5669 Research Methodology Q.1 Define research and describe basic components involved in the research process.

DEFINITION OF RESEARCH: Research is an ORGANIZED and SYSTEMATIC way of FINDING ANSWERS to QUESTIONS. SYSTEMATIC because there is a definite set of procedures and steps which you will follow. There are certain things in the research process which are always done in order to get the most accurate results. ORGANIZED in that there is a structure or method in going about doing research. It is a planned procedure, not a spontaneous one. It is focused and limited to a specific scope. FINDING ANSWERS is the end of all research. Whether it is the answer to a hypothesis or even a simple question, research is successful when we find answers. Sometimes the answer is no, but it is still an answer. QUESTIONS are central to research. If there is no question, then the answer is of no use. Research is focused on relevant, useful, and important questions. Without a question, research has no focus, drive, or purpose. BASIC COMPONANTS OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS: Writing research paper is a complicated and rather lengthy process when many aspects should be accounted. Research papers are usually a result report of practical research or scientific experiments. In the educational institutions research papers are written assignments which are aimed at development of critical thinking, research skills, objective opinion based on evidence and requiring many different skills from writing to research. As it is one of the most widely used assignments, every beginning researcher should know the basic components of research paper. Research paper components that are widely used are as follows: COVER PAGE with indication of all statistical data the name of the author, name of the instructor, dates, institution, etc; OUTLINE where basic research points are indicated; INTRODUCTION where the author defines the directions of the research; THE BODY OF PAPER which includes literature review or summary of different views on the problem and research part itself. RESEARCH PART consists of experimental part or its description, findings and explications of findings; FINAL PART is conclusion where an author brings the reader to certain conclusion which should be based on research findings.

 REFERENCES PAGE where all sources of information used in the research are indicated.

References page may be followed by APPENDIXES or additional information in the form of tables, charts, graphs, questionnaires, etc All in all research paper is a long complex process of assumption making, investigation, analyzing, finding and concluding. The most complex of all components of research paper is experimental part or primary research which involves tests, interviews or other methods of quantitative and qualitative research which helps to find out required data for analysis.

Q.2 Selection of a problem is the most difficult step in the research process. Elaborate various steps involved in the selection of the research problem.

WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROBLEM? A research problem is the situation that causes the researcher to feel apprehensive, confused and ill at ease. It is the demarcation of a problem area within a certain context involving the WHO or WHAT, the WHERE, the WHEN and the WHY of the problem situation. SOURCES OF PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION There are many problem situations that may give rise to research. Three sources usually contribute to problem identification. 1. Own experience or the experience of others may be a source of problem supply. 2. A second source could be scientific literature. You may read about certain findings and notice that a certain field was not covered. This could lead to a research problem. 3. Theories could be a third source. Shortcomings in theories could be researched. Research can thus be aimed at clarifying or substantiating an existing theory, at clarifying contradictory findings, at correcting a faulty methodology, at correcting the inadequate or unsuitable use of statistical techniques, at reconciling conflicting opinions, or at solving existing practical problems. IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM The prospective researcher should think on what caused the need to do the research (problem identification). The question that he/she should ask is: Are there questions about this problem to which answers have not been found up to the present? Research originates from a need that arises. A clear distinction between the PROBLEM and the PURPOSE should be made. The problem is the aspect the researcher worries about, think about, wants to find a solution for. The purpose is to solve the problem, i.e. find answers to the question(s). If there is no clear problem formulation, the purpose and methods are meaningless. Keep the following in mind:

Outline the general context of the problem area. Highlight key theories, concepts and ideas current in this area. What appear to be some of the underlying assumptions of this area?

Why are these issues identified important? What needs to be solved? Read round the area (subject) to get to know the background and to identify unanswered questions or controversies, and/or to identify the the most significant issues for further exploration.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM The research problem should be stated in such a way that it would lead to analytical thinking on the part of the researcher with the aim of possible concluding solutions to the stated problem. Research problems can be stated in the form of either questions or statements.

