Mechanisms of Nerve Conduction and Muscle Contraction

J. Kurantsin-Mills, Ph.D. Department of Physiology and Biophysics

Mechanisms of Nerve Conduction

Lecture Objectives
List the structural and functional divisions of the nervous system, and describe their relationship to each other. Describe the types of glial cells, their function, and location in the nervous system. Explain the physiological characteristics of mature neurons. Define the terms voltage, potential difference, and current, and describe how electrical current travels in the body. Name the various types of membrane channels, and the signals that control each type. Explain the resting membrane potential and how it is generated. Identify how changes in membrane potentials act as signals, and relate each type of signal to the generation of action potentials. Discuss the mechanism of generation of an action potential, and the three phases of an action potential.

Mechanisms of Nerve Conduction

Lecture Objectives (continued) Describe a threshold stimulus. Discuss how it relates to the graded potentials generated on dendrites, and the all-ornone behavior of axons. Define the absolute and relative refractory periods, and describe the events that occur during each. Identify the effects of axon diameter and myelination on conduction velocity of axons. Define a synapse, name the two types, and describe how synaptic transmission occurs at a chemical synapse. List the chemical and functional classes of neurotransmitters, members of each class, and the types of receptors for neurotransmitters. Read Chapter 11: Mariebs Human Anatomy & Physiology; Understand all Figures and Tables

Organization of the Nervous System

A Typical Neuron Overview

Dendrites Cell Body Axon Terminal

Review Figure 11.4 & Table 11.1 functions of the components of motor neurons.

Electrical Signals: Ionic Concentrations and Potentials

Ionic Concemtrations and Equilibrium Potentials Ion ECF ICF Eion@37oC K+ 5mM (3.5-5) 150mM -90mV Na+ ClCa2+ 145mM (135-145) 108mM (100-108) 1mM 15mM +60mV

10mM (5-15) -63mV 0.0001 mM

Membrane & Channel Changes during an Action Potential

All or none Signal does not diminish over distance Initiation Depolarization Signal peak Repolarization

Action Potential Stages: Overview

Regulating the Action Potential

Positive Feedback Loop Absolute Refractory Period Relative Refractory Period

Regulating the Action Potential

Frequency of Action Potentials

Conduction of Action Potentials

Kinetic energy depolarizes ahead, and drives action potential to the terminal

Conduction of Action Potentials

Kinetic energy depolarizes ahead, and drives action potential to the terminal

Conduction of Action Potentials

Kinetic energy depolarizes ahead, and drives action potential to the terminal

Cell to Cell Conduction: the Synapse

Electrical synapses: gap junctions
Very fast conduction Example: cardiac muscle

Chemical synapses
Pre synaptic terminal
Synthesis of Neurotransmitters Ca2+ releases Neurotransmitters

Synaptic cleft Postsynaptic cell: Neurotransmitter receptors Neuromodulators Neurohormones

Cell to Cell Conduction: the Synapse

Synapse Mechanism

Inactivation of Neurotransmitters

Synaptic Modulation
Presynaptic terminal
Inhibitory neuron(s) less NT released Excitatory neuron(s) more NT released

Postsynaptic membrane and receptors

Receptor numbers Degradation rates Permeability

Pathologies
Synaptic transmission
Drugs in ECF Disorders of ion balance Too much/too little NT release Examples: Parkinson's, schizophrenia, epilepsy, depression

Nerve injury
Limited regrowth Parallel nerves help some

Summary
Organization and role of the nervous system: CNS & components of PNS Neuron and glial cell structure and function Electrical signals from waves of depolarization Graded potentials function and mechanism Action potentials function and mechanism Synapse: neurotransmitters, cell to cell communication Conduction, modulation, integration of the signals Development and pathologies of the nervous system

Muscle Contraction
Lecture Objectives
Describe the properties of the three types of muscle tissue. Identify the functional characteristics of muscle tissue. Explain the functions of the three types of muscles. Skeletal & Cardiac Muscles Explore the histology and the specific arrangement all elements. Describe the neuromuscular junction. Explain the mechanism of generation of an action potential across the sarcolemma. Explain the sliding filament mechanism of muscle fiber contraction. Define a motor unit, and explain the events of a muscle twitch. Define muscle tone, and explain isometric and isotonic contractions. Describe the sources of ATP for muscles. Explain the effects of exercise on muscles

