A Survey of Recent Chilean Historiography, 1965-1976 Author(s): William F. Sater Source: Latin American Research Review, Vol.

14, No. 2 (1979), pp. 55-88 Published by: The Latin American Studies Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2502879 . Accessed: 18/05/2011 16:15
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A SURVEY OF RECENT CHILEAN 1965-1976* HISTORIOGRAPHY, F. William Sater

California StateUniversity, Beach Long VariThe pastelevenyearshave been extremely fruitful Chileanspecialists. for to ous scholarshave formulated theories explainChile's political, social,and have economic development; monographs wellas doctoral new as dissertations provided grist thegeneralist's for mill;and studieson mining-particularly the nitrate sector-agriculture, roleoflabor, the and moredetailed political surveys have been published. Increasingly, notesa tendency undertake one to projects thatwill investigate twentieth-century topics.This essay reviewssome of the recent contributions Chile'salreadyrichhistoriography attempts into and to clude material from It otherdisciplines well as history. will not,however, as discusstheAllendeperiod,whosemassiveand stillgrowing literature requires separate treatment. Those interested thistopicmight in profitably consult the recent workofArturo SamuelValenzuela, and "Visions Chile"(LARR 10, no. 3 of [1975]:155-75). A fewoverviews Chileanhistory of have appeared.One still unfinished project a four-volume is study, underthegeneral editorship Sergio of Villalobos; three volumesare in print. The first contains two essays:Osvaldo Silva covers theoften ignored pre-Columbian period,and thelatePatricio Estelledescribes theconquista. Estelleand Villalobos collaborated the secondvolume,which on analyzesthe seventeenth eighteenth and centuries. The latestbook also containstwoessays:a synthesis theIndependence of periodand theformation of the Portalian Republic, Villalobos;and a workby FernandoSilva on the by without or period1830-60.These volumes,although footnotes bibliography, a provide useful summary Chile'shistory. authors of The havenotonlyincluded material Chile'spolitics on illustrated havesought incorto but,in richly tomes, as information itseconomic socialdevelopment well.1 on and porate ThelateJaime a work Chile, on Eyzaguirre published comprehensive also in twovolumes: first, reprint a 1965study, the a of describes Chilefrom preits Columbian beginning through 1817;thesecond,La definicion estado la intedel y graci6n la sociedad, de extends analysis to 1861.(Originally volume his up this was to include Balmaceda the this period, theauthor's but untimely deathcutshort work.)Elegantly illustrated, thesevolumesalso describe livesofthepeople the of Chile as well as emphasizing thatnation'sec6nomic, social, and cultural
development.2 of HaroldBlakethe wishesto acknowledge kindassistance Jacques *Theauthor Barbier, and Loveman. SimonCollier, Brian more,

55

LatinAmerican Research Review An extremely de ambitious project Luis Vitale's is marxista la Interpretacion historia Chile, effort de an whichhas beeninterrupted, hopefully onlya short for a time, the1973coup.Vitale's by initial volume combines study pre-Columbian of Chile and the impactof the conquista.According Vitale,Spain was still to from the emerging feudalism when it undertook conquestof theNew World. The discovery thisnew continent of provided Iberian the nation withtheoppora tunity establish capitalist to society. Chile,unlikeother nations, nothave did to pass through feudalphasebutwas integrated theworldwide a into capitalist as economy a rawmaterial producer. In thesecondvolume,Vitaleconcludes, unexpectedly, theWar not that was in for a Independence basically economic nature, clashbetween competing economic of groups.Proponents independence arguedthatan end to Spanish domination wouldbring free trade, improve opportunities market to their own products, theflight speciefrom end of Chile,reducetaxesand institute protectionist laws to insulate homeindustries, create merchant and a marine. Initially, thewealthy directed revolution; lowerclassesdid notbecomeinvolved this the untilSpanishrepression drovetheproletariat join theresistance to movement, mainly guerrillas as underthe leadership men likeManuel Rodriguez. of The influence ideologywas minimal: of landowners, miners, and merchants used but to Liberalism rationalize changeinthepolitical to a refused alter faqade, they thefundamental structure society. of The third the of volumeemphasizes participation thelowerclassesin the historians have latter part of the revolution, whichVitaleclaimstraditional "La a refused acknowledge. guerra muerte" to (1819-22), argues,shouldbe he and moredeeplyanalyzedbecause it revealsan abortive attempt workers by Unlikeother institutions. peasantsto revampChile's economicand political he of the as scholars, considers 1833constitution theconsolidation thepowerof theemerging the bourgeoisie; institutionalizationan export of economy based and to upon the sale of Chile's agricultural mineral products. refusing inBy dustrialize Chile,thebourgeoisie merely intensified Spanishcolonial the heritage in ofunderdevelopment. to Indeed,Chilewas forced continue theroleofa raw in material British manufactured exporter orderto pay for imported goods and its in to service foreign debt,whichhad been floated London.Vitale'sworkis innovative, researched, a splendid well and example Marxist of exposition.3 Two Americans have dedicated their efforts a general to history Chile: of has a JayKinsbruner written shortworkthatis designedforclassroom use; and Oxford Presshas commissioned University BrianLovemanto do a similar Chile's social studyforits LatinAmerican Series.4HernanGodoy describes its from inception the modernperiod.His unique volumeof to development and whichcombines as editedworks, commentary well as usefulprimary secalso an Some recently ondary materials, includes extensive bibliography.5 pubof lishedreference worksmay also provehelpful. The political dictionary Lia Cortesand Jordi Fuentes, whichcomplements their earlier work,is quitegood and and an excellent on sourcefor information Chile'smyriad political parties its of Bizarro's variouspublicfigures. Salvatore work,on theother hand,is often for century.6 unevenquality, particularly thenineteenth 56

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1965-1976

Manyauthors havefocused thepolitical on aspectsoftheColonialperiod. the FernandoSilva studiesthe functioning the Hacienda Real and records of results itsfirst of visita. Della Flushedemonstrates Santiago's cabildostrughow gled to improve healthcareofitscitizens well as how it interacted the as with of theclergy. Somescholars havepaidmoreattention therelationships Church to of and state.Father Aliaza Rojas has notedthat, to contrary theprovisions the Patronato, Chileanbishopscommunicated directly withtheHoly See. Clerics, Indianlabor particularly members theSociety Jesus, of of to sought stopforced and toend thefrontier the wars;but,as Father EugeneKorth observes, demands of the elites formanpowerprevented or eitherthe clergy local government of from the officials implementing reforms designedto improve situation the Numerous historians the of have challenged supposedimpact theBourbon reforms. FernandoSilva's workshows thatthe Contaduria Mayoroften and at functioned of independently Spanishbureaucrats actually worked, least during administration Ambrosio the of O'Higgins,as an agentofdecentralization.Jacques Barbier also demonstrates the Bourbon that monarchs could not alterthe political and culture the Hapsburgsand thatfriendship marriage of betweenCreolesand Spanishcolonialofficials blunted manyofMadrid'sproposed changes.Indeed,as bothSilvaand CarlosUgarte note,Chileans beganto own poliruleand soon beganto formulate someoftheir chafeunderimperial in over Disagreements administrative werebutone factor a growing goals split between Spainand Chile.Differences racial in comcomposition, economic within empire wellas withSpain,and Jesuit the as petition a ideology produced vague sense of LatinAmerican regionalism thateventually matured intonaSimonCollierarguesthattheChileanswedded a growing tionalism.9 pridein in their indigenous traditions EuropeanLiberalism orderto rationalize to their 10 independence movement. Mary Felstiner Roger and Haigh,on theother hand, see theIndependence families periodas a struggle between aristocratic anxious to protect and expand theirpower.Eventually ambition not this precipitated 11 waramongthetriumphant families. onlythestruggle against Spain,buta civil Raul Silva Castroprovidesus witha listof the participants the 1810 in CabildoAbierto.12Within sevenyears,Spanishofficials deported Juan had to Fernandez thosewho supported "gobierno the intruso."'13 Smallwonderthat theremaining sixty-one who composedthe 1817CabildoAbierto were either Royalists too discreet proclaim or to their dissatisfaction thatcause.14 The with of odyssey one exile,Manuelde Salas, has also beentraced, wellas thefate as of a Spanish Royalist.15The independence movement only disrupted not individuallivesbuteven convulsedsupposedly spiritual organizations theCalike 16 bildoEclesiastico. Once independence been achieved,thenationstillfacedimportant had political decisions.Duringthe period 1817-30,Chileansexperimented: new constitutions implemented rejected; were and new ideas weredebated;thewar 17 in thesouthwas fought; Peruwas freed. Distressed thefailure the and by of new leadership achievepolitical to stability, portions thenation'selite,parof 57
cies.8 Indian.7

Review LatinAmerican Research ticularly estanqueros, the rebelled.'8 When the civilwar ended, Chile had returned its Spanish heritage-to a highly to and centralized government to a legislature whose powersweremoreconsistent withtheCortesthanwiththe 19 or with of assemblies France Anglo-America.The nobleexperiment federalism failed,SimonCollierargues,because it was inappropriate Chile's political to claimthatfederalism falsely culture.20Otherhistorians had raisedtoo many it when it could not satisfy thesepromises, fellintodisrepute.2' expectations; The nation that from unrest theearly was emerged the of nineteenth century to beartheimprint nameofDiego Portales-a conservative and to government be ruledbythewealthy thepowerful-although and the someclaimthat influence ofthemerchant has prince beenoveremphasized.22 The first seriousassaultupon thestolidstructure Portalian Chilecame of withthe1851and 1859rebellions. According Luis Vitale, 1848Revolution to the in France,Santiago'sexploitation the provinces, of and heavy mining taxes unifiedtraditionally diffuse elementsinto an alliancethatreactedviolently against government. the Whentheproletarian participants toradicalize tried the 1851movement, bourgeois the rebels The of capitulated. suppression therebelliondid noteradicate rootcauses: increased its taxation, economic depression, and theanimusofthenorthern and farmer miner southern toward commerthe cialand landedelitesof Santiagoprecipitated another outbreak hostilities of in 1859.Therebels failed againbut,as Vitale notes, thisdefeat notunexpected: was theallianceofsuchdisparate elements provedunequalto thecombined efforts of the oligarchs and the ships of the British navy.Had the rebelstriumphed, 23 they wouldhavesquandered their in victory dissent. Some historians have concentrated their the efforts upon describing efof waron specific fects thecivil Ruth the cities. who Iturriaga, supports economic interpretationthe1851rebellion, of traces resistance La Serena.Guillermo the of Donoso, however, divorced arguesthatpurely local events, from manytotally economic in the factors, produced 1851outbreak Talca.24 a The 1859 defeatdid not destroy Within decade of Cerro Liberalism. Grande,Liberal clubs la reforma preaching de were their seculargospel.25 the By 1870s,theConservative party had ceased participating government inin and steadbecamea political but leper, permitted holdseatsin thelegislature nota to ministerial portfolio. Pinto Christian Zegersanalyzes regime Anibal the of (187681),one ofthefirst Liberals ruleafter collapseoftheLiberal-Conservative to the fusion.26 Pinto,a lackluster honestman, had the misfortune rulinga but of nation first besetby a severeeconomic depression thentried theWarof and by thePacific. Contrary whatmany to havebelieved, struggle this failed generate to muchenthusiasm the to amongthecivilians did itreveal Chileanmilitary be nor adroit.27 thecontrary, conflict On particularly the strained Chile'sreseverely and tested leaders sources its bothcivil and military. Chileeventually triumphed due mainly theheroism itstroops theineptitude itsenemies. to of and of One ofthemostpopularthemes modern of Chileanhistoriography is the martyr President JoseBalmaceda.The studiesofJulio and CesarJobet Hernan Ramirez Necocheaarguethata nefarious British nitrate magnate, John Thomas in North,working league withhis Chileanlackies,overthrew economic the 58

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nationalistBalmaceda because he threatened North's mining interests.A less satisfying work is Cris6stomoPizarro's, which argues thatBalmaceda's policyof threatenedto displace enlargingthe bureaucracyand encouraging immigration the elite's power base. Consequently,the oligarchymoved against the president who could not defend his regimebecause both the workingclass and the progressiveDemocraticpartywere too weak to help him.28 Recent scholarship challenges the economic and sociological interpretations of Balmaceda's fall. Harold Blakemorecarefully investigatesthe role of the nitratebaron in Chile. He concludes that North had capitalized on inside information purchase controllinginterestsin various salitreras to located in Tarapaca. The Englishman subsequently acquired holdings in a bank and a local waterworks. Perhaps North's greatestasset was the Tarapaca NitrateRailway Company, the only rail linkbetween the salitrerasof the interior and the embarkation ports of Iquique and Pisagua. Because he enjoyed a monopoly, North could and did levy excessively high freight had but two charges. The salitreros choices: pay the inflatedchargesor siton theirnitrates. Bythelate 1880s,thenitrate exporttaxnotonlyprovidedChile with40 percent of its ordinaryrevenues, it constitutedthe lifeforcesustainingBalmaceda's ambitious and expensive public works program. Eventually,he concluded that because it could reduce the flowof nitratesto the coast, North's railwayconcesof sion posed a threatto this program.The presidentalso feared the formation nitratecartelsor combinations,which sought to increase the world marketprice of salitrethroughrestricting production.But any reductionin the exportsof this mineralwould reduce the nation's revenues. Thus, in 1889, Balmaceda launched a series of verbal attacks on the presence of foreigninterestsand cancelled North's railroadmonopoly,in hopes thatthiswould open the area up to compereduce freight tition, costs, and stimulateproduction.It was thisact, in conjunction with threats to nationalize the salitreras,the Left argues, which drove the Northand his Chilean minionsto overthrow Balmaceda government. Blakemorequestions Balmaceda's commitment economic nationalism. to The president authorized the sale of publicly owned nitratelands to foreign interests, and, although Balmaceda had revoked North's railroadconcession, he was willing to grant similarprivilegesto other Britishcapitalists. He opposed North's railway monopoly not because it was foreignowned but because it limited nitraterevenues; for this same reason he opposed the formationof nitratecartels. If North had indeed supported the Congressional forces,he was quicklydisappointed: the new leaders would not restorehis railroadconcession. As the authorcogentlyargues, we must seek the causes of the 1891 revolutionin Chilean domesticpoliticsand not in the supposed machinationsof foreign capitalists.29

Julio Heise Gonzalez's Historiade Chile: el PeriodoParlamentario, 18611925, provides preciselythis information. Through a detailed study of Chilean constitutional law and precedent,he demonstratesthatChile had evolved into a de factoifnot de jure parliamentary democracy.Lamentably,Balmaceda refused to accept the fact that this transformation had occurred: his arbitrary policies alienated his allies, the Montt Varistas; his attempts to impose his successor