The research problem should always be formulated grammatically correct and as completely as possible. You should bear in mind the wording (expressions) you use. Avoid meaningless words. There should be no doubt in the mind of the reader what your intentions are. Demarcating the research field into manageable parts by dividing the main problem into sub- problems is of the utmost importance.

SUB- PROBLEM (S) Sub- problems are problems related to the main problem identified. Sub- problems flow from the main problem and make up the main problem. It is the means to reach the set goal in a manageable way and contribute to solving the problem. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The statement of the problem involves the demarcation and formulation of the problem, i.e. the WHO/WHAT, WHERE, WHEN, WHY. It usually includes the statement of the hypothesis. VARIOUS STEPS FOR SELECTION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM STEP: 1 Select a broad area of interest, a research topic STEP: 2 To move from topic to a manageable research problem, ask questions about the topic such as "who / what / where / when why / how?" STEP: 3 Select one narrowly defined problem Ask relevant questions that will help answer the problem STEP: 4 Write a problem statement consisting of several sentences that briefly frame the issues to be investigated, indicate the significance of the question, and includes a declaration of what you will do STEP: 5 Select possible research design STEP: 6 Prepare a research proposal

Q.3 Define research question. Distinguish between researchable and nonresearchable questions. Explain with examples. Finding a RESEARCH QUESTION is probably the most important task in the research process because the question becomes the driving force behind the research-from beginning to end. DEFINITION OF RESEARCH QUESTION A research question is always stated in question form. It may start out being rather general and become focused and refined later on (after you become more familiar with the topic, learn what others have discovered, define your terms more carefully, etc.) The research question you start out with forms the basis for your review of related rresearch literature. This general question also evolves into your hypothesis (or focused research question). When you draw conclusions, they should address this question. In the end, the success of your research depends on how well you answer this question. It is important to choose a question that satisfies certain criteria:

It must not be too broad or general (although you will focus it even more later on in the process). It shouldn't have already been answered by previous research (although replication with variation is certainly acceptable). It ought to be a question that needs to be answered (i.e., the answer will be useful to people). It must be a question that can be answered through empirical means.

Question Tip: Questions should be SMART...

Specific Measurable Attainable Relevant Timely

You can go to many sources to find topics or issues that can lead to research questions. Here are a few:

Personal experience Professional books Articles in professional periodicals Professional indexes (LLBA, MLA, ERIC etc.) Other teachers and administrators Bibliographies of various types Unpublished research by others DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SEARCHABLE AND NON- SEARCHABLE QUESTION

SEARCHABLE QUESTION A researchable question should contain information that can be collected in attempt to answer the question. (examples) Do children enrolled in pre-school develop better social skills than children not enrolled? At which age is it better to introduce phonics to children age 5, 6, or 7? It is economical i.e. as specific as possible. Leads into specific, testable hypotheses.

NON- SEARCHABLE QUESTION A non-researchable question contains information that cannot be collected in attempt to answer the question. (examples) Should I put my youngster in pre-school? Not researchable What is the best way to learn to readNot researchable. It is quite broad and general. Leads to no where except confusion.

Q.4 One of the most important concepts in research is the concept of variable. How would you define a variable? Also discuss different forms of variables with examples. DEFINITION: Very simply, a VARIABLE is a measurable characteristic that varies. It may change from group to group, person to person, or even within one person over time. TYPES OF VARIABLES: There are six common variable types: DEPENDENT VARIABLES show the effect of manipulating or introducing the independent variables. For example, if the independent variable is the use or non-use of a new language teaching procedure, then the dependent variable might be students' scores on a test of the content taught using that procedure. In other words, the variation in the dependent variable depends on the variation in the independent variable. INDEPENDENT VARIABLES are those that the researcher has control over. This "control" may involve manipulating existing variables (e.g., modifying existing methods of instruction) or introducing new variables (e.g., adopting a totally new method for some sections of a class) in the research setting. Whatever the case may be, the researcher expects that the independent variable(s) will have some effect on (or relationship with) the dependent variables. INTERVENING VARIABLES refer to abstract processes that are not directly observable but that link the independent and dependent variables. In language learning and teaching, they are usually inside the subjects' heads, including various language learning processes which the researcher cannot observe. For example, if the use of a particular teaching technique is the independent variable and mastery of the objectives is the dependent variable, then the language learning processes used by the subjects are the intervening variables.

