LOGIC GATES

A logic gate performs a logical operation on one or more logic inputs and produces a single logic output. The logic normally performed is Boolean logic and is most commonly found in digital circuits. Logic gates are primarily implemented electronically using diodes or transistors, but can also be constructed using electromagnetic relays, fluidics, optics, molecules, or even mechanical elements. The two wires on the left side of the Nand gate symbol represent the two inputs, A and B from top to bottom, and the wire coming out of the small circle on the right represents the output, C. This small circle actually is significant: in circuit symbol language: it means "not". Since the gate drawn is a NAND gate, you can see that the rest of the symbol (that is, without the small circle) would be an AND gate. The NOT gate itself can be made from a NAND gate by simply joining the two inputs . However, it also has its own

symbol, often used in logic gate diagrams:

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The next simplest logic gate is the AND Gate

. As

you can see, its is the NAND gate symbol without the "not". It can be constructed from a NAND Gate by combining a NAND with a NOT (made from another NAND). The two NOTs (from Not-And and Not) in effect cancel out (no double negatives in physics either!), and the result is an And. . The inputs A and B are still the two wires on the left, while the final output, C is represented by the wire on the far right. To illustrate how the input changes within this system, we will pick a point, F, between the two gates. Input A Input B At F (after Output C Nand) low low high high low high low high high high high low low low low high

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Of course, in an actual circuit, these conversions do not take place step-by-step, but instantaneously when the circuit is closed with an appropriate E.M.F. When writing out truth tables for these circuits, it often becomes cumbersome and space-consuming to use words in the tables. Therefore physicists came up with a code for the level of inputs and outputs (which computer-users may also recognize). It is probably a good idea (and not too difficult!) to memorize this: low (false) = 0 high (true) = 1 As an example, lets convert the above truth table for AND: A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 F 1 1 1 0 C 0 0 0 1

As we hinted at before, the output of an AND gate is high (1) only if both A and B are high.
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The next few gates can all be grouped in another family, the OR family. The first gate, a simple OR Gate, has a symbol only slightly different from the AND gate: can also be built from NAND gates: The OR gate

The truth table for this gate will be left as an exercise. We will tell you, however, that for an output to be high, either A or B has to be high. The next gate that can be made from an OR gate is a NOR Gate. The symbol for this is just that of an OR gate with the small circle meaning "not" in front of it. As you may

have guessed, this can be made from a series of NAND gates, by simply adding a NAND gate as a NOT gate to the OR gate construction.

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. The word NOR itself indicates what function it performs - Not OR. In other words, it is the inverse of an OR gate. We have left the drawing of the NOR gate truth table to you as an exercise. Finally, there are two logic gates which can be called a subgroup of the OR family. These are the exclusive gates. In a regular OR gate, what happens when both the inputs are high? Since at least one of them is high, A or B that is, the output is high. The Exclusive OR Gate, however, does not have this stipulation. For this gate, only A or only B can be high for the output to be high. All other input combinations are excluded from a high output. Once again, the symbol for this gate is based on the original OR gate symbol, with the break between the wires and the body of the gate indicating that it is exclusive. This gate can also be built from several NAND Gates, though it is slightly more complicated than the previous gates, in that each input needs to be used twice.

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Here is the simplified truth tables (not including intermediary steps) for the Exclusive OR Gate: Input A 0 0 1 1 Input B 0 1 0 1 Output 0 1 1 0

The last logic gate is once again just a NOT variation of the Exclusive OR Gate: the Exclusive NOR Gate. You

can see this is an inverse of the previous gate because it has a NOT gate following the rest of the Exclusive OR Gate. Once again, we will show you the gate built up of NAND Gates, although it is possible to build it out of other gates instead (as with some of the previous gates).
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Since the Exclusive OR Gate only gives a high output when the inputs are different, it follows that an Exclusive NOR Gate only givs a high output when the two inputs are the same (both high or both low): Input A Input B 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 Output 1 0 0 1

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Logic gates Digital systems are said to be constructed by using logic gates. These gates are the AND, OR, NOT, NAND, and NOR gates. The basic operations are described below with the aid of truth tables. NOT gate

The NOT gate is an electronic circuit that produces an inverted version of the input at its output. It is also known as an inverter. If the input variable is A, the inverted output is known as NOT A. This is also shown as A', or A
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with a bar over the top, as shown at the outputs. The diagrams below show two ways that the NAND logic gate can be configured to produce a NOT gate. It can also be done using NOR logic gates in the same way.

NAND gate

This is a NOT-AND gate which is equal to an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. The outputs of all NAND gates are high if any of the inputs are low. The symbol is an AND gate with a small circle on the output. The small circle represents inversion.

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NOR gate

This is a NOT-OR gate which is equal to an OR gate followed by a NOT gate. The outputs of all NOR gates are low if any of the inputs are high. The symbol is an OR gate with a small circle on the output. The small circle represents inversion. The NAND and NOR gates are called universal functions since with either one the AND and OR functions and NOT can be generated.
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Note: A function in sum of products form can be implemented using NAND gates by replacing all AND and OR gates by NAND gates. A function in product of sums form can be implemented using NOR gates by replacing all AND and OR gates by NOR gates. Table 1: Logic gate symbols

Table 2 is a summary truth table of the input/output combinations for the NOT gate together with all possible input/output combinations for the other gate functions. Also note that a truth table with 'n' inputs has 2n rows. You can compare the outputs of different gates.
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Table 2: Logic gates representation using the Truth table

A NAND gate can be used as a NOT gate using either of the following wiring configurations.

(You can check this out using a truth table.)

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AND gate

The AND gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) only if all its inputs are high. A dot (.) is used to show the AND operation i.e. A.B. Bear in mind that this dot is sometimes omitted i.e. AB
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OR gate

The OR gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) if one or more of its inputs are high. A plus (+) is used to show the OR operation.

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