59

Research LatinAmerican Review that sought forge to he Party; he becameso isolated and dividedhisown Liberal When,late in 1890,the Conservative party. an alliancewiththeultramontane demanded, congress as his president wouldnotreplace ministers thelegislature yearthus budgetforthecoming to retaliated refusing approvethenational by those of the precipitating rebellion.Heise's portrait Balmaceda contradicts as of historians had praisedthepresident a defender the who painted earlier by suppressedthe working class. Instead,Balmacedais shown to have cruelly party. Democratic the nitrate of strikers 1890and to have harrassed progressive his autocrat ruling as figure, emerges an insensitive he Far from sympathetic a for and inappropriate thepolitically thatwerebothbrutal nation withmethods Chileans.30 sophisticated In of in Raul Silva Castrois even less generous his appraisal Balmaceda. approach, Silvaargues as whatmaybe charitably described a psycho-historical and thatthe neurotic president could not acceptthathe was not all powerful Balmaceda notonly is withhis legislature. thathe would have to compromise the it; ordering destrucprolonging for the blamedforstarting civilwarbutfor of works, orderto deprivetheConstitutionalistsfinancial in tionof thenitrate and for surrendering not after Placilla; cause; for abdicating not support their for junta,whichwould have spared Valparaiso and Santiagoto therevolutionary Balmaceda's Silvaevendenigrates thenation additional bloodshedand looting. that who fears the romantic gesture, actofa narcissus suicideas an unnecessary intransigence.31 suffer reprisals hisearlier for he might us Blakemore Heise have provided withperhapsthemostdefinitive and the Regime workson the Balmacedaexperience. Unfortunately, Parliamentary untouched. largely the still of (1891-1925), creation the1891revolution, remains and manyconsiderthis an era of inept government excessive Traditionally, its and of derrochadora wasting patrimony, that themotherclase expenditures-la The consumption. civilwar ended decades of land,in an orgyof conspicuous not regulocal leadership; henceforth, government, Santiago, strong executive inquiwillon their who The hacendados, could imposetheir latedtheelections. who exercised powerdirectly becamethepowerbrokers-caciques either linos, cronies.This corruption or dispensedit to their spreadto the citywherethe or as patr6n, fell politico blindly his former as followed urban the recent migrant soldtheir underthedomination hisemployer. moreindependent of The simply Heise annuity. received themselves a smallbutgratefully of vote,thusassuring a all abuses afflicted nationsevolvingfrom "semiarguesthatsuch political of the structure an] industrial feudal Eventually, infusion society."32 [to agrarian in and World War, urbanization, changes theagrarian newcultural ideas,theFirst as the 1915 Indeed,after structure wellas publicmorality beganto alter system. ceased to be to thecacique's powerstarted wane and by 1921it had virtually effective. the of or corruption. ManyChileansrepudiated system cohecho, political a to Pedro Montt,forexample,originally leader in the movement establish the he to sought reform system helpedcreate. rule, parliamentary unsuccessfully the EduardoVargas Conseras parties-Liberals, notes, political Unhappily, Juan with ideologies. baroque institutions ossified vatives, Radicals-had become and 60

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Still,new forces, thePartido like demandeda return a strong to Nacionalista, presidency economic and nationalism before riseofAlessandri.33 the long Although thesereforms were to wait foryearsbefore implementation, the Parliamentary leaderswere not unmindful the need forchange. The of Cuesti6n articulated Orrego Social,first Luco in1884, becamea rallying by point forreformers.34 movement This to the and living struggled improve working conditions the lowerclass and, contrary whatis generally of to believed,the Right notoppose such proposals.Indeed,theUni6nCat6licaand Catholic did intellectuals such as JuanEnrique Concha and VicenteEcheverria sought workmen's the compensation, creation agricultural of colonies, improved working conditions, and decenthousingforthe lowerclass. As Silva Vargasand PedroIfiiguez demonstrate, Conservative party support the"socialquestion" of antedatedthatof the Radical partyand it was the Rightwhichencouraged President Riesco to workmore actively implement reform. to JamesMorris indicates thatthemiddle-class a forAlianzaLiberalalso supported program, mulated Jorge condiby and Benjamin Errazuriz Vicuna,to improve working tions. Both the approachof the Alianza and thatof the Conservatives was basicallypaternalistic-elitist noblesseoblige forwhichthe poor were to be vocally grateful. Whenthesereforms it finally becamelaw,moreover, was becauseofthe1924coupand notthrough traditional the legislative process.35 there Unfortunately, is no definitive studyof theParliamentary regime. Some historians have analyzedtheideological and political positions platforms ofthevarious the parties and during congressional presidential election 1915of 16.36 Similar research projects would obviously increase our understanding of thisperiod.Fernando PintoLagarrigue written general has a study thetwenof tieth that some brief century offers intothe Parliamentary but insights period, the generally workis superficial, Jorge and Barria'sMarxist is overview too Perhaps bestwork to appearis still the yet Heise'sHistoria, which seeksto refute argument theParliamentary the that period was politically sterile. Indeed, he arguesthattheyears1891-1924 provided timefor emerging the bourgeoisie tolearntheartofpolitics; transitional a periodfrom oligarchical the government of thenineteenth century theage of mass democracy beganafter to that 1925. The authordoes not deny thatthe Parliamentary regimewas elitist but, he notes, was every so democracy that at time. Despiteitsdefects, Parliamentary the governments permitted freedom the individual, press could function, for the intellectuals coulddispute, and new cultural imports transformed nation.38 the ButHeise overstates case; theruling his class was notas virtuous he claims. as The repression laborunions,thewrecking insolent of of left-wing presses,and theharrassment Recabarren of indicate thatindividual liberties becomethe had prerogatives thegente of decente. Ironically, some historians EnriqueReyes like seem almostdelighted withthisrepression because it forged sense of class a consciousness whichbecametheseedbedof theLeft-the Anarchists, Parthe tidoObrero Socialista, theCommunists.39 and Chile, at least, was stablewhen comparedwithotherLatinAmerican nations. Despitethegovernment menlikeBarros of Luco-whose mostlasting 61
37 cursory.

LatinAmerican Research Review of meatcontribution posterity to was apparently the introduction the grilled and-cheesesandwichthat stillbears his name-Chile survivedintact.Like Franceduringthe ThirdRepublic, was government inertia it and bureauby That it even functioned all underthesecircumstances at should merit cracy. someadmiration matter tinged no how with irony. The chronicle the collapseof the Parliamentary and of government the meteoric rise of Alessandri, stillremains althoughanalyzedto some extent, incomplete. example, roleofthemilitary the1924-25 For the in coupsis unclear: Rene Millararguesthatthe officer corpswas mostdispleasedaboutwretched did salariesand poorcareer and officers notintend opportunities, theyounger tolaunch coupuntil a them thepolitical Alessandri enticed into cockpit. Frederick as Nunn,on theotherhand, claimsthatthe desireforgeneral reform well as professional discontent encouraged men like Grove and Ibafiezto act.40 The actualoverthrow mostrecently has as been described well in the entertaining butanecdotal of study RaulAldunate Phillips.41 the Although 1925constitution invested president the with greater power, Arturo Alessandri neverfinished term office. of his Some historians claimthat he fellbecause he could not fulfill earlier his promises.42 Ibanfez, the other on hand, enjoyedmoresuccessperhapsbecause he assumedthe presidency unfettered earlier by commitments as Hugh Bicheno and, notes,unrestrained by or The political ideology affiliation. first a Ibanezregime (1927-31)accomplished greatdeal and managedto establish that manyof the institutions becamethe foundation modernChile. Unhappily, general'spolitical of the methodsand crassrepression that engendered hostility soon was transformed various into to him. Carlos Charlinably describes abortive attempts overthrow the Calais and the ludicrousaffair the Avi6n Rojo, and also recordsthe of conspiracy eventual and collapseofIbaiiez,theMontero interregnum, thefirst ofthe part studiesof Socialist of Republic 100Days. Thisis one ofthefewcomprehensive thiscrucial an in periodand constitutes excellent sourceforanyoneinterested The depression thatoverturned Ibainez had otherpolitical ramifications as well. Reforms wouldhave been impossible implement that to earlier became feasible becausetheelectorate itself becomemoreliberal. had Former supporters ofBarros Borgonio becameconverts thecause ofAlessandri, to whilethosewho once followed the Lion of Tarapaca-the leftwing of the Radicalparty, the and dem6cratas, theworking class-switchedtheir allegiance thenew forces to on thepolitical the and horizon: Communists Socialists. Chileanupperclass The accepted stateinvolvement economic in development revisions theelecand in in toralsystem, partbecause itbenefited but them, also becausethesechanges werefar more thanthemore palatable radical measures beingproposed.44 and Numerous the scholars have emphasized growth theroleofspecific withmoresuccess,have Luis Palmaand Peter political parties. Snow,thelatter the Radical.GeorgeGrayson's booktraces Christian the Demostudied Partido within crats from to administration. internal The their inception theFrei struggles in theSocialist from founding theparty 1932through Second the the of ranks, on Thomasconcentrates thecauWorld are War, analyzedby Paul Drake.Jack 62
thisera.43

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dillo-like figure Marmaduke of Grove-the Marxist who is reputed to have not readMarx-and describes abortive his 1932campaign thepresidency for when he was nominated whileimprisoned the SouthPacific. in Miriam Hochwald's dissertation examines variousforces the thatinfluenced growth the Sothe of cialist and Alejandro party. Julio CesarJobet ChelenRojas, themselves prominentSocialists, havealso written the histories thisMarxist of party. Perhaps best workis thejointeffort Fernando of Casanuevaand ManuelFernandez who not of but describeits only tracethe historical development the Socialistparty, ideological growth wellas itsinteraction other as with political organizations.45 The ephemeral happily and short-lived National Socialist Party been has studied MichaelPotashnik, by who analyzestheintellectual rootsofthemovementand itscontradictory in Chile'shistory-it role was theonlyNazi party to support PopularFront, political the a coalition theLeftdesignedto oppose of Hitler.46 the dissertations underway boththeUnitedStatesand EnIf now in glandare completed, shallhave moreinformation the variouspolitical we on parties, on particularly the Communists. The latter additionwould be most welcomeand would supplement well-known partisan the but workofHernan Ramirez Necochea.47 Some generalworksdescribing Chile's political systemhave also apin peared. Ben Burnett analyzesthevariouspressure groupsoperating Chile, while FedericoGil studiesnot only the nation'shistorical but development includes information thevarious on political parties recent and electoral contests, as wellas dissects organization thegovernment, the and of bureaucracy, official agencies. Weston Agorprobes functioningthesenate.48 the of German and a of UrzuaValenzuela Anamaria Garciahavewritten history thebureaucracy from 1818to 1968.Thiswork, whichis invaluable thepostfor 1925period,tracesthe growth variousstateinstitutions their of and participaa tioninthenation's socialand economic development.49 Urzuahas also written of His howChile's general survey Chileanpolitical history. initial essaydescribes first parties evolvedfrom unstable pressure that groups organizations stressed to thepersonality their of leadermorethanideological purity. During Portalian the Oficial period,a Partido developed,butit dissolvedeventually becauseof dissentwithin aristocracy. the Although variety political a of parties emerged, they wereprimarily withabstract in concerned issues and did notbecomeinvolved social or economicquestionsuntilthe turnof the century. Urzua notes the that changesproducedby adoptingplatforms advocatedmorethan political reform, theformation thePartido by of Dem6crata, by thecreation the and of Marxist Left,whichhe analyzesalong withthe moretraditional orpolitical As we progress intothe1930s,thematerial seemsto declinein quantity. What has appeared tends to be autobiographical-the worksof Alessandri, GonzalezVidela,Guzman,and theprofessional apostateMarcosChamudesand henceless objective. works uneveninquality are Some ofthefewsynthetic and partisan, thoseofJorge "Antilike Barria and Hugo Zemelman; Bicheno's Parliamentary Themes"providesa panoramic sweep of the post-1920 period; MariaInfante and concentrates the1938presidential on election; Richard Super's dissertation a detailed Front is chronology thePopular of (1938-41). 5 63
ganizations.50

Review Research LatinAmerican If the 1930s have been barelytouched,the subsequentdecades are a last Olavarria's two volumes of tabularasa. Withthe exception Arturo virtual one cristiana-neither of whichis striking-the and his Chilebajola democracia We area is open forthe historian. have preciousfewworkson Ibaiiez,AlesThe recent on sandri,or Freiand almostnothing Rios or Gonzalez Videla.52 been have already Indeed,there the of divert efforts many. coup willdoubtless workswritten-somewithmixedresults-and moreshallbe availnumerous of an importance, understanding pre-1970 able soon. Whilethistopicis ofgreat into Chile will be essentialif we are to put the Unidad Popularexperience perspective. Chile's economy one Ironically, of the majoreventsthattransformed in thatnationbut in Peru:an earthquake 1687destroyed not occurred within systemand devastatedlocal agriculture. much of the Lima valleyirrigation a Chile changedfrom market, by Stimulated the openingup of the Peruvian culLand was enclosedand intensively to cerealcultivation. economy pastoral while on was concentrated thefarms, laborforce rural and tivated thescattered Chilebecamea were diminished. and its perquisites its dutieswereincreased in a society, nationwhose economicpowerwas concentrated the seigneurial elite. landowning the particularly Santiagoarea, becamelargely Valley, Whilethe Central In altered. La Chicowas notso drastically of the agricultural, economy theNorte withthehacendados and to continued flourish hencecompeted Serena,mining did moreover, not exportas much grainbecause local forlabor.The north, of the on consumedit. Concepci6n, the otherhand, formerly center miners a of also production, beganthecultivation wheat.Generally, seigneurlivestock Becauseofits of the accompanied adoption cerealproduction. ial socialstructure ceneconomic principal as emerged thenation's Santiago location, geographical the between hacendadoand the elite ter.Itscommercial becamethemiddlemen EuroChileanwheatfor exchanging merchant, the and, later, British Peruvian Chilebeto Marcello Carmagnani, goods. Thus,according pean manufactured of to itself subordinating first themarkets Peru producer, came a raw material to Independence, England.53 and,after between relationship that Ramos demonstrates the economic Demetrio Chile's local officials Traditionally, was morecomplicated. Lima and Santiago the who of goals:that thewheatproducer, sought two had toreconcile opposing for maximum priceand thewidestmarket his goods;and thatoftheconsumer, to tried delaythe cabildonormally food.Santiago's inexpensive who demanded satisfied; were first untilthe needs of the local population exportof cereals in to Chilean wheat exports Peru oftenfluctuated responseto consequently, demand. domestic wheat againbeganto cultivate Peruvians century, eighteenth In theearly PeruNot declinein Chileanproduction. unreasonably, a temporary becauseof Chilean competition. foreign from demandedprotection vian agriculturalists these resisted markets, (by their now) traditional anxiousto retain hacendados, of thattheyhad thesupport Callao's to and werefortunate discover measures 64