MODERATOR VARIABLES affect the relationship between the independent and dependent variables by modifying the effect of the intervening variable(s). Unlike extraneous variables, moderator variables are measured and taken into consideration. Typical moderator variables in TESL and language acquisition research (when they are not the major focus of the study) include the sex, age, culture, or language proficiency of the subjects. CONTROL VARIABLES Language learning and teaching are very complex processes. It is not possible to consider every variable in a single study. Therefore, the variables that are not measured in a particular study must be held constant, neutralized/balanced, or eliminated, so they will not have a biasing effect on the other variables. Variables that have been controlled in this way are called control variables. EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES are those factors in the research environment which may have an effect on the dependent variable(s) but which are not controlled. Extraneous variables are dangerous. They may damage a study's validity, making it impossible to know whether the effects were caused by the independent and moderator variables or some extraneous factor. If they cannot be controlled, extraneous variables must at least be taken into consideration when interpreting results.

Q.5 What is the importance of literature review in research process? Discuss

WHAT IS A LITERATURE REVIEW? A literature review is the effective evaluation of selected documents on a research topic. A review may form an essential part of the research process or may constitute a research project in itself. In the context of a research paper or thesis the literature review is a critical synthesis of previous research. The evaluation of the literature leads logically to the research question. QUALITIES OF AN EFFECTIVE REVIEW An effective review analyses and synthesizes material, and it should meet the following requirements: (Caulley, 1992)

Compare and contrast different authors' views on an issue Group authors who draw similar conclusions, Criticise aspects of methodology, Note areas in which authors are in disagreement, Highlight exemplary studies, Highlight gaps in research, Show how your study relates to previous studies, Show how your study relates to the literature in general, Conclude by summarising what the literature says.

PURPOSES OF LITERATURE REVIEW A literature review has a number of purposes. It enables to :

Define and limit the problem we are working on, Place our study in a historical perspective, Avoid unnecessary duplication, Evaluate promising research methods, 6

Relate our findings to previous knowledge and suggest further research.

IMPORTANCE OF LITERATURE REVIEW 1. REFERENCE TO OUR RESEARCH WORK: A thesis dissertation is a study document. Therefore, we must also provide the significance level of our topic to your readers. With a literature review, we can summarize another researchers work to make it as a reference that our subject is also important. 2. DEVELOPS GOOD WORKING KNOWLEDGE: The idea of the literature review is to develop a good working knowledge of the research in a particular area. The final written review should reflect the results of this preliminary research. So, a good literature review raises questions and identifies areas to be explored. 3. HELPS ELIMINATE DUPLICATION: Most important, the literature search should eliminate the possibility of needless duplication. Since our research must be an original contribution, WE quickly learn what has already been done satisfactorily and might be avoided. 4. HELPS TO AVOID PITFALLS: A proper literature review should save considerable time by building on what is already known as well as using tested methodology, including instruments. In assessing the merit of previous studies: their soundness, relevance, design quality, and findings and conclusions, we can learn from the errors of others and avoid pitfalls. Pitfalls and barriers may be identified in earlier research and avoided. 5. PROVIDES JUSTIFICATION FOR OUR RESEARCH: The literature search, especially in the findings and recommendations of others, often provides more and more persuasive justification for research on the problem. Previous researchers often identify gaps or areas where more research is needed. Q.6 Discuss briefly various approaches to educational research with suitable examples. DEFINITION OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Educational research is disciplined inquiry in which different disciplines, including education, provide principles of research by which to collect and reason from data. 1. Educational research demands the selection of a particular set of measured observations or facts from infinite possibilities. 2. Educational research has developed a set of unique language and research methodology conventions. 3. Educational research concerns a specific discipline--education. PURPOSES OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH For any type of educational research, the ultimate goal is to advance knowledge about education phenomena and improve education practice. Findings of some educational research have more specific practical implications; less so for others. This is related to generalizability of educational research. Generalizability is the extent to which the findings of one study can be used in a variety of educational settings.

