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Rivers & lakes only 0.009 % of water Streams are most important agent of landscape modification and erosion in most environments Worldwide, streams carry ~16 billion tons of sediment and ~3 billion tons of dissolved matter each year Pre-human transport might have been only ~50% of this
CAs most valuable and contested resource 150 years of damming, diverting and polluting Most water goes to Central Valley agriculture
Laminar flow
Turbulent flow
Q = v x A (depth x width)
30 m3/s 180 m3 /s
velocity
A balance of driving and resisting forces determines the nature of river flow :
Q=vA
Driving force = water weight x sin(bed slope) Resisting force = river-bed area x river-bed shear stress
saltation
bed load
ripples
ripples on dunes
Stream Erosion
Physical weathering, abrasion, plucking & pot holes Potholes form by pebbles and gravel grinding inside eddies Waterfall undercutting and headward erosion Chemical and biological factors also contribute to erosion
~100 individual floods perhaps 1 every 50 to 150 years evidence: scour, huge-scale sediment deposits, wave-cut platforms
Work and graphics by David Finlayson, Univ. of Washington
When the ice dam broke, it sent ~800 meter wall of water racing at 100 kmph. Ripple marks are 15-20 meters in scale.
Floating ice dams and subsequent flooding has now been observed in Greenland, Alaska and Himalayas (albeit at smaller scale).
Catastrophism vs. Uniformitarianism Harlan Bretz first proposed features were due to catastrophic flooding, initially met with skepticism.
Erosion-dominant
Deposition-dominant
Base Level
A B C
Knickpoints
Sudden breaks in slope due to faulting, lithology, tributaries, dams, etc. Rapids develop at knickpoints High gradient and high stream power downstream => Erosion Low gradient and low competence upstream => Deposition Headward migration results
Mount, 1995
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Erosion on the cutbank Deposition on point bar Meander Neck Meander Cutoff Oxbow Lake
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Why Meander?
Lateral migration of streams creates river flood plain Sinuosity reflects balance of energy efficiency and distribution as a function of load, gradient and discharge Local disturbances in flow resistance encourage meandering
Point Bar
Meandering channel
Braided Streams
Some streams have multiple channels with numerous sand bars and repeatedly diverging and joining channels forming an interlacing network
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Why Braid?
Attempt to dissipate excess energy Related to steep gradients, highly variable water discharge, abundant coarse load, and easily eroded bank material
Channel Form
Transition between straight, meander and braided streams is complex threshold function of discharge, slope and sediment load Large rivers and low slopes tend to form floodplain morphology in broad valleys
Mount, 1995
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Alluvial Fans
Form at mountain fronts Widening from narrow stream valley to broad valley Loss of competence and capacity Often related to tectonic uplift
Drainage Networks
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Floods!
Historically, many major cities are built in floodplains US flood cost is ~$1.5 billion/yr Our attempts to harness rivers are only partly successful
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Mitigation Strategy
FEMA Land buyouts & levee strengthening and building European model make more room for the river Now counterbalanced by massive construction in flood plain: Since 1993 28,000 homes, 26% increase in population, 26.8 sq km (6630 acres) of new commercial and industrial development totaling 2.2 billion dollars.
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