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1965-1976

and fair interests. WhenPortobello's becameless lucrative, shipping commercial perceived thatexportTheyquickly thenavieros Callao soughtnew markets. of for of compensate them thedestruction the ingwheatfrom Chileto Perumight Peru'snavierosjoined Chile's hacendadosin deflotasystem. Consequently, Lima. permit more wheattoenter manding Viceroy that Mansode Velasco to in wheatand yetunwilling alienAnxious makePeruself-sufficient to henceforth Chilean both of he ate another portion the empire, compromised: encouraged use of the and Peruvian wheatwouldbe sold in Lima.Thenavieros and theCallao merchants Chileangrain selling on credit Lima'sbakers, it to by the farm pricesand thus cornered Chileanend of the market, manipulating againdemanded a in farmers artificially depressing them.Later, 1755,Peruvian antagonized onlythe not Thisrequest preferential position thelocalmarket. on thatCaptainGeneral navieros theChileanhacendadoclass,who requested but them.The latter cease disManuelAmatdefend demandedthatthePeruvians thatSanCarlos Ugartealso indicates criminating againstChileanimports.54 the now sought protect to prohibited exports, tiago'scabildo, whichhad earlier It practices and to expandhis markets. was wheatfarmer againstfraudulent Chileanproducts ended against partially to thecabildothatdiscrimination due the and that wheatdirectly Panama,thusdestroying to Chileans couldselltheir 55 Peruvian wheatmonopoly. century, exwhichhad begun in the sixteenth Trade withArgentina, in kingsopened the Strait 1740,56and panded substantially the Bourbon after the Chile rethis Henceforth, connection. eventually routesuperceded Pacific ceiveda steadystream supplies,through of chanlegal as well as clandestine and Eyzaguirre conclude nels, from Platinearea. Indeed,bothVillalobos the thatthe 1811 Free TradeDecree was mainly political thatthe local gesture a commercial reducedChile's the elitesopposed.57Certainly Bourbonreforms upon econotes,Chilehad embarked dependence upon Peru.As Silva Vargas By nomicpoliciesdesignedto end Peru's control. the end of the O'Higgins the could no longerimpose its policies administration, Peruvianviceroyalty Chileanshad developedlocal institutions-the upon its southern neighbor.58 mint and theconsulado-which depending upon thevicefreed nation the from in royalty Lima. in muchmaterial Otherscholars notagreethat do Chileenjoyed progress example, arguesthatChile theColonialperiod.HernanRamirez Necochea,for and from tradedeficits, thatit that industries, itsuffered possessedno national of the and continued be exploited boththeempire itsenforcer, viceroyalty to by thatthe Creoleeliterebelled imbalance this Peru. It was to correct economic did claimsthatindependence notend the againstSpain. AndreGunderFrank and Chilesimply masters English economic servitude: replaced Spanexchanged the ish as the languageof the exploiters who dominated new nation'scomof nitrates. Seducedbythefalsedoctrine free merce, copper, wheat,and, later, and theglitter European of consumer trade rejected protectiongoods,Chileans capon nation rawmaterial a producer-an economic ismand instead kepttheir industries developed,but its incapableof reproducing wealth.Some national Frank foreigners first-generation or by arguesthattheseweredominated either 65

Review LatinAmerican Research Chileans who happily betrayed their new homeland gratify to England. Indeed, in according Jacinto to Vaello, Chilebecamea virtual dominion Britain of which, leaguewithlocalcapitalists, liquidated nation's the industry, denationalized the nitrate mines, evenasserted poweroverChile'seconomic and its structure.59 A more reasoned proponent thedependency of thesis theItalian is scholar Marcello who blamesthefailure developindustries thelack to on Carmagnani, ofcapitalaccumulation. phenomenon, This whichtheauthor claimscharacterized the entire Hispanicworld,was due to the overwhelming presence an of industrialized Europe,particularly England.Historically, Chile had been subordinated GreatBritain thisservitude to but the becameinstitutionalized during reducedthe priceof raw materials, period1870-95.A worldwide depression Chile'sprincipal intoChile, export; simultaneously, English capital begantoflow raw and particularly salitreras. its Thisnew moneystimulated material exports accelerated declinein commodity the prices.Thus Chile foundit extremely to the difficult accumulate fundsneeded to modernize restofitseconomy. the Someindustry develop,in part did inflation-the becauseofdomestic declining the peso increased price foreign of goods,providing Chilewith de facto a system ofprotectionism-but Chileanindustry remained a primitive at level,producing mainly nondurable consumer goods. Manufacturers, moreover, couldnotcomwith sectors theeconomy, of for petesuccessfully other particularly banking, the Even when the state capitalneeded to modernize and expandplantfacilities. in begantoparticipate economic development, didnotalter basicdilemma: it the the costof equipment thatquickly becameoutdatedsimply increased nathe tion'sindebtedness thusdeepenedthecycleofdependency. and Indeed,since controlled the of sector theeconomy, Chiledid foreigners mining, mostdynamic notevenownthemeansofbuying itself ofeconomic out bondage.60 BothCharlesPregger Romanand RogerBurbach also supportthe dethesis. Theformer the of pendency arguesthat formation corporations permitted one economic to dominate element penetrate eventually and other sectors the of Once in power,thesecorporate in with economy. interests, conjuinction their British allies,refused industrialize to Chileand emphasized insteadtheexport and theimportation manufactured sector of goods. EventheGreatDepression and subsequent did program economic of nationalism notend thedependency. Burbach barrier buyinginto claimsthatforeign capitalavoided the tariff by Chileanindustries. The nationalbourgeoisie existing permitted this,in part, because it needed advanced technology for and capital.Hence, in return a domina"piece of the corporate action," Chileansopened the door to foreign
tion.61

The dependency certain model,however, suffers from flaws that become evident new research published.S. F. Edwardsindicates as is thatas earlyas its The 1811,Chilesoughtto alter economic structure. government encouraged the development national of industries-especially textiles-as well as a merchantmarine; limited it interforeign traders whilegiving Chileancommercial estscertain and it soughtto stimulate Thesemeasures advantages; agriculture. failed a variety reasons.Local merchants for of couldnotcompete successfully despitetheir advantages. The greatest problem was thattheChileaneconomy 66

CHILEAN

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enoughincometo sustain itself and generate reform could notsimultaneously the provided Customs the and thegovernment support warforindependence. them lion's share of the nation'srevenuesand any measurethatrestricted and conclusions reachessimilar services.JohnRector strangled government producing industries spawnedinefficient simply arguesthatneo-mercantilism and from agriculture mining. neededresources goodswhilediverting high-cost of for funds thesupport thegovernat production leastgenerated Raw material 62 ment eventual growth. and aduanacode and compensated In the1870s,Chileenacteda protectionist and inheritances.63 a forthe lost revenuesby imposing tax on income,gifts, Kirsch notes,thesemanufacturers did Nativeindustries developand, as Henry needsduring and muchofChile'sconsumer military enoughto satisfy provided protecpassed additional subsequently The theWarofthePacific.64 legislature but laws thatenjoyedthe supportnot only of industrialists also the tionist their beefand wheat as who saw thetariff a meansof defending hacendados, food domestic that however, higher riots 1905indicate, of The markets. Santiago the antagonized public.65 prices goods thatwere produceditemswere oftennondurable Domestically and bridges, railway acid,cement, suchas sulphuric locally; others, consumed manufacturers industry. Chilean of to contributed thegrowth heavy locomotives, War.As local needs duringthe FirstWorld enoughto satisfy becamestrong and the Second WorldWar Oscar Mufioznotes,the onsetof the depression subof in witha policy import that, conjunction incentives additional provided Adsectors. and the stimulated nation's heavyindustry metallurgical stitution, but producedgoods weremoreexpensive, at leastthey domestically mittedly, "fabricacion chilena."66 borethemessage: Robert did the system notlanguish. transportation Significantly, nation's Chileancapitaland the government that demonstrates private Oppenheimer the rail Eventually MoValley system. of the financed construction theCentral Chilethefirst of making neda had to assumetheadministration thisendeavor, workis also its Oppenheimer's to nation control own railroads. LatinAmerican the segment the comprised largest becausehe showsthat hacendados important to of stock,thus putting restthe thesisthatthe of the shareholders railroad dissertation traces Whaley'sexcellent John was agriculturalist not innovative. openedup the on theimpact therailroad Chile'ssouth.Whiletherailsystem of local industries arguesthatit also destroyed the for frontera settlement, author parValley, of and thussubordinated southto thedomination theCentral the misleadmayhave someappeal,itis often theory Whilethedependency Evenat the not helpless. notes,Chilewas simply that ing.As HaroldBlakemore reto refused acceptfinancial power,Santiagosuccessfully apogee of British dividends the of for guano debts,one of the-unwanted sponsibility Peruvian
The Chilean capitalist,moreover,was neitherhesitantnor War of the Pacific.68 ticularly Santiago.67

in he incompetent: opened up traderoutesto Australia the earlynineteenth ores Peru,and Argentina, and Bolivia, imported from century; Chileansmelters that and exported.69 Kinsbruner demonstrates English whichtheyrefined Jay 67

LatinAmerican Research Review at merchants, initially least,did notmonopolize commerce thattheir and commercial successwas due to their skillsand not the intervention the British of in government. Indeed, not all of the foreign resulted profit: the enterprises great William Wheelwright, Kinsbruner RolandDuncan show,failed as and on in thanoneoccasion hisventures Chile.70 in more New research indicatesthatChile constructed adequate economic an in foundation the nineteenth but century thatit failedto modernize. Kirsch in claimsthatChileancapitalists to hesitated invest new technology, indusand tries becausetheir flowed insteadintoshort-term, stagnated money high-profit rather thanheavyindustry. enterprises Thus,manyChileansinvested in capital minesand Argentine Bolivian because theyproduceda higher estancias return MarkosMamalakis'mostrecent studyalso notesthatChile developed the substantially during nineteenth but century couldnotmeettheneedsofits Chilefaltered expanding population. becausethegovernment failed imposea to rational systemthatcould have investedthe revenuesin educationand tax the Mamalakis diversifying economy. that effectively demonstrates theimpact of foreign investment inflation been overemphasized.He arguesinand has stead thatthe Central whichdevelopedbecause of the taxon mining, Valley, never contributed thegrowth therest thenation. of to of Unlike Carmagnani, he there was adequatecapital believesthat accumulation that was consumed, but it in notinvested theeconomy. Subsequently, theeasymoney nitrates after of had the evaporated, varioussectors had to compete a diminishing for shareof rethuslimiting nation's the sources, economic The growth. author, economist, an has provided witha superbexposition us describing Chile'seconomic developthe 72 ment and the of through twentieth century including government Allende. Some historians offer alternative for explanations Chile'seconomic problems. Pierre for claimsthatChile owes its underdevelopVayssiere, example, mentnotto dependency to itsfiscal but Soon after the system. Independence, new nationlostits gold and silver, whichwas remitted abroadto pay forthe purchasesof Europeanconsumer had goods. The nationliterally run out of specie-the government tomint had coinsand private copper started companies of if theinfamous system fichas-thusstunting, notsuffocating, economic development. After 1850,whentheeconomy begantoexpand,so did thedemand forspecie;unfortunately, Chile'smineral production began to decline.Finally, in of thestate, thenameofLiberalism, abandonedcontrol themoney supplyto institutions began to print that private credit banknotes. Local capitalists investedthis"funny money"not in the economy, in maintaining pretenbut a tiouslyhigh standardof living.73 also criticizes government Carmagnani the becauseitpermitted banksto siphonoff foreign capital from moredynamic the sectors;these fundswent to finance ventures did that,while lucrative, not
75 various aspectsofthenation's monetary policy. to Manyfindit difficult acceptany generalized of interpretation Chile's economic maintains we cannot that S. development. F. Edwards formulate such theories becauseof thepaucity literature thebasicsectors Chile'secoof on of

on theirinvestment.71

benefit the Chilean economy.74Two recent doctoral dissertationsalso study

68

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nomy. Happily, various scholars haveembarked uponresearch projects will that provideus withthe necessary data. One of themoregratifying examples has been thestudyof thenitrate Oscar Bermuidez industry. his supplements comprehensive book on salitre withan article how Chile regulated the describing in nitrate fields occupiedAtacama ThomasO'Brien'spainstaking and Tarapaca. efforts show thatSantiagoreturned nitrates private the to hands because of claims ownership becauseitcouldillafford finance of and conflicting to boththe Warof thePacific and theredemption thePeruvian of nitrate certificates. Subcontrol sequently, foreign increased because Chileancapitalists to preferred investtheir funds moretraditional in sectors theeconomy, of surethat profits the ofa revived nitrate wouldeventually into hands.Michael industry percolate their Monteon an in provides overview British of economic involvement theAtacama nitrate industry the1870suntil 1891revolution.76 from the Ricardo Couyoumdjian's superb article Historia in showsthat whileWorld WarI increased consumption nitrates, of Chileanminers lackedthe meansto to ship their a products Europe.Although Chile retained monopoly over the the salitreras, Alliescouldand did force downtheprices restricting sale of the by needed raw materials, particularly Increasingly, Chileangovernment oil. the becameinvolvedin the regulation the nitrate of trade.Whenthe war ended, prices thepostwar fell; depression, plustheHaberprocess, signaled closeof the thegoldenage ofnitrates, erathat an was nottobe revived despite efforts the of theGuggenheims their and magical process.Of course, somethedemiseof for the salitreras producedno mourning. Monteon, As Reyes,and the Bermuidez studyof NicolasPalaciosdemonstrate, working conditions thenorthern in nitrate fields wereunbearable thedeclineofthesalitreras and ended a sad era in 77 Chilean labor history. Foreigners playedan important in developing role Chile'scopperas well. Claudio Veliz studiesthe AlsatianCharlesLambert, who made it possibleto smelthighsulphateores; and Pierre Vayssiere notesthatforeigners, time this Americans, resurrected moribund the copperindustry whentheChileans chose not to investin thissectorof the economy. This infusion fundsand new of made the minepits moreproductive. technology The Gran Mineriacomplex until1931when,at theonsetof thedepression, governescaped taxation the mentbegan to levyimposts thered metal.This changein fiscal on policy-in the sense thatcopperreplacednitrates the objectof taxation-later as was altered encourage to additional investment thecopper by companies. According to ClarkReynolds, however, revenues the generated coppersupported by general government expenditures,not the diversification Chile's economy.78 of

and The favored excited statusof the coppercompanies hostility, even and like the right-wing politicians Mariano Puga attacked Yankeeorganizations the demandedtheir In expulsion. 1971,theAllendegovernment expropriated GranMineria. of TwoAmerican scholars have studiedthemechanics nationalizationas well as itsbackground results. and GeorgeIngram arguesthatmost not had tobreakoutofthecycle believed that nation the Chileans, justtheLeft, ofdependency Theodore natural-resource imposed uponitbyforeign exploiters. of to issue oftherelationship Moran,whose workattempts studythebroader 69