Approaches to Educational Research

Approaches to Educational Research Orientation Quantitative Qualitative Multiple realities depending on contexts Understanding a social situation from participants' perspectives Assumptions about A single objective reality, i.e., measured by an instrument the World Research Purpose Research Methods and Process Prototypical study Researcher's role Importance of context Establish relationships between measured variables

Procedures are planned before Flexible, design emerges as study study begins progresses Experimental study Detached from study Context free Ethnographic study Immersed in the study deeply contextualized

Source: McMillan and Schumacher (1997)

Characteristics of Educational Research

Characteristics of Educational Research Characteristics Objectivity Quantitative Explicit description of data collection and analysis procedures Measurement and statistics Replicable Least complicated explanation preferred Numerical data Primarily deductive Statement of statistical probability Qualitative Explicit description of data collection and analysis procedures Detailed description of phenomenon Extension of understanding by others summary generalizations Sources, data Primarily inductive Tentative synthesized interpretations

Precision Verification Parsimonious explanation Empiricism Logical Reasoning Probabilistic Thinking

Source: McMillan and Schumacher (1997) Q.7 Write a comprehensive note on historical research process.

WHAT IS HISTORICAL RESEARCH? Historical research is the process of systematically examining past events to give an account of what has happened in the past. It is not a mere accumulation of facts and dates or even a description of past events. It is a flowing, dynamic account of past events which involves an interpretation of the these events in an attempt to recapture the nuances, personalities, and ideas that influenced these events.

 One of the goals of historical research is to communicate an understanding of past events.

SIGNIFICANCE OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH The following gives five important reasons for conducting historical research (based on Berg, 1998): 1. To uncover the unknown (i.e., some historical events are not recorded). 2. To answer questions (i.e., there are many questions about our past that we not only want to know but can profit from knowing). 3. To identify the relationship that the past has to the present (i.e., knowing about the past can frequently give a better perspective of current events). 4. To record and evaluate the accomplishments of individuals, agencies, or institutions. 5. To assist in understanding the culture in which we live (e.g., education is a part of our history and our culture).

HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHODOLOGY There is no one approach that is used in conducting historical research although there is a general set of steps that are typically followed. These include the following steps although there is some overlap and movement back and forth between the steps: 1. Identification of the research topic and formulation of the research problem or question. 2. Data collection or literature review. 3. Evaluation of materials. 4. Data synthesis. 5. Report preparation or preparation of the narrative exposition. Each of these steps is discussed briefly below. IDENTIFICATION OF THE RESEARCH TOPIC AND FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM OR QUESTION This is the first step in any type of educational research including historical research. Ideas for historical research topics can come from many different sources such as current issues in education, the accomplishments of an individual, an educational policy, or the relationship between events. DATA COLLECTION OR LITERATURE REVIEW This step involves identifying, locating, and collecting information pertaining to the research topic. The information sources are often contained in documents such as diaries or newspapers, records, photographs, relics, and interviews with individuals who have had experience with or have knowledge of the research topic. Interviews with individuals who have knowledge of the research topic are called oral histories. The documents, records, oral histories, and other information sources can be primary or secondary sources. A primary source is a source that has a direct involvement with the event being investigated like a diary, an original map, or an interview with a person that experienced the event. A secondary source is a source that was created from a primary source such as books written about the event. Secondary sources are considered less useful than primary sources.

