress fabrics can drape very nicely. Heat Conductivity: The heat conductivity of the nylon fabrics vary depending upon the fabric construction, the type of nylon (staple/filament) used in the construction etc. For instance, the filament nylon used in the open construction would be cooler when compared to the same filament used in a closed construction. In a closed or tight construction the air circulation through the fabric is limited. The heat and moisture of the body will not readily pass the fabric construction, which makes the wearer feel very warm. Such fabrics are good for winter apparel, such as wind-breakers, but are not suitable for summer garments. On the other hand the fabrics with open construction permits the air circulation which makes the wearer feel cool. Absorbency: Nylon fabrics have low absorbency. The low absorbency of the fabrics tends to be advantageous and also disadvantageous. The main advantage of the nylons low absorbency is that the water remains on the surface of the fabrics and runs off the smooth fabric and hence dries quickly. This property makes the nylon fabrics suitable for raincoats and shower curtains. Nylons low absorbency has a disadvantage in that the fabric feels clammy and uncomfortable in warm, humid weather. Cleanliness and Washability: Nylon fabrics are easy care garments. Nylon fabrics are smooth, non-absorbent and dry quickly. Dirt doesnt cling to this smooth fibre, which can be washed easily or can be even cleaned by using a damp cloth. Nylon whites are commonly referred as colour scavengers and should be washed separately to avoid greying. They easily pick up colour and dirt from the wash water. Nylons, washed with other fabrics pick up colour (even from the palest pastels) and develop a dingy grey appearance that is extremely difficult to remove. In addition to retaining their appearance during wear, garments made from nylon fabrics retain their appearance and shape after washing. Hot water should be avoided during washing as the hot water may cause wrinkling in some fabric constructions.

Effect of Bleaches: The nylon fabrics are white and generally do not require bleaching. The nylon fabrics which pick up colour or develop greying should be bleached with oxidising bleaches such as hydrogen peroxide. Shrinkage: Nylon fabrics retain their shape and appearance after washing. It has good stability and does not shrink. Effect of Heat: Nylon should always be ironed at low temperatures. Using hot iron will result in glazing and then melting of the fabric. Effect of Light: Nylon fabrics have low resistance to sun light. They are not suitable for curtains or draperies as it is weakened by the exposure to sun light. Resistance to Mildew: Nylon fabrics have absolute resistance to the development of mildew. Resistance to Insects: Nylon is resistance to the moths and fungi. Reaction to Alkalis: Nylon has excellent resistance to alkalis but the frequent and prolonged exposures to alkalis will weaken the nylon fabrics. Reaction to Acids: Nylon is less resilient to the action of acids and is damaged by strong acids. Affinity for Dyes: Nylon can be easily dyed with a wider range of dyes. The dyed fabrics retain their colour and have good resistance to fading. Resistance to Perspiration: Nylon fabrics are resistant to perspiration.

Processing Nylon Yarn

The nylon material that ACES is made of was probably processed differently from what is used in commercially sold synthetic strings. For one, we used individual nylon threads that were already a bundle of twisted single nylon filaments to make our core rather than a single monofilament or straight multifilaments. These threads were most likely manufactured through a melt spinning process, as is more often used for polyamides, such as nylon, that melt at or below 280 C because it is more economical. [3] The main steps in this process include taking molten polymer, passing it through a filter and spinnerette, quenching the molten filaments, converging the filaments into yarns, and finally drawing the yarn to achieve certain properties for specific end use. (see Figure 1 below) Each step in the process has many variables that can be changed to affect the time and costs of the manufacturing process.

Figure 1 - Melt spin-draw processes for nylon yarn (a) draw-twist process, (b) conventional spinning process, and (c) coupled process. [3] Obtaining molten polymer In the first commercial processes, the molten polymer was obtained by melting polymer chips sealed in a hopper under nitrogen pressure. The chips would flow by gravity into a pancake coil heated to temperatures in the 300 C range. Extruders can also be used to melt polymer chips. Nowadays, however, more efficient spinning machines have been made that combine the polymerization process of nylon directly with the spinning machine to eliminate the use of polymer chips. [3] Passing through filter and spinnerette Precisely metered amounts of the polymer must be passed through the filter and delivered to the spinnerette. This is achieved by using a metering pump to discharge exact volumes of molten polymer per unit time. The molten polymer passes through a filter which uses high shear to remove gel particles and particulate matter that can clog spinnerette holes. The filtration-shear devices have been made with layers of sand of different grain sizes, but now specially designed screens and sintered metal are replacing the sand. The spinnerettes can have anywhere from 500 to 4000 holes per disk to produce the molten filaments. [3]

Spin-Draw Process After going through the spinnerette, the molten filaments are air-quenched in a vertical chimney and converged into a yarn. The yarn is usually spun onto bobbins that can hold 10 to 25 kg of yarn per bobbin and can operate up to 6000 m/min. Usually there are two or more bobbins per winder, and spare winders can switch over rapidly to a new roll to avoid yarn loss. Often the yarn is spun onto bobbins at 300-3000 m/min and then lagged to be taken to a draw-twisting operation as seen in Figure 1a. The degree of drawing or stretching can be controlled by changing the speed of the draw rolls, which run faster than the feed rolls. The spinning and drawing steps have now been combined into a single step through the development of high speed drawing, winding technology, and air jet interlacing. (see Figure 1c) The polymer melt viscosity, spinning speed, cooling rate, and the fiber's degree of structural orientation all effect the tensile strength of the fiber, however, the spinning and drawing step of the string manufacturing process probably has the largest effect on the final properties of the fiber. The yarns can be drawn between approximately 130% to 600 %, which increases tensile strength, lowers elongation, and more oriented crystallization. Orientation can also be controlled by spin spped. Low orientation yarns (LOY) can be made that have a high residual drawing, low crystallinity, and limited storage stability. Medium oriented yarns (MOY) are processed at 1800-2800 m/min. so are slightly more crystalline, but still have limited storage stability. At spinning speeds of 4000-6000 m/min., highly oriented yarns (HOY) are made, while fully oriented yarns (FOY) can be produced with speeds of well over 6000 m/min. FOY have elongations of 20-30%, similar to the strains of the nylon threads that we used and tested. [3]

Processing Kevlar Yarn

Kevlar, or poly(p-phenylene terephthalamide) (PPTA), is an aromatic polyamide that has a high melting point, which does not allow it to be processed in the melt-spin method described for nylon. Instead the polymer is sent to the spinning process from a solution of PPTA and sulfuric acid. The patent literature describes a spinning process in which PPTA is dissolved in 98-100% sulfuric acid at a concentration of greater than 18%. The solution is pumped through a spinnerette, and then into an aqueous bath that quenches the filaments. Finally, the fiber is washed thoroughly with water and dried. [4]

Constructing ACES
After obtaining our nylon and Kevlar strings from McMaster-Carr, we proceeded to construct our tennis string. The method we finally decided on was based on the process used to make bowstrings. (see figures below) A bowstring jig was constructed, which we used to hold four nylon strands under a tension of about 10-20 lbs to keep the threads taut. We then used a server jig with a reel of Kevlar on it to wrap the nylon threads. The resulting string resembles a rope more than it does a conventional synthetic string, both in appearance and fracture behavior.

Figure 2 - Bowstring jig.

Figure 3 - Server jig used for wrapping process.