LatinAmerican Research Review the multinational corporation the hostcountry, and claimsthatthe American AllianceforProgress demandsforland reform angeredtheRight so thatthey ceased to protect coppercompaniesfrom ChileanLeft.79 the the Bothworks

provide thereader witha generalunderstandingofthe nationalizationprocess. Some general studies on mining have also appeared. Leland Pederson has writtenan excellentwork tracingthe exploitationof the Norte Chico's mineral resources fromthe Spanish conquista to the modern period. An interesting companion piece is the somewhat superficialbut still useful effort Augusto of Bruna, who traces the evolution of Chile's miningcodes fromtheirRoman Law backgroundintothiscentury.80 have substantiallyincreased our understandingof Chile's Recent efforts agrariansector.Arnold Bauer, Horacio Aranguiz, and othersdo an excellentjob of describingthe least visible and yet most discussed Chilean: the inquilino.81 There are also studies of individualfundosthat employed these hapless campesinos.82 Gonzalo Izquierdo traces the evolution of the Sociedad Nacional de Agriculturafroman organizationpraising the virtuesof agrarianlifeto a force for modernizing the agriculturalsector throughthe introduction new techof nology.83As Silvia Hernandez notes, these efforts produced positive results after1850, largelybecause of the expansion of Chile's European markets,the introductionof the railroad, the development of internalmarkets,and the efforts enlightenedminersand entrepreneurs of turnedhacendado. The importationofnew farm tended to be somewhat limitedbecause fewChileans machinery could repair this equipment.84The National Society of Agricultureeventually became not only a forceformodernizationbut also a pressure group operating in the political system to protectthe interestsof the large landowner.85Two worthwhilereprintshave also appeared: the classic two-volume study of Claudio Gay, and Donoso's monographon Chile's southernprovinces.86 Arnold Bauer has attemptedto writea definitive study of Chilean rural societyfromthe Spanish Conquest to the twentieth His research,howcentury. ever, tends to be based upon the experience of two departamentos-Talca and Caupolican-and fora more limitedtime period (1840-90). While Chile's agricultural sector was initiallycompetitive,its participationin the world market failed because of the nation's geographical position, because its rivals mechanized more rapidly,and because the terratenientes lacked the foresight desire or to improve their fundos, apparently because they were under no economic pressure to change. The landowners, who monopolized the creditextended by the Caja de Credito Hipotecario, evidentlyrefusedto invest these funds in their haciendas but instead wasted them in extravagant living. Bauer's work is quite provocative,but its conclusions, because theyare based upon a limitedrange of sources, are tentative.87 Mario Ballesterosindicates that Chilean agriculturedid increase its proin ductivity the earlytwentieth century although it began to decline after1930;88 by the 1950s it had become one of the nation's least productivesectors. Chile's problem was twofold:it contained too littlearable land and what did exist was concentratedin the hands of an absurdlysmall elite. Earlierattemptsto provide the inquilinos with land in the newly opened southern frontiers had failed,89

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and thesalitreras provided one ofthefewalternatives tenant to farming. After WarI, however, salitreras World the ceased to employlargenumbers men, of whothen drifted tothefarm search work. back in of The desireforreform began as earlyas 1911when inquilinos protested thatits Labor conditions. the bafiezregime their working Although provided its the Code protect agrarian workers, terratenientes prevented implementation As through parliamentary maneuvering. BrianLoveman'ssplendidstudyinto the and the dicates, political powerofthelandowners their ability buyoff Left, by supporting latter's the programs industrialization subsidizedfood for and prices theurban for worker, stymied reform. the1960s, hacendado's land By the prestige powerhad waned. Unableto produceenoughto feedthenation and and considered regressive a forcein a societythatsoughtto modernize its economy, terratenientes support. the lost Agrarian reform, long a dream,became a reality Alessandri, as Frei,and especially Allendeeradicated large the landed estates.As Lovemannotes,however, political and ideological issues the complicated landreform process.90 Scholarsare also studying formation growth the industrial the and of tendsto on most proletariat; unfortunately, ofthematerial thelabormovement his of Barria's studies general, are be doctrinaire. Jorge although history CUT is Alan the usefulfortracing formation theunionand itsvariousconferences. of but a to Angell'svolumeprovides historical background thelabormovement, varioussyndiand strife within tendsto stress unionorganization internecine classwell Alessandri's laborcode did notservetheworking cates.He notesthat unionsto bycreating separate unionsfor obrero empleado; notallowing the and by too their be organizedon an industry-wide basis; and by regulating strictly finances. MichaelMonteon'sdissertation theworkofEnriqueReyesfocus and on the plightof the nitrate worker. Monteon,who does a verygood job of in conditions thesalitreras, faults Recabarren failing developa for to describing conunionmovement. moredynamic Reyesarguesthattheinhuman working ditions fuseddisparate workers a class-conscious into and proletariat hencethe was to of nitrate experience essential thedevelopment theChileanlabormovement.91 Chile adopted the same social institutions otherLatin American coloas was For nies, at least initially. example, theencomienda institutionalized, although because thelandowners, Mario G6ngora notes thatitwas nota feudalinstrument while enjoyingIndian service,were stillsubject to royal authority. Chile's encomiendas thus have been describedas "quasi-seigneurial" because theylacked an inherentpolitical forceand derived theirauthorityfromthe King.92However, this did not stop the encomenderos from dominating Santiago's cabildo and throughit, the urban economy,to fittheirown needs.93 Maria Gonzales Pomes argues that the encomienda functionedin a benign fashion in Chile, in part because ofthe intervention thecivilauthorities; of when itwas abolished, in 1791, most of the laborers remained on the land as tenants.94Still, the relationship was subordinated between landlordand tenantwas obviouslyunequal: thelatter to the needs of his masterand rarelyreceived specie forhis labor.95Those who

71

LatinAmerican Research Review no thieves-often couldfind work-vagabonds, migratory workers, congregated or on thesouthern frontier in Cuyo,wherethey werejoinedbyother disorderly themselves and elements who had no chanceto improve socially who had been and Themigratory market lower-class displaced from labor the by blacks Indians. threat society and wereconsidto and landlessunemployed posed a constant the ered a forceforimmorality. Consequently, government soughtto curtail them public on works their activity, byemploying often projects.96 TheChilean aristocracy notas homogeneous has beenbelieved was as nor Class dependedupon a variety components of and was itclosedto outsiders.97 for of was into thepossession an encomienda notalwaystheprerequisite entry race the upper class. Increasingly, became a condition social acceptance, for it whileone's profession, providing was not"un oficio becameless imporvil," tant.98 centers theencomienda did seemto Onlyin themoretraditional mining be essential; Santiagoand Concepcion, in elitesemerged whose control was based upon powerand wealth, Indianlabor.Thesenew elements not beganto this occupy important postsinthecolonial bureaucracy; however, socialmobility didnotcomeeasynorwas thenewcomer graciously accepted theold guard.99 by the to new to elites Although nineteenth-century continued permit elements join 100 their ranks, they idealsand goals. demanded that they adopttheir Preoccupation theoligarchy tendedto makescholars with has ignore the lowerclass, but some work on Chile's racialcomposition and demographic movements appeared.10' has and Immigration history thecontribution variof ous ethnic was one ofthe groupshas also becomea populartopic.CarlSolberg first undertake to suchresearch, comparing immigration the patterns govand ernment and 1880to 1914.Marcello policiesofArgentina Chilefrom Segal has a written highly workattempting describe roleoftheChinese to the ideological in Chile;and Victor Dalhl studiedtheYugoslavs, who initially settled either in or and an in element Chile,especially Magallanes Antofagasta, became important 102 after they begantomigrate Santiago. to Perhaps mostsignificant the study beenthat Jean has of Pierre Blancpain, who has written massiveopus describing German a the immigrant experience from 1816to theconclusion World of WarII. Thisworkis epic in itsscope and outlinesthe social, economic, and cultural impactof the Germansin Chile. GeorgeYounghas also studiedthe Teutonic influence, providing witha us biography Bernardo of Phillipi, authorof the first colonization project, and a of study theGerman community 1846to1914.103 from In local studies,scholarshave described variouscitiesin Chile's north 104 and southas wellas theSantiago region. A fewworks focus morespecific on projects: HernanRodriguez Fernando and the Campotrace evolution certain of sections land in Santiagoand Maule respectively; of de Armando Ramondescribes bien in Santiago,as well as tracing ownership value, raiz and every its from 1650to 1700.105 Others have made regional studiesofMagallanes, Chiloe, and thesouthern provinces.106 Theseare excellent research projects regional of in development Chile,and anyinterested scholar shouldnotonlyconsult them butalso thecomprehensive bibliography Leonardo of Mazzei.107

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A variation thisirrendentist of movement a groupthat is writes Chile that foolishly permitted Boliviato regainwhatit had lostin theWarof thePacific. Espinosa,in an openlyracistaccount,arguesthatBolivianeverpossessed a seacoastand that present its to to are attempts gainan outlet thePacific without merit. thereare morebalancedstudiesof Chilean-Bolivian Fortunately, relafor tions, instance, ofXimena that Rojas,whohas written excellent an biography ofAdolfo Chilean minister Ibafiez, to foreign prior the1879conflict.111 it Because of so manypressing borderproblems, is not surprising that fewhavestudied Chile'srelations withnoncontiguous countries: Edwards Jorge writes Franco-Chilean on in relations theearly nineteenth MarioBarros century; describes Eastman the mission Quito. 112Thereis somesolidresearch to relating British attempts resolve to Chile'sboundary the disputes withArgentina during Monttand Riescogovernments.'13 Some historians focuson Chile'srelations withtheUnitedStates:EugenioPereira Salas does a splendid relating how job American traders sailors and first withcolonial Chileand how the madecontact UnitedStatesrevolution influenced Chile's struggle independence; for Mary that Squella studiedthe1829-41period,concluding theUnitedStateswas too pro-Confederation during 1835-38war;and Vladimir the a Smolenski, Russian historian, triesto blamethe Warof the Pacific American on intervention, but failsto convince reader.A moresatisfying the effort thatof Patricio is Estelle who shows thatthe real cause of the Baltimore incident was not the rowdy behaviorof some drunken American sailorsbut the ill-fated supportof the UnitedStatesfortheBalmacedaregime.114 Chile'sdiplomats againbecameinvolvedwiththe Yankeeswhen theyactedas one of the three LatinAmerican mediators duringthe MexicanRevolution.115 Laterpolicy, that particularly of the Hoover administration, shows thatthe UnitedStateshad become more sensitive Chileanfeelings,116 to the Amerialthough during SecondWorld War, cans did not hesitate use pressure force Chileansto breakwiththe to the to 117 Axis. Chile'srelations with former its colonial master havealso beenthesubject of some recent research. One author arguesthatSpanishmiscalculations pretheir 1860warwithChileand thatintervention thistypehad never cipitated of

110 nios.

Scholarshave expendeda disproportionate amountof their efforts describing Chile's diplomatic history, not always withthe desiredresults. but Manyof theseworkshave tendedto decrythe loss of Chileanterritory its to neighbors, particularly Argentina. Perhapsthe mostefficient, not verbose, if practitioners this school are Oscar Espinosa and Ezequiel Gonzalez, who of have each written threevolumesarguing thatthe Moneda betrayed Chileby cedingPatagoniaand otherterritories Buenos Aires.108 to This schoolof his109 toriography many has devotees, most whomshare pessimistic of this theology. Thereare some morespecific workson Argentine-Chilean relations: Geoffrey Smithstudiesthe role of Balmacedain keepingArgentina neutral during the Warof thePacific; OrregoVicunia thatwithBalmaceda'sdeath,Chile laments ceasedtofollow aggressive nationalistic an and foreign policy vis-a-vis portethe

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118 in withSpainout beenMadrid'sintent. Chiledidnotparticipate that struggle If it ofsomecommitment Americanism. sucha belief to to existed, was confined a smallgroup who favored political the unionofLatinAmerica whobelieved but of thatChile'sindependence dependedupon theterritorial integrity itsneigh119 bors. Duringthe past decade, two particularly valuablediplomatic histories a of haveappeared.Thefirst thework MarioBarros, member thestaff the is of of of Ministerio Relaciones de Exteriores, has written overview hisnation's who an relations from colonial the Front. the diplomatic periodto thePopular Although Barros bibliography have misseda fewitems, may does an excellent coverjob ing periods,particularly the twentieth in century, whichhave often been neif 120 glected, notignored. Robert Burr's prize-winning Reason Force more By or is in analytical clearly and demonstrates early itshistory that Chilehad adopteda its overLatinAmerica's Pacific foreign-policy ofasserting hegemony goal Coast. a Burr showsthat Chileaccomplished bydeveloping seriesofalliances this with it also employ other nations although did,on occasion, military powerto obtain itsobjectives.'21ByReason Force notonlysurvived has it or recent criticism,has 122 historian beenexpanded uponbytheEnglish diplomatic Michael Varley.