EVALUATION OF MATERIALS Every information source must be evaluated for its authenticity and accuracy because any source can be affected by a variety of factors such as prejudice, economic conditions, and political climate. There are two types of evaluations every sources must pass. 1. External Criticismthis is the process of determining the validity, trustworthiness, or authenticity of the source. Sometimes this is difficult to do but other times it can easily be done by handwriting analysis or determining the age of the paper on which something was written. 2. Internal Criticismthis is the process of determining the reliability or accuracy of the information contained in the sources collected. This is done by positive and negative criticism. Positive criticism refers to assuring that the statements made or the meaning conveyed in the sources are understood. This is frequently difficult because of the problems of vagueness and presentism. Vagueness refers to uncertainty in the meaning of the words and phrases used in the source. Presentism refers to the assumption that the present-day connotations of terms also existed in the past. Negative criticism refers to establishing the reliability or authenticity and accuracy of the content of the sources used. This is the more difficult part because it requires a judgment about the accuracy and authenticity of what is contained in the source. Firsthand accounts by witnesses to an event are typically assumed to be reliable and accurate. Historians often use three heuristics in handling evidence. These are corroboration, sourcing, and contextualization. Corroboration, or comparing documents to each other to determine if they provide the same information, is often used to obtain information about accuracy and authenticity. Sourcing, or identifying the author, date of creation of a document, and the place it was created is another technique that is used to establish the authenticity or accuracy of information. Contextualization, or identifying when and where an event took place, is another technique used to establish authenticity and accuracy of information. DATA SYNTHESIS AND REPORT PREPARATION This refers to synthesizing, or putting the material collected into a narrative account of the topic selected. Synthesis refers to selecting, organizing, and analyzing the materials collected into topical themes and central ideas or concepts. These themes are then pulled together to form a contiguous and meaningful whole. Be sure to watch out for these four problems that might be encountered when you attempt to synthesize the material collected and prepare the narrative account. 1. Trying to infer causation from correlated events is the first problem. Just because two events occurred together does not necessarily mean that one event was the cause of the other. 2. A second problem is defining and interpreting key words so as to avoid ambiguity and to insure that they have the correct connotation. 3. A third problem is differentiating between evidence indicating how people should behave and how they in fact did behave. 4. A fourth problem is maintaining a distinction between intent and consequences. In other words, educational historians must make sure that the consequences that were observed from some activity or policy were the intended consequences.

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Q 8. What is qualitative research? Design a problem, research question and research framework to clarify your answer. WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH? Qualitative research seeks out the why, not the how of its topic through the analysis of unstructured information things like interview transcripts, emails, notes, feedback forms, photos and videos. It doesnt just rely on statistics or numbers, which are the domain of quantitative researchers. Qualitative research is used to gain insight into people's attitudes, behaviours, value systems, concerns, motivations, aspirations, culture or lifestyles. Its used to inform business decisions, policy formation, communication and research. Focus groups, indepth interviews, content analysis and semiotics are among the many formal approaches that are used, but qualitative research also involves the analysis of any unstructured material, including customer feedback forms, reports or media clips. Collecting and analyzing this unstructured information can be messy and time consuming using manual methods. When faced with volumes of materials, finding themes and extracting meaning can be a daunting task. Characteristics of qualitative research Phenomenological focus; studies experience and behavior. Use of natural phenomena and contexts, not contrived or manipulated. Context is primary. Control is gained (if at all) at the expense of contextstripping. I.e., removing an experience or behavior from its context changes its meaning or makes it meaningless. Close rapport and trust between researcher and informant or research participant (not "subject"). Researcher is involved with informants, not distant. Quality of the data is increased by a relationship built on rapport and trust. Informant is allowed to tell their own stories and to stay close to immediate experience rather than interpretation or abstraction. Usually a small number of subjects: 10-15, for instance. One way to arrive at a number of subjects is to analyze interviews as they are done. When no new information is coming (the point of saturation), no more data need be collected. There are many qualitative methods and no set "recipe." Among them are ethnography, participant observation, and various kinds of in-depth interviews. Hermeneutic analysis and naturalistic inquiry are common terms for these kinds of interviews.