Muscle Contraction
Lecture Objectives (continued) Smooth Muscle Explore the histology of smooth muscle cells, and compare to skeletal muscle cells. Describe the mechanism and regulation of smooth muscle contraction. Describe the types of smooth muscle and their locations in the body. Read Chapter 9: Mariebs Human Anatomy & Physiology; Understand all Figures and Tables

Muscles
Muscle types What muscles do How muscles contract Contraction to locomotion Roles of smooth muscles What do muscles do? Contract! Generate motion Generate force Generate heat Support

Cardiac heart Smooth internal organs Skeletal "voluntary" Attach to bone Move appendages Support body Antagonistic pairs Flexors Extensors

Types of Muscles

Skeletal Muscle Anatomy

About 40% body mass Muscle fibers cells Fascicle bundle Motor unit Muscle sheath Attach to tendons (which attach to bone)

Muscle Fiber Structure

Multiple nuclei Sarcolemma T-tubules Sarcoplasmic reticulum Sarcoplasm
Mitochondria Glycogen & ions Myofibrils

Myofibrils: Site of Contraction

Actin "thin fibers" Tropomysin Troponin Myosin "thick fibers" Tinin elastic anchor Nebulin non-elastic

Myofibrils: Site of Contraction

Sarcomere: Organization of Fibers

Contraction Sequence: Sliding Filament Theory

Contraction Sequence: Sliding Filament Theory

Contraction Sequence: Sliding Filament Theory

Skeletal Muscle Contraction: Mechanisms

Skeletal Muscle Contraction: Mechanism

Energy for Contraction: ATP & Phosphocreatine Aerobic Respiration Oxygen Glucose Fatty acids 30-32 ATPs Anaerobic Respiration Fast but 2 ATP/glucose Phosphocreatine ATPs

Muscle Fatigue: Causes not well known

Central
"Feeling" Lactic acid

Peripheral
Glycogen depletion Ca2+ interference High Pi levels ECF high K+ ACh depletion

Fiber Contraction Speed: Fast Twitch

Rate
2-3 times faster SR uptake of Ca2+ ATP splitting

Anaerobic/Fatigue easily
Power lifting Fast/delicate Sprint

Fiber Contraction Speed: Oxidative Fast & Slow

Fast Twitch glycolytic muscles Larger diameter fibers, pale color; Easily fatigued Intermediate speed Anaerobic & aerobic Slow Twitch: Aerobic, less fatigue Smaller diameter fibers More mitochondria More capillaries Dark color due to myoglobin Endurance activities Postural muscles

Length-tension relation in contracting muscle

LengthTension: Note that more crossbridges: more tension

Coordinating the Fibers: Summation to Tetanus

Motor Unit: Fibers Innervated from 1 neuron

"All or none" Fine touch

1:1 nerve to fiber Finger tips

Big muscles
1: 2000 Leg muscles
Motor units

Recruitment of Fibers: Produce Graduated Force

Weak stimulus Lowest threshold fibers Slow twitch typically Moderate: adds Fast Oxidative High stimulus: all fibers Asynchronous: Units take turns Prevents fatigue
Motor units

Mechanics of Body Movement: Joints

Smooth Muscles: Contrasted to Skeletal Muscle

Homeostatic role Control fluid Sphincters Tonic contractions Support tubes Move products Slow contractions Little fatigue Low O2 use
Duration of muscle contraction in three types of muscle

Smooth Muscles: Characteristics

Smooth muscle fibers are much smaller than skeletal muscle fibers

Stimulation Electrically coupled Hormones Paracrines Various receptors Single Unit Multiple unit Single tapered cells Longer actin & myosin

Two Types of Smooth Muscle (a) Single-unit smooth muscle Connected by gap junctions Sheet of muscle contracts a unit e.g. small intestines

(b) Multi-unit smooth muscle Cells are not electrically connected; each cell is stimulated independently e.g. Iris and ciliary body of the eye

Smooth Muscles: Characteristics

Smooth Muscle Contraction: Mechanisms

Smooth Muscle Relaxation: Mechanisms

Summary: Comparison of Three Muscle Types