Because of the recentcoup, the Chilean military again becomea has is fashionable topicforstudy. Perhapstheforemost authority Frederick Nunn, a as who has written variety articles well as two books dealingwiththe of on in Chileanarmy. first The relations the concentrates civil-military monograph a twentieth Nunnarguesthat desire restructure to Chilean early century. society, combined withthe wish forprofessional the into reforms, catapulted military in the howpolitics 1924.Once theAltamirano juntabegan to support Right, comand Grove-turnedon their ever,the juniorofficers-Blanche, Ibaniez, manders restored and to Alessandri thepresidency. latter The refused tolerate to in and in military meddling government resigned 1925.His successor, Emiliano Figueroa, was a weakleaderand theincreasingly aggressive Ibfiez forced him to resign whenhe and theother civilians seemedincapable resolving of Chile's problems. ruleduntiltheGreatDepression forced himto quitpowerin Ibanfiez 1931. Whileclearly authoritarian, Ibanfiez accomplished greatdeal and still a instituted numerous reforms; although but efficient, regime his lackedpolitical and hencecould not sustainitself when theAmerican support loans driedup and theeconomy faltered. in Nunn's second book, emphasizing relations the ninecivil-military involvement post-1930 in teenth century, seemsstrongest whentracing military of returned the the politics. Following overthrow theSocialist Republic, military to its professional did tasksalthough occasionally some officers seek to inject into themselves politics. The military notreturn the political to arenauntil did the1970s, overthrowing Allende 1973.Nunnarguesthat seizure power in this of was partially result Allende'sown policies:he had invited generals the of the the and admirals his government. into Making officer corpsshareresponsibility did to for On government policy notwed them theUnidadPopular. thecontrary, themilitary themselves hatedby their saw own socialclasswhilethey became
74

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to first disenchanted, by Allende'spoliciesand thenbythethreats thesanctity seemedto the Cohesionwithin ranksof theregulars hierarchy. ofthemilitary had Awarethat they amongthemselves. bickered politicians growwhilecivilian in element Chile,and displeasedbythe by the become, default, mostpowerful Like theyturnedon theircommander-in-chief.'23 the Allende government, the the parable theAraband thecamel, guesthad evicted host. of Liisa Northargues thata Not all scholarsshare Nunn's conclusions. coupled of launchedby theU.S. and theChileanRight, campaign subversion the of encouraged of withthefailure Allendeto purgethearmy conservatives, had that military never the hand,claims Nef,on theother to Jorge military rebel. meddledin politics consistently indeed, the officers intervention; renounced too government liberal. the if after 1932,particularly theyconsidered civilian the to Allende did not realizethis. By inviting military hold Unfortunately, the a he portfolios, gavetheofficerspowerbase within government. ministerial becausetheAllende not becamethemasters theguests forces quickly Thearmed leadthemto obeycivilian themnorforce neutralize couldneither government thatsucha coup was indicated had sociologist, earlier ers.AlainJoxe, French a corpsreliedupon thegovernofficer the middle-class notunexpected: largely on state; of the and ment itssubsistence hencedidnotfear growth an activist for parown interests, their might seize powerto protect the thecontrary, officers 124 if capital. by ticularlyencouraged foreign on and Thosewho wishto studytheless theoretical insteadconcentrate workpubthree-volume shouldconsultthe excellent military history, strictly atlasbyToro and lishedbytheEstadoMayordel Ejercito, thegood two-volume is by Davila. The navy,so long neglected scholars, studiedby CarlosL6pez overview the of a nationalistic, provides first-rate whileextremely whosework, fleet's activities.'25 the periodto Chile'seducational has system been analyzedfrom colonial meritis a seriesof interpretative but century,'26 of particular the twentieth was the system used to who arguesthat educational CesarJobet, essaysbyJulio of the the buttress statusquo and thatit prevented dissemination a values in Otherscholars technical society.'27 neededto survive an increasingly system Indeed, system. the did noting thateducators modernize pedagogical disagree, wereused not teaching materials and this to accomplish goal, textbooks other but in century also to new Liberalideologies thenineteenth onlyto introduce in as and stress nationalism reform thetwentieth well.'28 economic a of Letelier, leading a biography Valentin Peter provides short Sehlinger of bibliography his annotated as and intellectual politician, well as an excellent
Alberto works.'30 Various historiansconcentrateon Jose VictorinoLastarria.131

Bilbao, Varonahas done an excellent dealingwiththe ideas of Francisco job intellectual develin not explaining onlyhis activities Chilebuthis suibsequent and SolomonLipp also studiesBilbao,Letelier, thetwentieth-century opment. EnriqueMolina. Molina's memoirsdealingwith Aleeducator-philosopher, appeared 1910, Chile jandroVenegas,authorof the famousSinceridad: intimo
recently.'32

75

Review Research LatinAmerican to efforts amassing have also devotedsubstantial historians Intellectual Feiul is material Guillermo By bibliographies. farthebest guide to published tomedeals with The chilena. initial de de Cruz'sHistoria lasfuentes la bibliografia of studiesin Chile and analyzesthe efforts Spanish of theinfluence historical hisChile's pre-eminent Volumetwo critiques and Creolecolonialhistorians. and Vicufia Mackenna, Benjamin Medina,Ram6nBricefio, JoseToribio torians: historians the of booksdescribe efforts other Arana.Theremaining Diego Barros unusual format-theauthorsdisDespite the somewhat and bibliographers. is rather thantheir speciality-this an by cussed are organized decade ofbirth studyis thatof Ram6n important Another workforany historian.'33 essential bookand tries effort to citeevery three-volume whose comprehensive Bricefno, often Additional bibliographies, 1812to 1876.134 in published Chilefrom folleto clerical issues,theleft-wing have appeareddealingwitheconomics, annotated, for and topicssuch as the movement independence, accounts, press,traveler 135 novel. and studies, thehistorical Vieja,regional thePatria have also been analyzed.Feliuhas writhistorians The worksofspecific Claudio Gay as well as editingGay's ten on the Frenchnaturalist-historian Matoyoka's figures.Gertrude with various independence-period interviews studyof the workof Chile's pre-eminent providesan interesting dissertation the Arana.Perhaps mostcontroverDiego Barros historian, nineteenth-century Encina. againstFrancisco diatribe sial workis RicardoDonoso's two-volume exalted who seems happiestwhen flaying iconoclast Donoso, an intellectual particularly from others, liberally provesthatEncinaborrowed personalities, a hand,has written Feliu,on theother citing sources. his Arana,without Barros in which,he Encina'sinvolvement politics, account,describing morepositive and econ6mica La educaci6n inferioridad Nuestra his led argues, himtowrite famous Encina's econ6micael Liceo.FeliuclaimsthatPalaciosand Venegasinfluenced y also biography conArana.The Feliui morethanBarros development historical of bibliography all of Encina'sworksas well as his historiotainsan excellent a has studies.Jobet also written seriesof essayson Chileanhistorigraphical in ideological hisapproach, The Socialist historian tendstobe slightly ography. also reason,Jobet books. Not without he although does notlaud all left-wing of heartily Donoso's while approving labels Encinaa racistand a reactionary nineteenth-century however, demonstrates, dissertation expose.As AllenWoll's religious, economic, by has Chileanhistoriography been characterized intense to and and ideological struggles, eventhosewho sought purgeitofsuchprejuinfluence.136 to fell themselves victim their dicesoften issueshave during pastdecade,spiritual the Iftheintellect flourished has the has ignored.Some material appeared praising Churchas a been largely colonialclericsand theirproperty.'37 of defender the Indian and describing but is trueto itstitle, short not en de historia la Iglesia Chile, Breve FidelAraneda's Chile and modern in of The illuminating. workoftheSociety Jesus colonial very powerdiminished the Clearly, Church's Hanisch,S.J.138 is analyzedby Walter that paperdemonstrates A progressed. jointseminar as thenineteenth century amongtheIndians.39Reduced activity missionary thestateceased to support and however, early did the support notsmooth roadto tolerance, government 76

CHILEAN

HISTORIOGRAPHY,

1965-1976

attempts dissidents obtainreligious by to freedom encountered seriousresistance.'40 Eventually, however, hierarchy the acceptedchangeand beganto advocatefirst paternalistic reforms later,withthe growth the Christian and of 141 Democratic party, waysofrestructuring new Chileansociety. Despitetheaccomplishments thepast elevenyears,muchremains of to be done. Itwouldbe refreshing nineteenth-century for specialists study to some topicbesidesBalmaceda.The period1833-91deservesmoreattention the and presidential regimes Montt, of Perez,and their in successors sorely need of are additional investigation revision. theother or On hand,thedispute overBalmaceda willnever resolved be until someonecarefully analyzeshisadministration, tracing tortuous the events that precipitated 1891civilwar.Butfor Heise the the book, the variousparliamentary governments have been the objectof much scornand little research. 1891-1924 The periodmayindeedhavebeenbereft of competent government no one has studiedsystematically but a parliamentary presidency. Since preliminary research indicates thatthesegovernments were notas blase as originally believed,we shouldturnour attention thiscritical to era. The post-Alessandri period is extremely important yet it, too, is and almostuntouched. fora fewdissertations, knowlittle But we aboutthe 1920s and 1930sand virtually in nothing aboutthepost-1940 decades.Thoseworking this period wouldbe abletobenefit from with interviews thevarious participants and policymakers. samelackofdirection The characterizes economic We history. stilldo not have a collection basic economicdata-although apparently of MarkosMamalakisis editingsuch a study-let alone comprehensive works basic industries describing such as copperor the variouscomponents the of industrial sector. In a nation whoseoligarchy thesubject substantial is of do abuse,we still notknowwho composedtheChileaneliteorwhatitpossessed.Collecting such information wouldbe an arduoustaskyetitis essential understanding to Chile's political, social,and economic As of development. therecent study Robert Oppenheimer the indicates, results such workcan destroy of some of our most cherished aboutChile. misconceptions Despitetheseomissions, pastyearshaveyielded the material. invaluable The Blakemore studyon Balmaceda,the pioneering effort Heise, and an of increasing emphasison the 1920sand 1930shave widenedour knowledge of Chile'spolitical In development. thearea ofeconomics diplomacy, and scholars likeCarmagnani, and Mamalakis, Jobet, Burr havesought bring to newperspectivesand to formulate general theories. Each area ofhistorical has study benefited from workofnew scholars the who have provided and insight additional knowledge. Theseintellectual efforts have set new standards and openednew horizons thoseofus who have dedicated efforts understanding to our Chile to and itspast.

77

LatinAmerican Research Review

NOTES and books.Unlessotherwise journals often-cited designate abbreviations The following Chile in are all noted, bookscited published Santiago,
Review AHR -American Historical Chilenade la BACH-Boletin de la Academia Historia C-Caravelle Latines CAL-Cahiers desAmeriques de EHIPS -Estudios deHistoria las y Politicas Sociales Instituciones H-Historia Review Historical HAHR -Hispanic American FeliuCruz HGFC-Homenaje a Guillermo Affairs Economic IAEA-Inter-American Studiesand JIAS-Journalof Inter-American Affairs World Studies of JLAS Journal LatinAmerican M-Mapocho y RCHD-Revista Chilenade Historia del Derecho y RCHG-Revista ChilenadeHistoria Geografia TA-The Americas

1973) (Santiago,
2. 3.

1.

JaimeEyzaguirre,Historiade Chile, 2d ed. (1973). See also Historiade las instituciones y politicas socialesde Chile (1970), a textbookto be used in conjunctionwithFisonomia de hist6rica Chile. de de marxista la historia Chile, 3 vols. (1967-71). For another Luis Vitale,Interpretaci6n

(1974-76). de et Villalobos al.,Historia Chile Sergio

4.

de de "Significado la revoluci6n la CesarJobet's see interpretation, also Julio Marxist Capitulos pp. (1973), 153-98.Ranquil's chilenos hist6ricos in Independencia," hisTemas para study, designed"expresamente la de de la historia Chile(1973)is a one-volume piece as and valuable a propaganda political more which highly is clasetrabajadora," work. an than historical synthetic 1973).Forother (New Interpretation York, Chile: Kinsbruner, AnHistorical Jay
A in and works see: FranciscoMoreno's Legitimacy Stability LatinAmerica. StudyofChi-

5. 6.

M y FeliuCruz,"Patria Chilenidad," 1969);Guillermo (NewYork, Culture Political lean Successionin "Presidential Kirwin, Richard Grayand Frederick 5:1(1966)157-75. presidents. Chilean and American compare 11(1969):144-59 Chile:1817-1977,"JIAS
socialde Chile(1971). Hernan Godoy, Estructura de politico Chile (1967) and Salvatore Bizzaro Fuentes, Diccionario Lia Cortes and Jordi of Dictionary Chile(Metuchen,N.J.,1972). Historical

7.

(SiglosXVIy "Esquemade la HaciendaRealen Chileindiano SilvaVargas, Fernando and RCHD 4(1965):208-50 his "Una visitaa la Real Haciendade Chileen el XVII)," and the Della M. Flusche,"CityCouncilmen sigloXVI,"BACH 77(1967):190-205;

of Philadelphia81:3(1970):176-90, and "The Cabildo and Public Health in AliagaR., S.S. "La relaFernando Chile," Seventeenth-Century TA 29(1972):173-90; ci6n diocesanade visita'Ad Limita'de 1609del Obispo de Santiagode Chile,"H 8.
for in 5(1966):105-65; and Eugene Korth,S.J.,SpanishPolicy ColonialChile:TheStruggle 1535-1700 (Stanford,Calif., 1968). SocialJustice,

Historical Society Catholic of Chile," Records American Church in Seventeenth-Century

9.

Mayorde Cuentas del Reino de Chile," FernandoSilva Vargas,"La Contaduria administrativas y "Peruy Chile,notassobresus vinculaciones EHIPS 2(1967):103-81; del en de and fiscales," 7(1968):147-203; "La visita Areche Chiley la subdelegaci6n H "El CarlosUgarte, Cabildode SanH Alvarey Acevedo," 6 (1967):153-91; de Regente del exterior Reino de Chile duranteel siglo XVIII,"EHIPS tiago y el comercio "Elite and Cadres in BourbonChile," HAHR 1(1966):5-43;JacquesA. Barbier, of A History Late Politics: Secret and Reform Colonial and 52(1972):416-36 "Imperial 1973. of University Connecticut, Ph.D. dissertation, Chile," Bourbon como hispanoamericanas causade de GonzaloVial,"La formaci6n las nacionalidades de and BACH 75(1966):110-45 "Historiografia la Independencia la independencia," "Los E. Walter Hanisch, S.J., de de 59(1965):256-80; Revista Historia America de Chile," jesuitas y la independencia de America y especialmentede Chile," BACH

78

CHILEAN

HISTORIOGRAPHY,

1965-1976

11. Mary Felstiner, L. "Kinship Politics theChileanIndependence in Movement," HAHR

56(1976):58-80 and Roger Haigh, The Formation the Chilean Oligarchy: of 1810-1821

10.

82(1969):13-77; NestorMeza Villalobos, "La permanencia la monarquia de como problema politico reinode Chile desde la constituci6n la primera del de Junta de Gobierno 18 de septiembre 1810,hastala disoluci6n primer en de del Congreso Naen de de Americanos cional, 15de noviembre 1811," Anuario Estudios 29(1972):637-63.
Simon Collier,Ideasand Politics ChileanIndependence, of 1808-1833 (Cambridge,1967).

12. RauilSilva Castro,Asistentes Cabildo al Abierto setiembre 1810 (1968). de de

(SaltLake City, Utah,1972).ManuelReyno Gutierrez, Patria "La Viejano se perdi6 en Rancagua,"RCHG 143(1975):153-71 downplays the themeof rivalry between O'Higgins Carrera. and

al de a en 13. ManuelSalvatM., "El delito infidelidadla Patria. Apuntes torno caso de los H desterrados chilenos Juan en Fernandez, 1810-1817," 8(1969):463-88. 14. Jaime chileno durante guerra la Eyzaguirre, conducta "La politica grupo del dirigente de la Independencia," EHIPS2(1967):227-71. 15. Ricardo Krebs, "La independencia Chileen el pensamiento Manuelde Salas," de de BACH75(1966):145-55 ManuelSalvatM., "El delito infidelidadla Patria. and a Un de caso chileno," BACH87(1973):17-39. 16. Julio Retamal "El CabildoEclesiastico Santiago los proleg6menos la InF., de en de de H dependencia Chile," 6(1967):285-317. 17. Horacio Aranguiz, aplicaci6n la Constituci6n 1818," "La de de EHIPS 1(1966):121-49; Guillermo en a de de Donoso V.,"Acotaciones torno la Declaraci6n la Independencia "Un decenio del Cabildo penquista Chile,"HGFC, pp. 199-256;Zen6n Urrutia, en (1818-1828)," HGFC,pp. 973-1038; Gabriel Guarda,"Reprecusi6n Chilede la Inla del BACH85(1971):121-29; dependencia Peru," Javier Gonzalez,"Notassobre regand BACH85(1971):105-19; ulaci6njuridica la Expedici6n de Libertadora 1820," de Alamiro de Avila Martel, "Presencia de Bolivar en Chile en 1819," BACH 85(1971):39-77. 18. Juan del EduardoVargas "El pensamiento C., politico grupo estanquero, 1826-1829," H 9(1970):7-37. El en 19. Javier Gonzalez,"Un estudio influencias de doctrinarias la Independencia: conH o ceptode diputado representante popular," 6(1967):127-53.
20.