A BRIEF STRATEGY FOR QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Identify topic (usually an experience) and do a literature search. (However, some suggest waiting until after the interviews are done so as to not bias the interviews.) Identify informant pool, people who have had the experience In-depth interviews, tape-recorded with notes by the interviewer. Open-ended questions used to encourage informants to tell about the experience in their own words. An analogy to this style of interview is a client-centered psychotherapy intake interview. Data analysis. Interviews are transcribed and "meaning units" are identified. These are organized into higher-order themes and, finally, over-arching themes, those that cannot be meaningfully combined any more. Reporting. Themes are used to reconstruct or describe the underlying structure of the experience in a way that is faithful to the informants' experiences. Themes, examples, and frequencies are used but inferential statistics are rarely useful. Implications of the data, e.g., for care-giving or policy-making, are given also.

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Cross-checking. The description is confirmed by showing it to informants, to others who have had similar experiences, and to "experts" who know about the experience. All should recognize the description as representing the experience. The researcher strives to have informants say, "That describes my experience better than I could. AN EXAMPLE OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

TOPIC SELECTION: In educational study, for example, I focused my work on parent perspectives on their children's education. I wanted to know what parents thought about why their children were not doing well in school. So my selected topic was, parent perspectives on their children's education RESEARCH QUESTION: While narrowing down the limits of my selected topic, I came up with my research question i.e. what parents thought about why their children were not doing well in school. RESEARCH FRAMEWORK: INFORMANT POOL: They were the parents; the people who have had the experience. They were the I found that the parents I studied felt that the teachers did not value their insights about their own children because of their poverty and their lack of education. The parents also blamed teachers who assumed that this very poverty and lack of education meant the children would not be good students. IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWS: For the purpose of knowing parents ideas, I had in depth interviews from different parents and collected the information in the form of their point of view regarding the problem. I also studied the teachers' and the children's perspectives on the same issues in hopes of finding some intersections, and to explore the implications for schooling. DATA ANALYSIS AND REPORTING: By learning the perspectives of the participants, qualitative research illuminates the inner dynamics of situationsdynamics that are often invisible to the outsider. So when finally I analyzed the collected data, I came to know different perspectives regarding the problem. My results proved that the reason that students were not doing well in school, were not merely because of lack of interest of the teachers on the students. This is actually a triangle in which the teachers, students and parents all play equal role and some how or the other, all are equally responsible for the problem.

Q.9 Discuss briefly various strategies to analyze data statistically. Data Analysis is the process of systematically applying statistical and/or logical techniques to describe and illustrate, condense and recap, and evaluate data. According to Shamoo and Resnik (2003) various analytic procedures provide a way of drawing inductive inferences from data and distinguishing the signal (the phenomenon of interest) from the noise (statistical fluctuations) present in the data. CONSIDERATIONS/ISSUES IN DATA ANALYSIS There are a number of issues that researchers should be cognizant of with respect to data analysis. These include:

Having the necessary skills to analyze Concurrently selecting data collection methods and appropriate analysis Drawing unbiased inference Inappropriate subgroup analysis Following acceptable norms for disciplines Determining statistical significance Lack of clearly defined and objective outcome measurements Providing honest and accurate analysis Manner of presenting data Environmental/contextual issues 12

Data recording method Partitioning text when analyzing qualitative data Training of staff conducting analyses Reliability and Validity Extent of analysis

ANALYZING DATA STATISTICALLY Statistics is a set of methods that are used to collect, analyze, present, and interpret data. Statistical methods are used in a wide variety of occupations and help people identify, study, and solve many complex problems. In the business and economic world, these methods enable decision makers and managers to make informed and better decisions about uncertain situations. Vast amounts of statistical information are available in today's global and economic environment because of continual improvements in computer technology. To compete successfully globally, managers and decision makers must be able to understand the information and use it effectively. Statistical data analysis provides hands on experience to promote the use of statistical thinking and techniques to apply in order to make educated decisions in the business world. STEPS TO STUDY A PROBLEM: Studying a problem through the use of statistical data analysis usually involves four basic steps. 1. Defining the problem 2. Collecting the data 3. Analyzing the data 4. Reporting the results Defining the Problem An exact definition of the problem is imperative in order to obtain accurate data about it. It is extremely difficult to gather data without a clear definition of the problem. Collecting the Data We live and work at a time when data collection and statistical computations have become easy almost to the point of triviality. Paradoxically, the design of data collection, never sufficiently emphasized in the statistical data analysis textbook, have been weakened by an apparent belief that extensive computation can make up for any deficiencies in the design of data collection. One must start with an emphasis on the importance of defining the population about which we are seeking to make inferences, all the requirements of sampling and experimental design must be met. Designing ways to collect data is an important job in statistical data analysis. Two important aspects of a statistical study are: Population - a set of all the elements of interest in a study Sample - a subset of the population

Statistical inference refers to extending your knowledge obtain from a random sample from a population to the whole population. This is known in mathematics as an Inductive Reasoning. That is, knowledge of whole from a particular. Its main application is in hypotheses testing about a given population.

The purpose of statistical inference is to obtain information about a population form information contained in a sample. It is just not feasible to test the entire population, so a sample is the only realistic way to obtain data because of the time and cost constraints. Data can be either quantitative or qualitative. Qualitative data are labels or names used to identify an attribute of each element. Quantitative data are always numeric and indicate either how much or how many.

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For the purpose of statistical data analysis, distinguishing between cross-sectional and time series data is important. Cross-sectional data re data collected at the same or approximately the same point in time. Time series data are data collected over several time periods.

Data can be collected from existing sources or obtained through observation and experimental studies designed to obtain new data. In an experimental study, the variable of interest is identified. Then one or more factors in the study are controlled so that data can be obtained about how the factors influence the variables. In observational studies, no attempt is made to control or influence the variables of interest. A survey is perhaps the most common type of observational study. Analyzing the Data Statistical data analysis divides the methods for analyzing data into two categories: exploratory methods and confirmatory methods. Exploratory methods are used to discover what the data seems to be saying by using simple arithmetic and easy-to-draw pictures to summarize data. Confirmatory methods use ideas from probability theory in the attempt to answer specific questions. Probability is important in decision making because it provides a mechanism for measuring, expressing, and analyzing the uncertainties associated with future events. The majority of the topics addressed in this course fall under this heading. Reporting the Results Through inferences, an estimate or test claims about the characteristics of a population can be obtained from a sample. The results may be reported in the form of a table, a graph or a set of percentages. Because only a small collection (sample) has been examined and not an entire population, the reported results must reflect the uncertainty through the use of probability statements and intervals of values. CONCLUSION: To conclude, a critical aspect of managing any organization is planning for the future. Good judgment, intuition, and an awareness of the state of the economy may give a manager a rough idea or "feeling" of what is likely to happen in the future. However, converting that feeling into a number that can be used effectively is difficult. Statistical data analysis helps managers forecast and predict future aspects of a business operation. The most successful managers and decision makers are the ones who can understand the information and use it effectively.

Q.10 What are sampling techniques in experimental research?