21. Sergio Martinez "El federalismo Chile," B., en RCHG138(1970):104-33.

Collier,Ideasand Politics, 317. p.

22. JayKinsbruner, Diego Portales. Interpretative Essayson theMan and Times(The Hague,

23. 24.

D. and "The Weight theNight: of 1967)and Errol Jones, Political, Economic, Social Transformation ofChile,1810-1830," Ph.D. dissertation, TexasChristian University, 1971.
Luis Vitale,Las guerras civiles 1851y 1859en Chile (Concepci6n, 1971). de RuthIturriaga La comuna el sitiode la Serenaen 1851 (1973). GuillermoDonoso, "La J., y

revoluci6n 1851en Talca," de RCHG 141(1973):88-115; 142(1974):54-94; 143(1975):546. See also Patricio M "La de de Rogers, revoluci6n los 'constituyentes' 1858-1859," 21(1970):243-64. 25. Patricio Estelle, Club de la Reforma 1868-1871. "El de Notasparael estudiode una combinaci6n H en politica el sigloXIX," 9(1970):111-35. 26. Cristian ZegersA., "Historia politica gobierno Anibal del de Pinto," 6(1967):7-127. H of See also ThomasBader,"A Willingness War:A Portrait theRepublic Chile to of of Ph.D. dissertation, the the during YearsPreceding WarofthePacific," University Los 1967. California, Angeles, F. 27. William Sater,"Chile during First 5 the MonthsoftheWarof thePacific," JLAS of Fransico Aguirre de Editorial 1973).For otherworkson the Warof the Pacific, BuenosAireshas republished following the books:Arturo Benavides Seisafios S., de
(1973):133-58 and his HeroicImagein Chile:Arturo Prdt,SecularSaint (Berkeley, Calif.,

de vacaciones(1967) and Historiacompendiada la Guerradel Pacifico (1972); Alberto del del Solar, Diario de campafia (1967); Theodorus B. M. Mason, Guerraen el Pacifico Sur, en chileno de trans. Carlos L6pez (1971) and M. Le Le6n, Recuerdos una misi6n el ejercito

79

LatinAmerican Research Review

(1969).Otherworksare: DanielRiquelme, expedicion La a Lima(1967);Juan Agustin en Rodriguez, Patricio Lynch, almiranteGeneral Jefe Vice y (1967);ManuelEscalaE., El articles havepublished correthe numerous General Erasmo Escala(1971).In addition, ministers enlisted to of in spondence manyparticipants thewar from government men. Julio del econ6mico de Chile(1955);Hernan critico desarrollo social CesarJobet, Ensayo Ramirez Necochea, guerra de1891(1958); La civil and Cris6stomo Pizarro, revoluci6n La de1891(1971). HaroldBlakemore, "The ChileanRevolution 1891and ItsHistoriography," of HAHR 1886-1896: and 45(1965):393-422 British and Nitrates Chilean and Politics Balmaceda North (London, 1974). JulioHeise G., Historia Chile.El Periodo de Parlamentario, 1861-1925(1974). HerBaldel m6genesPerez de Arce,"La politica econ6mica gobierno presidente del in it maceda," Visi6n verdad y sobre Balmaceda (1972),pp. 111-40,also arguesthat was the not his economicpolicythatprecipitated rebellion. SergioOnofreJ.'s "Balmaceda,el politico," which appearsin thesamebookas thePerezessay, 95-110, pp. thatBalnaceda subordinated to XimenaVergara and stresses everything politics. Luis Barros, GuerraCivildel 91 y la instauraci6n parlamentarismo," del Revista "La Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales 3(1972):71-94, also denythe importance ecoof the nomic issuesinthe1891 revolution. substantial No questions divided landedaristocracy theemerging and bourgeoisie; indeed,theLiberal Democrats pursuedgoals the similar thoseofother to political parties. The rebellion occurred, authors claim, the sincethe becausetheoligarchy wishedto sharepowerwith president, especially state had become wealthy fromnitrates.Garcia de la Huerta's "Juntasrethe volucionarias los afios1890y 1891," de RCHG143(1975):73-107, studies activities seemed oftheanti-Balmaceda forces the that during civilwar,concluding therebels the toenjoy most successintheSantiago-Valparaiso region. RaulSilvaCastro, works Balmaceda Fe1ix Balmaceda on see: Miranda (1969).Forother El intima Balde S., Balmaceda, hombre (1973);MarioCorreaSaavedra,"Personalidad maceda,"Vision verdad y (1972),pp. 9-61, whichis a biographical study. Fernando Silva Vargas,Pensamiento Balmaceda de (1974). Numerousworkscontaining the memoirs thosewho participated theCivilWarhave also been published: of in Una V.'s de familia la dictadura bajo (BuenosAires,1972)as well as I. ValdWs La revolucion 1891(BuenosAires,1970).In addition, numerous accounts participants apof have pearedinperiodicals. JulioHeise G., "El caciquismopolitico el PeriodoParlamentario en (1891-1925), HGFC,pp. 537-77. Juan EduardoVargas, "Notassobreel pensamiento politico PedroMontt," de EHIPS 2(1967):271-99, "Dos mentalidades and pohticas comienzo sigloXX:los partidos a de de 8 tradicionalesla tendencia nacionalista," Revista Ciencias y Sociales (1975):193-214. de in AugustoOrregoLuco, "La cuesti6n socialen Chile,"was reprinted Anales la de UniversidadChile first in 119(1961):43-55. article appeared La Patria The (Valparaiso) in1884. a Fernando SilvaVargas, "Notas sobreel pensamiento socialcat6lico fines siglo del XIX," 4(1965):237-64 PedroIfiiguez Notas H del sobre desarrollo pensamiento el soand I., 1901-1906 cialenChile, and (1968); James Morris, Elites, Intellectuals, Consensus (Ithaca, also deals withthistopicin his "Apuntesrelacionados los con N.Y., 1966).Jobet de in social'en Chile," hisTemas, 198-242. origenes la 'cuesti6n pp. Horacio Aranguiz,R. Coydyoudmjian [sic] and JuanVargas,"La vida politica chilena, 1915-1916,"H 7(1968):15-89. Fernando PintoL., Cr6nica politica siglo (1972)and Jorge del XX Barria, Chile elsiglo en XX:unensayo interpretaci6n de hist6rica (1967). Heise,Historia, 295,299,301,319,357-59. pp. en El de Enrique Reyes, desarrollola conciencia proletariaChile (n.d.). Rene MillarC., "Significado antecedentes movimiento y del militar 1924,"H de and 11(1972-73):7-103 Frederick Nunn, Chilean Politics, 1920-1931: TheHonorable

28. 29. 30.

31.

32. 33. 34. 35.

36. 37. 38. 39. 40.

80

CHILEAN

HISTORIOGRAPHY,

1965-1976

Mission the of Armed Forces N.M., 1970). (Albuquerque, 41. Rail Aldunate Revolucionlostenientes P., de (1970-71). alsoHeise,Historia. See 42. GeorgeStrawbridge, "Military Nationalism Chile,1920-1932," and in Ph.D. dissertation,University Pennsylvania, of 1968and his "Ibafiezand Alessandri: The Authoritarian Right and Democratic in Twentieth-Century Left Chile,"mimeographed (Buffalo, N.Y.,1971). 43. Hugh Bicheno,"Anti-Parliamentary Themesin ChileanHistory," Government and Opposition 7(1972):351-89 CarlosCharlin, avi6nrojoa la Republica and Del Socialista (1972). 44. PaulDrake,"ThePolitical Responses theChilean of UpperClasstotheGreat Depresin and Powerful, Freed. sionand theThreat Socialism, of 1931-33," TheWell-Born the and Populism derick in Cople Jaher (Urbana, 1973),pp. 304-37and "Socialism Ill., Chile:The Origins theLeftward of of Movement theChileanElectorate, 1931-1933," Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University, 1971. 45. Luis PalmaZ., Historia Partido del Radical (1967)and PeterSnow,Radicalismo chileno BuenosAires,1972);GeorgeGrayson, Partido El Democrdta Cristiano chileno (Buenos Aires,1965);Paul Drake,"The ChileanSocialist 1932and Coalition Party Politics, HAHR53(1973):616-44. 1946," David Corkill's "The ChileanSocialist and Party the Popular Front 1933-41/" JournalContemporary 11(1976):261-73 The of History describes theparty's participation theill-fated in Popular Front. Jack "The Evolution Thomas, ofa ChileanSocialist: Marmaduke HAHR47(1967):22-38 "Marmaduke and Grove," Grove and the Chilean NationalElectionof 1932,"The Historian 29(1966):22-33. Miriam in Hochwald,"Imagery Politics: Studyof the Ideologyof the Chilean A Socialist Ph.D. dissertation, of Los 1971.Julio Party," University California, Angeles, CesarJobet, Partido El de 2 and Alejandro Chelen Socialista Chile, vols.(2d ed., 1971), R., Trayectoriasocialismo del (BuenosAires, 1967).Fernando CasanuevaV.and Manuel en Fernandez ElPartido C., Socialistala lucha clases Chile y de (1973). in 46. Michael Ph.D. disserPotashnik, "Nacismo: National Socialism Chile,1932-1938," Los tation, of University California, Angeles, 1974. 47. HernanRamirez del de Necochea,Origen formaci6n Partido Comunista Chile(1965). y in "The Communist Socialist Parties ChiThe projects underway S. Pierce, are: and leanNational M. of "The Chilean Politics," Litt. University Glasgow;A. G. Barnard, Communist withParticular Reference thePopular to Party, 1927-1947, UC, Front," "The RadicalParty ChilewithSpecialReof of University London;D. P Skidmore, to ference thePeriod of Ph.D. 1938-1970," LSE, University London, 48. Ben Burnett, Political Groups Chile(Austin, in Texas,1970).Federico ThePolitical Gil, DisSenate: Internal System Chile(Boston, of Mass., 1966).Weston Agor,TheChilean tribution of Influence (Austin, Texas, 1971). 49. German Valenzuela and Anamaria de Urzuia chilena Garcia,Diagn6stico la burocracia S. in Politics Administration and (1818-1968) (1971).See also: Peter Cleves,Bureaucratic Chile (Berkeley, Calif., 1975). 50. German Urzua,Lospartidos politicos chilenos. fuerzas Las politicas. Ensayos insurgencia de en politica Chile (1968). 51. Arturo Alessandri, Recuerdos gobierno, vols. (1967);GabrielGonzalez Videla, de 3 2 de nacional Memorias,vols. (1975);Leonardo Guzman,Unepisodio olvidado la historia (1966);MarcosChamudes, Chile advertencia una americana (n.d.). Jorge Barria Chile S., social(1973);Hugo Zemelman, Movimiento "El sigloXX. Ensayo hist6rico Popular chileno el sistema alianzasen la decada de 1930," Genesis de in hist6rica proceso del y ed. politico chileno, Enzo Faletto, EduardoRuiz,and Hugo Zemelman (1971),pp. 33117;Marta R. Infante Testigos treintaocho B., del y (1972);Richard Super,"The Chilean Popular Front Arizona Presidency PedroAguirre: of Ph.D. dissertation, 1939-1941," StateUniversity, See also: D. Corkill, 1975. "From to Front: ParDictatorship Popular tiesand Coalition in Ph.D. dissertation, Politics Chile,1931-1941," of University Essex,1974. 52. Arturo Olararria Chileentre Alessandri (1965)and Chile B., dos 3-4 bajola democracia 5 cristiana, vols. (1966-69).Some of thefewworkson themostrecent periodsare:

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James inChile (Cambridge, Mass., 1965); and Nationalism Communism Ernst Halperin, Thomas 1970); Calif., (Berkeley, Development Forces Chilean in and Petras, Politics Social underFrei, in and Reform Chile. Progress L. Edwards,"EconomicDevelopment S.J. MarioZaniartu, andJohn Mich.,1972); (East mimeographed Lansing, 1964-1970," Dame, Ind., 1970);Michael Development ofChile(Notre eds., TheOverall J.Kennedy, Ariz., (Tucson, Election of 1970Presidential The Victory; Analysis the An Francis, Allende 1970). (BuenosAires, en La Lechner, democraciaChile 1973); Norbert and CHL chilena(1680-1830)," agropecuaria "La producci6n MarcelloCarmagnani, Le coloniale: Chili, dans de and 3(1969):3-21 LesMecanismes la vieeconomique unesociete 1973). 1680-1830 (Paris, agentre limefnos la crisis y del chileno, navieros Callao hacendados Ramos,Trigo Demetrio 1967). de mitad XVIIylacomerciallaprimera delXVIII(Madrid, del ricola siglo del exterior Reinode Chile "El CarlosUgarte, Cabildode Santiagoy el comercio EHIPS 1 (1966):5-43. el durante sigloXVIII," de en CarlosSempatA., "Chiley Tucuman el sigloXVI.Una correspondencia merH caderes," 9(1970):65-111. en y Comerciocontrabandoel Rio de la Platay Chile(BuenosAires, SergioVillalobos, de de del "El Eyzaguirre, alcancepolitico decreto libertad comercio 1965)and Jaime BACH75(1966):155-61. de 1811," administrativas "Perdy Chile.Notassobresus vinculaciones SilvaVargas, Fernando en and de H (1785-1800)," 7(1968):147-203 "La visita Areche Chiley la suby fiscales El Villalobos, See H de de delegaci6n Alvarez Acevado," 6(1967):153-219. also Sergio "Ecode (1968);DavidH. Edwards, colonial. mito la Independencia Un comercio crisis y la Ambrosio O'Higon System Chile:CaptainGeneral Effects theIntendency of nomic 1973. of University Virginia, Ph.D. dissertation, ginsas Reformer," deChile(1959); de econ6micosla Independencia Antecedentes Necochea, HernanRamirez in Latin (New York, and AndreGunderFrank, Capitalism Underdevelopment America de colonial de (1970).See also Stephan VylEstructurala economia Vaello, 1967); Jacinto Economic toChile's History (StocAn to Colonialism Dependence: Introduction der,From overview et 1970).Fora Marxist and Anibal Pinto al.,Chile (Mexico, hoy 1974); kholm, La chilena (1970). is Cademartori, economia there alsoJose II economico. caso cileno e industrialesottosviluppo Sviluppo MarcelloCarmagnani, 1971). (Turino, (1860-1920) in Chile," Roman,"DependentDevelopment Nineteenth-Century CharlesPregger "The ChileanIndus1971; J. University, Roger Burbach, Ph.D. dissertation, Rutgers IndianaUniPh.D. dissertation, trial Capital,1920-1970," and Bourgeoisie Foreign of worksdealingwiththe formation theChileancapitalist versity, 1975.For other (1970)and Ricardo chilena patronal La class see also: GenaroArriagada, oligarquia econ6mico (1965). del poder Lagos,La concentracion S. F. Edwards, "Chilean EconomicPolicyGoals, 1811-1829:A Study of Late Economic and Social Eighteenth-Century Mercantilism EarlyNineteenth-Century 1971 "Merchants, Rector, TulaneUniversity, and John Ph.D. dissertation, Reality," IndianaUniin Ph.D. dissertation, Policy Chile:1810-1840," Commercial Trade,and comerciales por 1976.See also Rector's "Transformaciones producidas la Inversity, de RCHG143(1975):107-27. dependencia Chile," in and Tax Reform Late NineteenthWilliamF. Sater,"EconomicNationalism TA Chile," 33(1976):311-35. Century The Ph.D. dissertation, of "The Industrialization Chile,1880-1930," Henry Kirsch, nacional: Realidad 1974.See also his"Balmaceda la burguesia y of University Florida, o Utopia?," (1970). mimeographed in and "Agriculture Protectionism Chile, 1880-1930," Thomas C. Wright, JLAS HAHR in of of and 7(1975):45-58 "Origins thePolitics Inflation Chile,1888-1918," 53(1973):239-59. (1968). 1914-1965 de industrialChile, Crecimiento OscarMufioz, The Railroadsand "Chilean Transportation RobertOppenheimer, Development: UniverPh.D. dissertation, Valley, Socioeconomic ChangeintheCentral 1840-1885,"

53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58.

59.

60. 61.

62.

63. 64. 65. 66. 67.

82

CHILEAN

HISTORIOGRAPHY,

1965-1976

68. 69.

70.

71. 72. 73. 74. 75.

76.

77.

78.

sityof California,Los Angeles, 1976; JohnWhaley,"Transportation Chile's Bio Bio in Region, 1850-1915," Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, 1974. Harold Blakemore, "Limitation of Dependency: An Historian's View and Case Study,"Boletin Estudios de Latinoamericanos Caribe18(1975):74-83. y del Thomas Bader, "Before the Gold Fleets: Trade and Relationsbetween Chile and Australia 1830-1848," JLAS 6(1974):35-58; Sater, "Economic Nationalism," pp. 317-18. For otheraspects of Chile's international trade see T. W. Keeble, Commercial Relations between British OverseasTerritories SouthAmerica, and 1806-1914 (London, 1970); D. C. M. Platt,LatinAmerica British and Trade, 1806-1914 (New York,1973). The activities of the French tradinghouse of A. D. Bordes et filsin Chile during the nineteenthand twentieth centurieshas been veryably studied by Marthe Barbance, Vie Commerciale de la Route du Cap Horn au XiXe siecle. L'armement D. Bordes et fils (Paris, A. S.E.V.P.E.N., 1969). JayKinsbruner,"The PoliticalInfluenceof the BritishMerchants Resident in Chile duringthe O'Higgins Administration, 1817-1823," TA 27(1970):26-39 and "Waterfor Valparaiso: A Case Study of Entrepreneurial Frustration," JIAS 10(1968):652-61; Roland Duncan, "Chile and Peru: The FirstSuccessful Steamersin the Pacific," American and Early Steam Navigation Neptune35(1975):248-74 and his "William Wheelwright in the Pacific,1820-1840," TA 32(1975):257-81. Kirsch,"Industrializationof Chile," pp. 99-101. Marcos Mamalakis, The Growthand Structure the Chilean Economy of (New Haven, Conn., 1976). Pierre Vayssiere, "Au Chili: de l'economie coloniale a l'inflation: les problemes monetaires chiliens, depuis l'Independence jusqu'a la Guerre du Pacifique, 18171880,"CAL 5(1970):3-31. Marcello Carmagnani, "Banques etrangereset banques nationales au Chili (19001920),"C 20(1973):31-51. RicardoFfrench-Davis, Politicas econ6micas Chile,1852-1870 (1973) and RolfLuders, en "The Monetary Historyof Chile, 1925-1958," Ph.D. dissertation,The Universityof Chicago, 1968. A workjust completedis P. S. Conoboy, "Money and Politicsin Chile, 1878-1925," Ph.D. dissertation, University Southampton,1977. of S. F. Edwards, "The Consolidation of Underdevelopment in Late NineteenthCenturyChile: Some BiographicalBases and Suggested Research Strategies,"SECOLAS Annals 4(1973):39-55. Oscar Bermudez, "El Salitre de Tarapaca y Antofagasta durante la ocupaci6n militarchilena," Analesde la Universidad Norte,5(1966):131del 82. For a study of earlygovernment policy also see: Fernando Silva Vargas,-"Los ferrocarriles salitreros de Tarapaca durante el gobierno de Santa Maria," EHIPS 1(1966):43-121. Thomas O'Brien, "BritishInvestors and the Decline of the Chilean Nitrate Entrepreneurs,1870-1890," Ph.D. dissertation,Universityof Connecticut, 1975. For a highlypoliticalinterpretation Michael A. Meeropol, "On the Origins see: of the Chilean NitrateEnclave," Ph.D. dissertation,Universityof Wisconsin, 1973. Michael Monteon, "The Britishin the Atacama Desert: The Cultural Bases of Economic Nationalism,"Journal Economic of History 35(1975):117-33. Ricardo Couyoumdjian, "El mercado del salitredurante la primeraguerramundial y la postguerra, 1914-1921. Notas para su estudio," H 12(1974):13-54. See also his "Anglo-Chilean Economic Relations during the FirstWorld War and Its Aftermath, 1914-1920," Ph.D. dissertation,Universityof London, 1976. Michael P. Monteon, "The NitrateMines and the Origins of the Chilean Left,1880-1925," Ph.D. dissertaen tion, Harvard, 1974; Enrique Reyes, El desarrollo la conciencia de proletaria Chile (n.d.); Oscar Bermuidez,"El Dr. Nicolas Palacios y la industria del salitre,"RCHG 136(1968):201-49. L. Stickell has completed a dissertation "Migrants and Mines: Labor in NorthernChile in the NitrateAge, 1880-1930," at the University Indiana, of Bloomington,which will provide additional information working conditions in on the mines as well as the migration workers. patternsof the nitrate Claudio Veliz, "Egafia, Lambert, and the Chilean Mining Associations of 1825," HAHR 55(1975):637-63; Pierre Vayssiere,"La division internacionaledu travailet la

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ClarkReynolds, C (1880-1920)," 20(1973):7-29; du denationalisation cuivrechilien The Economy: Case ofChileand Copper,"in of Problems an Export "Development pp. Ill., (Homewood, 1965), 203-398. Economy Essays the on Chilean America: in Ingram, PropertySouth (1965);George Chileno U.S. Puga,El Cobre Mariano and (New York, 1974);Theodore in Bolivia, Chile ofOil Nationalization andCopper Peru, (PrinceCopper Chile in of and Politics Dependence: Corporations the Multinational Moran, Copper and 'The Foreign for ton,N.J.,1974).See also his "The Alliance Progress IAEA25(1972):3-25. in Allies;' Chile,1955-1970," Conservative and Companies their Augusto Chico (Evanston, 1966); Ill., of Norte The Industrythe LelandPederson, Mining (1971). minera en del hist6rica dominio estado materia del Evoluci6n Bruna, AHR 76(1971): Century," ArnoldBauer,"Chilean RuralLabor in the Nineteenth en agricolas el siglo de D., HoracioAranguiz "La situaci6n los trabajadores 1059-83; en "El Atropos, inquilino Chile. Su vida. Un siglo sin XIX,"EHIPS 2(1967):5-33; of del M from (this 1861-1961,' 5(1966):195-218 is a reprint Revista Pacifico variaciones, M en de sistema inquilinaje 1867," 5(1966):296"Nuestro 1861);Ram6nDominguez, is 313(this alsoa reprint). of Structure NineteenthArnold Bauer,"The Hacienda'El Huique' in theAgrarian sobre "Memoria Rafael Herrera, 46(1972):455-70; History Agricultural Chile," Century D., HoracioAranguiz la hacienda'Las Condes' en 1895,"BACH 79(1968):121-205; H de "Notasparael estudio la Haciendade la Calerade Tango," 6(1967):221-63. en de La chilenas. Sociedad Agriculturael de Un GonzaloIzquierdo, estudio las ideologias XIX(1968). siglo de en tecnol6gicas la agricultura ChileCentral: SilviaHernindez, "Transformaciones no. 3 del de Socioecon6micos, (1966). Cuadernos Centro Estudios sigloXIX," in "The Sociedad Nacional de Agricultura ChileanPolitics, Thomas C. Wright, 1971. Berkeley, of University California, Ph.D. dissertation, 1879-1938," Donoso and Fanor 2 chilena, vols., 2d ed. (1973);Ricardo Claudio Gay,Agricultura 2d austral, ed. (1970). La Velasco, propiedad until Conquest 1930(Cambridge, from Society theSpanish Rural Bauer, Chilean Arnold 1975). de Cuadernos Economia "Desarrolloagricolachileno,1910-1955," Mario Ballestros, 2(1965):7-36. TA Land Policy:Chile, 1870-1914," Frontier Carl E. Solberg,"A Discriminatory 26(1969):115-34. 1919-1973 Labor Chile, in in Countryside. Politics Rural and Brian Struggle the Loveman, reform question Ind., 1976).Otherworksdealingwiththeagrarian (Bloomington, and (Washington, Reform Political Right Agrarian The are: Robert Kaufman, Chilean Mass., (Cambridge, 1950-1970 in of D.C., 1967)and ThePolitics LandReform Chile, in Reform Chile (New York,1971); and William Agrarian Swift, 1972); Jeannine (Madison,Wis., 1966).For a Reform in Chile'sExperimentsAgrarian Thiesenhusen, and CrisWinn see: reform policy Peter agrarian view more enthusiastic ofAllende's in Revolution Allende's Chile," and Reform Rural ILAS 6(1974): tobalKay,"Agrarian 135-59. El de obrero Barria, movimiento enChile(1971);Historia la CUT (1971);and "HisJorge et Castillo al., "Notasparaun esLeonardo de M toria sindical Chile," 4(1965):67-88. Nacional de Cuadernos la Realidad en obrero Chile," del tudiode la historia movimiento sinThereis also Patricio Manns,Breve 4 (1970):3-30 contains useful a bibliography. 1900-1930 en obrera Chile, obrero tesis movimiento (1972).OsvaldoArias,La prensa del AlanAngell, the an sourcetoolfor scholar. 1970)also provides invaluable (ChillUn, y 1972);also his "La clase obrera la in Movement Chile(Oxford, and Politics theLabor "TheNitrate Michael Monteon, Econ6mico en Desarrollo 9(1969):33-65. politica Chile," Harvard, Ph.D. dissertation, 1880-1925," Left, of Minesand theOrigins theChilean en Cobo,Yo (n.d.);Juan de proletariaChile El Reyes, desarrollola conciencia Enrique 1974; in conditions thesalitreras. (1971)also dealswith vinacer morirlospueblos salitreros y a Encomenderos (1970). yestancieros MarioG6ngora,

79.

80. 81.

82.

83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90.

91.

92.

84

CHILEAN

HISTORIOGRAPHY,

1965-1976

93. Joseph B. Fichandler and Thomas O'Brien, "Santiago, Chile, 1541-1581: A Case Study ofUrban Stagnation,"TA 33(1976):205-26. 94. Maria Gonzalez Pomes, "La encomienda indigena en Chile duranteel siglo XVIII," H 5(1966):7-106. 95. Alvaro Jara,"Salario en una economia caracterizadapor las relaciones de dependencia personal,"RCHG 133(1965):40-61. 96. Mario G6ngora, "Vagabundaje y sociedad fronteriza Chile (Siglo XVII a XIX)," en Cuadernos Centro Estudios del de no. Socioecon6micos, 2(1966). 97. Gonzalo Vial, "La aristocraciachilena a fines del siglo XVII,"in Estudiosen honorde PedroLira U., ed. by Tomas Mac Hale (n.d.), pp. 365-79. Thomas C. Bradman,"Land and Societyin EarlyColonial Santiago de Chile, 1540-1575," Ph.D. dissertation, University Florida,1975. of 98. Gonzalo Vial, "Los prejuicios sociales en Chile al terminarel siglo XVIII," BACH 73(1965):14-29; Jose Armando de Ram6n Folch, "La sociedad espaniola de Santiago de Chile entre1581 y 1596,"H 4(1965):191-228. 99. Mario G6ngora, "Urban Social Stratification Colonial Chile," HAHR 55(1975):221in 228; JayKinsbruner,"The PoliticalStatus of the Chilean Merchantsat the End of the Colonial Period: The Concepci6n Example, 1790-1810," TA 29(1972):30-57. 100. Gabriel Marcella, "The Structure Politicsin Nineteenth-Century of Spanish America: The Chilean Oligarchy,1843-1891," Ph.D. dissertation,Universityof Notre Dame, 1973. 101. Marcello Carmagnani, "Colonial Latin American Demography: Growth of the Chilean Population, 1700-1830," TheJournal SocialHistory of 1(1967):179-91 and-hisjoint articlewithHerbertKlein, "Demografia hist6rica.La poblaci6n del Obispado de Santiago, 1777-1778," BACH 72(1965):58-74; Rene Salinas M., "Caracteres generales de la evoluci6n demografica de un centro urbano chileno: Valparaiso, 1685-1830," H 10(1971):177-205 and his Poblaci6n Valparaiso la segundamitaddel sigloXVIII (Valde en paraiso, 1970); William F. Sater, "The Black Experience in Chile," in RobertToplin's and in Slavery RaceRelations LatinAmerica (Westport, Conn., 1974), pp. 13-50; and Luis Lira M., "Padrones del Reino de Chile existentesen el Archivo de Indias," Revistade its Historia13(1965):85-88. Alvaro Jara'sGuerra sociedad Chile was translatedfrom en y originalFrench and published in Spanish in 1971. Rene Salinas' "Raciones alimenticias en Chile colonial," H 12(1974-75);57-71 analyzes the eating habits of Chileans. seventeenth-century 102. Carl Solberg,Immigration Nationalism and (Austin,Tex., 1970). Immigration duringthe colonial period is covered partiallyby Eulalia Lahmeyer Lobo, "Imigracao e colonizacao no Chile Colonial (1540-1565)," Revistade Historia35(1967):39-61; Marcello Segall, "Esclavitud y traficoculies en Chile," JIAS 10(1968):117-33; VictorC. Dalhl, "Yugoslav Immigrant Experiencein Argentinaand Chile," IAEA 28(1974):3-26. 103. JeanPierreBlancpain, Les Allemands Chile,1816-1945 (Cologne, 1974); also his "La au tradici6n campesina alemana en Chile," BACH 81(1969):81-139 and "La tradition paysanne allemande au Chili: la colonie de Llanquihue, 1850-1920," CAL 4(1969):341. George Young, "Bernardo Philippi, Initiatorof German Colonization in Chile," HAHR 51(1971):478-396 and The Germans Chile:Immigration Colonization, in and 18491914 (New York,1974). For otherinformation German immigration on and influence in Chile see: Documentos de sobrela colonizaci6n sur de Chile,de la colecci6n del hist6rica Emilio Held (1970) and M. Matthei,O.S.B., "Los primerosjesuitas germanosen Chile, (1686-1722)," BACH 77(1967):146-89. For internalmigrationwithin Chile see Bruce Herrick,UrbanMigration Economic and Development Chile (Cambridge, Mass., 1965), in and formigrationfromChile to California,Carlos L6pez, Chilenosin California (San Francisco,1973). 104. Fernando Campos H., "Concepcion y su historia,"BACH 83-84(1970):11-147; Oscar Bermudez, Origines hist6ricos Antofagasta de (Antofagasta,1966) and "Pica en el Siglo XVIII, estructuraecon6mica y social," RCHG 141(1973):7-57; Guillermo Kaempffer, San Miguel (1966); Rene Le6n Echaiz, Nunjo-hue. Historiade Nunioa(Buenos Aires,