WHAT IS SAMPLING? Sampling is the act, process, or technique of selecting a suitable sample, or a representative part of a population for the purpose of determining parameters or characteristics of the whole population. WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF SAMPLING? To draw conclusions about populations from samples, we must use inferential statistics which enables us to determine a populations characteristics by directly observing only a portion (or sample) of the population. We obtain a sample rather than a complete enumeration (a census ) of the population for many reasons. Obviously, it is cheaper to

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observe a part rather than the whole, but we should prepare ourselves to cope with the dangers of using samples. TYPES OF SAMPLING

PROBABILITY SAMPLING Probability sampling involves the use of randomization. These are the main types of probability sampling: Probability Sampling Method Brief Description random sampling every unit has an equal chance of selection stratified random sampling (proportional or divide population into strata, then randomly quota sampling) select samples from each stratum systematically select every xth unit from the systematic random sampling list of n units divide population into clusters, randomly cluster (area) random sampling sample clusters, then sample all units within selected clusters hierarchically combines random sampling multi-stage random sampling methods NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING Non-probability sampling does not involve the use of randomization. Therefore, to be considered representative, non-probability sampling methods cannot rely on the theory of probability (random theory). We can also use purposive or even accidental, haphazard, or convenience sampling to get a representative sample relying on other techniques than randomization. Non-probability Sampling Method accidental, haphazard, or convenience sampling purposive sampling Brief Description units are sampled according to what is conveniently, accidentally, or haphazardly available units from a prespecified group are purposively sought out and sampled mode is the "most common" occurence; in modal instance sampling, units are prototypical of a predefined group are sampled units which are identified as having particularly high quality of information are sampled sample until exact proportions of certain types of units are obtained, or until sufficient units in several different categories are obtained opposite of modal sampling; intentionally samples units from throughout spectrum of responses initial unit(s) are sampled, and these units then identify more units to sampled, and so on

modal instance sampling

expert sampling

proportional and nonproportional quota sampling

heterogeneity or diversity sampling

snowball sampling

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES IN AN EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

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A simple random sample A simple random sample is obtained by choosing elementary units in search a way that each unit in the population has an equal chance of being selected. A simple random sample is free from sampling bias. However, using a random number table to choose the elementary units can be cumbersome. If the sample is to be collected by a person untrained in statistics, then instructions may be misinterpreted and selections may be made improperly. Instead of using a least of random numbers, data collection can be simplified by selecting say every 10th or 100th unit after the first unit has been chosen randomly as discussed below. such a procedure is called systematic random sampling. A systematic random sample A systematic random sample is obtained by selecting one unit on a random basis and choosing additional elementary units at evenly spaced intervals until the desired number of units is obtained. For example, there are 100 students in your class. You want a sample of 20 from these 100 and you have their names listed on a piece of paper may be in an alphabetical order. If you choose to use systematic random sampling, divide 100 by 20, you will get 5. Randomly select any number between 1 and five. Suppose the number you have picked is 4, that will be your starting number. So student number 4 has been selected. From there you will select every 5th name until you reach the last one, number one hundred. You will end up with 20 selected students. A stratified sample A stratified sample is obtained by independently selecting a separate simple random sample from each population stratum. A population can be divided into different groups may be based on some characteristic or variable like income of education. Like any body with ten years of education will be in group A, between 10 and 20 group B and between 20 and 30 group C. These groups are referred to as strata. You can then randomly select from each stratum a given number of units which may be based on proportion like if group A has 100 persons while group B has 50, and C has 30 you may decide you will take 10% of each. So you end up with 10 from group A, 5 from group B and 3 from group C. A cluster sample A cluster sample is obtained by selecting clusters from the population on the basis of simple random sampling. The sample comprises a census of each random cluster selected. For example, a cluster may be some thing like a village or a school, a state. So you decide all the elementary schools in Pakistan are clusters. You want 20 schools selected. You can use simple or systematic random sampling to select the schools, then every school selected becomes a cluster. If you interest is to interview teachers on their opinion of some new program, which has been introduced, then all the teachers in a cluster must be interviewed. Though very economical cluster sampling is very susceptible to sampling bias. Like for the above case, you are likely to get similar responses from teachers in one school due to the fact that they interact with one another.

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