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2 de 1972); Historia Curic6, vols. (1968);andHistoria Santiago, vols.(1975);Manuel de 2 Mesa S., Proyeccion de de hist6ria la provincia Linares (Linares, 1965);EduardoPinoZ., de Historia Temuco historia Valdivia de (Temuco, 1969);IsabelMontt Breve P., (Buenos Aires,1971);GabrielGuarda,O.S.B., Un rioy una ciudad plata(n.d.) are some de Guillermo examples. FeliuCruz,SantiagoComienzos Siglo a del XIX (1970)and Ignacio a del M "La vida santiaguina mediados sigloXIX," 3(1965):32-57 Domeyko, apacible describe conditions Santiago. in 105. HernanRodriguez "Historia un solarde la ciudadde Santiago, V., de 1554-1909," H 11(1972-73):103-53; Fernando Campo H., "Estudiode una propiedad rural chilena del sigloXVIIa la luz del derecho indiano," RCHD 6(1970):158-69; de Armando Ram6n,"Santiagode Chile,1650-1700," 12(1974-75):93-375. H 106. MateoMartinic, Magallanes, Sintesis tierra gentes de y (BuenosAires, 1972);Armando BraunM., Pequenia historia magallanica, ed. (BuenosAires,1969).The following 2d works particularly are important describing economic administration for the and natureof thevariousareas:CarlosOlguinB., Instituciones politicas administrativas y de en Chiloe elsiglo XVIII(1971);Gabriel Guarda,O.S.B., "La economia Chileaustral de antes de la colonizaci6n alemana,1645-1850," 10(1971):205-345; H AdolfoIbainez SantaMaria,"La incorporaci6n Aisena la vida nacional, de H 1902-1936," 11(197273):259-379; SergioVergara Economiasociedad Magallanes, Q., y en 1843-1877 (1973). 107. LeonardoMazzei, "Ensayode un recuento a bibliografico relativo la zona sur de Chile.Talca-Magallanes (1812-1912)," HGFC,pp. 689-864. 108. Oscar EspinosaM., El Precio la paz chileno-argentina de (1810-1969), vols. (1969); 3 Exequiel GonzalezMadariaga, Nuestras relaciones Argentina, con 3 vols.(1970-74). 109. ManuelHormazabal, Chile patria una mutilada (1969)and MateoMartinic, Presencia B., de Chile la patagonia en austral. 1843-1879, ed. (1971).Morereasonedstudiesare 2d Guillermo Lagos C., Lasfronteras Chile(1966)and Robert de Talbott, History the A of Chilean Boundaries (Ames,Iowa, 1974)and "The ChileanBoundary the Strait in of Magellan," HAHR47(1967):519-32. 110. Geoffrey Smith, "The RoleofJose Balmaceda Preserving M. in Argentine Neutrality in the Warof the Pacific," HAHR 49(1969):254-67; Francisco OrregoVicunia, "La de politica intemacional Balmaceda el area del Pacifico," Vision Verdad en in y sobre Balmaceda (1972),pp. 61-95. 111. Oscar EspinosaM., Bolivia el mar, y 1810-1964 (1965).Ximena Rojas V.,Don Adolfo Ibdfiez. gestion el Peruy Bolivia, Su con 1870-1879 (1970).Less objective studiesare thoseofJaime Eyzaguirre, Breve historia lasfronterasChile de de (1967)and "El intento de negociaci6n chileno-boliviana 1950y su secuela,"EHIPS 1(1966):279-313. de A moreobjective approachis William Krieg,TheLegacy theWarof thePacific L. of (Washington, D.C., 1974). 112. Jorge Edwards,"El deceniode Bulnesa travesde los archivos Quai d'Orsay," del BACH74(1966):7-25 "La diplomacia and francesa la aventura OrelieAntonine y de I, reyde la Araucania, segunlos Archivos Quai d'Orsay," del BACH74(1965):132-44. MarioBarros, Mision La Eastman el Ecuador en (Quito,1966). 113. Jorge DupouyG., Relaciones chileno-argentinas elgobierno durante de.Jorge Montt, 18911896(1968); Errazuriz Octavio Las Guilisasti, relaciones chileno-argentinas lapresdurante idencia Riesco, de 1901-1906 (1968);German Carrasco El arbitraje D., britdnico1899de 1903(1968); Juan and Jose Fernandez, "Los pactosde mayo la diplomacia y britanica," BACH73(1965):99-131. 114. Eugenio Pereira Salas,Losprimeros contactos Chile losEstados entre y Unidos, 1778-1809 (1971);CarlosMerySquella,Relaciones diplomaticas Chile losEstados entre y Unidos de America, 1829-1841 (1965);Vladimir Smolenski, "Los EstadosUnidosy la Guerra del Pacifico: Historia una intervenci6n no lleg6a efectuarse," de que BACH78(1968):96120;William Sater, intervenci6n F. "La norteamericana durante Guerra Pacifico: la del refutacionesVladimir a Smolenski," BACH83-84(1970):185-206; Patricio Estelle, "La controversia chileno norteamericana 1891-1892," de EHIPS 1(1966):149-279.

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1965-1976

115. CristianGuerreroY., La Conferencia NiagaraFalls (1966). del 116. Richard J. Snyder, "William S. Culbertson in Chile: Opening the Door to a Good Neighbor,1928-1933," IAEA 26(1972):81-96. 117. Michael J.Francis,"The United States at Rio, 1942. The Strainof Pan Americanism," JLAS 6(1974):77-95. For the Chilean side see Ernesto BarrosJarpa,"Historia para olvidar. Rupturacon el Eje (1941-1942)," HGFC, pp. 31-96. 118. James W Cortada, "Diplomatic Rivalrybetween Spain and the United States over Chile and Peru, 1864-1871," IAEA 27(1974):47-59. 119. Hector Hernan BruitCabrera, "El desarrollodel nacionalismo en Chile y la cuesti6n de hispano-peruana de 1864,"Analesde la Universidad Chile 138(1966):118-60. 120. Mario Barros,Historia Diplomatica Chile(1541-1938) (Barcelona, 1970). de 121. RobertBurr, ReasonorForce(Berkeley, By Calif., 1965). 122. For debate on Burr's work see: Thomas M. Bader, "The Chancelleryand the Change Purse: A Skeptic's View of the Application of a 'Balance of Power' Concept to South America," and RobertN. Burr,"Commentaryon the PaNineteenth-Century pers of ProfessorsHann and Bader," Proceedings thePacific Coast Councilon Latin of American Studies3 (1974):45-72. Michael Varley,"The Aftermath the War of the of Pacific:A Study in the ForeignPolicyof Chile, 1891-1896," Ph.D. dissertation, CambridgeUniversity, 1969.

123. Frederick Nunn,Chilean Politics, 1920-1931. Honorable The Mission the of Armed Forces.
(Albuquerque, 1970); TheMilitary ChileanHistory in (Albuquerque, N.M., 1976). Some of his more recentarticlesare: "MilitaryCivilian Relationsin Chile: The Legacy of the in Golpe of 1973,"IAEA 29(1975):43-58; and "New Thoughtson Military Intervention Latin AmericanPolitics:The Chilean Case, 1973,"JLAS7(1975):271-304. 124. Liisa North,"The Military Chilean Politics,"Studiesin Comparative in DeInternational velopment 11(1976):73-106; JorgeNef, "The Politicsof Repression: The Social Pathology of the Chilean Military," LatinAmerican Perspectives 1(1974):58-78; Alain Joxe,Las fuerzas armadas el sistema en politico Chile (1970). A more carefulstudyof the Chilean de its military, background and attitudes,is Roy A. Hansen's "MilitaryCulture and Organizational Decline: A Study of the Chilean Army,"Ph.D. dissertation,University ofCalifornia,Los Angeles, 1967. 125. Estado Mayor del Ejercito,Historia de militar Chile,3 vols. (1969); AgustinToroDavila, Chile (1969), La escuadra chilenaen Mexico(1822) (Buenos Aires, 1971). See also: Rodrigo Fuenzalida B., "Influencia de la marina chilena en la emancipacion americana," BACH 86(1972):127-52. 126. GuillermoFeliu Cruz, "El InstitutoPedag6gico bajo la direcci6nde Diego AmunateFuenzalida P., "La educaci6n en Am& gui Solar, 1892-1922," M 3(1965):11-43; Jorge ricaespaniola,en Chile y en Concepci6n, siglos XVI al XIX,"A 170(1968):175-93. 128. Allen L. Woll, "For God and Country:HistoricalTextbooksand the Secularizationof Chilean Society, 1840-1890," JLAS 7(1975):23-43; William F. Sater, "The Hero as a Force forChange in Chilean Education," The Journal Developing of Areas 7(1972):89103. 129. Frank Bonilla and Myron Glazer, Student Politics Chile (New York,1970) and Manin uel J. Barrera R., "Trayectoriadel movimiento de reformauniversitariaen Chile," JIAS10(1968):617-36. 130. PeterSehlinger,"Cien aniosde influenciade la obra de Letelier,"RCHG 139(1971):7285 and "La correspondenciade don ValentinLetelier,"RCHG 140(1972):194-210. 131. Norman P Sacks, "Jose Victorino Lastarria: un intelectual comprometido en la AmericaLatina," RCHG 149(1972):152-93;Thomas Bader, "Early Positivistic Thought and Ideological Conflict Chile," TA 26(1970):376-94. in 132. Alberto Varona, Francisco Bilbaorevolucionario America(Buenos Aires, 1973); Solde omon Lipp, Three Chilean Thinkers(Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, 1975); Enrique

deChile, vols. (1969);CarlosLopez,Historia la Marina 2 de de Sintesis hist6rico-militar

127. Julio CesarJobet, Doctrinapraxis loseducadores y de representativos (1970). chilenos

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Atenea Molina, "AlejandroVenegas (Dr. Valdes Cange): estudiosy recuerdos," una y SamuelClaroValdes,"La musicologia la historia: perspectiva 174(1972):62-99. B.'s, Urrutia BACH 87(1973):55-83 Claroand Jorge and cientifica," de colaboraci6n of en de Historia la musica Chile(1973)tracesthe development musicin Chile. Its "La UribeEchevarria's section. is and Jose strongpoint itsbibliography biographical demonen glosa politica la poesia populardel sigloXIX,"BACH 87(1973):99-144, political themes. balladsconvey strates popular how 4 de Historia lasfuentes labibliografta de Felii Cruz, chilena,vols.(1966-69). 133. Guillermo 3 dela chilena, vols.(1965-66). Bricento, Estadistica bibliografica literatura 134. Ram6n econ6micade Chile. Sus comienzos,"H 135. Sergio Villalobos,"La historiografia Revischilena. eclesiastica de A., Julio 10(1971):7-56; Retamal "Bibliografia la historia obrera en OsvaldoAriasE., La prensa H 1843-1973," 11(1972-73):163-257; taschilenas, H de de Chile(Chillan, 1970);GonzaloVial,"Historiografia la independencia Chile," La de de and 4(1965):165-90 "La historiografia la Independencia Chile," Emancipacion dela Vieja Feliti Cruz,La historiografia Patria Latino Americana 1966);Guillermo (Mexico, Notas paraunabibliografia (1966), Carrera de Matta Vial:La epoca loshermanos y Enrique Tode deChile Jose Los sobre a Chile (1965), estudios la independencia Viajeros relativos sobre (1965); critico Medina: ensayo ribio bibliogrdfico LeonardoMazzei, "Ensayode un re(1812-1912)'" relativo la zona sur de Chile.Talca-Magallanes a cuentobibliografico 2d en La historica Chile, ed. (BuenosAires, JoseZamudio, novela HGFC,pp. 689-864; 1973). de Gay.Historiador Chile(1965)and XVI conversaciones Feliti Cruz,Claudio 136. Guillermo deChile, y de de Gay, algunos lostestigosactores la independencia con de historicas Claudio AranaandtheHistoria General "Diego Barros 1820-1826 Matoyoka, (1965);Gertrude Texas Christian 1972; RicardoDonoso, University, de Chile,"Ph.D. dissertation, A. Cruz, Francisco En2 vols.(1969-70); Guillermo Feliui A. simulador, Francisco Encina, historicos chilenos (1973);AllenWoll, Temas Cesar Jobet, (1967);Julio cina,historiador Conin Chile: of "The Philosophy History Nineteenth-Century The Lastarria-Bello of Past:The Politics and and 13(1974):273-91 "A Functional History Theory troversy," of University Wisconsin, in Chile,"Ph.D. dissertation, Century History Nineteenth 1975. ErBACH85(1971):9-30; GonzalezE., "Don Manuelde Aldayy su tiempo," 137. Javier nestoRiveraR., "La Iglesiay la defensadel indioen Chile,"HGFC, pp. 887-903; en de franciscano San Pedrode Alcantara el siglo Pena,"El convento ClaudioFerrari del H XVIIIycomienzos XIX," 9(1970):37-65. Historia Hanisch, en Breve historia la Iglesia Chile(1968);Walter de 138. FidelAraneda, S.J., y pende en 1593-1955 (BuenosAires,1974)and Itinerario de la Companiia Jesus Chile, de (1767-1815) (1972). samiento los de jesuitas expulsos Chile 139. "El gobierno chileno y el concepto misionero del estado (1832-1861)," H 5(1966):197-214. EHIPS de y "El Estelle, debatede 1865sobrela libertad cultos de conciencia," 140. Patricio 2(1967):181-227. 141. Frederick Pike,"Churchand Statein Peruand Chilesince1840:A Studyin Conin Church and Modernization Peru AHR 73(1967):30-51 "The Catholic and trasts," and Chile," Affairs of JournalInternational 20(1966):272-88.

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